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Construction of Islam and Muslims by Jacksonian Era Authors Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe

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Construction of Islam and Muslims by Jacksonian Era Authors Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe 1 Construction of Islam and Muslims by Jacksonian Era Authors Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe Lyba Khan Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Prerequisite for Honors in Religion under the advisement of Stephen Marini May 2020 © 2020 Lyba Khan 2 Acknowledgements I am grateful to my advisor, Professor Marini, without whom, this thesis would not exist. Despite your busy schedule and heavy workload, you always gave the most useful strategic advice. I always looked forward to our conversations and they were always thought provoking. You have been nothing but encouraging and supportive, even when I had doubts. Thank you. Thank you to my Thesis Committee members. Professor Elkins and Professor Geller, for teaching me how to analyze images and how a group of people becomes othered. Thank you both for your kindness, enthusiasm, and taking the time to provide feedback on my thesis. Thank you to my Honors Visitor, Professor Miwa, who has been kind and supportive to me through challenging coursework. Thank you for believing in me since day 1 of Chem 105P and thank you for making this commitment. Thank you to Professor Marlow for inspiring me to major in Religion and pursue this thesis, to follow up our independent study. It was always refreshing to attend your class and learn about Islam from an academic perspective. I always learned something new and you did every topic justice. Thank you to my dearest friends Huzaifa Ejaz, Nayab Khan, Sulaikha Buuh, and Loiselle Gonzalez. Huzaifa Ejaz, for holding me accountable in this endeavor. Sulaikha Buuh and Nayab Khan, for their endless love and kindness. Loiselle Gonzalez for being my mentor and older sister, throughout my time at Wellesley. Thank you to my family. Mama, for teaching me to work hard and believe in myself. Talal, for serving as the best support system and role model for me. Nawal, for distracting me and keeping me sane. All of you for helping me finish this thesis, especially in the last few weeks. 3 Table of Contents Introduction (4) 0.1 American Islamophobia: Past and Present (4) 0.2 Defining Orientalism (10) 0.3 The Jacksonian Era (13) 0.4 Masonic Symbols (16) 0.5 Abstract (17) Chapter 1 -- The Alhambra: A Series of Tales and Sketches of the Moors and Spaniards (19) 1.1 Irving’s Origins and Orientalist Influence (19) 1.2 The Journey (29) 1.3 Interior of the Alhambra (30) 1.4 Reflections of the Moslem Domination in Spain (32) 1.5 The Adventure of the Mason (33) 1.6 Legend of the Arabian Astrologer (35) 1.7 Legend of the Three Beautiful Princesses (39) 1.8 Legend of Prince Ahmed Al Kamel; Or, the Pilgrim of Love (45) 1.9 Legend of the Moor’s Legacy (50) 1.10 Legend of the Two Discreet Statues (52) 1.11 Conclusion (54) Chapter 2 – Edgar Allan Poe (56) 2.1 Poe’s Biography and Orientalist Influence (56) 2.2 Al Aaraaf (67) 2.3 Israfel (71) 2.4 Ligeia (79) 2.5 Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (84) 2.6 Thousand and Second Tale of Scheherazade (85) 2.7 Eureka (88) 2.8 Review of Stephen’s Arabia Petraea (90) 2.9 Conclusion (91) Conclusion (94) Bibliography (97) 4 INTRODUCTION 0.1 American Islamophobia: Past and Present A few months ago, September 27th, 2019 to be specific, Imran Khan addressed Islamophobia in his address to the United Nations General Assembly. As the Prime Minister of Pakistan, he was using the lens of Islamophobia to explain India’s Hindu-Nationalist-fueled ethnic cleansing of Kashmiris (predominantly Muslim) from Indian controlled Kashmir. All eyes were on him when he said “Islamophobia has grown since 9/11 and it is alarming. It is creating divisions… Post 9/11, war against ‘radical Islam’ started...”1 Blatant Islamophobia is becoming the norm in America and hate crimes are increasing. Lives are on the line. There was one instance where three young students were executed by a man named Craig Hicks over a “parking dispute.” This is in quotation marks because several news outlets portrayed that as the reason for their murder instead of acknowledging that it was a hate crime.2 While Khan is correct in stating that Islamophobia and violent hate crimes against Muslims rapidly grew after 9/11, Islamophobia was rampant in the United States before the states were even united. Today, Islamophobia encompasses more than the fear of Islam or Muslims. For one, you don’t need to be Muslim to experience Islamophobia. Erik Love, in his book Islamophobia and Racism in America, cites the murder of Cameron Mohammed. Contrary to what his last name may lead you to believe, he was not Muslim. He was a Catholic, who likely had Muslim ancestry. His shooter first asked him if he was Middle Eastern, to which Mohammed replied 1 Business Recorder Web Desk. “Full Transcript of Prime Minister Imran Khan’s Speech at the UGNA.” Business Recorder. Last modified September 27th. 2019. https://www.brecorder.com/2019/09/27/524851/full-transcript-of- prime-minister-imran-khans-speech-at-the-unga/ 2 Beydoun, Khaled. American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018), 23-44. 5 “no.” The shooter then asked him if he was “Muslim.” Mohammed replied “no” again but he was shot regardless. When the shooter was finally found by the police and informed that Mohammed was not Muslim, his reply was “They’re all the same.”3 This hate crime occurred because Mohammed looked Muslim, not because he was. The shooter’s interest in whether or not Mohammed was Middle Eastern also illustrates that he conflated the race with the religion. Khaled Beydoun, prominent scholar of Islamophobia, cited a similar example in his book “American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear.” He described the murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh man who was killed in Mesa, Arizona six days after 9/11. His murderer, Frank Roque, shouted “I stand for America all the way!” right after taking Sodhi’s life. He believed Sodhi was Muslim and he murdered him because he stands for America and he believed the “Muslim” man was a threat to America.4 The term “Muslim” has become more racialized than it was in the past, in the sense that whether or not you are perceived to be Muslim depends on how you look. In other words, it depends on your physical appearance, which is closely tied to race. As Beydoun states, this group of who can be perceived to be Muslim is vast and includes, “a wide swath of non-Muslim groups and communities, most notably non-Muslims from South Asia, the Arab world, Middle Eastern nations, and Latinx states, and particularly Sikhs.”5 This concept of the racialization of Muslims is not unique to the contemporary context. In the past, the terms “Moor,” “Mohammedan,” “Oriental,” and “Turk” have all been used to 3 Love, Erik. Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2017), 1-34. 4 Beydoun, Khaled. American Islamophobia, 92-124. 5 Beydoun, Khaled. American Islamophobia, 23-44. 6 describe American Muslims.6 Although this form of racialization is more complex in some ways, since it includes races (Turks and Moors, in particular), it is similar in that people were usually assigned these labels based on how they looked. When I, like the previous scholars mentioned, use the term “racialization of Muslims,” I am referring to the intersection of racism and Islamophobia. In other words, I am referring to violence against Muslims on the basis of their presumed races (determined by their physical appearance) and the association of those races with Islam. That use of the term is distinct from the historic conflation of race and religion, in which all Muslims were referred to as “Turks” or “Orientals.” Both of these definitions contribute to the othering of Muslims and into making them a quintessential other, in regards to race and religion. In this analysis, this historical conflation of race and religion its seemingly more relevant. In his definition of Islamophobia, Beydoun discusses how many different forms of Western society, “...casts Islam as the civilizational antithesis of the West.” In his framework, there are three types of Islamophobia: private, structural, and dialectical. Private Islamophobia is the fear, suspicion, and targeting of Muslims by private actors.7 The shooting of the three Muslim students would qualify as private Islamophobia committed by an individual. Another example, cited by Love, of an individual engaging in private Islamophobia is when Hillary Clinton “referred to Muslims with qualifiers such as ‘terror hating’ or ‘peace loving.’”8 This need to 6 Love, Erik. Islamophobia and Racism in America, 70-91. 7 Beydoun, Khaled. American Islamophobia, 23-44. 8 Love, Erik. Islamophobia and Racism in America, 117-143. 7 clarify that Muslims are not terrorists implies that without her saying that, she thinks they would be perceived as such. Then, there are endless examples of groups engaging in private Islamophobia. One such example that Beydoun cites is the vandalization of mosques, which are probably the greatest symbol of Muslim-American identity. Then, there are more organized forms of group-based private Islamophobia. For example, Beydoun mentions the Gatestone Institute in New York City. This is a “a rightwing think tank focusing on the Middle East, Muslims, and Islam’s incompatibility with Western societies.”9 Structural islamophobia is the “fear and suspicion of Muslims on the part of government institutions and actors.” Beydoun provides the examples of the Patriot Act and the Muslim Ban.10 Love lists several FBI practices that are rooted in Islamophobia and also perpetuate Islamophobia.
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