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Home , Christine Gregoire, Dave Heineman, George Pataki, Jim McGreevey, Jon Corzine, Mike Johanns

governors Gubernatorial Elections, Campaign Costs and Powers By Thad Beyle

Only two governorships were contested and decided in the elections of 2005—those in New Jer- sey and Virginia. In both political situations the races seemed very close in the campaign “horse- race” polls, yet in the final vote count, the Democratic candidates won by nearly nine points in and by nearly six points in Virginia. This continued the Democratic Party’s control over these two gubernatorial chairs and left the 50 states split with 28 Republican governors and 22 Democratic governors holding office in 2006.

Governors remain in the forefront of activity as we Incumbents did not seek another term in these races as move into the 21st century. With Republican gover- Virginia only allows a to serve a single term nors across the country serving as his major support- and New Jersey’s acting Gov. , a Dem- ers and guides, Texas Gov. George W. Bush sought ocrat, opted not to seek election to a full term. Codey, and won the presidency in the 2000 election. He as president of the , had ascended became the fourth of the last five presidents who had to the governorship in 2004 when Democratic Gov. served as governor just prior to seeking and winning Jim McGreevey stepped down for personal reasons. the presidency.1 When George H. W. Bush, a non- Both races were for an open seat, which U.S. Sen. Jon governor, won the 1988 presidential election, he beat Corzine, a Democrat, won in New Jersey and Demo- a governor, Michael Dukakis (D-Mass., 1975–1979 cratic Lt. Gov. Timothy Kaine won in Virginia. and 1983–1991). Clearly, governors have been key One other new governor was sworn in Jan. 21, players in presidential politics in the three decades 2005— Republican . As following the Watergate scandal. lieutenant governor, he ascended to the governor- Additionally, the demands on governors to pro- ship upon the resignation of incumbent Republican pose state budgets and then keep them in balance Gov. , who was appointed by President during the two recessions of the early 1990s and now Bush and sworn in as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. in the early 2000s have made the governor’s chair In March 2006, Gov. , (R-), a “hot seat” in more ways than one.2 In the current was appointed U.S. Interior Secretary by President downturn, governors have moved from the half- George W. Bush. Upon his confirmation by the decade of economic boom of the late 1990s, in which U.S. Senate and resignation as governor, Republi- they could propose tax cuts and program increases, can Lt. Gov. will be sworn in as Idaho’s to an economic downturn period in which there is 31st governor to fill out the rest of the last year of increasing demand for program support while state Kempthorne’s term. tax revenues fell off significantly. Proposed and adopted budgets fell victim to severe revenue short- Gubernatorial Elections falls in most states. As we entered 2006, signs of an As can be seen in Table A, in the 483 gubernatorial upturn in the economy eased some of the budgetary elections held between 1970 and 2005, incumbents problems that governors have faced. were eligible to seek another term in 368 (76 per- cent) of the contests. Of the 286 (78 percent) eligible 2005 Gubernatorial Politics incumbents seeking re-election, 211 succeeded (74 Only two governorships were contested and decided percent). Those who were defeated for re-election in the elections of 2005—those in New Jersey and were more likely to lose in the general election than in Virginia. In both political situations the races seemed their own party primary by a 2.9-to-1 ratio, although very close in the campaign “horse-race” polls, yet in two of the four incumbent losses in 2004 were tied the final vote count, the Democratic candidates won to party primaries. Not since 1994 had an incumbent by nearly nine points in New Jersey and by nearly governor been defeated in his party’s primary. six points in Virginia. This continued the Democratic Democratic candidates held a winning edge in the Party’s control over these two gubernatorial chairs and elections held between 1970 and 2005 (55 percent). left the 50 states split with 28 Republican governors In 195 races (40 percent), the results led to a party and 22 Democratic governors holding office in 2006. shift in which a candidate other than the incumbent

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Table A: Gubernatorial Elections: 1970–2005 Number of incumbent governors Democratic Lost winner Eligible to run Actually ran Won Number In general Year of races Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent In primary election 1970 35 22 63 29 83 24 83 16 67 8 33 1 (a) 7 (b) 1971 3 3 100 0 ...... 1972 18 11 61 15 83 11 73 7 64 4 36 2 (c) 2 (d) 1973 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 ...... 1 100 1 (e) . . . 1974 35 27 (f) 77 29 83 22 76 17 77 5 23 1 (g) 4 (h) 1975 3 3 100 2 66 2 100 2 100 ...... 1976 14 9 64 12 86 8 67 5 63 3 38 1 (i) 2 (j) 1977 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1978 36 21 58 29 81 23 79 16 70 7 30 2 (k) 5 (l) 1979 3 2 67 0 ...... 1980 13 6 46 12 92 12 100 7 58 5 42 2 (m) 3 (n) 1981 2 1 50 0 ...... 1982 36 27 75 33 92 25 76 19 76 6 24 1 (o) 5 (p) 1983 3 3 100 1 33 1 100 ...... 1 100 1 (q) . . . 1984 13 5 38 9 69 6 67 4 67 2 33 . . . 2 (r) 1985 2 1 50 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1986 36 19 53 24 67 18 75 15 83 3 17 1 (s) 2 (t) 1987 3 3 100 2 67 1 50 ...... 1 100 1 (u) . . . 1988 12 5 42 9 75 9 100 8 89 1 11 . . . 1 (v) 1989 2 2 100 0 ...... 1990 36 19 (w) 53 33 92 23 70 17 74 6 26 . . . 6 (x) 1991 3 2 67 2 67 2 100 ...... 2 100 1 (y) 1 (z) 1992 12 8 67 9 75 4 44 4 100 ...... 1993 2 0 0 1 50 1 100 ...... 1 100 . . . 1 (aa) 1994 36 11 (bb) 31 30 83 23 77 17 74 6 26 2 (cc) 4 (dd) 1995 3 1 33 2 67 1 50 1 100 ...... 1996 11 7 36 9 82 7 78 7 100 ...... 1997 2 0 0 1 50 1 100 1 100 ...... 1998 36 11 (ee) 31 27 75 25 93 23 92 2 8 . . . 2 (ff) 1999 3 2 67 2 67 2 100 2 100 ...... 2000 11 8 73 7 88 6 86 5 83 1 17 . . . 1 (gg) 2001 2 2 100 0 ...... 2002 36 14 39 22 61 16 73 12 75 4 25 . . . 4 (hh) 2003 4 (ii) 1 25 2 50 2 100 ...... 2 100 . . . 2 (jj) 2004 11 6 55 11 100 8 73 4 50 4 50 2 (kk) 2 (ll) 2005 2 2 100 1 50 ...... Totals: Number 483 266 368 286 211 75 19 56 Percent 100 55.1 76.2 77.7 73.8 26.2 25.3 74.7

Source: The Council of State Governments, The Book of the States, 2005, (t) Mark White, D-Texas; Anthony S. Earl, D-Wis. (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005), 192, updated. (u) Edwin Edwards, D-La. Key: (v) Arch A. Moore, R-W. Va. (a) Albert Brewer, D-Ala. (w) Two Independent candidates won: Walter Hickel (Alaska) and Lowell (b) Keith Miller, R-Alaska; Winthrop Rockefeller, R-Ark.; Claude Weiker (Conn.). Both were former statewide Republican office holders. Kirk, R-Fla.; Don Samuelson, R-Idaho; Norbert Tieman, R-Neb.; Dewey (x) Bob Martinez, R-Fla.; Mike Hayden, R-Kan.; James Blanchard, D-Mich.; Bartlett, R-Okla.; Frank Farrar, R-S.D. Rudy Perpich, DFL-Minn.; Kay Orr, R-Neb.; Edward DiPrete, R-R.I. (c) Walter Peterson, R-N.H.; Preston Smith, D-Texas. (y) Buddy Roemer, R-La. (d) Russell Peterson, R-Del.; Richard Ogilvie, R-Ill. (z) Ray Mabus, D-Miss. (e) William Cahill, R-N.J. (aa) , D-N.J. (f) One independent candidate won: James Longley of Maine. (bb) One Independent candidate won: Angus King of Maine. (g) David Hall, D-Okla. (cc) Bruce Sundlun, D-R.I.; Walter Dean Miller, R-S.D. (h) John Vanderhoof, R-Colo.; Francis Sargent, R-Mass.; Malcolm (dd) James E. Folsom Jr., D-Ala.; Bruce King, D-N.M.; , Wilson, R-N.Y.; John Gilligan, D-Ohio. D-N.Y.; Ann Richards, D-Texas. (i) Dan Walker, D-Ill. (ee) Two Independent candidates won: Angus King of Maine and Jesse (j) Sherman Tribbitt, D-Del.; Christopher ‘Kit’ , R-Mo. Ventura of Minnesota. (k) Michael Dukakis, D-Mass.; Dolph Briscoe, D-Texas. (ff) Fob James, R-Ala.; David Beasley, R-S.C. (l) Robert F. Bennett, R-Kan.; Rudolph G. Perpich, D-Minn.; Meldrim (gg) Cecil Underwood, R-W. Va. Thompson, R-N.H.; Robert Straub, D-Oreg.; Martin J. Schreiber, D-Wis. (hh) Don Siegelman, D-Ala.; Roy Barnes, D-Ga., Jim Hodges, D-S.C.; (m) Thomas L. Judge, D-Mont.; , D-Wash. and Scott McCallum, R-Wis. (n) , D-Ark.; Joseph P. Teasdale, D-Mo.; Arthur A. Link, D-N.D. (ii) The California recall election and replacement vote of 2003 is included (o) Edward J. King, D-Mass. in the 2003 election totals and as a general election for the last column. (p) Frank D. White, R-Ark.; , R-Neb.; Robert F. List, (jj) Gray Davis, D-Calif., Ronnie Musgrove, D-Miss. R-Nev.; Hugh J. Gallen, D-N.H.; William P. Clements, R-Texas. (kk) Bob Holden, D-Mo.; Olene Walker, R-Utah, lost in the pre-pri- (q) David Treen, R-La. mary convention. (r) Allen I. Olson, R-N.D.; John D. Spellman, R-Wash. (ll) Joe Kernan, D-Ind.; Craig Benson, R-N.H. (s) Bill Sheffield, D-Alaska.

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won. These party shifts have evened out over the Heineman (R-Neb.) and Timothy Kaine (D-Va.); two years so that neither of the two major parties has an secretaries of state—Matt Blunt (R-Mo.) and Joe edge. In three of the five party shifts in the 2004 elec- Manchin (D-W.Va.); one state insurance commis- tions, a Democrat won the seat for the first time since sioner—Kathleen Sebelius (D-Kan.); and one state the 1984 election (Montana), and two Republicans treasurer—James Douglas (R-Vt.). also won the seat for the first time since the 1984 Second were the nine members or former mem- elections (Indiana and Missouri). But there have bers of Congress who returned to work within their been some interesting patterns in these shifts over state. These included U.S. Sens. Frank Murkowski the past 35 years of gubernatorial elections. (R-Alaska) and (D-N. J.), and Congress- Between 1970 and 1992, Democrats won 200 of men Bob Riley (R-Ala.), Rod Blagojevich (D-Ill.), the 324 races for governor (62 percent). From 1993 Ernie Fletcher (R-Ky.), John Baldacci (D-Maine), to date, Republicans leveled the playing field by win- Robert Ehrlich (R-Md.), and Mark Sanford (R-S.C.). ning 94 of the 159 races for governor (59 percent). Former Congressman (D-N.M.) had Despite this Republican trend, Democratic candi- also served as an administrator in the Clinton admin- dates did win eight of the 11 gubernatorial races in istration. And (D-Mont.), who had 2000, when Gov. Bush won the presidency in a very unsuccessfully sought a U.S. Senate seat in 2000 as close race, and six of the 11 when Bush won his sec- the Democratic candidate, turned that around to win ond term in 2004. But since the 1994 elections there the governorship in 2004. have been more Republicans than Democrats serving Third were the five legislators or former legisla- as governor each year. tors who moved up from a district to a statewide Another factor in determining how many gover- office. These included (a Republican nors have served in the states is the number of newly- from the Georgia Senate), (a Repub- elected governors who are truly new to the office and lican from the Minnesota House), Brad Henry (a the number who are returning after complying with Democrat from the Oklahoma Senate), Mike Rounds constitutional term limits or holding other positions. (a Republican from the South Dakota Senate), and as Looking at the number of actual new governors tak- noted earlier Richard Codey (a Democrat from the ing office over a decade, the average number of new New Jersey Senate). governors elected dropped from 2.3 new governors Fourth were four from the business sector: Craig Ben- per state in the 1950s to 1.9 in the 1970s and to 1.1 in son (R-N.H., 2002), John Lynch (D-N.H., 2004), Don the 1980s. In the 1990s, the rate began to move up a Carcieri (R-R.I.) and John Huntsman Jr. (R-Utah). bit to 1.4 new governors per state. Fifth were the three mayors or former mayors: As we move through the first decade of the 21st Linda Lingle (R-Maui, Hawaii), (D-Phila- century, we continue to find new faces in the gov- delphia, Pa.) and Phil Bredesen (D-Nashville, Tenn.). ernors’ offices. New governors were elected in 45 Finally, were the six new governors who followed of 66 elections held between 2000 and 2005 (68 a unique path compared to their counterparts: actor- percent). And, two other governors ascended to the businessman (R-Calif.), office during 2004 and one in 2005. In 2006, 37 of former head of the Federal Office of Management the incumbent governors will be serving in their first and Budget (R-Ind.), the 2000 Winter term (74 percent). The beginning of the 21st century Olympics Chairman Mitt Romney (R-Mass.), former has certainly proved to be a time of change in the Republican Party National Chairman Haley Barbour governors’ offices across the 50 states. (R-Miss.), former state Supreme Court Justice (D-Ore.) and former U.S. Attorney Dave The New Governors Freudenthal (D-Wyo.). Over the 2002–2005 cycle of gubernatorial elec- In the 373 gubernatorial races between 1977 and tions and resignations, there were several different 2005, among the candidates were 101 lieutenant gov- routes to the governor’s chair by the elected gov- ernors (29 won), 84 attorneys general (21 won), 27 ernors and those who have ascended to the office. secretaries of state (seven won), 22 state treasurers First were the 12 new governors who had previously (six won) and 14 state auditors, auditors general or held statewide office. These include: four attorneys comptrollers (three won). Looking at these numbers general— (D-Ariz.), Jennifer Gra- from a bettor’s point of view, the odds of a lieutenant nholm (D-Mich.), (D-Wash.) and governor winning were 3.5-to-1, an attorney general Jim Doyle (R-Wisc.); four lieutenant governors—M. 4.0-to-1, a secretary of state 3.9-to-1, a state treasurer Jodi Rell (R-Conn.), Kathleen Blanco (D-La.), Dave 3.7-to-1 and a state auditor 4.7-to-1.

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Table B: Total Cost of Gubernatorial Elections: 1977–2004 (in thousands of dollars)

Total campaign costs Number Average cost Percent change in Year of races Actual $ 2004$ (a) per state (2004$) similar elections (b) 1977 2 12,312 38,840 19,420 N.A. 1978 36 102,342 300,125 8,337 N.A. (c) 1979 3 32,744 86,167 28,722 N.A. 1980 13 35,634 82,677 6,360 N.A. 1981 2 24,648 51,782 25,891 +33 1982 36 181,832 360,064 10,002 +20 (d) 1983 3 39,966 76,710 25,570 -11 1984 13 47,156 86,683 6,668 +5 1985 2 18,859 33,497 16,748 -35 1986 36 270,605 471,438 13,095 +31 1987 3 40,212 67,583 22,528 -12 1988 12 (e) 52,208 84,343 7,029 -3 1989 2 47,902 73,809 36,905 +120 1990 36 345,493 505,107 14,031 +7 1991 3 34,564 48,477 16,159 -28 1992 12 60,278 82,011 6,834 -3 1993 2 36,195 47,814 23,907 -35 1994 36 417,873 538,496 14,958 +7 1995 3 35,693 44,728 14,909 -8 1996 11 (f) 68,610 85,019 7,729 +4 1997 2 44,823 53,045 26,522 +11 1998 36 470,326 548,166 15,227 +2 1999 3 16,277 18,666 6,222 -58 2000 11 97,098 107,647 9,786 +27 2001 2 70,400 75,944 37,972 +43 2002 36 839,650 891,348 24,760 +63 2003 3 69,939 72,626 24,209 +289 2004 11 112,625 112,625 10,239 +4.6

Source: Thad Beyle. the actual costs of these elections by some unknown amount. The sources (a) Developed from the Table, “Historical Consumer Price Index for All are: Rhodes Cook and Stacy West, “1978 Advantage,” CQ Weekly Report, Urban Consumers (CPI-U),” Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department (1979): 1757–1758, and The Great Louisiana Spendathon (Baton Rouge: of Labor. Each year’s actual expenditures are converted to the 2004$ value Public Affairs Research Council, March 1980). of the dollar to control for the effect of inflation over the period. (d) This particular comparison with 1978 is not what it would appear to (b) This represents the percent increase or decrease in 2004$ over be for the reasons given in note (c). The amount spent in 1978 was more the last bank of similar elections, i.e., 1977 v. 1981, 1978 v. 1982, 1979 than indicated here so the increase is really not as great as it appears. v. 1983, etc. (e) As of the 1986 election, switched to a four-year term for (c) The data for 1978 are a particular problem as the two sources com- the governor, hence the drop from 13 to 12 for this off-year. piling data on this year’s elections did so in differing ways that excluded (f) As of the 1994 election, Rhode Island switched to a four-year term some candidates. The result is that the numbers for 1978 under-represent for the governor, hence the drop from 12 to 11 for this off-year.

One other unique aspect about the current gov- who became governor upon the resignation of Gov. ernors is that there will be eight women serving as John Rowland. While gubernatorial politics contin- governor in 2006—one less than the nine women ues to be volatile, women continue to hold their own serving as governor in the last half of 2004, which in these races. In the 2002–2005 gubernatorial races, was the all-time high for women governors serving seven of the 12 women running either as the incum- at the same time. Seven are women elected in their bent or as the candidate of a major party won—a 58 own right: Janet Napolitano (D-Ariz.), Ruth Ann percent success rate. There will be more soon.3 Minner (D-Del.), Linda Lingle (R-Hawaii), Kathleen Sebelius (D-Kan.), Kathleen Blanco (D-La.), Jen- Timing of Gubernatorial Elections nifer Granholm (D-Mich.) and Christine Gregoire The election cycle for governors has settled into a (D-Wash.). The other is M. Jodi Rell of Connecticut, regular pattern. Over the past few decades, many

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states have moved their elections to the off-presiden- But if we look at how much was spent by all the tial election years to decouple the state and national candidates per general election vote, a slightly different campaigns. Now, only 11 states hold their guber- picture evolves. In 2004, the West Virginia governor’s natorial elections in the same year as a presidential race was the most expensive at $15.52 per vote, fol- election. Two of these states—New Hampshire and lowed by the Indiana race at $13.08 per vote. Both of Vermont—still have two-year terms for their gover- these races were for an open seat. The most expensive nor so their elections alternate between presidential governor’s race per vote in the 2001–2004 cycle was in and the even non-presidential years. New Hampshire’s 2002 race when the candidates spent As can be seen in Table A, the year following a $45.41 per vote in 2004 dollars. The least expensive presidential election has only two states with guber- race during the same cycle was in Minnesota’s 2002 natorial elections.4 Then in the even years between race when the candidates spent only $2.81 per vote. presidential elections, 36 states hold their gubernato- In Figure A, by converting the actual dollars spent rial elections, and in the year before a presidential each year into the equivalent 2004 dollars, we see election, three Southern states hold their gubernato- how the cost of these elections has increased over rial elections.5 time. Since 1981, we have been able to compare the costs of each four-year cycle of elections with the Cost of Gubernatorial Elections previous cycle of elections. Table C presents data on the costs of the most recent In the 54 elections held between 1977 and 1980, the elections. There is a wide range in how much these total expenditures were $507.8 million in equivalent races cost, from the all-time most expensive race 2004 dollars. In the 53 elections held between 2001 recorded in in 2002 ($155.8 million in and 2004—just over two decades later—the total 2004 dollars) to the low-cost 2004 race in Vermont expenditures were a bit over $1.14 billion in 2004 dol- ($1,201,530 in 2004 dollars). Both the New York lars, an increase of 125 percent. The greatest increases and the Vermont races saw an incumbent Republican in expenditures were between the 1977–1980 and the governor successfully win re-election. 1987–1990 cycles, when there was a 43.9 percent

Figure A: Gubernatorial Elections Expenditures (by millions)

1200 $1,143

1000 )

800 $709 $716 $728 $657 600 $575 $508

400 2004 Dollars (in millions 200

0 1977–1980 1981–1984 1985–1988 1989–1992 1993–1996 1997–2000 2001–2004

Source: Thad Beyle.

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Table C: Cost of Gubernatorial Campaigns, Most Recent Elections, 2000–2004

Total campaign expenditures Winner Point All candidates Cost per vote Percent of all Vote State Year Winner margin (2004$) (2004$) Spent (2004$) expenditures percent Alabama...... 2002 R★★★ +0.3 $33,512,464 24.51 $14,700,611 43.9 49.2 Alaska...... 2002 R# +15 5,672,033 25.01 1,835,582 32.4 55.9 Arizona...... 2002 D# +1 8,085,414 6.59 2,439,470 30.2 46.2 Arkansas...... 2002 R★ +6 4,790,362 5.94 2,898,362 60.5 53.0 California...... 2002 D★ +4.9 116,314,901 15.56 68,169,007 58.6 47.3 Colorado...... 2002 R★ +29 6,426,516 4.55 5,116,110 79.6 62.6 Connecticut...... 2002 R★ +12 8,353,753 8.17 6,493,702 77.7 56.1 Delaware...... 2004 D★ +5.1 2,645,766 7.25 1,764,586 66.7 50.9 Florida...... 2002 R# +13 18,216,101 3.57 8,094,338 44.4 56.0 Georgia...... 2002 R★★★ +5 25,752,306 12.70 3,880,257 15.1 51.4 Hawaii...... 2002 R# +4 10,041,642 26.28 5,741,536 57.2 51.1 Idaho...... 2002 R★ +14 2,374,205 5.77 1,181,847 49.8 56.3 Illinois...... 2002 D# +8 51,768,316 14.63 23,789,347 46.0 52.2 Indiana...... 2004 R★★★ +5.3 32,028,028 13.08 16,829,092 52.5 50.8 ...... 2002 D★ +8 13,958,685 13.61 6,424,202 46.0 52.7 Kansas...... 2002 D# +8 16,201,626 19.39 4,631,042 28.6 52.9 Kentucky...... 2003 R# +10 11,872,641 10.96 5,917,266 49.8 55.0 Louisiana...... 2003 D# +3.8 40,427,109 28.72 6,871,733 17.0 51.9 Maine...... 2002 D# +5.6 4,595,672 9.10 1,681,932 36.6 47.1 ...... 2002 R# +3.9 5,452,542 3.20 2,689,846 49.3 51.6 Massachusetts...... 2002 R# +5 32,486,102 14.63 9,937,370 30.6 49.8 ...... 2002 D★★★ +4 16,228,800 5.11 9,336,445 57.5 51.4 Minnesota...... 2002 R# +8 6,334,174 2.81 2,681,285 42.3 44.4 Mississippi...... 2003 R★★★ +7 20,326,276 22.72 11,721,105 57.7 52.6 Missouri...... 2004 R★★ +2.9 15,526,723 5.71 4,287,730 31.1 50.8 Montana...... 2004 D# +4.4 3,790,902 8.50 1,726,951 45.6 50.4 Nebraska...... 2002 R★ +41 1,697,424 3.53 1,287,850 75.9 68.7 Nevada...... 2002 R★ +46 2,883,964 5.72 2,806,829 97.3 68.1 New Hampshire..... 2004 D★★★ +2.1 5,735,434 8.61 2,977,714 51.9 51.0 New Jersey...... 2001 D# +15 39,452,688 17.71 16,414,420 41.6 56.4 New Mexico...... 2002 D# +15 10,639,323 21.97 7,777,598 73.1 55.5 New York...... 2002 R★ +16 155,787,222 33.21 46,909,872 30.1 48.2 North Carolina...... 2004 D★ +13 18,178,511 5.21 8,227,561 45.3 55.6 North Dakota...... 2004 R★ +44 1,395,649 8.82 1,245,918 48.7 55.0 Ohio...... 2002 R★ +20 15,362,890 4.76 13,623,911 88.7 57.8 Oklahoma...... 2002 D# +0.7 11,912,260 11.50 3,430,690 28.8 43.3 ...... 2002 D# +2.8 16,041,053 12.73 4,424,201 27.6 49.0 Pennsylvania...... 2002 D# +9 69,151,599 19.31 41,574,906 60.1 53.4 Rhode Island...... 2002 R# +10 7,350,029 22.15 2,592,029 35.3 54.8 South Carolina...... 2002 R★★★ +6 31,432,056 28.58 7,597,776 24.2 52.8 South Dakota...... 2002 R# +15 9,833,246 29.39 1,724,149 17.5 56.8 Tennessee...... 2002 D# +3 18,255,080 11.04 10,364,483 56.8 50.6 Texas...... 2002 R★ +18 112,055,236 24.61 29,617,542 26.4 57.8 Utah...... 2004 R★★ +16 6,298,295 6.85 3,276,294 52.0 57.7 Vermont...... 2004 R★ +21 1,201,530 3.88 681,662 56.7 58.7 Virginia...... 2001 D# +5 36,491,411 19.34 21,555,447 59.1 52.2 ...... 2004 D# +0.005 14,270,735 5.08 6,210,217 43.5 48.9 West Virginia...... 2004 D# +29.6 11,553,283 15.52 3,540,719 30.6 63.5 Wisconsin...... 2002 D★★★ +3.7 18,158,028 10.23 5,866,573 32.3 45.1 Wyoming...... 2002 D# +2.1 2,735,552 14.75 781,845 29.0 50.0

Source: Thad Beyle. Key: Note: 2004$ – Using the November 2004 CPI Index which was 1.910 D — Democrat of the 1982–84 Index = 1,000, the actual 2000 expenditures were based I — Independent on a 1.722 value or .901 of the 2004$ index, the actual 2001 expendi- R — Republican tures were based on a 1.771 index value or .927 of the 2004$ index, the # — Open seat actual 2002 expenditures were based on a 1.799 index value or .942 of ★ — Incumbent ran and won. the 2004$ index, and the 2003 expenditures were based on a 1.840 index ★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in party primary. value or .963 of the 2004$ index. Then the actual expenditures of each ★★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in general election. state’s governor’s race were divided by the .9 value for that year to get the equivalent 2004$ value of those expenditures.

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increase, and between the 1992–1995 and the 2001– or recalled from office. Several governors have 2004 cycles when there was a 60.3 percent increase. been facing some difficult times in terms of things These increases reflect the new style of campaign- that have happened while they served and their job ing for governor—with the candidates developing approval ratings in state level polls indicate many are their own personal party by using outside consul- not happy with their performance. tants, opinion polls, media ads and buys, and exten- 7 sive fundraising efforts to pay for it all. This style Gubernatorial Powers has now reached most every state. Few states will be One way to view the changes that have been occur- surprised by a high-price, high-tech campaign; they ring in gubernatorial powers is to look at the “Index are commonplace now. The “air-war” campaigns of Formal Powers of the Governorship” first devel- have replaced the “ground-war” campaigns across oped by Joseph Schlesinger in the 1960s,8 which the states. this author has continued to update.9 The index used Another factor has been the increasing number here consists of six different indices of gubernato- of candidates who are either wealthy or who have rial power as seen in 1960 and 2005. These indices access to wealth and are willing to spend some of this include the number and importance of separately money to become governor. For some, spending a lot elected executive branch officials, the tenure poten- of money leads to winning the governor’s chair. In tial of governors, the appointment powers of gov- 2002, Gov. Gray Davis spent $68.2 million in 2004 ernors for administrative and board positions in the dollars in his successful bid for re-election in Cali- executive branch, the governor’s budgetary power, fornia, while Gov. spent $46.9 million the governor’s veto power and the governor’s party in 2004 dollars to win his third term in New York. control in the legislature. Each of the individual indi- However, spending that amount of money and win- ces is set in a five-point scale, with five being the ning re-election did not deter those wanting to have most power and one being the least. Davis recalled from office less than a year later. During the four and a half decades between 1960 But spending a lot doesn’t always lead to a and 2005, the overall institutional powers of the win. For example, in the 2002 New York election, nation’s governors increased by 12.5 percent. The Thomas Golisano spent $81 million in 2004 dollars greatest increase among the individual gubernato- in his unsuccessful campaign for governor as an rial powers was in their veto power (plus 61 percent) Independent candidate. And in Texas, Tony Sanchez as more governors gained an item veto, and in 1996 also spent $81 million in 2004 dollars as the unsuc- North Carolina voters were finally able to vote on a cessful Democratic candidate. In California’s 1998 constitutional amendment giving their governor veto gubernatorial election, three candidates spent $126 power. Voters approved it by a 3-to-1 ratio. million in 2004 dollars in their campaigns. Two of The indices measuring the governor’s tenure these candidates won their party’s nomination and potential (length of term and ability to seek an addi- faced off in November, with Democrat Gray Davis at tional term or terms) and the number of separately $43.9 million in 2004 dollars the winner over Repub- elected executive branch officials showed identical lican Dan Lundgren at $36.8 million in 2004 dollars. 28 percent increases in favor of the governor. The The largest spender at $45.4 million in 2004 dollars, governors’ appointment power over specific func- Al Checci wasn’t even able to win the Democratic tional area executive branch officials increased by nomination. only 7 percent. In addition, the states continue to hold to the concept of the multiple executive in terms 6 Gubernatorial Forced Exits of how many statewide elected officials there are. In The 2003 California gubernatorial recall and replace- 2004, there were 308 separately elected executive ment votes highlighted the fact that some elected officials covering 12 major offices in the states.10 governors faced situations in which they could lose This compares to 709 elected officials in 1955.11 Ten their office without being beaten by a challenger at states also have multimember boards, commissions the ballot box, becoming ill or dying. In 2004, two or councils with members selected by statewide or other governors resigned from office, John Rowland district election. (R-Conn.), facing the threat of a potential impeach- The gubernatorial budgetary power actually ment move, and Jim McGreevey (D-N.J.), due to declined over the period (minus 14 percent). How- personal reasons. ever, we must remember that during the same period, However, 2005 has been rather quiet on this state legislatures were also undergoing considerable type of situation and no governor has been driven reform, and gaining more power to work on the gov-

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ernor’s proposed budget was one of those reforms Statewide Elected Officials, 2004,” CQ’s State Fact Finder, sought. Hence, the increased legislative budget- 2005 (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005): 113. ary power more than balanced out any increases in 11 The Book of the States, 1984–85 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 1984), 44. gubernatorial budgetary power. 12 There has also been a drop in the gubernatorial The following states are included in this definition of the South: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, party control in state legislatures over the period Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South (minus 17 percent). Much of this can be attributed Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia. to the major partisan shifts occurring in the Southern 13 Republicans Bob Riley in Ala., in Ark. and states as the region has been moving from one-party Haley Barbour in Miss., and Democrat in Va. dominance to a very competitive two-party system.12 14 Republican Ernie Fletcher in Ky., and Democrats Brad In 1960, 13 of the 14 governors were Democrats, Henry in Okla. and Phil Bredesen in Tenn. and all 28 state legislative chambers were under Democratic control. In 2005, Republicans controlled eight governorships to the Democrats’ six, while the About the Author Democrats held a 15-to-13 edge in control of the leg- Thad Beyle is professor of Political Science at the Univer- sity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A Syracuse University islative chambers. Four Southern governors face a AB and Am, he received his Ph.D. at the University of Illi- 13 legislature completely controlled by the other party, nois. He spent a year in the North Carolina governor’s office while three others face a legislature with split parti- in the mid-1960s and has worked with the National Governors san control.14 Association in several capacities on gubernatorial transitions.

Notes 1 The former governors winning the presidency over the past three decades were Jimmy Carter (D-Ga., 1971–1975) in 1976, (R-Calif., 1967–1975) in 1980 and 1984, Bill Clinton (D-Ark., 1979–1981 and 1983–1992) in 1992 and 1996, and George W. Bush (R-Texas, 1995–2001) in 2000. 2 For an analysis of governors trying to handle the impact of the early 1990s economic downturn, see Thad Beyle, ed., Governors in Hard Times (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1994). 3 For more detail on this topic check “Table D: Women Governors” and accompanying text “A Shift to More Women Governors” in The Book of the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005): 197, 199. 4 New Jersey and Virginia. 5 Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi. 6 For more detail on this topic check “Table E: Impeach- ments and Removals of Governors” and accompanying text “Gubernatorial Forced Exits” in The Book of the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005): 198–200. 7 For more detail on this topic check “Table F: Gover- nors’ Institutional Powers, 1960 v. 2005,” in The Book of the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Gov- ernments, 2005): 200. 8 Joseph A. Schlesinger, “The Politics of the Executive,” Politics in the American States, 1st and 2nd ed, Herbert Jacob and Kenneth N. Vines, eds., (Boston: Little Brown, 1965 and 1971). 9 Thad L. Beyle, “The Governors,” Politics in the Ameri- can States 8th ed, Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson, eds., (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003). Earlier versions of this index by the author appeared in the 4th edition (1983), the 5th edition (1990), the 6th edition (1996), and the 7th edition (1999). 10 Kendra Hovey and Harold Hovey, “D-12—Number of

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