Notes

Introduction 1. Dryden has pointed out that the unity of place is a precept of sixteenth-century French poets and is not to be found directly in Aristotle's writings at all. See 'An Essay on Dramatic Poesy', in Selected Works of John Dryden (London, 1964) pp. 329-40· 2. Modern Tragedy (London, 1966) pp. 56ff. 3· Sociologie du Thiatre (Paris, 1965) p. 41. 4· The Hidden God, trans. by Philip Thody (London, 1964) pp. 313ff. 5· See my Tragic Realism and Modern Society (London, 1977) pp. 41ff. 6. Duvignaud, op. cit., p. 66. 7· Williams, op. cit., pp. 121ff. 8. For the Lukacsian approach see 'Approximation to Life in the Novel and the Play', in Elizabeth and Tom Burns (eds), Sociology of Literature and Drama (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973) pp. 286ff. 9· For Auerbach's discussion of figural interpretation and figural realism see Mimesis, trans. by Willard B. Trask (Princeton, 1953) pp. 73~. 156--62, 194-202 and 317f; also his essay 'Figura', in Scenes from the Drama ofEuropean Literature (New York, 1959) pp. 11f. and pp. 7of.; and Orr, op. cit., pp. 42f. Part I Chapter 1. For a sociological discussion of this relationship see Stein Rokkan 'Geography, Religion and Social Class; Cross-cutting Cleavages in Norwegian Politics', in S. M. Lipset and S. Rokkan (eds) Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York, 1g65); Harry Eckstein, Division and Cohesion in . (Princeton, 1g66) chap. 2; and Francis Castles, The Social Democratic Image ofSociety (London, 1978) chap. 3· 2. 'The Quintessence oflbsenism', in Major Critical Essays (London, 1948) pp. 25- 32, 75-83. 3· On this period in Ibsen's life see Michael Meyer's : The Making of a Dramatist (London, 1967) chaps 7 and 8.

Chapter 2 1. , trans. Michael Meyer (London: Methuen, 1g68) p. 58. 2. Ibid., pp. 73-4. 3· Ibid., p. 101. 4· , trans. Michael Meyer (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1g6o) p. 101. TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

Chapter 3

1. Ro~mersholm, trans. Michael Meyer (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1966) p. 78. 2. Ibid., p. 73- 3· Ibid., P· 97· 4· Ibid., p. 99· 5· Ibid., p. 106. 6. Cited in Meyer, Henrik Ibsen: The Top of a Cold Mountain (London, 1971) p. 55· 7· , trans. Michael Meyer (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1962) PP· 5 1 - 2 •

Chapter 4 1. , trans. Michael Meyer (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1960) P·H· 2. Ibid., p. 45· 3· Ibid., p. 53· 4· Ibid., p. 38. 5· Ibid., p. So. 6. Ibid., p. 81. 7· Ibid., p. 83. 8. For a discussion of these productions see Frederick J. Marker and Lisa-Lone Marker, The Scandinavian Theatre (Oxford: Blackwell, 1975) chap. 9· 9· For an account of Bloch's naturalism see Marker and Marker 'William Bloch and Naturalism in the Scandinavian Theatre', Theatre Survry, xv (~ovember, 1974) pp. 85-104. For an account of the Moscow Arts Theatre productions oflbsen see Konstantin Stanislavsky, .\-lj Life in Art, trans.J.J. Robbins (New York, 1956), pp. 344-6, 378-So.

Part II

Chapter 5

I. Elizabeth Hapgood (ed. & trans.), Stanislavski's Legacy (New York, 1968) p. 82. 2. Ibid., p. 129. . 3· Simon Karlinsky (ed.), Leiters of Anton Chekhov, trans. Michael Heim (London, 1973) pp. 97-9· 4· Ronald Hingley (ed.), The Oxford Chekhov, vol. 2. (London: O.C.P.. 1964-7) p. 20g. 5· Ibid., p. 233· 6. Ibid., pp. 234-5. 7· Ibid., pp. 'l53-4· 8. Ibid., p. 257. 9· Ibid., p. 280. 10. The Oxford Chekhov, vol. 3, p. 74-· I r. Ibid., F· 102. 12. Ibid., p. 148. 13. Ibid., p. 149· 14. Ibid., p. •53· 15. Ibid., p. •57· NOTES 285

16. Ibid., p. 190. 1 7. Stanislavsky, op. cit., pp. 553-4. 18. Ibid., pp. 3g8, 407. Chapter 6 1. For a detailed study of the domestic tragedies see Edward Mcinnes, German Social Drama 184o-Igoo (Stuttgart, 1976) and , The. Naturalist Drama in Germany (Manchester, 1972). 2. See Die verspiitete .Nation (Stuttgart, 1959); RalfDahrendorf, Sociery and Democracy in Germa'!)' (London, 1968); Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Communiry, 1fJ9o-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. P., 1g6g). 3· Foreword to Pandora's Box, in The Lulu Plays and other Sex Tragedies, trans. Steplien Spender( London: Calder and Boyars, 1977) p. 104. 4· 'The Sociology of Modern Drama', trans. Lee Baxendall, Tulane Drama Review, vol. 9 (1964-5) PP· 166-7. 5· For a detailed study of the relation between the political writings and the drama, see Maurice R. Benn, The Drama of Revolt: a Critical Study of Georg Biichner (Cambridge, 1976) chap. 2. 6. The Plays of Georg Buchner, trans. Victor Price (London: O.U.P., 1971) p. 22. 7· Ibid., pp. 56-7. 8. Ibid., p. 66. 9· Ibid., p. 28. 10. Ibid., p. 58. 11. For this aspect of Brecht's work, see Walter Benjamin's studies of the epic theatre in Understanding Brecht, trans. Stanley Mitchell (London, 1973) pp. 1-25. 12. 'Notes to the Threepenny Opera', in Three German Plays (Harmondsworth: P•cnguin, 1963) p. 228. 13. 'Commitment', trans. Francis McDonagh, in Aesthetics and Politics (London: NLB, 1977)· '4· The Days of the Commune, trans. Clive Barker and Arno Reinfrank (London: Methuen, 1978) pp. 46-7. 15. Ibid., p. 38. 16. Ibid., pp. 73-4. 17. Ibid., p. 8o. 18. For Marx's analysis of the historical significance of the Commune, see The Civil War in France (London, 1941). 19. The transcript of Brecht's testimony can be found in Eric Bentley (ed.), Thirry Years of Treason (New York: Viking Press, 1971) pp. 207-25. 20. The Plebeians Rehearse the Upn.sing, trans. Ralph Manheim (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) p. 44· The 1964 address by Grass to the Academy of Arts and Sciences in Berlin is included as Foreword. Here the author presents a rationale for the drama he was subsequently to write. 21. Ibid., p. 56. 22. Ibid., p. 73· Part III Chapter 7 1. Joseph Holloway 'Impressions of a Dublin Playgoer', Ms. 18oo, August 1902. z86 TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

National Library of Ireland, Dublin. 2. Explorations (London: Macmillan, Ig62) p. I85. 3· Ibid., PP· I97-8. 4· See 'The Tragic Theatre' (August I910), in &says and Introductions (London: Macmillan, 1g6I) p. 238ff. 5· Yeats, op. cit., p. 249· 6. For contrasting interpretations of the role of the Fay brothers in the early Abbey productions, see Hugh Hunt, 'Synge and the Actor-a consideration of Style', in Maurice Harmon (ed.) ]. M. Synge: Centenary Papers (Dublin, I972) pp. 63-75; andj. W. Flannery, W. B. Yeats and the Idea rif a Theatre (London, I976) pp. I76- 90· 7· See the recollections of Maire Nic Shiublaigh, The Splendid Years (Dublin, I955) pp. 75ff. 8. Holloway, op. cit., Ms. 18o2, 25 February I904· 9· Ibid., 26 February I904· IO. J. M. Synge, Plays, Poems and Prose (London: Dent, I958) p. 29. II. 'J. M. Synge and the Ireland of his Time', in &says and Introductions, p. 339· For contemporary reactions to the play, see james Kilroy, The 'Playboy' Riots (Dublin, I971l· I2. Holloway, op. cit., Ms. 18o5, March 1907· I3· Selected Plays, (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1975) p. I23· I4. Selected Plays (London: Macmillan, I964) pp. 44-5. I5. Ibid., P. 241. I6. 'Notes to Crania', in , op. cit., p. 216. I7· lbid.,p.241. I8. Synge, op. cit., pp. I96-7. I9· See the important and perceptive remarks by Sean 0 Tuama, 'Synge and the Idea of a National Literature', in J. M. Synge: Centenary Papers, pp. 1-17. 20. Synge, op. cit., pp. 2Dg-IO. 21. Many Irish critics, including Holloway, saw Murray as a genuine tragedian of contemporary rural life in Ireland whose work had not received the prominence or acclaim it deserved elsewhere. Here, for example, are the comments of J. P. O'Reilly in Irish Statesman on Autumn Fire:

'This is one of the finest plays ever written since the founding of the . It has not the terrible intensity of Maurice Harte, but the tragedy is nonetheless overwhelming; its appeal is wider. Mr. Murray knows his countryside as only those can who are of the countryside. Here are no unreal peasants talking unreal dialect-the Abbey peasant or neo-stage Irishman is conspicuously absent from Mr. Murray's work. His characters are the ordinary Irishman and Irishwoman seen through the eyes of a playwright fairly and squarely ... but Mr. Murray lacks that touch of genius which makes fine workmanship great-that gift which makes Synge's artificial peasants and their dialect immortal ... It seeiDS that Mr. Murray has not received the promi­ nence of Abbey programmes, the publicity and praise that is his due. Why are we given so much that is third-rate, that is patently shoddy ... when plays like that of Mr. Murray exist, Irish in thought and phrase, real and universal in their appeal. Cited in Holloway, op. cit., Ms. 1899, 23 January 1926. NOTES

22. Autumn Fire (London: Allen & Unwin, 1925) p. 3· 23. The Plays of Eugene O'Neill, vol. 3 (New York: Random House, 1954) p. 144.

Chapter 8

1. See Lady Gregory's Jour711Jls, ed. Lennox Robinson (London, 1946) pp. 71-g6. 2. The Story of the Irish Citizen Army (New York, 1977) p. 5· (Originally published in 1919.) On the background to O'Casey's involvement in the ICA, see C. Desmond Greaves Sean O'Casey: Politics and Art (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1979) P· 561f. 3· Ibid., p. g. 4· Holloway, op. cit., Ms. 1897, 17 August 1925. 5· Three Plays (London: Macmillan, 1961) pp. 71-2. 6. Ibid., p. go. 7· Ibid., p. 92. 8. Ibid., p. 128. g. Ibid., p. 130. 10. Holloway, op. cit., Ms. 18gg, 28 February 1926. 11. O'Casey, Three Plays, p. 157· 12. Ibid., p. 158. 13. Ibid., p. 204. 14. Ibid., p. 205. 15. See David Fitzpatrick, 'W. B. Yeats in Seanad Eireann', in Robert O'Driscoll and Lorna Reynolds (eds) Yeats and the Theatre (London, 1975) pp. 159ff.

Part IV Chapter 9

1. See john G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery and Romance: Literary Formulas as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago, 1976) pp. 193ff.; also Leslie Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (Lol\don, 1g68) chaps 1 and 2. 2. For the open motifs of O'Neill's work see the excellent study by John Henry Raleigh, The Plays of Eugene O'Neill (Carbondale, 1g65). 3· The Hairy Ape (London: Cape, 1973) pp. 13-14. 4· Ibid., pp. 17-18. 5· See the second volume of Louis Schealfer's biography, O'Neill: Son and Artist (London, 1974) pp. 76-8. As Schealfer points out, the play was influenced by Robert Wiene's expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and also by Georg Kaiser's From Morn to Midnight but O'Neill rejected Kaiser's abstractions and restored the figural dimensions lacking in Kaiser's treatment of an almost identical theme. 6. The Emperor Jones (London: Cape, 1g6g) pp. 153-4. 7· Scheaffer, op. cit., pp. 35-7. 8. O'Neill, op. cit., p. 26. g. Ibid., p. 29. 1o. In this respect, Holloway's remarks on the Strand Theatre production of the play in London during 1923 are extremely interesting: Mat Burke is a literary convention, Anna and her father living people, Mat Burke the playboy of the Eastern World after he has taken to drink and become TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

a Sinn Fein gunman. Now and then one catches echoes of Christy Mahon in Mat Burke's language. There's even a scene in the last act between Anna's father and Mat Burke, which instantly recalls the scene at the end of 'The Shadow of the Glen' when Dan Burke and Michael Hara sit down to drink together. Not that O'Neill repeats Synge. On the contrary he inverts him. Synge shows you the polished side of the medal, but Mr. O'Neill insists on showing the side which has not been polished. (Ms. I897, IS April I923).

I 1. All God's Chillun Got Wings (London: Cape, I973) pp. 33-4. I2. Ibid., p. 24. I3· Ibid., p. 61.

Chapter IO 1. O'Neill, Desire under the Elms, p. I02. 2. The Iceman Cometh (London: Cape, 1966) pp. 27-8. 3· Ibid., p. 164. 4· Ibid., PP· I 74-5· 5· Ibid., pp. 31-2. 6. Long Day's Journey into Night (London: Cape, I966) p. 58. 7· Ibid., p. 78. 8. Ibid., P· I I. 9· Ibid., pp. go-t. Io. Ibid., pp. I28-9. I I. Ibid., P· 53· I2. lbid.,p. II3· I 3· Ibid., P· I I 8. 14. Ibid., p. 153· IS. Ibid., p. I34· I6. Ibid., p. I35·

Chapter I I I. For the testimonies of Odets and Kazan see Eric Bentley (ed.), Thirty Years of Treason (New York: Viking Press, I97I) pp. 484-533. 2. An interesting though limited study of such contradictions has been made by Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (London, I976). 3· See Miller's Preface to his Collected Plays (London: Peter Owen, 1974) p. 3tlf. 4· 'The Glass Menagerie' in Penguin Plays (Harmondsworth, 1976) p. 239· 5· 'Notebook for a A Streetcar Named Desire', in T. Cole and H. Chinoy (eds), Directing the Play (New York, I953) p. 206. 6. Three Plays (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I976) p. I69. 7· Ibid., p. 211. 8. Ibid., pp. 212-13. 9· Ibid., p. 220. IO. Tennessee Williams, Penguin Plays (Harmondsworth, 1979) p. 105. I I. Tennessee Williams, 'Suddenly Last Summer' in Penguin Plays (Harmondsworth, 1977) p. 128. 12. Ibid., p. I52. I3. Ibid., pp. I57-t59· NOTES z8g

14. For an analysis of Miller's subpoena and committee proceedings see Benjamin Nelson, Arthur Miller: Portrait of a Playwright (London, I970) pp. I 75--98. I5. See Robert Warshow, the Immediate Experience (New York, I97o) pp. I89ff. and Morris Freedman, American Drama in Social Context (London, I 97 I) pp. 5 rff. I6. Collected Plays (London, I974) p. 328. I7. Ibid., pp. 4og-Io. I8. Ibid., p. 390. I9. Ibid., p. 438. 29. The Zoo Story (New York: Signet, I97I) pp. 32-3: 2 I. Kazan described the theatre in the following terms: 'It will be an involved theatre, a committed theatre. It will speak for the fertile against the sterile, for the free against the enslaved, for inquiry against dogma, for breatll_ and against constriction. It will speak against the silence of the frightened, speak of beauty and against the frightful, for life and against death.' Cited in Paul Gray, 'Stanislavski and America-a critical Anthology', Tulane Drama Review, vol. 9 (I964-5).

Chapter 12 I. See the introduction by Daniel Gerould to his collection, American Melodrama: Plays and Documents (New York: PAJ Publications, I98I). 2. See the interview with Shepard in the collection by Bonnie Morronco (ed.), American Dreams: The Imagination of Sam Shepard (New York: PAJ Publications, r98I ). 3· See Theodor Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, trans. C. Lenhardt (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, I984), pp. 34f. and pp. 262f.; Shepard's major dramatic texts of modernist shock, The Tooth of Crime, Curse of the Starving Class and Buried Child, are all to be found in Sam Shepard: Seven Plays (London: Faber & Faber, I985).

Postscript I. On the social context of London theatregoing in this period see Raymond Williams 'The Case of English Naturalism', in Marie Axton and Raymond Williams (eds) English Drama: Forms and Developments (London, I 977) pp. 2o8ff; Revels History of Drama in English: Volume Three 188o to the Present Day (London, I979) Part r. 2. Look Back in Anger (London: Faber, I958) p. 20. 3· The Wesker Trilogy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I977) p. I73. 4· Modem Tragedy (London: Verso, 2nd revised edn, I979) pp. 6I-7. 5· The Romans in Britain (London: Methuen, I982) p. 39· Bibliography

I. Works cited in text

T. Adorno, 'Commitment', trans. Francis McDonagh, in Aesthetics and Politics (London: NLB, I977)· Edward Albee, The ,Zoo Story and the American Dream: Two Plays (New York: Signet, I 97 I). --, The Sandbox and The Death of Bessie Smith (New York: Signet, I963). --,Who's Afraid rif Virginia Woolf(Harmondsworth: Penguin, I970). E. Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation rif Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard B. Trask (Princeton, I953). --,Scenes from the Drama rif European Literature (New York, I959)· M. Axton and R. Williams. (eds) English Drama: Forms and Develop­ ments (London, I977)· James Baldwin, Blues for Mister Charlie (New York, I975)· S. D. Balukhaty, The Seagull produced by Stanislavsky, trans. David Magarshack (London, I952). Samuel Beckett, Waitingfor Godot (London: Faber, I956). --,Endgame (London: Faber, I973)· D. Bell, The Cultural Contradictions qf Capitalism (London, I976). W. Benjamin, Understanding Brecht, trans. Stanley Mitch~ll (London, I973)· M. R. Benn, The Drama qf Revolt: A Critical Study of Georg Buchner (Cambridge, I976). E. Bentley (ed.), Thirty Years of Treason (New York: Viking Press, I 97 I). Bertolt Brecht, Plays, 2 vols, trans. John Willett (London: Methuen, I96I). --, The Days ofthe Commune, trans. Clive Barker and Arno Reinfrank (London: Methuen, I 978). , 'The Threepenny Opera', m Three German Plays (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I963). --,The MessingkaufDialogues, trans. John Willett (London, I965). 290 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Georg Buchner, The Plays of Georg Bachner, trans. Victor Price (London: O.U.P., I97I). Mikhail Bulgakov, The Early Plays of Mikhail Bulgakov, trans. Carl and Elendea Proffer (Bloomington, Indiana, 1972). --, Black Snow: a Theatrical Novel, trans. Michael Glenny (London, 1971). F. Castles, The Social Democratic Image of Sociery (London, 1978). J. G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery and Romance: Literary Formulas as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago, 1976). Anton Chekhov, The Oxford Chekhov, 3 vols, ed. Ronald Hingley (London: O.U.P., 1964-7). --, Letters of Anton Chekhov, trans. Michael Heim (London, 1973). R. Dahrendorf, Sociery and Democracy in Germany (London, 1968). J. Duvignaud, Sociologie du Thiatre (Paris, 1965). H. Eckstein, Division and Cohesion in Norway (Princeton, 1966). L. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (London, 1968). J. W. Flannery, W. B. reats and the Idea of a Theatre: the Early Abbey Theatre in Theory and Practice (London, 1976). M. Freedman, American Drama in Social Context (London, 1971). John Galsworthy, Ten Famous Plays (London, 1941). L. Goldmann, The Hidden God, trans. Philip Thody (London, 1964). Maxim Gorky, Seven Plays, trans. Alexander Bakshy (New Haven, Cf)nn. 1946). - , The Lower Depths, trans. Kitty Hunter-Blair andjeremy Brooks (London: Methuen, 1973). --, Enemies, trans. K. Hunter-Blair and J. Brooks (London: Methuen, 1972). Gi.inter Grass, The Plebeians Rehearse the Uprising, trans. Ralph Manheim (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I972). Lady Augusta Gregory, Selected Plays (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1975)· --, Cuchulain of Muirthemne (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1976). --,Lady Gregory's Journals, ed. Lennox Robinson (London, 1946). Trevor Griffiths, The Parry (London: Faber, 1974). , Savages (London: Faber, 1974). M. Harmon (ed.), ]. M. Synge: Centenary Papers 1971 (Dublin, 1972). Gerhart Hauptmann, Die Webern (London: Harrap, 1962). --, The Dramatic Works of Gerhart Hauptmann, 3 vols, ed. L. Lewisohn (London, 1912). J. Holloway, 'Impressions of a Dublin Playgoer', Mss at the National Library of Ireland, Dublin Mss I7g8-1900, Years 1900-1926. 292 TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

--, Impressions of a Dublin Playgoer: A Selection from his Unpublished Journal, ed. Robert Hogan and Michael J. O'Neill (London, 1967). Henrik Ibsen, Plays, trans. Michael Meyer (London: Rupert Hart­ Davis, 196o-66). --,, 7 vols, ed. and trans.James Walter Macfarlane and Graham Orton (London: O.U.P., 1962-77). Denis Johnston, The Dramatic Works of Denis Johnston, vol. 1 (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1977). Leroi Jones, Dutchman and The Slave (London, 1965). E. Kazan, 'Notebook for A Streetcar Named Desire', in T. Cole and H. Chinoy (eds) Directing the Play (New York, 1953). J. Kilroy, The 'Playboy' Riots (Dublin, 1971). S.M. Lipset and S. Rokkan, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York, 1g65). Frederico Garcia Lorca, Three Tragedies (Harmondsworth: Penguin, •965). G. Lukacs, 'Approximation to Life in the Novel and the Play', in E. Burns and T. Burns (eds), The Sociology of Literature and Drama (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973). --,'The Sociology ofModern Drama', trans. Lee Baxandall, Tulane Drama Review, vol. 9 ( 1964-5). Carson McCullers, The Member of the Wedding (New York, 1951). E. Mcinnes, German Social Drama 184o-Igoo (Stuttgart, 1976). M. Maeterlinck, Le Tresor des Humbles (Paris, 19o8). F.J. Marker and L.-L. Marker. 'William Bloch and Naturalism in the Scandinavian Theatre', Theatre Survey, xv (November 1974) 8s­ I04. --, The Scandinavian Theatre (Oxford: Blackwell, 1975). K. Marx, The Civil War in France (London, 1941). --,Selected Writings, ed. David McLellan (London, 1978). M. Meyer, Henrik Ibsen, 3 vols (London, 1967-71). Arthur Miller, Collected Plays (London, 1974). T. C. Murray, Autumn Fire (Dublin, 191 1). --,Birthright (London: Allen and Unwin, 1934). --,Maurice Harte (London: Allen and Unwin, 1925). --, Michaelmas Eve (London, 1932). B. Nelson, Arthur Miller; Portrait of a Playwright (London, 1970). V.Nemirovitch-Dantchenko, My Life in the Russian Theatre, trans.John Cournos (London, 1968). M. Nic Shiublaigh, The Splendid rears (Dublin, 1955). Sean O'Casey, Collected Plays, 4 vols (London: Macmillan, 1949-51). BIBLIOGRAPHY 293

Sean O'Casey, Three Plays (London: Macmillan, 1961). --, The Story of the Irish Citizen Army (New York, 1977). Clifford Odets, Three Plays (London, 197 1). R. O'Driscoll and L. Reynolds (eds), Yeats and the Theatre (London, 1975)· Eugene O'Neill, The Plays of Eugene O'Neill, 3 vols (New York: Random House, 1954). --, All God's Chillun Got Wings and other Plays (London: Cape, 1 973). --, The Emperor Jones (London: Cape, 1969). --, The Hairy Ape and other plays (London: Cape, 1973). --, The Iceman Cometh (London: Cape, 1976). --,Long Day's Jour7V)' into Night (London: Cape, 1976). --, Mourning Becomes Electra (London: Cape, 1976). J. Orr, Tragic Realism and Modern Sociery: Studies in the Sociology of the Modern Novel (London, 1977). John Osborne, Look Back in Anger (London: Faber, 1958). --,Luther (London: Faber, 1961). H. Plessner, Die verspii.tete Nation (Stuttgart, 1959). J. H. Raleigh, The Plays of Eugene O'Neill (Carbondale, 1965). Revels History of Drama in English: Volume 7: 188o to the Present Day (London, 1978). F. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Communiry I8go-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U.P., 1969). , The Royal Hunt of the Sun (London: Faber, 1964). -·-, Three Plays (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976). , Heartbreak House (London, 1948). --, MaJor Critical Essays (London, 1948). --,Saint Joan (London, 1948). L. Scheaffer, O'Neill: Son and Playwright (London, 1968). --, O'Neill: Son and Artist (London, 1974). K. Stanislavsky My Life In Art, trans.J. Robbins (New York, 1956). --, Stanislavski's Legacy ed. and trans. E. Hapgood (New York, 1968). , Collected Works, 4 vols (London: 1966 O.U.P., 1966). --,Plays, Poems and Prose (London: Dent, 1958). Leo Tolstoy, The Power of Darkness, trans. G. R. Noyes and G. Z. Patrick in N. Hough ton (ed.), Great Russian Plays (New York, 196o). R. Warshaw, The Immediate Experience (New York, 1970). Frank Wedekind, The Lulu Plays and other Sex Tragedies, trans. Stephen Spender (London: Calder and Boyars, 1977). Arnold Wesker, The Wesker Trilogy: Chicken Soup with Barley, Roots, I'm Talking about Jerusalem (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1977). 294 TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

R. Williams, Modern Tragedy (London, I966). Tennessee Williams, The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, 5 vols (New York, I97I). --, Three Plays (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I976). W. B. Yeats, The Collected Plays of W. B. reats (London: Macmillan, I954)· --, Essays and Introductions (London: Macmillan, I 96 I). --,Explorations (London: Macmillan, I962). --,Selected Plays, ed. and intro. A. N.Jeffares (London: Macmillan, ( I964).

2. Other Works

W. H. Bruford, Chekhov and his Russia: a sociological study (London, I947). R. Brustein, The Theatre of Revolt (London, I 965). E. Burns, Theatricaliry (London: Longman, I 972). E. Burns and T. Burns (eds), The Sociology of Literature and Drama (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I 973). E. Coxhead, Lady Gregory (London, I969). M. Egan (ed.) Ibsen: the Critical Heritage (London, I972). U. Ellis-Fermor, The Irish Dramatic Movement (London, I939)· --, The Jacobean Drama (London, 1958). G. Lloyd Evans, The Language of Modern Drama (London, I977)· R. Gaskell, Drama and Realiry; The European Theatre since Ibsen (London, I972). Lady Gregory, Our Irish Theatre (Gerrards Cross, I972). R. Hare, Maxim Gorky: Romantic Realist and Conservative Revolutionary (London, I962). R. Hayman (ed.), The German Theatre: a Symposium (London, I975)· C. D. Innes, Erwin Piscator's Political Theatre (Cambridge, I972). T. Komisarchevsky, The Theatre and a Changing Civilisation (London, I934)· C. Leech, Tragedy (London, I969). E. K. Mikhail (ed.), A Bibliography of Modern Irish Drama: 18!)9-1970 (London, I972). --, Lady Gregory: Interviews and Recollections (London, 1977). Massachusetts Review, 'Irish Renaissance', ed. R. Skelton and D. Clark (Dublin, I 965). J. Northam, Ibsen's Dramatic Method (London, I953)· M. OhAodha, Theatre in Ireland (London, 1974). BIBLIOGRAPHY 295

J. Osborne, The Naturalist Drama in Germany (Manchester, I972). L. Robinson (ed.) Our Irish Theatre (London, I939). M. Slonim, Russian Theatre (London, I963). J. L. Styan, Chekhov in Performance (Cambridge, I97I). J. Russell Taylor, The Rise and Fall of the Well-Made Play (London, I967). M. Valgemae, Accelerated Grimace: Expressionism in the American Drama ofthe 1920s (London, I972). M. Valency, The Breaking String; the Plays of Anton Chekhov (New York, I966). R. Williams, Dramafrom Ibsen to Brecht (London, I968). Tulane Drama Review, vol. 9, nos I and 2 (I964-5), 'Stanislavski and America'. W. B. Yeats, Autobiographies (London, I955).

3· Readings for Second Edition

Edward Bond, Plays, vols I-3 (London: Methuen, I979)· Howard Brenton, The Churchill Play (London: Methuen, I974). --, Weapons of Happiness (London: Methuen, I976). --,The Romans in Britain (London: Methuen, I982). Richard Dutton, Tragicomedy and the British Tradition (Brighton: Harvester, I 986). Malcolm Hay and Philip Roberts, Bond: A Study of His Plays (London: Methuen, I 980). Christopher Innes, 'The Political Spectrum of Edward Bond; from Rationalism to Rhapsody', in john Russell Brown (ed.), Modem British Dramatists (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, I 984) pp. I 26--49· Ketu H. Katrak, Wole Soyinka and Modem Tragedy (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, I986). Bonnie Morranco (ed.), American Dreams: The Imagination of Sam Shepard (New York: PAJ Publications, I98I). John McGrath, The Cheviot, the Stag and the Black, Black Oil (London: Methuen, I983). Brenda Murphy, American Realism and American Drama: I88r>-1940 (Cambridge: C.U.P., I987). Wole Soyinka, Collected Plays, vol. I (Oxford: O.U.P., I973). --,Madmen and Specialists (London: Methuen, I97I). Sam Shepard, Chicago and Other Plays (New York: Applause Theatre Publishers, I g8 I). TRAGIC DRAMA AND MODERN SOCIETY

--, Foolfor Love (London: Faber & Faber, 1984). --,Seven Plays (London: Faber & Faber, 1985). --,A Lie of the Mind (London: Methuen, 1986). Peter Szondi, Theory of Modern Drama, ed. & trans. Michael Hayes (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987). Raymond Williams, Politics and Letters, (London: Verso, 1978). --,Modern Tragedy, znd revised edn (London: Verso, 1979). Index

Abbey Theatre, 53, s8, I 19-30, 146, 249, 252, 258, 259, 267, 270, 274, ISI-3, 158-g 275, 276-8, 280, 282 Actors Studio, 209 Arturo Ui, 100, 108 Adorno, Theodor, 101, 157 The Days of the Commune, 8g, 102-7, Aeschylus, xii III, 112 Akhmatova, Anna, 57 The Caucasian Chalk Circle, 100, 108 Albee, Edward, xvi, 233-9, 242, 244 Fear and Misery in the Third Reich, 108 The Death of Bessie Smith, 238-g The Good Person of Szechwan, 1 o 1 Who's Afraid rif Virginia Woolf?, 237-8 The Life ofGalileo, IOI-2, 107, 108 The Zoo Story, 233-7, 238, 244 A Man is a Man, 100 Andreyev, Leonid, 58 The Mother, 99 Archer, William, 53 Mother Courage, 101-2, 108, 277-8, Arden, John, 270 28o-1 Aristotle, xi, 119 The Measures Taken, 101-2, 108, 278 Auerbach, Erich, xix Saint joan of the Stockyards, 100 The Seven Deadly Sins of the Lower- Baldwin, James, 238-g Middle Classes, 100 Blues for Mister Charlie, 238-9, 265 The ThreepenTI;)I Opera, 100, 101 Barlach, Ernst, 87 Brenton, Howard, 270, 275-81, 282 Barthes, Roland, 161 The Romans in Britain, 276, 279-81 Beckett, Samuel, 30, 131, 16o-2, 205, Weapons rif Happiness, 280 233, 242, 243, 244, 246-7, 252, Bronte, Emily, 7 266, 277 Wuthering Heights, 7 Endgame, 161, 247 Brook, Peter, 228 Waiting for Godot, 161, 242, 243, 247 Buchner, Georg, xviii, 7, 84, g6-8, Benjamin, Walter, 285n. I 13-15, 143, 154, 252, 267, 274, Bjornson, Bjorn, so, 120 276 Bloch, William, so, 53 Danton's Death, 84, 8g, go, 91-5, g6, Boleslavski, Richard, 206 103, 104 Bond, Edward, 252, 270, 275-g, 280, Wcryzeck, 7, 84, go-1, gs-6 282 Bulgakov, Mikhail, 82 Lear, 276-8, 28o-1 Black Snow, 82 The Pope's Wedding, 275 The Sea, 276 Caldwell, Erskine, 224 Boyle, William, 123 Camus, Albert, 12 Brandes, George, 1 1 Caligula, 12 Brando, Marlon, 209, 219 Chekhov, Anton, xix, g, 53, 57-83,91, Brecht, Bertolt, 72, 84, go-1, g6, 98- 143, 148, 167, 181, 206,219, 22G­ I 10, I I I, I 12-14, 143, 154, 244, I, 252, 256, 276 INDEX

Chekhov, Anton- continued Freedman, Morris, 225 The Cherry Orchard, 62-3, 70, 73-80, Freud, Sigmund, 3 I, 208, 209, 267 I ro, I26, I48 Frisch, Max, Iog Ivanov, 62-5 Fryers, Austin, 33 The Seagull, 62-3, 65-70, 7 I, 73, 22o- I Galsworthy,John, 254-6, 262-6 Three Sisters, 6o, 62-3, 70-3, 206, 220 Justice, 254-5 Uncle Vanya, 63, 7o-I Strife, 254-6 The Wood Demon, 63, 7I Gelber,Jack, 237 Clurman, Harold, 206, 207 Genet,Jean, 242, 244, 246 Colum, Padraic, I22, I23, I39 Gilpin, Charles, I 74 Thomas Muskerry, I 39 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 7, 85, 87, Connolly,James, I44 9I Conrad, Joseph, 2o-I Goffman, Erving, 235 Heart of Darkness, I 7I, 279 Goncourt, Edmond and Charles de, 8o The Secret Agent, 2o-I Gorky, Maxim, xviii, 53, 58, 8o-3, gg, Cooper, Fenimore, I66 I68, Igo Craig, Gordon, 50, I 24 Enemies, 8o-2 Crawford, Cheryl, 206 Igor Bulichev, 8o-I The Lower Depths, 8o-3, I68, I go Danish Royal Theatre, 6, 50 The Mother, 99 A Respectable Family, 8o Dean,James, 209 Zhele;:.nove, 8o Dos Passos,John, I88 Vassa Grass, Gunther, xvi, go, rog-I3, 27I, Dostoevsky, Fyodor, g, 57, 6o, 8o The Idiot, 29 273-4 The Plebians Rehearse the Uprising, 8g, Dryden, John, 283n. Dubois, W. E. B., I 77 rog-I3, 27I, 273-4 Zane, I66 Diirrenmatt, Friedrich, rog Gray, Lady Augusta, I2o-6, I30, Duvignaud,Jean, xii, xv Gregory, I33, I34-6, I38, I44, I58 Dervogilla, I 29, I 30, I 3 7 Edgar, David, 275 The Gaol Gate, I 35 Destiny, 275 Crania, I 24, I 35-6 Eliot, T. S., 239, 250 Griffiths, Arthur, I 20 The Four Quartets, 239 Griffiths, Trevor, 27 I The Waste Land, 250 Comedians, 27 I Erikson, Erik, 267 Occupations, 2 7 I Expressionism, 22, 52, 84, 87-gi, I I4, The Party, 27 I I 58, I67, I 72, I 74 Group Theatre, 206--7 Guare, John, 242 Faulkner, William, 2 IO, 224, 232, 248 Sanctuary, 232 Haeckel, Ernst, 86 Fay, Frank, I 22-4 Hampton, Christopher, 27I-4, 282 Fay, Willie, I 22-4 Savages, 27 I-4 Feuerbach, Ludwig, xv Hardy, Thomas, I 48 Fitzgerald, Scott, I 88 Tess rifthe D'Urbervilles, I48 MayDay, I88 Hare, David, 270, 275-6 Fitzmaurice, George, I23 Plenty, 275 Frazier, Franklin, I 77 Fanshen, 276 INDEX 299

Hebbel, Friedrich, 7, 53 Joyce, James, 10, 53, I20, I27, I58 Maria Magdalene, 7 Exiles, I20 Hegel, G. W. F., 7 Heiberg, Gunnar, 50 Kaiser, Georg, gi, 97 Hemingway, Ernest, I3 Kazan, Elia, 206, 208, 2I2, 2Ig, 224, Fiesta, I3 239-40 Hettner, Hermann, 7 On the Waterfront, 209 Hogg,James, 7 Kokoschka, Oscar, 52, 67 Hobbes, Thomas, 276--7 Komisarchevsky, Theodore, 256 Holloway,Joseph, IIg, I24-5, I27 Kopit, Arthur, 237, 242 Horniman, Annie, I22 Lawson, John Howard, I67, I88 Ibsen, Henrik, xvii, xviii, xix, 3-54, 6o­ Lessing, Gotthold, xii, 53 I,62, 73, 78,8o,8I,82,84-6,87, Levi-Strauss, Claude, 245 88, gi, I I3, I IS, I2o-I, I43, I65, Lincoln Theatre, 239-40 I67, I8I, 22I, 253-4, 273, 276 Lindberg, Auguste, I 2 , II, I6, I7, 43 London,Jack, I43, qo A Doll's House, 5, 23, 30, 35-6, 45, Martin Eden, I 70 I75 Long, Huey, 2I3 , 5, 8, I I, 8g Lorca, Frederico Garcia, xvii, I 29 , 4, 5, I2, 23-4, Lugne-Poe, Aurelien, 53 35, 50,6I,82,90 Lukacs, Georg, xvii, 87, 8g , 4, I2-I4, IS, I7, 250 Hedda Gabler, 5, I I, 23, 33, 35-42, Macnamara, Brinsley, I42 5I,54, 7o,8s McCullers, Carson, 224 john Gabriel Borkman, 4, 5, 42, 43-5 I, McGrath,John, 275 78 The Cheviot, the Stag and the Black, The Lady from the Sea, 2 I -2, 48 Black Oil, 275 Lady Inger of Oestraat, 6 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 63 The League of Youth, 4 Le Quotidien tragique, 63 , I 7 Magee, Heno, I62 , 5, I I, I 2, 35, 43, Hatchet, I62 8s Mamet, David, 242, 247 , 5, I8, 22, 23-35, 36, 39, American Buffalo, 24 7 6I, 70, 73, 76, 22 I Glengarry Glenross, 24 7 The Wild Duck, 5, I3, I4, IS-22, 76-- Mandelstam, Osip, 57 8, 7I, 82, 22I Mann, Heinrich, 88 The Vikings at Helgeland, 6, 8 Marcuse, Herbert, 35 lnge, William, 208 Marlowe, Christopher, xii Come Back Little Sheba, 208 Martyn, Edward, 53, I 2 I Ionesco, Eugene, 233 Marx, Karl, xiv, xv, 7, 87, 92, 97, I03, !06--7, 208, 276-8 James, Henry, 52 Mercer, David, 27I Johnston, Dennis, IS8, I59 Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 83 The Moon in the Yellow River, I 59 Middleton, Christopher, xiii The Old Lady Says No, I sg, I 62 Miller, Arthur, xviii, 208-g, 210, 224- Jones, Leroi (Imamu Baraka), 237-9 33, 24I, 245, 248, 254, 265 Dutchman, 238-g After the Fall, 239 Jonson, Ben, I28 The Crucible, 2 w, 224, 225-8, 232 300 INDEX

Miller, Arthur- continued Desire Under the Elms, I42, I66, I82, Death of a Salesman, 2 IO, 225, 255 I83- 5, 208 Incident at Vichy, 239 Diffrent, I 83 The Price, 265 The Emperor Jones, I67, I68, I83-5, View from the Bridge, 208, 209, 2 Io, 208 224,225,228-33 The First Man, I83 Mills, C. Wright, 225 The Great God Brown, I 83 Moliere,Jean, I28 The Hairy Ape, I66, I67, I68-7o, 2I4, Moore, George, I 2 I 233-4,238 Moscow Arts Theatre, so, 53, 58-g, 8o, The Iceman Cometh, I65, I8g--g6, 202 82-3, 206 Long Day's Journey into Night, I65, I8g, Munch,Edvard, 52,87 Ig6-205 Murray, T. C., I22, I3g--42, I43, I46, Marco Millions, 239 I48 Mourning Becomes Electra, I65, I82, Autumn Fire, I39, I4o-2 I83, I85-7, Igo, 208, 225, 228 Birthright, I 39, I 4o-I Strange Interlude, I83, I8g Maurice Harte, I39, I4I, I46, I48 Welded, I83 Michaelmas Eve, I42 Open Theatre, The, 244 Osborne,John, 253, 254,26o-3, 266- g, 27o-I Naturalism, 84-7 Look Back in Anger, 253, 26o-2, 267 Nemirovitch-Dantchenko, Vladimir, Luther, 266-g s8-g Ostrovsky, Alexander, 57 Newman, Paul, 209, 2I9 Owens, Rochelle, 237 Nietzsche, Frederic, xv, 8, I I, I94, 204

Pasternak, Boris, 57 Sean, xvii, xviii, xix, 4, 53, O'Casey, Pearse, Padraic, I 24, I 54 I I3, I IS, I22, I37, I42, 143-62, Pinter, Harold, 20, 233, 245, 249, 264- 242, 262 5 Juno and the Paycock, I46-8, ISI The Caretaker, 266 The Plough and the Stars, I37, I44, The Homecoming, 249 I51-7, I6I, I62, I78 Pirandello, Luigi, 242 The Shadow of a Gunman, I39, I44, Piscator, Erwin, 84, go-I, g8-g, 107, I62 I46, I48-5I, I I4 The Silver Tassie, I s8-g Plessner, Helmut, 86 224, Odets, Clifford, 72, I88, 206-8, Provincetown Players, 53 262 Awake and Sing, 207, 262 O'Connor, Flannery, 248 Racine, Jean, xiii-xiv, I 38 O'Neill, Eugene, xiv, xviii, xix, I I, 53, Rattigan, Terence, 275 73, g6, I 13, I IS, I40, I42, I62, Ray, Nicholas, 209 I6s-2os, 206, 2II, 224, 228-g, Reed, John, I 88 233, 238-g, 242, 245, 248, 262, Reinhardt, Max, so, go 273 Rice, Elmer, I67 All God's Chillun' Got Wings, I 55, I67, Robbins, Harold, I87 17I, I77-82, 23I, 238-g Robinson, Lennox, I42 Anna Christie, I66, I67, I75-7, I78 Rockwell, Norman, 248 Beyond the Horizon, I40, I66 Rudkin, David, 265 Bound East for Cardiff, I 66 Afore Night Come, 265 INDEX 30I

Russell, George (AE), I I9, I 22 Strindberg, August, vii, 37, 5o--2, 84, Deidre, I I9, I 25 I65, I84 The Father, 52 Saxe-Meinungen, Duke Georg von, 53 Missjulie, 37, 5I-2 Scott, Sir Walter, 7 Synge, john Millington, xvii, xix, 4, 53, Schiller, Friedrich von, xii, 85, 87, 58, 74, I2o, I22, I24-g, I34, I3&- 9I 8, I39, I40, I46-7, I49, I6I, I67, Shaffer, Peter, 266, 268-70 I76, 276 Equus, 26g--7o, 27I, 272 Deidre of the Sorrows, I24, I28, I29, The Royal Hunt of the Sun, 266, 268- I36-8, I6I 70 In the Shadow of the Glen, I 28, I 77 Shakespeare, William, xii, xv, 6, 62, The Playboy of the Western World, I 20, 9I, I 10, I29, I38, I99, 254, 277, I24-7, I28-g, I46, I49, I5I 282 Riders to the Sea, 74, I23, I24-7, I30, Coriolanus, I IO, I I I I37, I39, I46-7, I6I Hamlet, 24, 30, 66 The Well of the Saints, I28 King Lear, 277 Shaw, George Bernard, 5, I7-I8, 53, Taylor, C. P., 275 I2I, I28, I43, 20I, 253-g Thoreau, Henry David, 242 Heartbreak House, 256-7 Toller, Ernst, 87, 9I, 97, I67 Saintjoan, 244-7, 254, 256-g Tolstoy, Alexei, 8o Shaw, Irving, I87 Tsar Fyodor, 8o Shepard, Sam, 237, 24I-52 Tolstoy, Leo, 57, 59 Action, 242 Anna Karenina, 29 Angel Ciry, 244 The Power of Darkness, 59 Buried Child, 243, 244, 248-5I Tressell, Robert, I43 Curse of the Starving Class, 242, 244, Tsvetayeva, Marina, 57 25I Turgenev, Ivan, 57, 64 Fool for Love, 242, 25I-2 Fourteen Hundred Thousand, 243 Icarus's Mother, 245 Vakhtangov, Evgeni, 83 The Tooth of Crime, 243, 246-7 Van ltalie,Jean Claude, 237 True West, 243 Sigurson, George, I 29 Wallace, Irving, I87 Simmel, Georg, xvii Warshow, Robert, 225 Sinclair, Upton, I88 Webster, john, xiii Snoilsky, Count Carl, 24 Wedekind, Frank, 84, 87-g Sophocles, xii The Earth Spirit, 87-8 Soyinka, Wole, 282 Pandora's Box, 87-8 Madmen and Specialists, 282 Wesker, Arnold, 72, 263-5, 27o--I The Road, 282 Chicken Soup with Barley, 262-4 Stalin,Joseph, 278 I'm Talking about jerusalem, 263-5 Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 50, 53, 58- Roots, 263-5 9,6I-2, 74, 7g--80, 206 Whitman, Walt, 242 Stendhal, (Henri Beyle), 29, I38 Wilde, Oscar, I2I, I28, I74, 253, 255 Scarlet and Black, xiv, 29 Williams, Raymond, xii, xvi, 277 Sternheim, Carl, 88 Williams, Tennessee, xvi, xix, 73, 88, Stoppard, Tom, I3I 208-24, 24I, 242, 245, 254 Strasberg, Lee, 206 Baby Doll, 2I9 INDEX

Williams, Tennessee- continued Yeats, William Butler, xvii, IO, 42, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, 208, 209, 2 Io, 12o--6, I27, I28, I3o--4, I42, I44, 2 I8--20, 224 I5I, I53, I58, 15g--6o, I6I The Glass Menagerie, 21o--I2 Cathleen ni Houlihan, I 20 The Roman Spring of Mrs Stone, 2 I9 Deidre, I37 A Streetcar named Desire, 88, I 55, 209, The Death of Cuchulain, I 32-3 210, 2I2-I~ 221, 228 On Baile's Strand, I24, I29, I3o--2, Suddenly Last Summer, 2 ro, 22o--4, 233, I37 237-8 Purgatory, I33-4, I42, 161 Sweet Bird of Youth, 220 Wilson, Edmund, I88 Wister, Owen, I66 Zola, Emile, 34, 8o Wright, Richard, 2 IO Germinal, 8o, I43·