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Final Rule for Radon-222 Emissions from Licensed Uranium Mill Tailings

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Final Rule for Radon-222 Emissions from Licensed Uranium Mill Tailings ,,,, Fiadisrion ,-,,-, -" Final Rule for Radon - Emissions from Licensed Uranium Mill Tailings Background Information Document 40 CFR Part 61 EPA 520/1-86-009 National Emission Standards for Harzardous Air Pollutants BACKGROUND INFORMATION DOCUMENT STANDARD FOR RADON-222 EMISSIONS FROM LICENSED URANIUM MILL TAILINGS August 15, 1986 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Radiation Programs Washington, D.C. 20460 Figures v i Tables viii 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 History of Standard Development 1.2 Content 1.3 Other EPA Standards Affecting Uranium Mills 1.4 Other Regulations Affecting Uranium Mills 2. ESTIMATING THE RISK DUE TO EXPOSURE TO RADON-222 DECAY PRODUCTS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Radon-222 Exposure Pathways 2.2.1 Physical Considerations 2.2.2 Characterizing Exposures to the General Population Vis-a-vis Underground Miners 2.3 Health Risk From Exposure to Radon-222 Decay Products 2.3.1 Risk Models 2.3.2 The EPA Relative Risk Model 2.3.3 Comparison of Risk Estimates 2.3.4 Selecti.on of Risk Coefficients 2.4 Estimating the Risks 2.4.1 Exposure 2.4.2 Risk Esti.rnation References 3. RADON-222 SOURCES, ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, AND RISK ESTIMATES 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Origin and Properties of Radon-222 3.3 Sources of Radon-222 Emissions in the Milling Process 3.4 Characterization of Emissions 3.4.1 Ore Handling and Preparation 3.4.2 Mill Emissions 3.4.3 Emissions From Tailings Disposal 3.5 Transport and Risk Assessment 3.5.1 Air Dispersion Estimates 3.5.2 Risk Estimates CONTENTS (cant inued) 3.6 Measurement of Radon-222 3-22 3.6.1 Ambient Air Samplers 3-23 3.6.2 Concentrating Samplers That Measure Radon-222 Emanation From Surfaces 3-23 References 3-25 4. INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION 4-1 4.1 overview 4.2 site-Specific Characteristics 4.2.1 Colorado 4.2.2 New Mexico 4.2.3 Texas 4.2.4 Utah 4.2.5 Washington 4.2.6 Wyoming 4.3 Population Within 5 km (3.1 mi) of Existing Tailings Impoundments References 4-38 5. INDUSTRY RADON-222 EMISSION ESTIMATES 5-1 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Estimating Emissions References 6. BASELINE INDUSTRY RISK ASSESSMENT 6.1 Introduction 6-1 6.2 Risk Estimates 6-1 6.2.1 Nearby Individuals 6-1 6.2.2 Regional Population 6-2 6.2.3 National 6-6 6.2.4 Risks from New Tailings Impoundments 6-8 References 6-10 7. RADON-222 CONTROL TECHNIQUES 7-1 7.1 Description of Control Practices 7.1.1 Earth Covers 7.1.2 Water Cover 7.1.3 Water Spraying 7.1.4 Other Control Techniques CONTENTS (continued) 7.2 Control Practices Applicable to Existing Tailings Impoundments 7.2.1 Interim Controls 7.2.2 Final Reclamation 7.2.3 Comparison of Interim and Final Controls 7.3 Control Practices Applicable to New Tailings Impoundments 7.3.1 Single Cell Tailings Impoundment 7.3.2 Phased Disposal Tailings Impoundment 7.3.3 Continuous Disposal 7.4 Summary of Radon-222 Control Practices References 7-41 8. SUMMARY AND COMPARISON OF WORK PRACTICES 8-1 8.1 Single-Cell Impoundments 8.2 Phased Disposal 8.3 Continuous Disposal 8.4 Comparison of Work Practices Appendices A - Diagrams of Uranium Mill Sites and Tailings Impound- ments A- 1 B - Cost Estimates for Existing and Model New Uranium Mill Tailings Impoundments B-1 C - Evaluation of Interim Cover as a Control Option C-1 FIGURES Number Page 2-1 Radon-222 decay series 2 -2 U.S. lung cancer mortality by age--1970 3-1 Uranium-238 decay chain and half-lives of principal radionuclides Schematic illustration of the radon sources at a uranium mill Simplified flow diagram of the acid leach process Simplified flow diagram of the alkaline leach-caus- tic precipitation process Qualitative illustration of radon-222 emissions from licensed uranium milling process Effect of ore pile depth on hyperbolic tangent term in radon-222 flux equation Approximate locations of licensed conventional uranium mills Location of mills in Colorado Locatioh of mills in New Mexico Location of mills in Texas Location of mills in Utah Location of mills in Washington Location of mills in Wyoming Changes in radon-222 penetration with earth cover thickness Radon emanation coefficients for tailings samples Size and layout of the model single cell tailings impoundment Estimated radon-222 emissions from a model single- cell tailings impoundment FIGURES (continued) Number Page 7-5 Size and layout of model phased-disposal impoundment 7-26 7-6 Estimated radon-222 emissions from a model phased- disposal impoundment 7-27 7-7 Size and layout of the model continuous-disposal impoundment 7-32 7-8 Estimated radon-222 emissions from a model continuous- disposal impoundment 7-35 7-9 Estimated radon-222 emissions from a model continuous single-cell disposal impoundment 7-36 vii TABLES Number Page 2-1 Annual exposure equivalent (WLM) as a function of age for members of the general public continuously exposed to radon progency 2-7 Age-dependent risk coefficients and minimum induction period for lung cancer due to inhaling radon-222 progeny 2-12 Estimated risk from exposure to radon-222 progeny 2-15 Radon-222 decay product equilibrium fraction at selected distances from the center of a tailings impoundment 2-20 Lifetime risk for lifetime exposure to a given level of radon-222 progeny 2-22 Properties of radon-222 3-3 Operating status and capacity of licensed conventional uranium mills as of August 4, 1986 4-2 Summary of current uranium mill tailings impoundment areas and radium-226 content 4-6 Estimate of the population living within 0 to 5 km from the centroid of tailings impoundments of active and standby mills in 1983 4-36 Estimate of the population living within 0 to 5 km from the centroid of tailings impoundments of active and standby mills in 1985 4-37 Summary of radon-222 emissions from uranium mill tailings impoundments 5-3 Estimated risk of fatal lung cancer from maximum ex- posure for an individual living near tailings impoundment 6-3 AIRDOS-EPA code inputs and estimated risks 6-4 Summary of regional health effects from existing tailings impoundments 6-5 TABLES (continued) Number Page 6-4 Summary of nationwide health effects for tailings impoundments 6-7 Summary of fatal cancers from current tailings impoundments 6-9 Percent reduction in radon-222 emissions attained by applying various types of earth cover 7-5 Summary of unit costs for estimating earth cover costs 7-6 Earth moving and placement costs (thousands of dollars per hectare) of attenuating radon-222 as a function of thiclcness (meters of different soils) and type of earth 7-8 Benefits and Cost of alternatives that apply earth cover to existing tailings impoundments 7-17 Average radon-222 emission rate from model single- cell tailings impoundments 7-22 Estimated costs for a model single-cell tailings impoundment 7-23 Average radon-222 emission rate for model single- ce11 and phased-disposal tailings impoundments 7-28 Estimated costs for a model phased-disposal im- poundment 7-33 Estimated radon-222 emission rates for model single-cell, phased-disposal, and continuous- disposal tailings impoundments 7-34 Estimated costs for a model continuous-disposal impoundment 7-37 Summary of estimated radon-222 emissions from new model tailings impoundments 7-39 Summary of estimated costs for new model tailings impoundment 7-40 TABLES (continued) Number Page 8-2. Emission and cost comparison for single cell impound- ment with final cover applied at 0, 20, and 40 years after reaching capacity 8-2 Comparison of estimated deaths and benefits for a single cell model impoundment with final cover ap- plied at 0, 20, and 40 years after reaching capacity 8-4 Emissions and costs for model phased-disposal im- poundments 8-5 Comparison of estimated death for model phased- disposal impoundments 8-6 Emissions and cost of model below-grade trench type continuous disposal impoundment 8-8 Comparison of work practices for new model tailings impoundments 8-9 Comparison of cost and benefits between model Base Case I and new work practices 8-11 Comparison of cost and benefits between model Base Case II and new work practices 8-12 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION This Background Information Document supports the Agencyss final rule on radon-222 emissions from licensed uranium milling activities. It is an integrated risk assessment that provides the scientific basis for this action. Although the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has considered radon-222 in several regulatory actions, no specific emission standard for this radionuclide has yet been promulgated for operating licensed uranium mills. 1.1 History of Standard Development On January 13, 1977 (42 FR 2858), EPA issued Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Nuclear Power Operations. These standards, promulgated in Title 40, Code of Federal Regulations Part 190 (40 CFR 190), limit the total individual radiation dose due to emissions from uranium fuel-cycle facilities, including licensed uranium mills. At the time 40 CFR 190 was promulgated, considerable uncertainty existed regarding the public health impact of levels of radon-222 in the air and the best method for managing new man-made sources of this radionuclide. Therefore, the Agency exempted radon-222 from control under 40 CFR 190. On September 30, 1983, the Agency issued standards under the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation control Act (uMTRCA) (40 CFR 192, Subparts D and E) for the management of tailings at locations licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) or the States under Title I1 of the UMTRCA, These standards do not specifically limit radon-222 emissions until after closure of a facility; however, they require as low as reasonably achievable (ALARn) procedures for radon-222 control, and the NRC does consider ALARA procedures in licensing a mill.
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