heritage Article In the Realm of Rain Gods: A Contextual Survey of Rock Art across the Northern Maya Lowlands Dominique Rissolo Cultural Heritage Engineering Initiative, Qualcomm Institute, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; [email protected] Received: 30 August 2020; Accepted: 21 September 2020; Published: 27 September 2020 Abstract: Regional rock art studies have provided insight into the role of caves in Maya ideology and worldview. In addition to the content of the imagery itself, the placement or siting of rock art with respect to natural and cultural features within the cave environment can reveal much about the function and meaning of cave use practices. This comparative analysis of rock art emphasizes contextual considerations with a discussion on the spatial and symbolic relationships between images in individual caves. Rock art in the northern Maya lowlands is commonly associated with watery areas and pathways leading to pools in caves. Across the northern Yucatan Peninsula, watery caves witnessed the rites and rituals of religious practitioners who appealed to the rain gods. Rock art scenes throughout this region were often devised and positioned in ways that reveal or are consistent with this unique and pervasive emphasis on rain and agricultural fertility in religious practice. Keywords: Maya; rock art; Yucatan Peninsula; caves 1. Introduction Previous studies regarding inter-regional variability within the corpus of Maya cave art [1–3] focus primarily on the style, age, content, or technical characteristics of the imagery rather than its particular location within the caves themselves. This paper presents a comparative analysis of rock art emphasizing contextual data, which integrates cave morphology and image placement with a discussion on the spatial and symbolic relationships between images in individual caves. By examining the contexts of the most common and broadly shared images, such as simple frontal faces, patterns pertaining to these relationships can be evaluated independent of who or what is being depicted. This approach reveals marked regional patterning and inter-regional differences within the corpus, which relate to function and meaning, and will serve to complement other innovative approaches like that advanced by Stone [3]. Rock art in the northern Maya lowlands (Figure1) is commonly associated with watery areas and pathways leading to pools, which are often located within caves and cenotes. A discussion of this region will focus on simple faces, rain imagery, and sexual imagery, as well as art found within chultunob (human-made cisterns). Though sometimes similar in content to their southern counterparts, rock art scenes across the relatively dry karstic expanse of the northern Yucatan Peninsula are often sited or positioned in ways that reveal or are consistent with the unique and pervasive emphasis on rain and agricultural fertility in religious practice. Heritage 2020, 3, 1094–1108; doi:10.3390/heritage3040061 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2020, 3 1095 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 Figure 1. Map of the northern Maya lowlands indicating approximate locations of rock art sites Figure 1. Map of the northern Maya lowlands indicating approximate locations of rock art sites frequently referenced in the text. frequently referenced in the text. MuchMuch likelike itsits enigmaticenigmatic subsurfacesubsurface landscape, the the rock rock art art of of Yucatan Yucatan and and Quintana Quintana Roo Roo is is diversediverse in in form form yet yet exhibitsexhibits aa certaincertain degree of in intra-regionaltra-regional homogeneity. homogeneity. Perhaps Perhaps the the best best known known ofof the the northern northern rockrock artart traditionstraditions isis thatthat of the painted caves of of the the Puuc Puuc Hills. Hills. Images Images that that reflect reflect relativelyrelatively high high levelslevels ofof artisticartistic sophisticationsophistication and and ideological ideological literacy literacy can can be be found found in in Loltún Loltú n[2–5], [2–5 ], Actun Ch’on [2,3,5,6], Acum [2,3,7], Tixcuytún [2,3,8], and Aktun Santuario [9]. Stone [3] refers to the Actun Ch’on [2,3,5,6], Acum [2,3,7], Tixcuytún [2,3,8], and Aktun Santuario [9]. Stone [3] refers to the combination of shared traits in these painted images as the “Sierrita de Ticul” style in her analysis of combination of shared traits in these painted images as the “Sierrita de Ticul” style in her analysis of regional variation in cave art across the wider Maya area. One notable theme is death imagery, and regional variation in cave art across the wider Maya area. One notable theme is death imagery, and a a number of paintings depict scenes of elite activity as well as identifiable symbols, faint or number of paintings depict scenes of elite activity as well as identifiable symbols, faint or incomplete incomplete glyphs, and glyph-like elements [2,3]. glyphs, and glyph-like elements [2,3]. According to Stone [3] (pp. 33–34), the broader tradition of Maya painted cave art is consistent According to Stone [3] (pp. 33–34), the broader tradition of Maya painted cave art is consistent with the advanced skills and knowledge of Maya artistic specialists. She suggests that in caves where with the advanced skills and knowledge of Maya artistic specialists. She suggests that in caves where both painted and less elegant carved images exist, their co-occurrence might be the result of different bothchronological painted and and less social elegant factors carved [3] (p. images 37). Like exist, the their simple co-occurrence clay and charcoal might drawings be the result also of found different in chronologicalYucatecan caves, and such social as factors Actun [Kaua3] (p. [10], 37). Cueva Like the Xcosmil simple [11], clay and and Dzibichen charcoal drawings[2] (pp. 74–86), also found the incomparatively Yucatecan caves, crude such carved as Actunimages Kaua likely [10 represent], Cueva a Xcosmil more vernacular [11], and tradition, Dzibichen as [ 2described] (pp. 74–86), by theStone comparatively [3] (p. 41). This crude study carved draws images more likelyupon the represent latter category a more vernacularof rock art—the tradition, symbolic as described content of by Stoneits imagery [3] (p. 41).often This inherently study draws problematic more upon and resistant the latter to category compelling of rock interpretations—and art—the symbolic examines content of itsthe imagery caves that often surround inherently it. problematic and resistant to compelling interpretations—and examines the caves that surround it. Heritage 2020, 3 1096 Heritage 2020, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16 2. Frontal Faces 2. Frontal Faces Simple carvedcarved or or pecked pecked faces faces have beenhave foundbeen info cavesund andin caves rock sheltersand rock throughout shelters Mesoamerica. throughout TheseMesoamerica. images canThese be describedimages can as be both described ubiquitous as both and ubiquitous idiosyncratic. and Though idiosyncratic. there are Though subtle there regional are subtlesimilarities regional and similarities differences, and these differences, likely reflect these stylistic likely variationreflect stylistic (combined variation with (combined individualistic with individualisticexpression), as expression), opposed to strictas oppo symbolicsed to conventionstrict symbolic or intent. convention Rather or than intent. attempt Rather to than interpret attempt the tocontent interpret of the the faces content themselves, of the faces I propose themselves, that their I propose significance that their is largely significance a matter is largely of context. a matter Indeed, of context.a great number Indeed, of a thesegreat imagesnumber appear of these to beimages related appear to watery to be areas related within to watery caves andareas therefore within caves differ andfurther therefore from the differ Sierrita further de Ticulfrom rockthe Sier artrita described de Ticul above. rock art described above. Among the more well-known groups of carved faces in the northern lowlands are those found in Cueva Xcosmil [11] [11] (Figure 22a).a). Here,Here, asas inin manymany caves,caves, faceface shapesshapes rangerange fromfrom circularcircular toto ovoid,ovoid, triangular, oror flat-topped,flat-topped, and and can can often often exhibit exhibit simian simian or or skull-like skull-like characteristics. characteristics. Strecker Strecker [11 ][11] (p. 17)(p. 17)notes notes that that drip-water drip-water in Cueva in Cueva Xcosmil Xcosmil accumulates accumulates in natural in natural depressions depressions in the in floor the offloor the of small, the small,single-chamber single-chamber cave. Hecave. suggests He suggests that rock that art rock in Cuevaart in Cueva Xcosmil Xcosmil and Cueva and Cueva Ehbis isEhbis related is related to the tocaves’ the caves’ watery watery features features [11] (p. [11] 20). (p. In 20). the CalcehtokIn the Calcehtok area, at area, least at two least caves two are caves reported are reported to contain to containboth haltunob both haltunob, for the, collection for the collection of drip-water, of drip-water, and simple and carved simple faces carved [12 faces,13] (p. [12,13] 25). (p. 25). Figure 2. Simple carvedcarved oror pecked pecked faces: faces: (a ()a Cueva) Cueva Xcosmil, Xcosmil, petroglyph petroglyph no. no. 11, 11, north north portion, portion after (after [11] (figureStrecker 10); 1985: (b) Aktfig. ú10);n Ch’en (b) Aktún Chin, panelsCh’en IVChin, and panels V, adapted IV and from V [14(adapted] (Figure from 7); ( cBonor) Pak Ch’en, Villarejo panel and F, Sánchezadapted y from Pinto [15 1991:] (Figure fig. 7); 4.5.16); (c) Pak (d Ch’en,) Tancah panel Cenote, F (adapted adapted from from Rissolo [16] (Figure 2003a: fig. 119). 4.5.16); (d) Tancah Cenote (adapted from Miller 1982: fig. 119). A more direct relationship between carved faces and water is apparent in a number of caves in the northernA more lowlands. direct relationship During a survey between of cavescarved and faces cenotes and water in northern is apparent Quintana in a number Roo, Rissoloof caves [ 15in, the17] northernnoted the lowlands.