Workplace Mentorship a Critical Review

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Workplace Mentorship A Critical Review

Gary W. Ivey Military Personnel Research and Analysis, Canadian Armed Forces

Kathryne E. Dupre Department of Psychology, Carleton University

Director General Military Personnel Research and Analysis

Journal of Career Development 2020, pp. 1-16, DOI: 10.1177/0894845320957737

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Journal of Career Development 1-16 ª Curators of the University Workplace Mentorship: A Critical of Missouri 2020 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions Review DOI: 10.1177/0894845320957737 journals.sagepub.com/home/jcd

Gary W. Ivey1 and Kathryne E. Dupre´ 2

Abstract Mentoring is a popular workplace practice, bolstered by a substantial body of literature that has underscored its positive outcomes for proteg´ es´ and organizations. Less pronounced are the potential risks and costs associated with workplace mentorship. In this article, we consolidate what is known about workplace mentorship and draw on organizational justice research, self-determination theory, and findings related to indirect exposure to expand on the potentially darker side of workplace mentorship. Our comprehensive review suggests that workplace mentorship appears to have positive consequences in particular circumstances for particular groups of employees, but the conclusiveness of its positive effects is limited by significant gaps in the research. To assist in determining if the potential benefits outweigh the potential risks and costs, we offer a list of considerations for individual employees who are considering engaging in a mentoring relationship and for those implementing workplace mentoring programs.

Keywords mentoring, mentoring outcomes, organizational justice, self-determination theory, indirect exposure

Mentoring has received a great deal of research attention since Kram’s (1985) seminal work 35 years ago (e.g., Eby et al., 2013; Kammeyer-Mueller & Judge, 2008; Scalise et al., 2019; Turban et al., 2017; Wen et al., 2019). This substantial body of literature has typically focused on the positive outcomes of workplace mentoring for protégés and organizations and the mentor–protégé dyad. Despite the strong interest in workplace mentorship, research gaps remain. In particular, there is less research focusing on the limitations and potential negative effects of workplace mentorship (e.g., Dashper, 2019; Young Illies & Reiter-Palmon, 2020) relative to the positive outcomes. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of what is known about workplace mentorship, and we highlight potential unintended negative consequences of mentoring and limitations to the existing body of mentorship research. Moreover, we extend the mentoring discussion further by incorporating organizational justice research, self-determination theory, and findings related to indirect exposure to workplace mentorship.

1 Military Personnel Research and Analysis, Canadian Armed Forces, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 2 Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Corresponding Author: Gary W. Ivey, Director General Military Personnel Research and Analysis, National Defence Headquarters, 101 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0K2. Email: [email protected] 2 Journal of Career Development XX(X)

Mentoring A “mentor” describes a more senior person who takes an interest in the sponsorship of a more junior person (Kram, 1985; Scandura, 1997, 1998), referred to as a mentee or, more commonly, as a protégé. Mentors tend to have advanced experience and knowledge and a commitment to helping their protégés achieve career success (Hunt & Michael, 1983; Kram, 1985). Although mentoring has been most often regarded as a developmentally oriented relationship between a mentor and a protégé (Hunt & Michael, 1983; Kram, 1985; Mullen & Noe, 1999), researchers have more recently demonstrated an interest in broadening the scope of research into the mentoring phenomenon to include multiple mentors (e.g., Lyle & Smith, 2014; San Miguel & Kim, 2015) or multiple protégés (e.g., Harvey et al., 2010). Regardless of the number of people involved, a mentoring relationship is unique and idiosyncratic (Eby et al., 2013) and is strengthened by an emotional bond between parties (Ghosh & Reio, 2013). Mentor functions have typically been organized into two categories: career-related support and psychosocial support (Ghosh & Reio, 2013; Harvey et al., 2010). Career-related support is that which is instrumental to helping protégés advance within their respective organizations and careers (e.g., pro- vision of exposure and visibility to influential people, coaching, opportunities for challenging assignments, and sponsorship, which involves publicly advocating for protégés’ behaviors and acting as their champion for developmental opportunities and promotions; Kram, 1983; O’Neill, 2005; Shen & Kram, 2011). Psychosocial support is that which strengthens protégés identity, feelings of competence, and success at work (e.g., counseling, friendship, acceptance; Dreher & Ash, 1990; Fowler & O’Gorman, 2005; Kram, 1985; O’Neill, 2005; Shen & Kram, 2011). Mentoring typically occurs over four phases (Kram, 1983): (a) initiation (mentor and protégé selection), (b) cultivation (mentoring functions peak, and both mentors and protégés realize the benefits of the relationship), (c) separation (the relationship ends due to job change or geographic dis- persion), and (d) redefinition (the mentoring relationship evolves into a peer-like friendship). The manifestation and duration of these phases may vary depending on whether the mentoring relationship is informal or formal. Informal mentoring is the classic form of mentoring, whereby relationships between two people develop naturally, without assistance or encouragement from the organization, usually on the basis of perceived competence and interpersonal comfort (Eby et al., 2013). Formal mentoring refers to a more structured relationship between an experienced mentor and a less experienced protégé developed at the behest of the organization to achieve one or more organizational objectives. Formal mentoring relationships tend to differ from informal relationships in terms of their duration. Informal mentoring relationships usually last between 5 and 7 years, though they can endure for much longer (Kram, 1983, 1985), and formal relationships are usually 1 year in duration (Ragins & Cotton, 1999). Mentors and protégés tend to prefer the informal mentoring process, where they have the freedom to select their own mentor/protégé (Chao et al., 1992; Noe, 1988). Furthermore, in comparison to formal mentoring, informal mentoring is more likely to lead to favorable outcomes, such as instrumental and psychosocial support, and less likely to lead to negative mentoring experiences (Eby et al., 2013; Underhill, 2006).

The Benefits of Mentoring In their meta-analysis, Allen et al. (2004) stated that the literature examining the positive effects of mentoring on protégés can be distilled down to two types of studies: (a) those that compare outcomes across protégés and nonprotégés (e.g., Chao et al., 1992; Fagenson, 1989), sometimes referred to as the nonmentored, and (b) those looking at the association between mentor functions and protégé outcomes (e.g., Noe, 1988; Ragins & Cotton, 1999). They organized the outcomes associated with mentoring for protégés in two categories: objective career outcomes and subjective career outcomes. Ivey and Dupre´ 3

Objective and Subjective Outcomes Regarding objective outcomes, past research suggests that employees who receive mentoring are more prone to rapid advancement or promotions (e.g., Turban et al., 2017), elevated earnings (e.g., Chao et al., 1992; Dreher & Ash, 1990), performance evaluations (e.g., J. W. Carter & Youssef-Morgan, 2019), and greater position power (e.g., Dreher & Ash, 1990; Scandura, 1992). Subjective outcomes linked to mentoring include enhanced organizational commitment (e.g., Aryee et al., 1996; Ragins et al., 2017), job satisfaction (e.g., Harris et al., 2007; Higgins & Thomas, 2001), career satisfaction (e.g., Fagenson, 1989; St-Jean & Mathieu, 2015), and career progress expectations (e.g., Baugh et al., 1996; Scandura, 1997; Underhill, 2006), as well as reduced turnover intentions (e.g., Laband & Lentz, 1995; Park et al., 2016), work–family conflict (e.g., Liu et al., 2012; Nielson et al., 2001; Underhill, 2006), and work alienation (e.g., Koberg et al., 1994). From a health and well-being perspective, mentoring has been attributed to greater well-being (e.g., Chun et al., 2012), including reduced levels of role stress and burnout (e.g., Thomas & Lankau, 2009). Although most mentoring outcomes were revealed through cross-sectional research, they are largely supported by several meta-analyses (Allen et al., 2004; Eby, Allen, et al., 2008; Eby et al., 2013; Kammeyer- Mueller & Judge, 2008; Underhill, 2006). Moreover, the meta-analyses provide further insight into the processes through which mentoring has its effect. For example, Allen et al.’s (2004) study reveals that mentoring is generally more strongly associated with subjective indicators of career success than objective indicators.

Benefits for Mentors Beyond the benefits prot´eg´es may receive from having a mentor, the mentoring experience may benefit mentors too. Research suggests that mentors gain from greater information access and social feedback (Mullen & Noe, 1999), improved job performance (Burke & McKeen, 1997), enhanced transformational leadership (Chun et al., 2012), a sense of personal satisfaction (Ragins & Scandura, 1999) and fulfillment (Busch, 1985), and respect from others as a result of successful mentoring (Allen et al., 1997). In their meta-analysis of the associations between mentoring functions and subjective career outcomes, Ghosh and Reio (2013) found that mentors were generally more satisfied and committed than those who had never mentored.

Organizational Outcomes The positive emotions, attitudes, development, and performance outcomes experienced by protégés and mentors are of benefit to organizations too. High levels of organizational commitment and low turnover intentions among protégés and mentors reduce costs for organizations associated with recruit- ing, selection, and training and, at least in the case of experienced mentors and protégés, maintenance of corporate knowledge. From a human resources management perspective, the transfer of tacit knowledge resulting from the mentorship relationship might be the most important benefit to organizations (Laiho & Brandt, 2012). The benefits of mentoring may be even more far-reaching in particular con- texts and situations. For example, Harvey et al. (2010) proposed that mentoring for global dual-career couples would increase their effectiveness during overseas assignments, reduce the risk of premature repatriation, and potentially mold them into future mentors for other couples.

Does Mentoring Matter? Overall, the list of positive outcomes associated with mentoring is impressive. The research suggests that mentoring supports knowledge transfer, it provides protégés with access to information and influential social networks, it gives protégés the opportunity to model the behavior and attitudes of 4 Journal of Career Development XX(X) experienced and successful role models, and it arms protégés with a champion who promotes their career interests while providing career and emotional support. In so doing, the conditions are set for protégés to effectively undertake challenging tasks and increased levels of responsibility. However, while these positive protégé effects might serve to enhance their self-efficacy, satisfaction, commitment, career outlook, and overall well-being, a consistent finding across meta-analyses is that the effect sizes of mentoring on individual and organizational outcomes are weak to modest (Allen et al., 2004; Eby, Allen, et al., 2008, Eby et al., 2013). For example, although Kammeyer-Mueller and Judge (2008) noted the importance of mentoring in predicting valuable outcomes; they also found that, relative to other predictors of outcomes such as tenure, education, core self-evaluations, personality, and networks, the benefits of mentoring are modest. In an academic setting, S. G. Green and Bauer’s (1995) work suggested that mentors do not necessarily develop high performing protégés. Rather, mentors select high performing employees as their protégés. Whether or not rising stars in work settings need or benefit from mentoring has been questioned (Feldman, 1999; Scandura, 1998). Earlier indications suggest that only a minority of protégés felt that their mentors had made a difference in their lives (Kizilios, 1990; Roche, 1979), though this could be a symptom of underestimation of a mentor’s contribution on the part of their protégé. Singh et al. (2009) used a rigorous longitudinal design to examine whether mentoring added value beyond individual capital (e.g., education, experience) and agentic capital (e.g., engagement in proactive career behaviors). Their results suggest mentoring matters, but not for all outcomes; although mentoring predicted promotion and career expectations, only individual capital predicted salary. They concluded that mentoring is just a small part of what may help individuals achieve career success. These findings indicate that the gains of mentoring may not outweigh the costs. Some literature suggests that there may be additional risks.

The Dark Side of Mentoring Negative Mentoring Relationships The bulk of the literature on the adverse effects of mentoring has to do with the nature and quality of the relationship between mentors and protégés. Scandura (1998) developed a model of mentoring dysfunction based on Duck’s (1994) work on the dark side of relationships and the available literature on problematic mentoring relationships, resulting from, for example, toxic (Darling, 1985), selfish, and tyrannical (Myers & Humphreys, 1985) mentors and protégé envy of their mentor (Natale et al., 1988). According to Scandura’s model, mentoring dysfunction can be characterized by negative rela- tions (e.g., bullying, incivility, social undermining), sabotage (e.g., revenge, career damage), difficulty (e.g., conflict, ultimatums, or forced choices, such as career over family), spoiling (e.g., betrayal, lack of fair treatment), submissiveness (e.g., submissive behavior by protégé in exchange for organizational rewards), deception (e.g., manipulation by either protégé or mentor), and harassment (e.g., sexual harassment, sexual/racial discrimination). According to Olian et al. (1988), a relationship can be considered dysfunctional if it frustrates the most important needs of either the protégé or the mentor. Perrewé et al. (2010) further distinguish between dysfunctional and abusive mentor behaviors. For them, deception, sabotage, and tyrannical behaviors, such as bullying directed toward the protégé, reflect the hos- tility inherent in abuse (Tepper, 2007), and they, therefore, view those behaviors as forms of abusive versus dysfunctional mentoring. According to Scandura (1998), the negativity inherent in these relationships can reduce protégé’s self-esteem, job satisfaction, and their likelihood to act as mentors in the future. Further, it can increase absenteeism, stress, anxiety, and turnover. For mentors, a dysfunctional relationship with a protégé can also increase levels of stress and anxiety and reduce their propensity to mentor. A large body of research by Eby and colleagues suggests that negative mentoring experiences are associated with Ivey and Dupre´ 5 increased job withdrawal, turnover intentions, psychological distress, and burnout and reductions in learning, job satisfaction, career and psychosocial support, and physical health (Eby & Allen, 2002; Eby et al., 2004, 2010; Eby, Durley, et al., 2008; Hurst & Eby, 2012). The concern about negative, dysfunctional, toxic, or abusive mentoring relationships becomes even more salient when one considers that they are relatively common; Eby et al. (2000) reported that half of their participants reported having been involved in a negative mentoring relationship during their career. Furthermore, research suggests that their effects may be more impactful than the positive effects of strong relationships. In a university sample, Erdem and O¨ zen Aytemur (2008) found that academic protégés who experienced a positive mentoring relationship did not always have a positive perception of academic life, but protégés who had an adverse mentoring experience uniformly held negative perceptions about academic life. This seems to hold true in the workplace as well. Burk and Eby (2010) posited that negative mentoring relationships might have long-lasting effects than positive experiences, and Chandler et al. (2011) suggested that bad mentoring experiences are more predictive than good experiences in predicting protégé outcomes.

The Ethics of Workplace Mentoring Various researchers have considered, at least in part, the ethics of mentoring (e.g., Feldman, 1999; J. Green & Jackson, 2014; Kolbert et al., 2002). Hurst and Eby (2012), for example, discuss ethical issues in the context of mentoring relationships, whereby mentors have a responsibility to dedicate sufficient time and attention to meet protégés’ needs and expectations and do no harm to protégés in the process. Mentors must be aware of the responsibilities associated with mentoring and carry them out in a professional manner, act honestly and support their protégé, and respect all individuals, regardless of gender, ethnicity, or disability. Morever, organizations should assure fairness in access to mentors and the associated benefits. This is analogous to the norm of equity (Greenberg, 1990), which states that all employees should be treated equally and afforded the same opportunities for advancement. From a mentorship perspective, for equity to be realized, every employee must have equal access to an effective mentor. The literature, however, suggests several reasons why access to a mentor may vary across employees.

Mentor Accessibility The effects of workplace mentoring have been studied across various settings in countries around the world, suggesting that mentoring is a global phenomenon (e.g., Kay & Wallace, 2009; Lester et al., 2011; Liang & Gong, 2013). Rates of mentoring are difficult to ascertain, especially in the case of informal relationships, but research suggests that they range widely (e.g., Hurst & Eby, 2012). For example, across 152 Finnish organizations, mentoring rates differed as a function of organization size (Laiho & Brandt, 2012). In those organizations that offered formal mentoring, the program covered fewer than 10% of employees in 56% of medium-sized companies and in 87% of large organizations. In 57% of the organizations combined, the mentoring program covered, at most, 5% of employees. Olivet Nazarene University (2019; see Study Explores Professional Mentor-Mentee Relationships) report their workplace mentorship findings based on a survey of 3,000 Americans. These findings have been widely discussed in popular press materials (e.g., see Comaford, 2019; Woolworth, 2019) point- ing out that even though over 75% of professional employees desire a workplace mentor, just 37% of employees have one. Overall, these statistics suggest that although mentoring is widely used in organizations around the world, only a small proportion of employees actually have a mentor. Furthermore, these statistics do not account for relationship quality. Given the aforementioned discussion on dysfunctional mentoring, it is reasonable to assume that rates of effective mentoring may be even lower. 6 Journal of Career Development XX(X)

Much of the literature that addresses access to mentoring focuses on the challenges experienced by women and racial minorities. From the 1970s through the 1990s, much attention was given to the difficulties women experienced in integrating into mentoring systems (e.g., Dreher & Ash, 1990; Ragins & Cotton, 1991). Although women perceive more barriers to receiving a mentor, some studies have demonstrated that they do not differ from men in actual access to mentors (Kay & Wallace, 2009; Ragins & Cotton, 1991). Catalyst (2001) reported that a lack of mentors and role models is a primary barrier to the advancement of non-White leaders. In their meta-analysis, Eby et al. (2013) demonstrated that commonalities in values, beliefs, personality and other deep-level characteristics have stronger and more consistent relationships with instrumental and psychosocial support provided, as well as relationship quality, than surface-level similarity (race and gender). Interpersonal compatibility and personality have been used to explain who receives a mentor and who does not. For example, Turban and Dougherty (1994) found that employees with an internal locus of control, higher emotional stability, and high self-monitoring receive more mentoring. Further, Fagenson (1989, 1992) revealed that protégés have a higher need for power and achievement than nonprotégés, and Liang and Gong (2013) showed that individuals with proactive personalities are more likely to receive career-related and psychosocial mentoring. A contributing factor to the lack of accessibility of mentors is employees’ ability, willingness, and motivation to mentor. High-quality mentoring relationships require time to develop and nurture. Unfortunately, time is not a luxury those most likely or qualified to mentor have (Allen et al., 1997; Eby & Lockwood, 2005). Also, there are risks associated with mentoring, such as being replaced by an opportunistic protégé or having to deal with a toxic relationship as a result of an interpersonal mentorship mismatch (Eby & Lockwood, 2005). Furthermore, mentors may have different motives, which could be other-focused (e.g., to see the protégé succeed) or self-focused (e.g., to look good in the eyes of senior management) and that could differ depending on whether the relationship is formal or informal (Eby et al., 2007). To ensure the needs of protégés are met, Hurst and Eby (2012) rec- ommended that employees should be selected to participate in mentoring relationships based on their commitment to devoting time to the development of protégés. Although this is a logical recommenda- tion, a side effect of filtering the potential mentor pool based on motivation and commitment can be viewed as an even greater restriction of access to mentors.

Are There Indirect Effects on the Unmentored? Like many other organizational phenomena (e.g., workplace mistreatment; Dupré et al., 2014; Reich & Hershcovis, 2015), workplace mentorship tends to be examined from the perspective of the parties directly involved (i.e., mentor and protégé), as opposed to other members of the organization who may be aware of, or directly observe, positive mentor–protégé relationships and their outcomes. With the exception of women and minority groups, surprisingly, little attention has been paid to the unmentored.1 References to nonprotégés and the nonmentored are prominent in the literature but generally as a bench- mark against which researchers evaluate the positive effects of mentoring on protégés. For example, Allen et al. (2004) hypothesized that individuals who have been mentored will report more favorable career outcomes than individuals who have not been mentored. In the absence of rigorous experimental designs, organizational researchers and practitioners have accepted that superior scores among the mentored are due to the adaptive effects of workplace mentorship when there might be other explanations. Another potential source of variance that has, to our knowledge, been virtually ignored in the literature is the indirect effects of mentoring programs on employees without protégés. Given the evidence of positive outcomes for mentors with protégés described previously, a valid question is, what are the outcomes for employees without proteg´ es?´ In the remaining sections, we focus solely on the outcomes for those without effective mentors, while acknowledging that future research should Ivey and Dupre´ 7 also consider outcomes for employees who see other employees with protégés but who have no access to them personally.

An organizational justice perspective. Equity theory (Adams, 1965) states that individuals have a high need for equity, and when they perceive an imbalance between their efforts and rewards, they are moti- vated to achieve a psychological state of balance, either through their behavior or their perceptions. Similarly, the literature on organizational justice underscores the negative effects of a lack of fairness in the distribution of resources (distributive justice), in processes (procedural justice), and in interac- tions with others (interactional justice; Colquitt et al., 2001). Specifically, particular dimensions of organizational justice are highly correlated with job satisfaction, evaluation of authority, withdrawal, organizational commitment, and trust, and they are moderately associated with organizational citizenship behaviors and negative reactions. Organizational justice is also linked to a lack of health including unhealthy behaviors, absenteeism, and burnout (Robbins et al., 2012), along with sickness-related absence and psychiatric morbidity (Elovainio et al., 2009; Kivima¨ki et al., 2003; Ndjaboué et al., 2012). Eib et al. (2015) demonstrated that injustice at work can lead to mental preoccupation with work, which prolongs the perception of injustice, leading to impaired health and work–family conflict. Accordingly, another explanation for the outcome discrepancy between unmentored and mentored groups is the negative effects of the perceived injustice associated with not having a mentor where others do. In other words, the unmentored could be worse off relative to the effectively mentored because of the negative effects of the lack of fairness perceived as a result of not having the same advantages as those with a mentor. Some researchers have considered justice in mentoring either as an aspect of a mutually beneficial mentoring relationship (Ragins & Cotton, 1991) or as an outcome of mentoring (as opposed to a reaction to not having a mentor). For example, in noting elevated levels of procedural justice among protégés relative to nonprotégés, Scandura (1997) reasoned that protégés, through their mentors, have greater insight into how organizational decisions are made. Scandura did not account for whether or not individuals’ coworkers had mentors. We propose that unmentored individuals are more likely to perceive injustice when they observe coworkers enjoying the benefits of positive mentoring relationships at work.

A self-determination theory perspective. Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) explains human motivation and provides another explanation for why the unmentored might be negatively affected by the occurrence of positive mentoring around them. People need to feel competent by engaging in challenging tasks, they need social attachments, and they need to engage in activities that are meaningful (Deci & Ryan, 2000). When one or more of these needs are deprived, motivation and well-being decline (Deci et al., 1989; Williams et al., 1996). In a positive mentoring context, the conditions are set for prot´eg´es to obtain a sense of self-efficacy, attachment, and fulfillment. In addition to instigating feelings of injustice, we posit that being over- looked for mentoring may frustrate the attainment of self-determined needs at work, which has a negative influence on levels of work engagement, motivation, well-being, and commitment relative to mentored employees. In line with this notion, the influence of self-determined needs at work on well-being and commitment was recently reinforced by Ivey et al. (2015) who demonstrated that proxy measures of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were strong predictors of nondeployed military members’ work engagement and their motivation and morale. Their level of work engagement and morale, in turn, impacted their psychological well-being, turnover intentions, and willingness to deploy on military operations. 8 Journal of Career Development XX(X)

Moving Forward We have provided an overview of decades of research that highlights the benefits of mentoring for prot´eg´es, mentors, and organizations. In so doing, we pointed out that the relationship between mentoring and various individual and organizational outcomes is not always overly robust. Moreover, we described the dark side of mentoring. In particular, we discussed the literature on negative mentoring relationships, the ethics of mentoring, and on access to mentors in general and access to high-quality mentors in particular. Finally, we offered hypotheses regarding the potential negative indirect effects of mentoring on the unmentored. In light of all of the above, our assessment is that workplace mentorship appears to have positive consequences in particular circumstances for particular groups of employees, but the conclusiveness of the positive effects of mentoring is limited by significant gaps in the research.

Future Research In a large sample, Payne and Huffman (2005) demonstrated that protégés had higher levels of commitment than nonprotégés and that affective commitment mediates the relationship between mentoring and turnover. Their sample, however, was disproportionately mentored (81%), and 68% reported that their supervisor was their mentor, risking conflation with the effects of transformational supervision (M. Z. Carter et al., 2014). This is but one of many examples of research that did not sufficiently isolate the direct effects of mentoring from other spurious effects. Also, the majority of the associations between mentoring and its effects reported in the literature are based on cross-sectional research designs, without baseline measures or suitable control groups to help clarify causality (Allen et al., 2004; Feldman, 1999). To truly appreciate the potential benefits of workplace mentoring and to understand the processes through which they have their effects, more studies using rigorous experimental methods are required. For example, cluster randomized control trials could test the immediate and longer term attitudes and outcomes among employees assigned to mentored groups or unmentored (control) groups. Alterna- tively, longitudinal field studies with baseline data can monitor mentored and unmentored employees’ attitudes and performance over time while controlling for type of mentoring (formal or informal), quality of mentoring, and/or dispositional variables associated with career success. Work by Singh et al. (2009) was a promising start. We acknowledge that designs such as these are challenging, but the high degree of corporate interest in talent management may facilitate access to industry, especially if there are concerns with the ratio of cost to benefits. We believe that research examining the benefits of mentoring should also consider the indirect effects on those employees who are not mentored. The literature on organizational justice and self- determination theory provides substantial evidence and the theoretical grounding to expect the unmentored to feel slighted and frustrated when they observe positive mentoring relationships in their work environment (formal or informal) and when they perceive that those relationships yield benefits to their mentored coworkers. Similarly, as we briefly touched on, researchers should consider the indirect effects of workplace mentorship on those employees who do not have access to protégés. Moreover, there are other related areas that would also advance research in the mentorship domain. For example, there may be mentorship outcomes that vary by industry, and the implications for both the unmentored and negatively mentored should be considered within the organizational context. Also, the outcomes of mentorship are widespread, and if there are negative implications of mentorship as a result of nonmentorship and negative mentorship, expanding potential outcomes to include counter- productive workplace behaviors, turnover cognitions and intentions, and other negative behavioral and attitudinal outcomes would be logical. Ivey and Dupre´ 9

Table 1. Workplace Mentoring Program Considerations. c Does your organization have a formal or informal mentoring program? c If your organization has implemented a formal mentoring program, is this the best practice given the proposed advantages of informal mentoring? c How are your mentors selected? c Are mentors in your organization committed to devoting time to develop their proteg´ e(s)?´ c What qualifies mentors in your organization to be a mentor? c How are proteg´ es´ in your organization selected? c Is mentor allocation conducted fairly and transparently? c Is the mentor allocation process perceived to be fair by all employees? c Has your organization considered or assessed the effects of your mentoring program on unmentored employees and employees without access to proteg´ es?´ c Does your organization have a mechanism in place to monitor the quality of mentoring relationships, intervene in dysfunctional or abusive mentoring relationships, and support affected employees? c Does your organization have a mechanism in place to objectively assess the benefits of your mentoring program beyond other predictors of success (e.g., education, tenure, core self-evaluations, personality)? c Are mentors effectively developing high-performing proteg´ es´ or are they selecting high potential employees as proteg´ es´ who might otherwise be successful notwithstanding their mentor? c Given all of the above, do the benefits of your organization’s mentoring program outweigh the concrete costs (financial, time, and effort) and the risk of adverse effects?

Practical Implications Notwithstanding the need for a broader and more rigorous research approach to understanding the value of workplace mentorship, this critical review underscores the complexities of the mentoring phenomenon. Although mentoring appears to have beneficial consequences, there are clearly costs and risks. Accordingly, it would be prudent for those individuals with the potential to be involved in mentoring relationships and, for those implementing mentoring programs, to evaluate in the context of their particular organization whether the costs of mentoring outweigh the potential benefits. Individ- uals who are considering seeking out a mentor or who are given the option of having a workplace mentor would benefit from knowing what to consider before pursuing this course of action. In Table 1, we provide some questions in light of this review to assist both individual employees and organizational leaders or human resources practitioners in their organization’s mentorship program evaluation. The list may not be exhaustive, but it addresses the key factors that can affect the quality and effectiveness of a mentoring relationship. Moreover, the questions apply to both individuals and organizations, though the perspective and outcome may differ for each. For example, an individual employee ponder- ing what qualifies mentors in their organization to be a mentor may be asking themselves what skills, knowledge, connections, opportunities, amount of time, and degree of motivation can a mentor provide to them? Organizational leaders should also be concerned with what their mentors can offer their protégés, but the actions that follow may affect organizational processes or policies. A final thought for practitioners and researchers alike: Effective mentors bolster protégés with knowledge, opportunities, and support to aid in their career progression. There is a convincing amount of scientific evidence to suggest that transformational leadership achieves the same outcomes while enhancing employee motivation and well-being (Barling, 2014). Could an emphasis on transformational leadership (or transformational supervision) for all be a more just and effective alternative to mentorship of a select few? The manifestation and effects of transformational leadership may vary by employee level and industry, but a perception among employees that their organizational leaders and supervisors are concerned equally for the well-being, growth, and development of all employees may have far-reaching consequences. 10 Journal of Career Development XX(X)

Conclusion This review extends our understanding of workplace mentorship by consolidating what is known, iden- tifying knowledge gaps, proposing new directions for research, and offering guidance to individual employees and practitioners on how to evaluate the potential effectiveness of workplace mentorship programs. We are not advocating for the elimination of workplace mentorship. We acknowledge that it can be useful mechanism to transfer knowledge and gain access, particularly for minority groups. However, it is our position that we ought to be concerned with fairness and motivation in the context of mentoring and that it is important for research to more fully addresses these issues. The ultimate goal is to consider not only what mentoring can do for prot´eg´es but also what mentoring can do for, or does to, all of those exposed to the process, both directly and indirectly.

Authors’ Note The opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the Canadian Armed Forces nor the Department of National Defence.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD Gary W. Ivey https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4197-1474 Kathryne E. Dupr´e https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9509-3590

Note 1. We use the term unmentored to refer to nonprot´eg´es, the nonmentored, and any other paid individual in an organizational setting who has not been mentored, regardless of sex, race, ethnicity, or other characteristics.

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Author Biographies Gary W. Ivey is a strategic advisor on personnel within Canada’s Department of National Defence (DND). He has a master of science degree in industrial-organizational psychology from the University of Calgary, and he is a doctoral candidate in organizational psychology at Carleton University. His research in the areas of workplace well-being, morale, ethics, and military psychology has been published and presented internationally. He has more than 26 years of leadership experience in the military and DND and 20 years as a specialist in personnel selection, organizational effectiveness, career development, and performance management. He balances his time behind a desk with hiking, mountain biking, and canoeing with his family. 16 Journal of Career Development XX(X)

Kathryne E. Dupre´ is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Carleton University. She received her PhD in organizational behavior from Queen’s University and her MSc in industrial-organizational psychology from Saint Mary’s University. Her research interests focus on workplace well-being, career development, workplace mistreatment, leadership, the work–life interface, and young peoples’ work experiences. Her research has been published in numerous journals and presented at national and international conferences. In her free time, she enjoys hiking and traveling with her family.

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External Literature (P)

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DGMPRA Director General Military Personnel Research and Analysis NDHQ (Carling), 60 Moodie Drive, Building 9S.2 Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K2 Canada

9a. PROJECT OR GRANT NO. (If appropriate, the applicable 9b. CONTRACT NO. (If appropriate, the applicable number under research and development project or grant number under which which the document was written.) the document was written. Please specify whether project or grant.)

04IA03-084

10a. DRDC PUBLICATION NUMBER (The official document number 10b. OTHER DOCUMENT NO(s). (Any other numbers which may be by which the document is identified by the originating assigned this document either by the originator or by the sponsor.) activity. This number must be unique to this document.)

DRDC-RDDC-2020-P165

11a. FUTURE DISTRIBUTION WITHIN CANADA (Approval for further dissemination of the document. Security classification must also be considered.)

Public release

11b. FUTURE DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE CANADA (Approval for further dissemination of the document. Security classification must also be considered.)

12. KEYWORDS, DESCRIPTORS or IDENTIFIERS (Use semi-colon as a delimiter.)

mentoring; mentoring outcomes; organizational justice; self-determination theory; indirect exposure

13. ABSTRACT/RÉSUMÉ (When available in the document, the French version of the abstract must be included here.)

Mentoring is a popular workplace practice, bolstered by a substantial body of literature that has underscored its positive outcomes for protégés and organizations. Less pronounced are the potential risks and costs associated with workplace mentorship. In this article, we consolidate what is known about workplace mentorship and draw on organizational justice research, self-determination theory, and findings related to indirect exposure to expand on the potentially darker side of workplace mentorship. Our comprehensive review suggests that workplace mentorship appears to have positive consequences in particular circumstances for particular groups of employees, but the conclusiveness of its positive effects is limited by significant gaps in the research. To assist in determining if the potential benefits outweigh the potential risks and costs, we offer a list of considerations for individual employees who are considering engaging in a mentoring relationship and for those implementing workplace mentoring programs.