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FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE SCIENCES A STUDY OF MIXED LANGUAGE USE AMONG TWO SOCIAL GROUPS OF EAST MALAYSIAN MULTILINGUALS IN INFORMAL SETTINGS Victoria Xinyi Wong Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics & Communication Newcastle, June 2018 FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE SCIENCES DECLARATION I hereby certify that this thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations, which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been or is currently submitted for any other degree at the University of Newcastle or other institutions. Name: Victoria Xinyi Wong Signature: Date: 15/6/2018 Abstract Malaysia is a nation of considerable multi-ethnolinguistic variety. Comprising thirteen states (eleven located on the mainland, two situated in island Southeast Asia), diversity is evident between the many officially categorised ethnic groups, as well as within them (blurring official ethnic categories). Bi- or multilingualism is the norm throughout Malaysia, albeit more prevalent among minorities and in certain areas, especially those that are urban and/or are locations of ethnic diversity. Code- switching and translanguaging are common enough not to be remarkable outside of formal public discourse and mono-ethnolinguistic situations. This study was undertaken in East Malaysia, Sarawak, and takes an ethnographic approach. In order to try and make sense of the ways in which East Malaysian speakers express themselves, participant observation was undertaken in a family and a friendship domain, respectively. Speech events were informal and naturally occurring, during which family members and, separately, a group of friends interact in a variety of languages, illustrating the rich multilingual repertoires that participants can draw on. The findings reveal six language tendencies, namely habit, cause and effect, convenience, efficiency, accommodation and affiliation. As for the various circumstances in which language use occurs, most of them are the same for the two social groups. In addition, it could be seen that bilinguals use varied ways to connect closely with each other, and it is done by using a certain language to exclude others from the conversation or to keep the conversation flow, and it could also take place as a result of the trigger effect and external influence. Moreover, it has been shown that bilinguals associate with their interlocutors by code-switching for clarity, adaptability, and solidarity. As for the implications of affiliation, it is found that language practices serve as an important identity marker as a Malaysian, East Malaysian, and member of an ethnic, social and religious group. In this contribution, the language use patterns that have been identified and reported could subsequently be applied to Malaysians as a whole, and even to some of the previous studies conducted elsewhere. i Acknowledgement First and foremost, my deepest gratitude goes to God for His abundant love and blessings in good and challenging times. He is my refuge and strength when the going gets tough, and He always surrounds me with good people to walk this journey with. Many times when I have felt the weight of the world on my shoulders, I am so thankful to have Him near, and knowing that comforts and gives me the strength I need to pick myself up and push on. Next, I would like to thank my family who have always been supportive of me in pursuing this Degree, and for always keeping the faith that I can overcome whatever obstacles that come my way. Thank you so much for all that you have done and for your prayers, this would not have been possible without you. A special appreciation is also extended to my supervisor, Dr. Peter Sercombe, for all the guidance and support he has given me. Knowing that he would always be there to help has reassured me countless times and made this PhD journey bearable. Thank you once again for your time, effort, and for playing a significant role in the completion of my study. Not to mention, a huge thank you to my participants who have patiently and tirelessly put up with me throughout the entire process of my study. All of you are the reason this study could be conducted in the first place, and your invaluable contribution has helped me achieve what I set out to do. I will be forever grateful for all you have done, no words can describe! Last but not least, I would like to give a big shout-out to my PhD colleagues and good friends near and far who have shared the highs and lows of my journey. On better days, all of you have been the best cheerleaders, and on more challenging days, you have been a great source of encouragement. I am extremely blessed to have all of you in my life, you know who you are! ii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................ ii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ iii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. ix List of Tables ................................................................................................................ x List of Extracts ............................................................................................................. xi Glossary .................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1. Language use patterns: a review of theoretical issues and previous studies ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Review of theoretical issues ............................................................................ 1 1.2.1 Bilinguals .................................................................................................. 1 1.2.2 Code-switching ......................................................................................... 2 1.2.3 Language choice ...................................................................................... 5 1.2.4 Translanguaging ....................................................................................... 8 1.2.5 Code-switching and translanguaging ....................................................... 8 1.3 Previous studies .............................................................................................. 9 1.3.1 Language patterns .................................................................................. 10 1.3.2 Concluding comments ............................................................................ 13 1.4 Outline of chapters ........................................................................................ 14 1.5 Chapter summary .......................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2. The national context: Malaysia ............................................................. 17 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Geography .................................................................................................... 18 2.3 Brief history ................................................................................................... 19 2.4 Demographics ............................................................................................... 22 iii 2.4.1 Bumiputeras ............................................................................................ 22 2.4.2 Non-Bumiputeras .................................................................................... 24 2.5 Language ....................................................................................................... 25 2.5.1 Malay ...................................................................................................... 25 2.5.2 English .................................................................................................... 26 2.5.3 Chinese ................................................................................................... 29 2.5.4 Tamil ....................................................................................................... 30 2.6 Language policy ............................................................................................ 30 2.6.1 Pre-independence (before 1957) ............................................................ 31 2.6.2 Post-independence (1957-the 21st century) ............................................ 31 2.7 Impacts of language policies on the use of language .................................... 33 2.7.1 Administration ......................................................................................... 33 2.7.2 Professions, business and industry ........................................................ 33 2.7.3 Education ................................................................................................ 34 2.7.4 The media ..............................................................................................
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