Commercial in Australia © 2007 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved.

SBN 1 74151 456 8 ISSN 1440-6845

Commercial Beekeeping in Australia (Second Edition)

Publication No. 07/059 Project No. FSB-2A

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.

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Researcher Contact Details

Frederick S Benecke 8/20 The Chase Road TURRAMURRA NSW 2074 Phone: (02) 9487 2828 Email: [email protected]

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.

RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4819 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in April 2007 Printed by Union Offset Printing, Canberra ii Foreword

This report is a snapshot of the Australian beekeeping industry. It describes the physical and cultural environment in which beekeeping is undertaken and describes production methods commonly employed by .

Beekeeping in Australia has developed to meet our unique climate and flora. Australian beekeepers have shown great ingenuity in devising methods of production and patterns of management that have led to a successful national beekeeping industry. RIRDC believes these achievements are worth recording: as an historical document; as a reference for those contemplating a career in beekeeping: and for those wishing to understand this unique segment of Australian primary production.

Beekeepers have been assisted in their endeavours, particularly in recent years, by world standard research. RIRDC, through its Honeybee Research and Development Committee, is pleased to be a vital part of the national apicultural research effort.

This project was funded from industry revenue which is matched by funds provided by the Federal Government.

This report is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1600 research publications.Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii Contents

Foreword iii Executive Summary v 1. Industry Overview 1 Number of Hives 1 Production 2 Products Other Than Bulk Honey 3 Pollination 3 Marketing 3 Legislation 4 Producer Organisations 4 Bee Diseases 4 2. Resource Base 5 Native Flora 5 Tree Plantations 6 Weed Control 6 Beneficial Changes 7 Access to the Resource Base 7 3. Nutrition and Hive Management 11 Nutrition 11 Hive Management 13 4. Equipment 17 Hive Materials 17 Moving Hives 18 Harvesting Honey 19 Production 20 Pollen Production 20 Quality Assurance (QA) 20 5. Pollination 22 Can Pollination be Valued? 22 Pollination in Australia 22 Almond Pollination 23 6. Queen Bees and Packages 24 Importations 24 Genetic Improvement Programs 24 Queen Breeding Practices in Australia 25 Packaged Bees 27 7. Diseases and Pests 28 Legislation 28 Brood Diseases 29 Other Diseases and Pests 31 Exotic Diseases and Pests 33 8. Appendices 34 Appendix I: Names23 34 Appendix II: Government Agencies 36 Appendix III: Organisations 37 Appendix IV: Journals 37

iv Executive Summary

What the report is about This report describes the physical and cultural environment in which beekeeping is undertaken and describes production methods commonly employed by Australian beekeepers. Who is the report targeted at? This report is written for all those interested in Australia’s beekeeping industry. It is intended for a wider readership than the first edition, which was projected mainly at Australian beekeepers and those considering entering the industry. Background This publication has been updated due to overwhelming interest generating from the publishing of the first edition in 2003. It provides key statistics and information on the honeybee industry and describes the key industry opportunities and threats.

Commercial Beekeeping in Australia comprises over 9000 registered beekeepers that manage over 600,000 hives. With over 25 per cent of honey exported each year, the price received by commercial beekeepers is dependant on both domestic and international demand for honey based products. There is also a growing market for pollination services and queen bees. Aims and 0bjectives This report revises the RIRDC report Commercial Beekeeping in Australia (2003) to better describe the physical and cultural environment in which beekeeping is undertaken and describes production methods commonly employed by Australian beekeepers. As well as being reference for those contemplating a career in beekeeping and for students of Australian primary production, the revised edition will be aimed at a wider, international, audience. Methods used Updated information was sought from industry leaders throughout Australia, Government officials and private industry. The 2003 edition was completely re- written and reduced in size. Results/key findings Australia’s commercial beekeeping industry comprises a relatively small number of professional beekeepers deriving most of their livelihood from beekeeping and a larger number of people who keep bees for profit but who do not depend solely on beekeeping for their livelihood. Recommendations An easy to read, factual account of commercial beekeeping in Australia at the beginning of the third millennium will be available to readers in Australia and overseas. The ingenuity and inventiveness of Australian beekeepers in devising methods of production and patterns of management that permits successful commercial beekeeping under Australia’s unique conditions of climate and of flora is documented.



1. Industry Overview

The commercial beekeeping industry in Australia comprises a relatively small number of professional beekeepers deriving most of their livelihood from beekeeping and a larger number of people who keep bees for profit but who do not depend solely on beekeeping for their livelihood.

There are about 600,000 hives in Australia which produce around 30,000 tonnes of honey each year. Usually 25-30% of annual production is exported.

The principal honey producing area of Australia is the huge swath of temperate land stretching from southern to central . The area includes the Australian Capital Territory.

South Australia and are both significant honey states, whilst is the smallest producer. Regardless of location, beekeeping, like agriculture generally, is dependant on the weather. Number of Hives A strong queen breeding industry exists to supply the numbers may be suspect to some local and export markets; and packaged bee exports degree, but they are the only ones State registration systems provide are expanding. available. the only information available about Paid pollination is becoming relatively more the number of beekeepers and of Apiary registration is no longer important to the industry and is a valuable source of the number of hives they keep. required in Tasmania. Beekeepers there income to some sectors. Registration is compulsory in five of the six states, but not in the territories, are, however, obliged to participate in Most of the world’s serious bee diseases exist in the Apiary Disease Control Program, Australia although the nation is so far free of where the number of beekeepers is varroa. The is proving a more insignificant. In states with registration which was established under the serious pest than was first imagined. a fee is levied, based on the number Animal Health Act 1995. of hives kept. Basing the registration The resource base on which the industry depends Table 1.1 shows the number of is shrinking. More of the nation’s remaining fee on the number of hives kept may melliferous flora is being incorporated into conserved provide an incentive to register fewer beekeepers and the number of hives areas. Ensuring continued access to these areas has hives than are actually kept. And it kept, as provided by the Australian taxed the energies of State and federal beekeeper is not unknown for even commercial states and territories as at the time of bodies. beekeepers to fail to register at all. So writing. Whilst the packing and sale of honey remains well ordered, with most of each year’s crop being Table 1.1 Numbers of beekeepers and number of hives, by States and Territories. committed to a handful of major packers, a degree of instability has appeared in recent years. Prices have fluctuated widely due to drought-induced shortages State Number of % of Total Number of % of Total and for the first time significant quantities of honey Beekeepers Beekeepers Hives Hives have been imported. NSW 3,195 31.9 265,474 43.8 QLD 3,084 30.8. 119,418 19.7 Industry associations exist in all states and as SA 740 7.4 66,013 10.9 well they each have representatives on the Federal TAS 179 1.8 17,904 3.0 Council of Australian Apiarists’ Associations VIC 1,927 19.2 96,455 16.0 (FCAAA). The peak industry body, the Australian WA 880 8.8 39,000 6.4 Industry Council (AHBIC), represents all sectors of the industry. ACT na na -- NT 4 1,500 Six States and two Territories constitute the 10,009 99.9 605,764 99.8 Australian Commonwealth, and it is they that administer most of the laws and regulations to which the beekeeper is subject in his or her beekeeping activities. The Commonwealth is responsible for quarantine and other nation-wide aspects of the industry.  Numbers by Categories In their Honeybee Industry Survey, 1 An insight into the distribution of hive number may be gained from an analysis of 2003, Rodriguez et al , estimated total apiary registrations. honey production from Australian commercial beekeepers in 2000–01 was Table 1.2 New South Wales beekeeping registrations at January 2007 approximately 27,800 tonnes; and that Beekeepers Hives this crop was worth approximately $53 Amateur (1 to 40 hives) 2,475 20,210 million. Part Time (41 to 200 hives) 401 41,364 Commercial (more than 201 hives) 319 203,900 The Centre for International Total 3,195 265,474 Economics’ report Future directions for the Australian honeybee industry, Amateur beekeepers account for 77% of registrations and experience shows that September 2005, estimates Australia’s most amateurs own less than 11 hives. (It is an interesting thought, nevertheless, annual production of honey to that a beekeeper owning 30 hives, and perhaps moving them a couple of times range from 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes a year in a trailer, may well harvest 50kg of honey per hive. A total crop of 1.5 “…depending on weather conditions.” tonnes of honey supposes a surplus for sale.) (The Centre also suggests that Rodriguez’s estimate of the value of the Table 1.3 New South Wales commercial beekeepers by hive numbers. industry is on the low side.) Beekeepers Hives Average 201 to 500 hives 171 60,055 351 Thus the annual production figure 501 to 1000 hives 113 83,877 742 mentioned in the introduction to this Greater than 1000 hives 35 59,968 1,713 chapter – about 30,000 tonnes – is Total 319 203,900 probably close to the mark.

The 148 beekeepers owning over 500 hives may be termed professional beekeepers. They constitute only 4.6% of total apiary registrations in New South Wales yet account for 54% of all hives registered in the State.

Comparable figures for Queensland are even more striking, where less than 2% of Future directions for the Australian registered beekeepers own 42% of the registered hives. honeybee industry

It is probable that this kind of distribution occurs throughout Australia. That is,

relatively few enterprises owning a substantial portion of total hives, but with a Prepared for the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry significant number of commercial, though not necessarily full-time beekeepers each owning several hundred hives.

Centre for International Economics This trend to larger commercial enterprises is common to all States and has Canberra & accelerated since the end of WWII, and indeed has continued since the first September 2005 edition of this Report in 2003. Honey Production A detailed stocktake of the Australian honeybee There is no exact measure of Australia’s total honey production. The Australian industry setting out a number of key future Bureau of Statistics (ABS) periodically reports on beekeeping, but because it only directions for the industry. The study, undertaken by George Reeves and Henry Cutler, involved collects data from beekeepers owning more than 50 hives, and for other reasons, extensive consultations with the industry and its estimates of production may be on the low side. was funded through the Industry Partnerships Program of the Australian Government Table 1.5 shows the per cent of total recorded production attributable to each Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. State and the average production per , for the period ending 30 June 2000. Key challenges for the industry are to maintain and enhance measures to keep Australia free Table 1.5 Per ent honey production and average production per hive, by States. from the exotic varroa mite pest, and to arrest State % of national honey production Average production per productive and reverse the declining trend in the industry’s access to the native floral resources on public hive (kg) lands, particularly conservation reserves. Another NSW 41.0 77.9 key challenge is to expand export markets for QLD 9.7 56.6 retail pack honey products and further develop SA 14.0 83.7 honey products with medicinal properties. A recommendation for the industry to implement TAS 4.4 80.3 an industry driven environmental management VIC 23.0 91.6 system (EMS) is being acted on, with a major WA 7.5 99.6 industry/government workshop on EMS held recently in Canberra. Source: ABS

�� Rodriguez, V.B., C. Riley, W. Shafron, and R.Lindsay, 2003, Honeybee industry survey, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Pub No: 03/039  South-eastern Australia eastern Australia. Like , queen breeders may own a relatively Australia’s beekeeping heartland is the the relatively small proportion large number of hives, which are not huge swath of temperate land stretching of Western Australia suitable for kept primarily for honey production. from southern Queensland to central beekeeping restricts production in No estimate of the value of sales of Victoria mentioned in the introduction that state. A significant portion of the or of packaged bees is to this chapter is here called South- Western Australia crop is exported. available. The export market, for both eastern Australia. Beekeepers migrate Tasmania is by far the smallest honey queen bees and for packages that extensively within this area, regardless producing state, but has the advantage contain a queen bee, is significant. of State borders. that its main crop is dependable and fetches a premium price. A small The export of packaged bees is a relatively new aspect of the industry. South-eastern Australia contains about industry became established in the Only the exporters know its financial 80% of the nation’s hives and 80% of Northern Territory, but is now in worth. New South Wales is the its beekeepers. The area produces about decline. principal source of bees for packages 70% of Australia’s honey, most of its with some coming from Victoria and queen bees for sale and virtually all of Apiary Products Other southern Queensland. Sydney, the its packaged bees. Than Bulk Honey capital of New South Wales, is the South-eastern Australia is composed There are a few specialist producers of usual place of shipment. of three principal climatic regions, section honey, but its overall value is Commercial pollen production is an all running from north to south: insignificant. important diversification for many a generally narrow coastal plain; a Beeswax is mostly a by-product of Western Australian beekeepers. relatively low (1,000 metres) tableland honey production and is therefore Production has increased in recent with occasional high peaks; and a proportional between states. Beeswax years with some beekeepers able to wider area sloping westward from production is usually reckoned at 1kg trap three to four tonnes per year. Most the mountains and merging into an of wax for every 60kg of honey. of the pollen is sold either overseas extensive plain. Rainfall is highest in or interstate. It is used in the health the east, diminishing as one moves The coastal strip from Sydney to food industry and for supplementary west. southern Queensland supports many, feeding. Other States or most, of Australia’s commercial queen breeding enterprises. The Honey from some species of Jelly South Australia, the nation’s driest prevalence of queen breeders in Bush is marketed through pharmacies state, is a significant producer but Queensland may help to explain the under the trade name of Medihoney®. lacks both the diversity and the area apparent discrepancy between hive The product is said to be particularly of melliferous flora enjoyed in South- numbers and honey production, since efficacious in treating skin ulcers. Its development was supported by Darwin RIRDC funding. Pollination

Renting hives of bees to the growers of benefiting from pollination by honeybees is an important source

Tropic of Capricorn Rockhampton of income to some sections of the Alice Springs industry. Paid pollination is undertaken in most states. The practice is most Brisbane important in the almond orchards a li a of Victoria and South Australia, and tr s u draws hives from a wide area. A n r e t s a Marketing Perth Adelaide e - Sydney h t u o Canberra S The number of smaller packers and

Melbourne

independent exporters throughout

Australia appears to be increasing. They have always existed, often selling to Hobart independent stores in their immediate locality. Lately, unusually low prices Australia’s beekeeping heartland is the huge swath of temperate land stretching from for bulk honey has encouraged southern Queensland to central Victoria. more beekeepers to enter the retail  trade, either through farm-gate sales, include matters not concerned with State pollination associations by producer markets or through regular bee diseases, such as dealing with bees the National Council of Pollination retail markets. Others have also entered causing a nuisance. Associations (NCPA). the export trade. Nevertheless, it is the handful of large packers whose brands Other legislation effecting where Peak Industry Body and how bees may be kept range appear most often on the supermarket The Australian Honey Bee Industry from environment provisions of shelf; who pack most of the generic Council (AHBIC) is the peak industry local government acts to State and lines; and who are responsible for the body and was launched on 1 March federal legislation relating to pure bulk of Australia’s exports. 1998. AHBIC typically concerns foods, conserved areas, bio-diversity, itself with federal matters such as Capilano Honey Limited (CHL), of quarantine, research and development quarantine, residue levels, genetically Brisbane, Queensland is the biggest and so on. modified organisms and international of the packers. Its main brand is trade. It is comprised of representatives “Capilano”. It has packing plants Producer Organisations of the following bodies. Their voting in Brisbane and Maryborough, Each State has an association of entitlement is shown below. Victoria. Many of its suppliers are also commercial beekeepers, composed Federal Council of Australian Apiarists’ Associations 7 votes* shareholders who enter a contractual of regional branches and a central Honey Packers and Marketers Association of 3 votes obligation to deliver all of their honey management committee. There are Australia Inc to the company. CHL also buys honey Australian Queen Bee Breeders’ Association 2 votes also associations representing amateur from non-shareholders. Over the years National Council of Pollination Associations 2 votes beekeepers. it has been the biggest exporter of * New South Wales 2 votes and other states 1 vote each. Australian honey. There is a national body representing the State associations, the Federal AHBIC is financed by voluntary The other large packers are Adelaide Council of Australian Apiarists’ contributions of two cents for based Leabrook Farms, the Corowa Associations (FCAAA) and a national each kilogram of honey sold. based Beechworth Honey and the body representing the whole industry, The contribution is collected by Perth based Wescobee. Wescobee is a the Australian Honey Bee Industry participating packers. co-operative society and dominates the Council (AHBIC). market in Western Australia. Although AHBIC employs a small full-time many suppliers are also shareholders, It is the State associations that bear staff. A list of participating packers, non-shareholders receive the same the brunt of the load of protecting queen breeders and pollinators appears prices, terms and conditions. Wescobee the interests of their members and in the AHBIC monthly newsletter, was established in April 1992 when it of the industry as a whole. They are which may be accessed on its web site took over the assets of the former West under-funded and under-staffed and www.honeybee.org.au. Australian Honey Pool. The Honey are generally struggling to make ends Bee Diseases Pool was restricted to trading in honey meet. Their revenue derives form only, whereas its successor, Wescobee, subscriptions and to a varying extent, can trade in any product. Australia is so far free from varroa mite from commissions, sale of product at and Tropilaelaps; however most of the Legislation agricultural shows and so on. Most can world’s other serious bee diseases exist only afford part-time paid staff and in Australia, as well as the common Legislation is in place in all states all depend extensively on their elected pests of beekeeping and a few less and territories aimed at limiting the office bearers giving generously of their common ones. The diseases discussed spread of endemic bee diseases, and (unpaid) time. all limit production at some time or at containing or eradicating exotic another. Nutritional deficiencies can The State associations are the New bee diseases, should they appear also significantly limit production and South Wales Apiarists’ Association in Australia. As well as legislation exacerbate disease problems. concerned directly with diseases of Inc.; Queensland Beekeepers bees, the beekeeping industry is subject Association; South Australian Commercial beekeeping in Australia is to wider legislative control in all states Apiarists Association (Inc.); Tasmanian dependant on successfully containing and territories. Beekeepers’ Association; Victorian infectious diseases and on avoiding Apiarists Association (Inc.); Western nutritionally induced ones. The several Acts have as Australian Farmers’ Federation (Inc.) their chief purpose, the control of bee Beekeepers Section. There is also diseases and typically require apiaries a Northern Territory Beekeepers’ to be registered, impose a registration Association. fee and prescribe procedures to be adopted in the event of certain Queen breeders are represented by diseases occurring. They may also the Australian Queen Bee Breeders Association (AQBBA) and the several Varroa mite  2. Resource Base

European honeybees were introduced into Australia in 1822 and thrived mightily in their new home.

Commercial beekeeping in Australia has been successful because of extensive areas of native vegetation, particularly eucalypts and their close relatives. Native vegetation has been supplemented by a range of exotic weeds, and, to a much lesser extent, by agricultural crops.

Unfortunately for the beekeeping industry, past and continuing land clearing has removed much of the nation’s most valuable melliferous native flora. Allocasuarina meulleriana and honeybee leucoxylon What remains is increasingly being locked up in conserved areas, many of which are not accessible An analysis of major honey deliveries almost entirely on native flora growing to beekeepers. These are the two most critical factors from suppliers living in New on public lands managed by the affecting Australia’s beekeeping resource base. South Wales to Capilano Honey Department of Conservation and Land Advances in agricultural technology have reduced Limited (then known as the Honey Management (CALM). the area and range of exotic weeds as well as Corporation of Australia), for the increasing herbicide and pesticide usage in four years 1991 to 1994, showed that Tasmanian beekeepers are also traditional beekeeping areas. 40% of the honey received came from dependant on public lands as their principal source of honey; All is not doom and gloom, however, as Australian agricultural land and 38% from forest 2 Leatherwood grows in forest areas as commercial beekeepers still achieve commendable land. The analysis does not distinguish an understorey plant to eucalypts. It yields of honey. between forest on private land and forest on public lands. is found almost exclusively on public Native Flora lands: 60% of which are controlled by In its publication Facts and Figures for the Department of Parks, Wildlife Australia’s dominant flora, the 2005–2006, Forests NSW points out and Heritage, and the other 40% by eucalypts and their close relatives, are that: Forestry Tasmania (FT). pollinated by insects, birds, possums There are 164 million hectares of forests in Beekeepers in Queensland, New and fruit bats. To attract these relatively Australia covering 21% of the continent. Australia has one of the highest per capita areas of forest in the South Wales, Victoria and South large animals, the native flora often world, with 8.2 hectares of forest per person. Australia, depend on a combination produce nectar and pollen in quantities of both public and private land. unknown in the Mediterranean There are about 27 million hectares of forests in Conserved areas often have a special climate in which honeybees evolved. NSW, covering 34% of the state. About 9% of forests in NSW are managed as multiple use forest such significance. For instance although a Honeybees found the living easy in this as State forests, with more than 16% managed in large proportion of South Australian country and soon colonised those areas nature conservation reserves such as national parks. honey is produced from both native suitable to them. The remaining forest is on leasehold and private and exotic plants growing on freehold lands. land, many of the sites on public lands The downside of having no Of the approximately 2 million hectares of native are critical for over-wintering bees; evolutionary link with European forest managed by Forests NSW, less than 2.3% was and although only 3% of the State of honeybees is that pollen from some harvested this year. Queensland is State Forest, this area Australian native flora is of no value represents an estimated 40% of the to the imported bees. Beekeepers soon And currently used beekeeping resource. realised that bees often do best when there are some European plants, usually Other Forest products;…Apiculture (sites), Land clearance weeds, in the vicinity of flowering 3,371 Forest areas and timber continue to be eucalypts. Australia has, according to another cleared throughout the nation. This Public and Private Land Forests NSW source, 1.7 million is despite legal requirements in some hectares of planted forest. (New South states to preserve timber and despite Nectar and pollen producing plants are Wales has 341,000 hectares, of which Government programs concerned with found on both private and public lands, 74% is radiata pine.) land care, sustainable agriculture, trees and the relative importance of each on farms, catchment protection and varies enormously from State to state. West Australian beekeepers depend environmental protection generally. 2 Somerville DC and Moncur MW (1997). The importance of Eucalyptus species for honey production in New South Western Australiales, Australia. Paper for the XXXVth International Congress, Antwerp, Belgium, Sept 1997.  The Australian Bureau of Statistics is “Mundulla Yellows” (MY). Despite quoted as saying:3 considerable research, the cause or Land Clearance. In 1999, about 470,000 hectares causes remain unknown. of native vegetation were cleared, an annual rate 40% higher than 1991. Trees Drowned

Even with substantial tree planting Large areas of the valuable honey programs, Landcare Australia says tree River Red Gum have been that in Australia more trees are being critically damaged by flooding the removed each year than are being Red Gum forests at the wrong time planted. Legislation controlling land of the year. The flooding is caused by clearance is a State issue, and varies water releases from dams intended accordingly. In Queensland, for to maintain flows in the river system. instance, where protection for trees is Prior to the Murray system being limited, it was reported in 2001 that regulated, the Red Gum forests on land clearing was occurring at a rate of the New South Wales/Victoria border 400,000 hectares a year.4 were flooded in the winter/spring and dry in the summer/autumn. They were In its report NSW Woody Vegetation flooded for an average of eight months Change 2004 to 2006, the NSW in eight out of ten years. Since the river Department of Natural Resources says: has been regulated they are flooded for Total reduction in the area of native vegetation in an average of four months in four out NSW over the period 2004 to 2006 was 31,394 of ten years and are more likely to be hectares per annum or 0.04% of the area of NSW. 5 flooded in the summer/autumn. Western Australian forest The report discusses the nature of the Salinity plantation State are more or less evenly reduction by category. distributed across the three states of Salinity and rising water tables are New South Wales, Western Australia Dieback of Eucalypts serious problems in many parts of and Victoria. The most extensive South-eastern Australia and in South hardwood plantation areas occur in Dieback of a number of species of Australia and have caused the death of Western Australia, Tasmania, and eucalypts in several states is continuing thousands of trees as well as wreaking Victoria while the most extensive areas and is a concern to beekeepers. damage on agriculture generally. Although research has helped to of softwood plantations are in New understand the problem there is no Tree Plantations South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. indication that it has been overcome. In South-eastern Australia dieback In response to the introduction of Weed Control is caused largely by insects, (scarabs trading in carbon credits as a means Many of Australia’s principal honey in particular), defoliating trees. of slowing global warming, Australian producing areas are in, or adjacent to, Scattered trees in agricultural areas are hardwood plantations have expanded agricultural and grazing country. In particularly vulnerable. In these areas markedly in recent years, helped by these areas weeds of pastures, roadside then, dieback is essentially a problem of taxation concessions to investors weeds and weeds of cultivation land use. and the rapid growth of Managed Investment Schemes (MIS). They commonly enhance spring build-up The problems of dieback in the Karri are dominated by Eucalyptus species, and every now and then provide a and Jarrah forests of Western Australia supplemented by a small proportion of valuable windfall crop in late summer. are caused by soil-born fungi, notably tropical rainforest and other hardwood One weed, Paterson’s Curse, (also a species of phytophthora, phytophthora species. Of the total hardwood species known as Salvation Jane), is a major cinnamomi (PC). PC is also present in Tasmanian Blue Gum comprises over source of honey over wide areas of Victoria and South Australia, including 60 per cent of plantings but may be of South-eastern Australia and in the Kangaroo Island, and is still spreading. little use to beekeepers as it is harvested State of South Australia. Karri forests are still quarantined for at a relatively young age. dieback disease but beekeepers are Improved weed control and minimum allowed access to some areas of State The combined standing plantation tillage farming methods have already Forest under permit. resource in Australia of 1.7 million reduced the population and range of hectares composed of two-thirds exotic weeds and the expansion of Dieback is a serious problem in South softwood and one-third hardwood cultivation of crops has further reduced Australia, and has become known as species. The greatest proportions of the their incidence.

3Gratton, Michelle and Clennell, Andrew, “Labor vows to put an end to land clearing” October 16, 2001 Sydney Morning Herald. 4Stevenson, Andrew, “Bean counters get to the heart of the matter” April 5. 2002 Sydney Morning Herald.  5Mike Thompson, Regional Manager, Deniliquin, State Forests of NSW. 2002 State Conference, NSW Apiarists’ Association, Griffith. Biological Control of Weeds almost eradicated, others are still doing reasonably accessible to beekeepers. Unfettered well but at times, not quite as vigorous as in their access to valuable native flora is a Paterson’s Curse hey day. As with all new such agents, the first couple of years or so they seem to have some dramatic effect thing of the past in most of Australia. but then the effect seems to flatten out. This has Because land conservation is a State happened here. matter, regulations governing keeping bees on conserved areas varies from Beneficial Changes State to state.

Not all changes to the resource In broad terms, traditional access to base are negative. The emergence State forests remains, but access to of Canola, a type of oilseed rape, as national parks and wilderness areas is an important crop in South-eastern much more restricted. This situation Australia and the south of Western has been compounded by an enormous Australia has provided beekeepers with expansion in the area of national parks both build-up conditions in the early and wilderness areas, accompanied by a spring and a useful source of honey. corresponding reduction in the area of South-western New South Wales is State forests. In 1972 Australia’s national research popular with beekeepers from Victoria body, the Commonwealth Scientific as well as from New South Wales for One of the effects of the reduction and Industrial Research Organisation Canola production. can be in the area of State forests and the (CSIRO) launched a program aimed a problem in some years and Canola increase in the area of conserved land at the biological control of Paterson’s honey candies very rapidly. is the gradual disappearance of access Curse. Experimental release of a leaf- roads on both types of tenure. In mining moth commenced in June State forests land available for timber 1980 in southern New South Wales. harvesting has been greatly reduced The beekeeping industry strongly and fewer access roads are being opposed the program and briefly had made or maintained. In most national the program suspended. In the end parks, and in nearly all wilderness however, the beekeepers failed to areas, former logging roads are not prevent the program continuing. maintained and in some instances are deliberately made impassable to Since the first release nearly thirty years vehicular traffic. ago a wide range of insect predators have been tested and released, and despite obvious progress with the biological control program, it has not yet had any real impact on the usefulness of Paterson’s Curse to the beekeeping industry.

Blackberry According to Capilano Honey Limited, New South Wales is the main producing State for Canola honey in eastern Australia and the crop represents an important source of honey, though not without its marketing problems. Access to the Resource Base The onus of protecting access to conserved areas became a prime Blackberry is useful to Tasmanian Conserved Areas beekeepers and attempts at biological responsibility of State beekeeper control using fungi that cause leaf rust Increasing regulation of land use associations. There was little that has met with some success. as a result of changing community individual beekeepers could do, and as perceptions and expectations have conserved areas were almost entirely The position in Tasmania in 2003 was resulted in significant portions of the State matters, there was little that the described thus by Harold Ayton: traditional resource base being located federal beekeeper organisations could While some varieties of blackberries may have been in conserved areas and no longer do either.  commissioned a study Economic Value and Environmental Impact of the Australian Beekeeping Industry, by Diana Gibbs and Ian Muirhead which was released in 1998 and in September of the same, year the New South Wales Apiarists’ Association published Keeping Bees on Forested Lands, a Code of Practice.

Fortunately, in most states at least, beekeepers are now able to meet with relevant State agencies through consultative committees and thanks to closer industry/Government liaison than ever before, a number of good An apiary in Banksia ornata heathland B. ornata outcomes have been achieved. One small win for the industry was forest management, as defined by the the result of a research project to Montreal Process. The history of the Present Position determine the impact of commercially Montreal Process follows on from New South Wales managed honeybees in the Ngarkat the UN Conference on Environment In New South Wales, existing sites Conservation Park in South Australia. and Development (UNCED), held on the National Parks and Wildlife The Ngarkat Conservation Park in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and Service estate may be transferred when contains bee sites with access to began when Canada convened an the beekeeping business is passed on to Banksia ornata, a species valuable for International Seminar of Experts another family member (intra or inter over-wintering bees and utilised by a on Sustainable Development of - generational transfer). As well, sites large proportion of the commercially- Boreal and Temperate Forests. The may be transferred to the purchaser managed hives in South Australia. seminar, held in Montreal, Canada, in when a beekeeping business is sold. Access to the area was threatened September 1993 focussed specifically In the event of a bee site becoming and the Honeybee Research & on the development of criteria vacant, the New South Wales Apiarists’ Development Council and other and indicators for the sustainable Association advertises the vacant organisations supported the research. management of temperate and boreal site and if there is more than one The research report6 said, in part: forests and provided the conceptual basis for subsequent regional and application the Association conducts a Although the presence of honeybees reduced ballot. No new beekeeping sites have the quantities of nectar available at Banksia international work on criteria and inflorescences, particularly near apiaries, there were indicators. been granted by the NPWS estate. still considerable quantities of nectar remaining Access to existing sites is becoming at the end of the day when honeybee foraging had In Australia a program of studies more difficult in many areas. ceased. The quantities left over often exceeded 0.5g known as comprehensive regional of sugar/inflorescence even within 100m of an assessments (CRA) collected data State Forests in New South Wales apiary. These quantities were more than adequate established seven Forest Management to satisfy the energy requirements of native fauna. about the forests and woodlands in a number of regions in which Zones (FMZ) under the RFA process. The results of the research carried out commercial timber production Zones 1 and 2 cover the most sensitive in Ngarkat was welcome news to South is a major forest use. Following areas and for these Zones conditions Australian beekeepers and the number completion of these assessments the apply to keeping bees that are similar of bee sites on government managed Commonwealth and relevant State to those applying to NPWS. Limited lands available to the industry in that Governments entered into Regional transferability of existing sites and no State remained unchanged. Forest Agreements (RFAs) that met new sites will be established. In the the obligations of both governments other five zones bee sites are leased on Regional Forest Agreements and provide certainty about land use the first in first served principal. Bee (RFA) and forest management. sites allocated by State Forests are 1.5 km square in area. There is no statutory During the 1990s a further serious The upshot of this process was an limit to the number of forest bee sites matter arose that threatened the enormous amount of work by State held by individual beekeepers. access of beekeepers to conserved and federal beekeeper bodies that areas. Commonwealth and State resulted in a study of the socio/ Travelling Stock Routes and Travelling Governments combined to deliver economic affects of the CRA program Stock Reserves throughout New the environmental, economic and on the beekeeping industry. The South Wales, controlled by Rural social values required of sustainable Federal council of Australian Apiarists’ Lands Protection Boards (RLPBs), are 6  Paton D C (1995) Impact of honeybees on the flora and fauna of Banksia heath in Ngarkat Conservation Park. SASTA Journal 95:3–11. available to beekeepers for rent as bee parks for the short term, as beekeeping Tasmania’s principal honey crop, sites. Each Board sets its own permit is a permitted use on Resource Leatherwood. Thus access to these fees. These Stock Routes and Reserves Reserves. The legislation now permits areas is of the utmost importance to provide a large number of valuable beekeeping on the national park estate the industry. Most of the remaining apiary sites to the beekeeping industry. with an exit date of 30 December 2024. Leatherwood is found in State Forests.

The annual rental for bee sites for So far only the State forests located in World Heritage Areas and National Forests, National Parks and RLPBs South-east Queensland have been dealt Parks are under the control of the averages around $80 a year each. with. The far larger area of State forests Department of Primary Industries, west of the Great Dividing Range, Water and Environment. Forestry A Beekeeping Industry Consultative over one million hectares, is also to Tasmania is a statutory authority under Committee (BICC) was established be converted to national parks, with a the control of the Department of in the early 1990s and comprises loss of approximately 4000 apiary sites Infrastructure, Energy and Resources. representatives of all sections of to the industry. It is possible that the the beekeeping industry and of vast Napunyah resource in the channel The management strategy plan government departments and agencies country of far western Queensland adopted in relation to beekeeping in that are associated with the industry. could also be lost to the industry. World Heritage Areas and National The Committee has proved useful in Parks is as follows: maintaining effective communications The Queensland beekeeping industry (a) The existing licensed apiary sites will be between the several sections of the is continuing negotiations with permitted to continue operating. industry and government agencies. Government and is maintaining its (b) Licensed sites may be transferred to another fit involvement with the beekeeping and proper commercial beekeeper. Northern Territory Consultative Committee. The (c) Consideration will be given to the conditions Bees are banned from national parks, Committee is composed of necessary to provide for new apiary sites during the creating something of a unique representatives of the beekeeping management planning process. Until this process problem since many of the permanent is completed licences for additional sites will not be industry, managers of public lands and granted. watercourses have been declared other relevant government agencies. national parks. Beekeepers are able to retain sites in South Australia Queensland these areas and they can be transferred Through the Apiary Industry to other beekeepers. Since few, if The following statement is based Consultative Committee (AICC), the any, new roads are allowed to be on information kindly provided by industry consults with the Department constructed in World Heritage Areas Mr Rex Carruthers, President of the of Environment and Heritage on and National Parks, the possibility of Queensland Beekeepers’ Association matters concerning bee sites in parks new sites being granted is remote. (Inc). and reserves. The AICC can deal Queensland beekeepers face an with any matters covered by the The Tasmanian Beekeepers’ enormous problem in retaining Environment Minister’s portfolio. Association and Forestry Tasmania access to conserved areas. Their State consult on a regular basis and Government is implementing a policy Most beekeeping sites on public land have agreed to a Community Forest of converting the State Forest Estate are located in a small number of parks Agreement governing the keeping of to the Parks and Wildlife Service for and other conserved areas and are bees in State forests. The two parties the creation of national parks; and, the considered vital for over-wintering. have also agreed to a code of practice government has announced that there named Guidelines for Beekeeping on State will be no apiary sites in any national The public land used by apiarists falls Forests. Clear felling in State forests in park in Queensland by December 2024. into four categories: – Forest Reserve, southern Tasmania is creating serious Water Catchment Areas, National problems for beekeepers in that area. For the time being beekeepers have Parks and Heritage Agreement Areas. retained their traditional access to Victoria remaining State forests and have All sites (other than burnt sites) attract The Victorian Environmental Assessment maintained apiary sites in newly a holding fee and a further fee is Council Act 2001 established the formed national parks. This was payable if a site is transferred to another Victorian Environmental Assessment achieved in two ways; one, mainly by a beekeeper. If a site is burnt out, no fee Council (VEAC), whose function is legislative change to allow honeybees is required until the site has recovered to provide the State Government with within the new National Parks and and is again ready for use, when the independent advice on protection and secondly by gazetting resource reserves normal fees will apply. management of the environment and within one National Park. The reserves natural resources of public land. are the actual, formerly existing apiary Tasmania sites. This stratagem gets around the World Heritage Areas and National Although VEAC advises Government prohibition of keeping bees in national Parks contain 40% or more of on land use, this advice, so far as bee  sites are concerned, is usually general in land has a history of usage by apiarists when required. nature and rarely gets down to the level before becoming a National Park, of the individual bee site. bee sites are allowed, providing that Apiary sites are set 3km apart to reduce the placement of bee sites is not in the risk of spread of bee disease and The administration of public land bee conflict with the management of the the current cost is $60 per year per site sites in Victoria is the responsibility of Park. This means that usually there are (soon to be increased to $84 during the Department of Sustainability and 2007 as the result of a rent review) in Environment (DSE). some changes as to where apiarists can have sites but, generally, the industry the south west zone and $12 per year per site (soon to be increased to $42 Bee sites are established on all but the continues to have access to National during 2007 as the result of a rent highest order conservation reserves Parks. review) in the remote zone. Beekeepers (e.g. Reference Areas, Wilderness and 7 are also charged an application fee of some Nature Conservation Reserves). Western Australia $100 for between 1–5 sites applied for Beekeeping is allowed, subject to The bulk of the honey (about 80–90%) at any one time within the South west licences or permits, on other public produced in Western Australia is region and a $50 application fee for land categories such as State forest, from native flora growing on the between 1–5 sites within the Remote national and State parks and many conservation estate and State forest zone. There is no restriction on the Crown Reserves. Depending on the lands managed by the Department number of permits held by a beekeeper. legislative provisions under which the of Environment and Conservation particular category of public land is (DEC) (formerly the Department of Bee sites are transferable with the managed, bee sites may be ‘permanent’ Conservation and Land Management sale of a beekeeping business but and/or ‘temporary.’ (CALM)) and on unallocated not for monetary gain. However Crown land, unvested lands; pastoral the Minister for the Environment Permanent sites are subject to an leases, and also reserves vested in is currently preparing proposed annual licence. These sites consist of other government agencies or local legislation amendments to the Forest 0.4 hectare of land for the bee farm government authorities. DEC regulates Management Regulation 1993 so and a surrounding circular bee range or the access and use of apiary sites on all that in future beekeepers will be able forage area of 1.6km radius (from the Crown land in Western Australia. to trade their sites. This proposal centre of the bee farm). Annual rental arose as a result of recommendations is based on a fee $23 for the bee farm A Beekeepers Consultative Committee arising from the National Competition plus a fee of 11 cents per hectare for all (BCC) includes representatives from Review of the CALM Act. The fee for the forested public land within the bee the Western Australian Farmers transferring apiary sites is $8.50 per range or forage area. Rentals vary from Federation, Water Corporation, site. $59.00 to $112.00 per year. Pollination Association of Western Australia, Department for Planning As of the 1 February 2007, the Temporary sites are subject to three or and Infrastructure – Pastoral Lands Department has made available 3,506 six month licences or permits. These Board, Wescobee Pty Ltd, Western current apiary sites for use – 2,203 sites were traditionally provided to Australian Beekeepers Association, in the South West Zone and 1,303 enable highly mobile or nomadic Western Australian Apiarist’s Society in the Remote Zone. Of these, 462 beekeepers to take advantage of (Amateurs), Pastoralists and Graziers’ apiary sites are located within Water particular and usually semi-regular or Association and the Department of Catchments, 370 are within Pastoral sporadic flowering events. These sites Agriculture. The objectives of the consist of a circular area with a radius Leases, 859 on State Forest, 409 on committee are to ensure effective of 0.8 km. Bees are generally located national parks, 249 on Nature Reserves communication between DEC, close to the centre of the circular bee and 1109 on unallocated Crown land. the beekeeping industry and other forage area. While there is provision for The remainder are located on Shire government agencies and to provide 3 month licences, the minimum rental Reserves, Timber Reserves, Freehold unit is $40 plus GST per six months. advice to the Minister for Environment land held by the State. Six months is effectively the minimum tenure period.

There is a great deal of competition for bee sites, and many “Temporary Bee Sites” are, in reality, held continually.

Bee sites in National Parks are allowed on a “temporary” basis as outlined above. The allocation of bee sites in National Parks is based on the following criteria: if an area of public 7 10 ���������������������������������������������������������������������Information provided by WA Department of Environment and Conservation. 3. Nutrition and Hive Management

Commercial beekeeping in Australia is conducted when there were some European and Development Corporation. The in an unpredictable environment – often harsh and plants, usually weeds, in the vicinity of book also relates beekeepers’ first hand unfriendly but at times generously abundant. The weather is paramount. flowering eucalypts. But what nobody experience in supplementary feeding. knew what was wrong with eucalypt To succeed, beekeepers must understand the Supplementary Feeding flowering habits and distribution of a wide range of pollen. Supplementary feeding is a flora and be aware of its nutritional value. Potentially, the biggest breakthrough in management tool with many Experience with supplementary feeding, improving bee nutrition has come with particularly of protein supplements, is progressing. a better understanding of the quality applications. Feeding carbohydrate or protein supplements, or both, to bees The importance of providing water to bees located of pollen available from different plant in arid areas is well understood and methods of species. The results of research by a is a way of kick-starting colony build providing water have been devised. number of people have shown a wide up in the spring; avoiding starvation; Virtually all commercial honey production in variation in the crude protein level of stimulating brood rearing on pollen- Australia is from hives that are moved (migrated) native pollens. deficient honey flows and as an integral from one source of pollens and nectars to another. part of queen rearing. In some states regular patterns of migration are More recent research is highlighting possible, but in most of South-eastern Australia some amino acid deficiencies Carbohydrate migration patterns are more variable, requiring in Australian pollens. As well, beekeepers to retain a large number of apiary sites White cane sugar is the commonly used spread over a wide area. investigations into the role of fatty acids carbohydrate in Australia. It is fed dry in pollen are in train. Thus beekeeper’s Swarming is managed by a variety of methods and or as a syrup. Syrup is fed in all manner is not generally regarded as a serious problem. understanding of the nutritional role of contrivances, but usually in specially of pollen is better than it has ever Nutrition built trays, in pepper pot feeders, frame been, and seems likely to improve even feeders or in plastic bags. Occasionally further in the short to mid term. Beekeepers have long suspected that syrup is fed from open drums. On the basis of his research results, many native Australian pollens lack Plastic honey buckets modified to act Doug Somerville, of the New South something that bees need. They as a pepper pot feeder are popular and Wales Department of Primary appreciate that European honeybees effective but of must be covered with Industries (NSW DPI) has categorised evolved in a Mediterranean climate an empty super – a real disadvantage in the presence of Mediterranean many of the pollens found in southern when feeding large numbers of hives. plants. On the other hand Australia’s NSW according to their crude dominant flora, the eucalypts, often protein levels, with a consideration for Equipment for preparing syrup ranges 9 produce abundant quantities of nectar significant amino acid deficiencies. from hand mixing to mechanical and pollen and are pollinated by insects, The four categories used; the plant mixing and pumping from a truck or birds, possums and fruit bats.8 The species in each category; and, the crude trailer mounted tank. Ready mixed eucalypts have no evolutionary link protein percentages shown in Table 4.1. heavy syrup is also available from sugar with European honeybees. Beekeepers The author points out that Paterson’s refiners. soon realised that bees often did best Curse pollen is of a very high quality Supplementary feeding, particularly with consistent levels of crude protein of sugar syrup, is the norm for hives above 30%. Combine this with the involved in producing queen cells, ample quantity of pollen available and although the practice is much less it is strongly arguable that this is the common in commercial honey single most important pollen source in production. southern New South Wales. For Tasmanian beekeepers, however, It is of interest that although plants of supplementary feeding is a regular European origin appear in each of four management tool and from 1 to 1¼ categories, three of the five species with tonnes of sugar per 100 hives may be the highest level of crude protein are of fed in five litre capacity top feeders. European origin. Sugar concentration varies from 50% The most definitive work on honeybee to as concentrated as possible. The nutrition in Australia is Somerville’s heavier syrup reduces the possibility of “Fat Bees/Skinny Bees” published in fermentation, reduces the frequency of 2005 by the Rural Industries Research feeding and maintains breeding. 8 House,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� S.M. (1997) Reproductive biology of the eucalypts. Pp 30–55 in Williams, J.E & Woinarski,��������������� J.C.Z (Eds)��������������������������������������������������������������� Eucalypt ecology (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge). 9 (4) Somerville D C (2000) Crude protein, amino acid and fat levels of pollens collected by honeybees primarily in southern NSW. Final report: DAN 134A for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. NSW Agriculture, Goulburn NSW. 11 Table 4.1 Pollen categories found in southern New South Wales POOR QUALITY POLLENS SPECIES CP % SPECIES CP % SPECIES CP % Buckwheat 11 Weeping willow* 15 Saffron thistle 18 Fireweed* 12 Nodding thistle 15 Silky hakea* 18 Black sheoak* 13 Flatweed* 16 Citrus 19 Sunflower 13 Black thistle* 17 Lavender* 20 Blueberry 14 Capeweed* 17 Eggs & bacon* 20 Maize 15 AVERAGE QUALITY POLLENS Red ironbark 20 White box* 23 Apple box* 24 Yellow burr 21 Onion weed* 23 Canola 24 White mallee* 21 Swamp mahogany 23 Vetch 24 Sweet scented wattle 22 Turnip weed 23 River red gum* 24 Pussy willow 22 Skeleton weed* 23 Faba bean 24 Rough barked apple 22 Alpine ash 23 Sydney golden wattle 25 Hedge mustard 22 Grey box* 24 Red stringybark* 25 Red box* 22 Manna gum 24 Currawong wattle* 25 Woollybutt* 25 ABOVE AVERAGE QUALITY POLLEN Almond 25 Christmas mallee* 27 Blakely’s red gum* 29 Balansa clover 25 Bloodwood 27 Spotted gum* 29 White clover 26 Grey gum* 27 White stringybark* 29 Pear 26 Sydney blue gum* 28 Heath-leaved banksia* 29 Brittle gum* 26 Gorse 28 EXCELLENT QUALITY POLLENS SPECIES CP % SPECIES CP % Scribbly gum 30 Lupin 34 Paterson’s curse 33 Vipers bugloss 35 Saw banksia* 33 * Deficient in one or more essential amino acids.

Protein supplements of fatty acids in pollen will result in If no natural source of water is Feeding protein supplements is still not substitutes that are both more attractive available, and the beekeeper still wants a common practice among commercial and more beneficial to bees. to keep bees in the area, then water beekeepers. Those who do feed a Watering Bees must be provided. Providing water for protein supplement have the choice of bees in relatively remote areas is time Mostly bees can find a source of water using commercially produced protein consuming and hence expensive. It to meet their needs but in arid areas patties or of mixing the supplement can be more laborious if the need only themselves. this may not be so and beekeepers take special precautions, particularly in warm arises occasionally and the beekeeper Home-mixed supplements contain weather. The most obvious strategy is does not have the right equipment various proportions of irradiated pollen, to locate apiaries within easy reach of for the job. Those watering bees on a brewers or torula yeast, soy flour and a natural water supply. This may mean regular basis have effective equipment either sugar of some kind or honey locating the hives further from the for doing this. (often irradiated) to bind the mix and nectar source than one may wish, but increase its palatability. it is better that the bees fly further for In some areas it is compulsory to provide water for bees. This is because Beekeepers report varied results with nectar than for water in hot dry weather. surface water in these areas is scarce feeding pollen supplements. Because the peak demand for water is in the hottest part of the day, bees forced and bees watering at the same troughs Perhaps new knowledge of the role to fly then are quickly exhausted. as livestock may create problems.

12 Hive Management The Weather Rainfall is all-important and dictates management practices. Drought is an ever present threat and affects all aspects of the growth and flowering of native flora and of the flowering of exotic weeds, so important for providing nutritious pollen. This even holds true for the tropical north of Australia, where below average rainfall in the wet season results in poor honey crops in the following dry season. Rainfall at the wrong time can also be a problem, particularly if it falls on autumn flowering trees such as Belbowrie Tea-tree or Grey Gum, whose thin nectar is difficult to ripen in cool humid weather. Most State Departments of three principal climatic regions: coast, Migratory Beekeeping Agriculture or equivalent have at some tablelands and the western slopes. time published information about It is difficult to put it better than Alan honey and pollen flora. Probably the Coastal region 10 Clemson, who said: most comprehensive publication is There is a great diversity of flora Virtually all commercial honey production in Alan Clemson’s “Honey and Pollen down the South-east coast of Australia is from hives that are moved (migrated) from one source of pollens and nectars to another. Flora” produced in 1985 by Inkata Australia. However, with a few notable This is economically necessary in Australia because Press, Melbourne, for the New South exceptions, the coast is not counted as a extremely variable rainfall and other weather Wales Department of Agriculture. major honey producing area. conditions affect not only the budding and flowering Unfortunately the work is out of print, patterns of the flora but also the pollen and nectar but occasionally a second-hand copy Because of its temperate climate and yields. It is quite common for an area that has its range of pollens, coastal areas are provided a heavy honey crop one season to be turns up. totally unproductive the next, and a period of non- popular for over-wintering and for productivity may last for months or even several Migration Patterns spring build up. Banksia, melaleuca years. Australia’s high honey production yields per and heath are popular sites for over- Despite the big rigs and mechanical hive have only been achieved through beekeepers wintering. migrating their hives throughout the year from one aids described in the chapter on favourable area to another. Equipment, most beekeepers only On the northern and central parts of move their apiaries as often and as far With a few notable exceptions honey the coast Spotted Gum provides an as necessary. They know their own flows are notoriously unreliable. Even a excellent pollen source every three or locality well and prefer to work within good flowering of a usually productive four years. Flowering time varies from it. Besides, moving hives, and servicing plant does not always result in a honey late summer through to winter. It also them at long distance, is expensive and crop. provides heavy honey flows every four time consuming. Generally, beekeepers to ten years, with moderate flows more Understanding the options available for are prepared to travel long distances if frequently. Narrow-leaved Ironbark is honey production in any given season the potential rewards, either economic another useful source of nectar. requires astute observation, experience, or managerial, are greater than those and, a great deal of driving to examine nearer to base. Typical long hauls are In the northern section of the coast prospects first hand. Often there is little to Almond pollination; to the Channel Pea bush, supported by the Wallum from which to choose, but sometimes Country for Napunyah; and in the case Banksia, provides pollen for spring there is more than one option available of drought to wherever it has rained. build-up. In agricultural and grazing – and they will not necessarily be the areas White Clover, and associated same options as last year. Thus it is Migration patterns vary throughout weed flora and eucalypts that flower that in South-eastern Australia at least, Australia. The main differences are early in the season encourage continued commercial beekeepers need to keep described below. breeding during spring, sometimes permanently booked between eight and with an extractable surplus of honey. South-eastern Australian 12 sites for each load of bees. These Forest Red Gum grows mostly on the sites will be spread over a large area and As mentioned previously, South- coastal flats and hills, and depending will cost, on average, about $80 each. eastern Australia is composed of on the season, can be a useful tree.

10 Clemson�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� A A. Honey and Pollen Flora. (NSW Department of Agriculture, 1985) p 6. 13 The region’s major honey production opportunities available to beekeepers, The smooth-barked eucalypts, the is mostly from summer flowering trees but as mentioned elsewhere (time and Gums, are found throughout the on the coastal ranges. In the northern again) it all depends of rainfall. region. River Red Gum is the most areas this means Grey Ironbark and widely distributed of all the eucalypts, Brush Box. Pollen is often provided In an average season, if there is such but is at its best as a honey tree along by various support species, including: a thing, one may expect conditions the Murray River and the lower Blackbutt, Sydney Blue Gum, suitable for building bees during late Darling River. Mahogany, Messmate, Stringybark and winter and early spring on pollen from Bangalay. Angophora Apple species, plants such as Turnip Weed, Canola sometimes contribute. These species and Cape Weed, Paterson’s Curse are useful for queen rearing. and early flowering eucalypts. It is not unusual for bees over-wintered on the In late summer and early autumn tablelands to be moved westward in the Bloodwood, and in the north springtime to take advantage of warmer Mangrove, support colonies prior to weather and early pollen producing the Broad-leaved Tea-tree flowering. plants. As well, hives that have worked The Tea-tree has a long flowering winter-flowering eucalypts on the period, produces abundant pollen, and, slopes are also moved west for building in a dry autumn, a fair honey crop. conditions. Tablelands region Ground flora is a mainstay in parts Spring is late on the mountains, so of South-eastern Australia. Paterson’s Plantation of E. camaldulensis – Murray Red Gum most build up takes place elsewhere. Curse in particular is an important (Source: Trees for Saline Landscapes. RIRDC Pub. No. Summer provides a range of 03/108 by N Marcar and D Crawford. Photograph Nico source of honey in many areas in late Marcar) melliferous flora, including smoothed- spring and early summer. Rainfall at bark eucalypts such as Ribbon the right time is critical. Several of the eucalypt honey species Gum, half-bark eucalypts including do not provide adequate pollen. Yellow Mountain Ash, Yellow Box and Fuzzy Other species of ground flora Box, Brown or Inland Grey Box and Box. When weather conditions are sometimes produce a crop of honey. Pilliga or Mallee Box, Mugga Ironbark suitable the large areas of White Clover St. Barnaby’s Thistle is often used for and Caley’s Ironbark all require on the northern tablelands may provide late summer queen production. Various supporting pollens at the honey sites or an extractable surplus of honey in mid- other thistles, Horehound Mint Weed, specific pollen management to correct summer. Paterson’s Curse and Vipers Caltrop and Carpet Weed are all useful protein inadequacies. Bugloss extend onto the tablelands and, from time to time, as well as some weather permitting, provide both good legume crops. In years of adequate rainfall, when a breeding conditions and a major source range of pollen producing plants are of honey. On the higher slopes various Box trees, available, winter flowering ironbark or half-bark eucalypts, flower and yield forests in northern New South Wales The tablelands and higher slopes honey from time to time. The common and southern Queensland provide are the home of a range of valuable names for these trees usually involve a winter breeding and profitable honey autumn flowering rough-barked production. eucalypts, particularly the Stringybarks. colour – Brown Box, Grey Box, Red Box, Yellow Box and White Box. Other Messmate and Peppermint add to the Far western/Channel country late summer/autumn opportunities. Box trees, that grow further west on the lower slopes and out onto the plains, Beyond the north-western edge of South-eastern Australia is a large On the tablelands, bees tend to cease include Bimble Box, Pilliga Box, Black area of rich soil that is periodically breeding during winter, but since the Box and the box-like Coolibah. inundated by water flowing south- colonies are often in good condition west from high rainfall areas of central after the autumn flowerings, with A number of Ironbarks, which are full- Queensland via a series of creeks good stores of honey and pollen, many barked eucalypts, also grow the length and mostly dry river-beds – known beekeepers choose to leave apiaries of the slopes and plains. Narrow-leaved as the Channel Country. When to over-winter in a semi-dormant Ironbark, Broad-leaved Ironbark and so watered, impressive winter and condition in the high country. Mugga Ironbark are very widespread spring honey flows may be provided species; others have a more restricted by a range of eucalypts, notably the Western slopes habitat. Caley’s Ironbark is found at Napunyah, which grows on the banks the northern end of the region, as is There is a great diversity of melliferous of watercourses. Napunyah grows in Silver-leaved Ironbark, which grows flora available from the higher slopes association with Coolibah, Black Box, well beyond the region into central all the way to the western plains. It Bimble Box and River Red Gum. is not possible to describe all of the Queensland. 14 Important pollen plants in the channel Once, nutrition from Almonds period and after leatherwood. (See country include Ellangowan, Boobialla, maintained brood rearing. Now Supplementary Feeding.) Lignum, Gidgee and Bloodwood. however, more intensive cultivation and higher stocking rates of hives/ha may Although Tasmanian beekeeping Apiarists from a wide area of South- in fact reduce the colonies stores of revolves around the Leatherwood eastern Australia concentrate on the honey, thus adding an additional cost to flow, Blackberry is also an important channel country when conditions are providing a pollination service. resource for beekeepers as it has been a favourable. Generally, beekeepers who more reliable nectar source than Clover. work Napunyah attempt to avoid Salvation Jane (Paterson’s Curse) Unfortunately, Blackberry is suffering pollen deficient late summer and provides spring build-up. In some areas from several varieties of rust, which autumn species such as Mugga and it provides primarily pollen and in is making the crop less reliable than Caley’s Ironbark and Brown/Inland others gives both pollen and honey. before. The benefit of Blackberry is Grey Box and Pilliga/Mallee Box reduced if the early spring is wet and which could deplete colony populations When bees that have worked as a consequence rust appears prior to prior to migration to the autumn/ White Mallee and require pollen, flowering. winter Channel Country flows. canola is used to commence colony refurbishment. Western Australia South Australia Beekeeping in Western Australia is South Australia differs from South- While most apiarists work their bees pretty well restricted to the South- east Australia in that it has a true during winter, a few locate their bees western corner of the vast State. Mediterranean climate (dry hot at the spring locations and allow the summers and cool wet winters) and hives to close down. Unless an early There is generally an abundance of is the nation’s driest state. It is a flow is available, these apiarists do not good quality pollen in the traditional significant honey producer but lacks encourage early build-up. This acts beekeeping areas. Pollen can be in such both the diversity and the area of as a means of swarm reduction. This abundance that the bees may choke melliferous flora enjoyed in South- procedure cannot be followed by the out the brood nest with pollen thereby eastern Australia. late winter/early spring pollinators. preventing the queen from laying. Many beekeepers trap pollen. In South Australia good colony Common honey species requiring nutrition during winter can be specific management include: Blue The goldfields and mallee areas are promoted by Banksia and various Gum, Grey Box, Hill/Pink Gum, areas of low rainfall and are only heath plants, or by Coastal Mallee and Sugar Gum, Coastal Mallee (in cool, worked, on average, one year in five, ground flora in the warmer, drier areas. wet areas), White Mallee, Red Mallee when above average rainfall promotes These plants are the major food sources and Lucerne. heavy budding and flowering. for colony build prior to Almond Beekeepers rely on these areas when pollination. traditional honey flows closer to Perth fail to produce. Access to the winter build-up species is essential for active early spring colonies Most beekeepers in Western Australia because bees tend to run down during do not feed sugar as a routine part autumn. Colonies left on Lucerne of their hive management, except in decline and can become broodless after drought years when some may use it if the main flowering. This decrease is honey stores in the hives are low. more severe in areas without sufficient The Tropical North supporting pollens during Lucerne Pink gum woodland flowering. Broodless colonies require Over 30% of Australia lies north of the one brood cycle before winter if they Tropic of Capricorn, and is influenced Tasmania are to take full advantage of winter by monsoonal weather patterns build-up species. Both Dryland Tea- Tasmania, the island State, is the – dry winters and wet summers. This tree and Brown Stringybark promote most southerly part of Australia and imposes severe restrictions on honey autumn breeding. probably the State with a climate most production. The wet extends from like Western Europe. October to May, with the highest rainfall in January, February and Pollen is not considered a limiting March. Honey production is linked factor in most areas, although an to rainfall and is likely to be best after occasional deficiency may necessitate good monsoonal rain in the wet and relocation to another site. The major worst following low rainfall in the wet nutritional factor in management is season. Beekeepers report that April Lucerne crop carbohydrate, both during the build and May are the worst two months for 15 honey production. Beekeeping in the tropics is difficult and of only minor importance in the overall scheme of things.

On the eastern side of the tropics, on the Atherton Tablelands, west of Cairns, honey production is low, but profitable. Most of the honey produced there is sold in tourist gift shops in Cairns.

On the Atherton Tableland Forest Red Gum (known locally as Blue Gum), White Mahogany, Carbeen, Narrow- leaved Ironbark, Bloodwood, Red Mahogany, Turnip, Glycine, Blue Billy Goat Weed and Sarsaparilla are major pollen sources. The small beekeeping industry in the Northern Territory is concentrated around Katherine and Darwin. Adequate supplies of pollen are usually available and beekeepers report that there is brood in the hive all year round. A range of eucalypts and other native plants provide honey.

Pollination of cucurbits in the tropical north of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia is important but generally on a relatively small scale. See Chapter 5 on Pollination Swarming Swarming is most likely to be a problem during the build up period in late spring/early summer. Most beekeepers do not consider swarming to be a serious impediment to honey production.

Methods of controlling swarming include taking healthy brood and bees from strong colonies and using them to make up nucleus colonies or new colonies or to strengthen weak colonies; placing foundation in strong hives; moving frames of brood from the brood box to supers above the excluder; and moving colonies from good breeding conditions to a likely honey crop.

Forest Red Gum. (Source: Trees for Saline Landscapes. RIRDC Pub. No. 03/108 by N Marcar and D Crawford. Swarming is less of a problem when (Photograph Maurice McDonald) the colony is headed by a young queen. 16 4. Equipment

The equipment used by commercial beekeepers For a commercial beekeeper the timber from which it was made often throughout Australia is fairly uniform. Full depth resale value of the enterprise is also an came from New Zealand). bodies, either 8 frame or 10 frame, are most popular, with 10 frame outnumbering 8 important consideration. Thus there is frame. pressure to match the sizes and designs Some beekeepers still make their own of one’s material with those commonly boxes. Tasmania is cited as an ideal Most hives are moved on diesel trucks and the location for do-it-yourself box making longer the distances regularly travelled, the bigger used by other commercial beekeepers. the truck and the more likely that the truck will tow because of the availability of suitable a trailer. Almost all hives are loaded mechanically. There is no standard hive size and quality timber and the beekeeping configuration in Australia. Perhaps the annual cycle allows sufficient time to Most hives are fitted with a and manufacture equipment with existing are robbed with the aid of a bee blower or an escape most common is an all 10 frame full board. depth size, with a metal-bound wire labour. excluder over the bottom box, a 50mm Honey is most commonly extracted in a central Plastic or Timber? location in highly mechanised stainless steel deep migratory lid and a bottom board extracting equipment. with 22mm risers. Most beekeepers use Plastic frames and boxes have so far nine frames in a ten frame box. failed to displace wooden hives and Bulk honey is marketed in 1,000 litre intermediate hive parts. In the Northern Territory bulk containers (IBCs) by the larger producers and Make or Buy? in 200 litre closed head drums by smaller producers. plastic cleats are sometimes used on Traditionally beekeepers whiled bottom boards to help protect against Packers encourage suppliers to enter into quality termites. Plastic comb foundation is assurance schemes, as does the federal industry away the winter months making and organisation, the Australian Honey Bee Industry repairing hive material. However, due making a more serious challenge to beeswax foundation. Many commercial Council (AHBIC). to big increases in enterprise size there beekeepers, particularly those using is no longer the down-time in winter Hive Materials different depth supers to bottom box, that there once was, hence beekeepers use both types of foundation. Beeswax As beekeeping enterprises grow the buy more material these days, even is sometimes favoured in the brood nest need for uniformity of hive material though modern wood working because the bees more readily accept it becomes more important. There are equipment makes the job easier. and plastic is used in the supers. Some advantages in having combs and boxes beekeepers paint molten beeswax onto that are interchangeable, partly for Most woodware now comes from New plastic foundation to make it more easier hive manipulation but also to Zealand, with its abundant supply of acceptable to the bees. A paint roller is achieve standardised loading patterns high-grade, kiln dried Pinus radiata handy for this job. on trucks and trailers and standardised (even when most woodware sold in extracting procedures. Australia was made in Australia, the The Australian designed plastic queen cell cup has been an outstanding success and is widely used throughout the country. Preservatives The majority of boxes, lids and bottoms are routinely treated with the wood preservative copper naphthenate prior to painting. Dipping boxes in hot paraffin wax is an alternative method of preserving boxes, though it is relatively uncommon. Boxes Using ⅞ inch thick timber, Australian ten frame hive bodies measure 20 inches by 16 inches; and eight frame hive bodies 20 inches by 13⅞ inches. (Exact conversion of these dimensions 17 from imperial to metric produces awkward figures and are usually rounded off to whole numbers: using 20mm thick timber; 10 frame = 505mm x 405mm; 8 frame = 505mm x 350mm; full depth = 240mm.)

Full depth is the most popular depth for both brood nest and honey supers. Even when honey supers of another depth are used, the brood nest is nearly always a full depth.

Hives comprising a full depth bottom box, either 10 frame or 8 frame, and smaller size honey supers are common. The smaller size honey supers are usually WSP or Ideals. A few beekeepers use WSP size honey supers filled with Manley frames. Manley frames have wider end bars Common materials include heavy that consistently operate close to home than standard frames, thus making gauge plastic sheeting, hardboard and are more likely to have smaller trucks eight Manley frames a snug fit in an vinyl floor covering. Some beekeepers of 4 to 6 tonnes. Australian 10 frame box, resulting in build an inner cover into the migratory plump, easily un-capped combs. lid, leaving a 10mm space between Local working conditions also The all full depth 8 frame hive is the inner cover and the top bars of the influence the size and type of truck popular and is used extensively in frames. used. For example, some beekeepers Victoria, and to a lesser extent, in New working in large areas of sandy soil as Bottom boards usually consist of a South Wales and Western Australia. found in South Australia favour four- wooden riser of anything from 10mm The all Ideal size 8 frame hive is wheel drive trucks. to 50mm, with 22mm perhaps the popular in Tasmania. All WSP or all most common. The bottom itself is Manley size hives are used, but are not Nearly all commercial beekeepers have made generally of either galvanised common. A few beekeepers use an all a small vehicle for running around metal, timber or marine ply. Some 12 frame full depth hive. – either a utility (often with a limited- beekeepers that move their hives on slip differential and long range fuel Lids and Bottoms pallets build the risers directly onto tanks) or a small diesel truck or a four- the pallet. Whilst many bottom boards wheel drive of some kind. Many commercial beekeepers make are still fitted with an entrance closer, their own lids and bottom boards. the practice appears to be diminishing. The largest outfits use powerful trucks Both fixed and loose bottom boards are with a sleeper-cab; bogie drive and long Migratory lids with a 50mm rim, used. either ventilated or not, are probably range fuel tanks. Such a vehicle, when the most popular. They usually consist Queen Excluders towing a tri-axle pig trailer can carry, of a wooden rim and a hardboard or say, 360 hives of bees on pallets, around marine ply top, depending on whether Queen excluders are used on the 1,150 empty 10 frame full-depth or not they are covered with galvanised great majority of hives. They are supers or over 700 supers of honey. Its or Colorbond metal. It is common less common in Tasmania where total length is likely to be 19 metres to paint lids white to reduce heat. beekeepers using Ideal size boxes and its range around 1,400 km. It Flat wooden lids cleated at the ends depend on the principal honey flow to would carry a fork-lift of some kind. are common, and less commonly, flat push the queen out of the honey supers. covers with end cleats that extend The most popular excluder by far is the Loaders downwards for 30mm or so over the metal bound wire model. Almost all commercial beekeepers use a ends of the top box. Telescopic lids are Moving Hives mechanical loader of some kind; mostly far less popular than formerly, but are a forklift when hives are on pallets or still used in Tasmania. Trucks a boom loader when hives are not on Most beekeepers use an inner mat Commonly, trucks are two-axle with 7 pallets. A few beekeepers wheel hives of some kind to discourage bees to 9 tonnes carrying capacity and tray onto a powered tailgate, then wheel and from building burr comb in the lid. lengths of 6 to 7.5 metres. Beekeepers lift them into position on the truck. 18 allow any remaining bees to return to the hive. Bee blowers are also commonly used to remove any bees still remaining in the supers. Some beekeepers prefer to make only one trip to the apiary to harvest honey, and use a bee blower only. A few beekeepers rob by shaking bees off individual combs. These are more likely to be those using mobile extracting plants, though not exclusively. For beekeepers extracting in central premises (most beekeepers), an additional expense is ensuring that the supers of honey stacked on the truck, Skid-steer forklifts of the Bobcat type On long hauls, beekeepers sometimes or truck and trailer, are both bee-proof are popular, as are non-skid forklifts opt to not use a net but to stop shortly and dust-proof. Most beekeepers have of one kind or another. Small tractors after dawn and let the bees fly off the purpose-built trays on which to stack or four wheel drive vehicles converted, load during daylight hours and resume supers and either spare lids or purpose- usually by the beekeeper, to forklifts the journey at dusk. To exercise this built covers. are still in use, and commercially made option it is important that the day-long non-skid forklifts are also available. The stop be reasonably close to water and Extracting Honey non-skid types are preferred by some reasonably far from people. Most of Australia’s honey crop is beekeepers working in sandy country extracted in central extracting premises, and by other beekeepers who consider It is probable however, that in the though mobile plants, many of them them to be more environmentally majority of moves the hives are loaded very efficient, are still in use. In South friendly. Forklifts are either carried on at dusk, the move is completed during Australia for instance, a number of the truck or towed on a purpose built the night and the hives unloaded at mobile plants have Quality Assurance trailer. dawn. Harvesting Honey accreditation. But, the trend for the The range of types and brands of past 50 years has been to central boom loaders has something of a Robbing the Hives extracting. Bear in mind though, that regional bias. Regular loaders mounted some beekeepers always extracted in a From their beginning in early 1992 immediately behind the cab are popular central plant. the packer Leabrook Farms would not in New South Wales. Centre or rear accept honey that had been removed is a highly mounted split booms are popular from hives by the use of chemical mechanised process; and since in New South Wales, Queensland, repellents. A few months later the commercial extracting machinery is South Australia and Victoria. Powered Honey Corporation of Australia now made overwhelmingly of stainless tailgates are used by some beekeepers followed suit. Thus in a period of steel, it is also a hygienic one. in Victoria and Tasmania. Western only a few months most commercial Australian beekeepers traditionally Uncapping machines are in universal beekeepers abandoned all chemical used gantry loaders, although boom service, whether extracting in a central methods of harvesting honey and loaders are also used. A few beekeepers or a mobile plant. There are a handful adopted physical ones. have adopted hydraulic lifters. of popular brands, all reliable and all The most common method by far effective. It is usual to have a conveyer Boom loaders are often employed is the use of escape boards or clearer to take the uncapped combs from the when under-supering, prior to robbing. boards, as they are also known. Most uncapping machine to the extractor or Hive fasteners of some kind are widely beekeepers under-super with sticky extractors. used. The Emlock type, with stainless combs, place the escape board above the stickies and return in twenty-four Whilst there are still semi-radial steel strapping, is probably the most extractors in use, radial extractors popular. hours and remove the supers of honey. If escape boards are left in place too are more commonly used. Radial Open Entrance long robbing may occur. extractors, with a vertical shaft, were made in 42 and 72 and 100 frame sizes. Hives are generally moved open Conditions permitting, many entrance. When travelling during beekeepers place the removed super Vertical shaft extractors, whilst popular daylight the load is usually covered of honey on top of the hive (or on the and effective, have the inherent with a bee-proof plastic net. previous hive, to make it easier) to disadvantage of requiring loading 19 and unloading to be done by hand. Beeswax Production beekeepers can activate them to either Nevertheless, the capital cost is lower trap pollen or allow the bees to bypass Production of beeswax is often than for setting up a horizontal shaft the trap. This allows the operator regarded as an incidental sideline to extractor and its ancillary equipment. honey production. Many beekeepers to selectively trap pollen in times of abundance. To automate the extracting process refine as much beeswax as possible from wax cappings with minimum more thoroughly, a horizontal shaft effort, and discard the residue. Some beekeepers have modified their extractor and pneumatic loading/ pollen traps by slightly enlarging two unloading equipment is necessary, as Most beeswax is produced from or three of the holes in the punch plate well as pumping, straining/settling and cappings as the beekeepers extract their through which the bees can pass to cappings treatment equipment. In a honey. The central plant operators detach their pollen loads. This permits large plant it is necessary to use a heat either melt down and clean their the access of some bees without loss of exchange and a centrifuge to handle wax ready for market as their honey their pollen loads and ensures adequate extracting is being carried out or the volume of honey/cappings mix. In supply of pollen for the hive’s own stockpile cappings for a couple of days cooler areas hot rooms are used for pre- use during the trapping period. The and then refine them. Some beekeepers enlarged holes also allow virgin queens warming supers of combs. refine the beeswax in the extracting produced as a result of supersedure, room, others move the cappings to In all a large capital investment is a separate wax room. Stainless steel to exit for mating. This practice required, but great savings are achieved refining vats are heated with steam, hot substantially reduces the number of on variable costs, most importantly, water or gas fire. queenless colonies when trapping labour. pollen. Whilst some beekeepers simply burn Some extracting equipment is old and reject combs, others go to great Pollen traps are continually being imported, usually from the USA and pains to maximise wax production from modified. Currently, besides the traps New Zealand, but most is made in them. In between is an increasingly that are placed under the hives, there Australia. common compromise of cutting old are a range of smaller metal traps that combs out of the frames, bagging the clip onto the front of . The production of custom made comb and sending it to a specialist wax stainless steel honey house equipment refiner. The old frames are burnt. Quality Assurance (QA) was pioneered by one small Western Australian firm “Bee Engineering” The major packers have adopted owned and operated by Mr Peter Cash. quality control measures in one form or He had a significant influence on the another. lay-out and design of central extracting Eddy Planken of Wescobee said in a plants built over the past 15 years. Now personal communication in 2002: there are more manufacturers ready Wescobee has adopted Quality Assurance under the to design, custom build, assemble and SQF 2000 code. We were the first fully HACCP install complete extracting plants in any certified packer in Australia and have had our configuration to suit the requirements system in place and certified for 4 years. Leabrook of individual beekeepers. was certified before us for QA but it was not the full Shipping Honey HACCP QA. The industry changed from packing Leabrook Farms has adopted a QA honey in four gallon (18 litre) tins to scheme as has Capilano Honey 44 gallon (200 litre) drums in the late Limited (CHL). Capilano has a 1950s in West Australia and in the sophisticated quality assurance scheme early 1960s in South-eastern Australia. in place for its suppliers. The Capilano By the 1990s many in the industry were scheme is voluntary and an increasing concerned about the possibility of zinc number of beekeepers have embraced contamination as many of the drums Pollen Production the complete scheme, by upgrading in use aged, and a search was begun for their honey extracting facilities. More a replacement. It wasn’t until the early Commercial pollen production is an are anxious to do so. part of this century that 1,000 litre important diversification for some As well, the Australian Honey Bee intermediate bulk containers (IBMs) Western Australian beekeepers, whilst Industry Council (AHBIC) is well others trap pollen to feed back to their were chosen as the preferred shipping down the track to establishing a bees over winter or when their colonies container. The decision entailed nation-wide quality assurance scheme need it. Commercial producers often additional capital expense by both (B-Qual) that it believes will meet have pollen traps permanently fitted to producers and packers. Producers had the needs of industry without costing a percentage of their beehives. to have premises with a strong floor as individual beekeepers as much as the well as having a suitable fork-lift. The traps are constructed so that more complete CHL scheme. 20 B-Qual B-Qual Australia Pty Limited has been established by the Australian Honey Bee Industry Council (AHBIC) as an independently developed and audited food safety program. Its purpose is to accredit and have adopted a quality assurance program for greater than 90% of the production of the Australian honeybee industry. The project will develop accreditation and train industry participants in QA standards, organic standards and biosecurity as well as providing an ongoing third party audit system. B-Qual Australia Pty Ltd (www.bqual. com.au) is owned by AHBIC and the program is administered by AUS- QUAL Pty Ltd (www.ausqual.com.au).

21 5. Pollination

The invaluable service provided by European honeybees in pollinating plants is widely acknowledged. Less widely understood is the contribution that pollination provides to the beekeeping industry.

Beekeepers have long believed that one day our agricultural and horticultural industries would become more dependent on paid pollination – generally they haven’t. Almonds are the exception; otherwise paid pollination is increasing only slowly.

Whilst some beekeepers derive a significant portion of their income from providing a pollination service, assigned a value of $1.8 billion to On the other hand crops benefiting the overall contribution to the industry remains small. For many of the larger honey producers, honeybee pollination. honeybees, either as a source of nectar pollination is a risky diversion from their core or pollen or both, and which in turn business. Of more direct interest to beekeepers benefit from pollination by honeybees, is what they earn from pollination. It are sought after. Thus, although canola Many individuals have worked hard to bring organisation to the pollination industry. There is estimated that for Almonds alone, or lucerne may appear in the lists of are now agreed guidelines and codes of practice participating beekeepers received $3.5 crops benefiting to some degree from for beekeepers and growers alike, and every million in pollination fees in 2006; pollination by honeybees, beekeepers indication that beekeepers and growers are nearer to equivalent to perhaps 5 or 6% of the are more likely to pay growers for the understanding each other’s problems. value of the national honey crop, privilege of placing their hives in the For beekeepers, the greatest technical problem and the figure is expected to increase crop than to be paid by them. (This involved with paid pollination is achieving the rapidly. example does not extend to specialist necessary colony strength at the right time. seed production.) As well, beekeepers Pollination in Australia sometimes provide bees for pollination Can Pollination be Valued? simply to hold sites, or to service small Largely because of changes in contracts in their locality. Putting a dollar value on the benefits agricultural practice and in land to the nation of European honeybees management (see Resources), fewer Renting hives to provide pollination as pollinators is attempting to consider feral bees are available to provide is relatively common for pome and one factor of production whilst pollination. As well, large-scale stone fruit, particularly since pesticides ignoring all the others. monoculture, typically such crops have long since destroyed feral colonies as almonds and rockmelons, means near growing areas. It is also common Several attempts have been made to to rent hives for ensuring adequate assign a value to the total pollination that adequate pollination is beyond the capacity of feral bees, even if they pollination of seed crops. The biggest effort. The total effort includes demand for paid pollination in South- pollination provided by feral bees, the exist in the area. As well, some forms of large-scale monoculture, although eastern Australia is for the pollination incidental pollination provided by of almonds. Other, smaller, markets for commercially managed bees and the attractive as a source of nectar or pollen to commercially managed hives, fail paid pollination exist in the tropical pollination from hives rented for the north. The main regional differences 11 to attract managed hives in sufficient purpose. For example Rod Gill of in pollination practices are described numbers to provide effective unpaid, the University of New England valued below. the pollination benefits for Australia incidental pollination, for to do so as $1.2 billion; Gibbs and Muirhead12 would overstock the site for honey South-eastern Australia made their own thorough assessment production. Thus the demand for Almonds is by far the most important of the total benefit of pollination to the rented hives is gradually increasing in pollination crop for beekeepers in nation and arrived at much the same a general sense and increasing more 13 South-eastern Australia and South figure. Jenny Gordon of the Centre rapidly in specific areas. Meeting a Australia, and is discussed separately. for International Economics, Canberra rapidly increasing demand may present took a fresh approach to valuing the problems to beekeepers and growers Pollination of pome fruit in the main benefit of bees as pollinators and alike. growing areas is common, but not 11 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Gill, Roderick (1996) The Benefits to the Beekeeping Industry and Society from Secure Access to Public Lands and their Melliferous Resources. RIRDC report. Canberra. 12 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Gibbs, Diana M H and Muirhead, Ian F, (1998) The Economic Value and Environmental Impact of the Australian Beekeeping Industry. A report prepared for the Australian beekeeping industry. 22 13 �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Gordon, J. and Davis, L, 2003, Valuing honeybee pollination, RIRDC report No 03/077. Canberra. without risk. Whilst the grower on for providing low-cost pollination is 2006 grower survey f igures (now much better whose property the bees are placed the Bee Tube. The Tube is made of methodology) show: may abide by an agreement to advise cardboard and is protected from the Bearing trees (4 yrs and over) 21,012 ha (est about of intention to spray, the grower’s elements by a plastic cover. The tubes 5.2 million trees) neighbours may not. In areas of do not contain frames or comb, but are • Non-bearing 25,658 ha (est 6.5 million intensive horticultural production, simply loaded with about a kilogram of trees) orchards tend to be small and located bees together with a laying queen. The • 6,740 ha planted in 2005 and 13,095 ha near to each other, thereby increasing tubes are not used much at present, in 2006. the risk of pesticide damage to colonies. but the Beekeepers’ Act was changed • 2007 should be similar, but after that to permit the use of frameless colonies It is in the southern end of South- impossible to predict. Key unknowns, such for pollination, and the tubes remain a as water availability and the changes to eastern Australia that beekeepers are clever idea, as they are light to transport the tax implications of MIS (Managed most active in pollination work. The and easily disposable when pollination Investment Scheme) investments etc make Goulburn Valley is an important area is complete. predictions difficult. for cherries and pome fruit, including Current mature plantings require an estimated nashi; and in the outer Melbourne area Pesticides are sometimes a problem for 150,000 hives, with a further 180,000 needed for pome fruit, cherries and berries are pollinators as insect pests breed well in the non-bearing trees over the next five years as grown. Pollination of seed crops, clover, the tropics. they mature. lucerne, carrot and canola is undertaken in southwest Victoria. Tasmania There is unlikely to be 150,000 hives on almond pollination for a little while Paid pollination is of minor importance More and more orchardists are using yet. Bennett is calculating hive numbers to the beekeeping industry in hail mesh, which requires specific on the generally accepted stocking rate Tasmania. Relatively few hives are practices for effective pollination. Bees of six hives/ha of mature trees, and is involved, and those that are, are often must not be located under the mesh allowing for trees reaching maturity in owned by non-professional beekeepers. until the trees are flowering so as to 2007. avoid bees orientating themselves outside the hail mesh covered area. The majority of hives are used for pollinating apples, cabbage, cauliflower, In practice, growers do not stock trees at six hives/ha until the trees have Pollination of broad acre crops such as raspberries, and carrot and onion crops. reached their peak, at about six to cotton has not occurred in the manner The most frequent crop pollinated is eight years. Less productive trees, both that was once hoped for. Growers are apples. reluctant to pay for pollination services the young and the old, are stocked at and beekeepers are reluctant to place Almond Pollination lighter rates. apiaries in areas of high pesticide usage. For the next year or two it is 15 Tropical North estimated that around 100,000 hives will be required for almond pollination. Cucurbits of several kinds are grown in All other things being equal, this figure the tropics to supply southern markets will rise to over 300,000 by 2012 and to out of season. The main growing areas 370,000 by 2015. Changes to taxation are Burdekin in Queensland, Katherine laws, removal of older plantations and in the Northern Territory and the market forces could all influence the Ord River Irrigation Area in Western future size of the industry. Australia. Since there are few, if any, Until a few years ago about half of feral colonies in the tropical north, Australia’s area of almonds was grown in South Australia and most of the Probably the greatest technical problem production is dependant on managed facing beekeepers involved with paid colonies that are either owned by the balance in Victoria. However there has pollination is achieving the necessary growers or by beekeepers and rented been a huge increase in plantings (see colony strength at the right time. This for pollination. below), over 80% of which has been in Victoria14 – along the Murray River in generally means having hives up to With fewer managed hives than the far west of the state. Other recent strength by late winter, so that when formerly in the Northern Territory, it plantings have been made in New the first blossoms open the bees are is expected that bees will have to be South Wales, but so far on a much ready to start work. This is a vital part trucked in from Queensland to meet smaller scale than Victoria. of almond pollination and beekeepers the need for pollination. depend on good conditions in the In a personal communication, Chris autumn/early winter. Maintaining European honeybees in Bennett, Industry Development the tropics is not without its problems, Manager, Australian Almond Industry The greatest problem facing growers is and a Western Australian innovation reported: likely to be finding sufficient hives. 14 Media Release October 2006, Almond Board of Australia. 23 15 Trevor Monson, 2007, pers com. 6. Queen Bees and Packages

Australian beekeepers probably rear more queens than they buy, but most professional beekeepers both buy queens and queen cells from commercial queen breeders and rear queens themselves.

Commercial queen breeders are located in widely scattered locations, although the greatest concentration is on the northern coastal area of South-eastern Australia – from the mid coast of New South Wales to south-eastern Queensland.

The beekeepers that rear most of their own replacement queens frequently buy their breeders from commercial queen breeders.

Queen breeders, in turn, buy most of their breeders from a relatively small number of reliable sources; import stock; and, select from within their own gene pool. Several genetic improvement programs have been attempted in the past and another is underway now.

All beekeepers, whether honey producers or professional queen breeders, recognise the importance allowed to lay. The brood is tested South Wales in conjunction with of nutrition in queen rearing. for the presence of disease, and if the the University of Western Sydney, queen and her brood are free from Hawkesbury. Both involved Italians. A strong export market exists for both queens and disease, larvae from the quarantined for packaged bees. queen are released to the importer. These programs ran their course, but Importations The imported queen is never released never achieved financial viability. When from quarantine and is killed when the money ran out the programs ran Australia has traditionally imported the importer is finished with her. The out. most of its breeding stock. However importer of course pays for the queen with stricter and more expensive to remain in quarantine. As well, a private genetic improvement quarantine protocols, importations program was established in New South have waned and more of the industry’s Full details on all quarantine matters Wales from imported Carniolan and breeding stock is being sourced locally. are available from the Australian Italian stock. This involved one family’s Quarantine and Inspection Service. See dedication to stock improvement Nevertheless queens are still being Appendix II. using isolated mating. For many years imported, driven by the desire of it provided foundation stock to queen Australian queen exporters to meet the Genetic Improvement breeders. demands of their customers. Australian Programs breeders import preferred stock A new attempt at a genetic from the country they are supplying, Influential sections of the beekeeping improvement program is currently reproduce it in large numbers and industry want a national genetic underway, this time driven by the peak export the progeny back to the country improvement program implemented, industry body, the Australian Honey of origin. but recognise that the task is too Bee Industry Council (AHBIC). daunting and too expensive to be The new program is called the Quarantine undertaken by an individual queen Australian Queen Bee Breeding Group Queen bees could be imported breeder. (AQBBG). It is intended that the relatively freely from Europe until program should become self-funding 1964 and from USA until 1983. Since In 1980 a national research levy was and provide a long-term source of the opening of a national quarantine introduced and some of the funds high quality breeding stock for all of facility in 1983 the imported queens generated by the levy helped finance Australia except the State of Western are kept in nucleus colonies located two breeding programs, one in Western Australia, which, because of its freedom in bee-proof flight cages. The escorts Australia in conjunction with the from European Foulbrood, does not are destroyed and examined for the Western Australian Department of permit the introduction of bees. The presence of parasites and the queens Agriculture and the other in New program got underway in the autumn 24 of 2006 and its first generation of smaller enterprises producing the rest Queen caging time commonly queens will be evaluated by selected – not unlike the old 20/80 theory, varies from 14 to 21 days after cell commercial beekeepers in 2007. where 20% produce 80% of the product introduction. The longer period is and vice versa. used if extra brood is required, later in Queen Breeding Practices autumn when mating is slower, and for in Australia The export market is essential for the Carniolans because they take longer to continued prosperity of the sector. mate. Surplus brood is used to boost Italian is overwhelmingly the most cell feeders. popular race, with much less interest Commercial queen breeders are located in the grey races, Caucasian and in widely scattered locations, although However, Australian research published Carniolan. the greatest concentration is on the in 2001 examined the number of northern coastal area of South-eastern introduced queen bees still alive 14 The Cloake system of producing Australia – from the mid coast of days after introduction (Introduction queen cells, whilst not universal, is the New South Wales to south-eastern Success), and the number surviving 15 most common, particularly among Queensland. weeks after introduction (Short Term commercial queen breeders. The Cloake Survival)16. The results were: system is outlined in the Proceedings The Cloake system is the most of the XXVIth International Congress common cell starting method. Grafts Table 6.1 Introduction Success of Apiculture, Adelaide 1977, pp 204- vary from one bar of 30 to two bars of Age of queens when % of queens alive 206 and in an article by Bruce White caught 14 days after introduction 25 cells. The Cloake system is generally In days and Bill Winner in the December 1990 used to start and finish the cells. 7 15.0 issue of the Australasian Beekeeper. Finished queen cells are usually held in 14 47.5 an incubator for the last one to three 21 85.0 Honey producers mostly use nucleus days prior to emergence. 28 85.0 colonies compatible with their regular hives, usually regular hive bodies Mating colonies include mini-nuclei, Table 6.2 Short Term Survival divided into several compartments three-five frame single-nuclei and two- each of which houses a nucleus colony. Age of queens when % of queens alive three nuclei in a standard hive body. caught 15 weeks after Demaree boards, which in effect create The standard hive body containing In days introduction a nucleus colony on top of a regular multi-nuclei is popular because it 7 10.0 hive, are common in all states, as can quickly be converted to a honey 14 17.5 are freestanding three or four frame production unit when not required 21 62.5 nucleus hives. Queen breeders are much 28 60.0 for queen mating purposes. Mini or more likely than honey producers to use 35 72.5 mini-nucs of one design or another. baby nucs require far fewer bees to stock them nucs containing full-depth These results confirmed what many frames, even though more care is Introduction by mailing cage and by people had long suspected and may required to maintain mini nuclei in the gauze Miller cage is practiced all lead to caging times being extended warm climates. A compromise size over Australia and so is papering on for to allow the young queen more time is also used – half length full-depth uniting colonies. in the mating colony. Even before combs. the research results were published, Many commercial beekeepers prefer to one Queensland queen breeder was let a nucleus colony or a Demaree grow Mating nucleus apiaries are stocked advertising “All Queens are held in into a productive hive rather than to according to forage availability and nucs for 28 days before catching” and introduce a caged queen into a failing hold from 40 to 150 nuclei. The another now advertises “Queens are colony. number of colonies in, or caged on a 21 day cycle in line with preferably out of but adjacent to mating current research results.” The methods of rearing and handling yards, varies between four and 12 per queen bees adopted by commercial 150 nuclei, depending on the number Supplementary feeding is widely used queen breeders and by honey producers of cells introduced at the same time. by queen producers. Carbohydrate is rearing queens for their own use Drone combs are introduced during supplied both as granular sugar during depend on the same basic principals but July for September grafting in areas winter to maintain colonies and as a may differ from one part of the country experiencing low winter temperatures. syrup for warm weather stimulation. to another. Queen cell starters and feeders may If conditions are good, queen cells Commercial Queen Breeding also be fed protein supplements, either are transferred to mating nuclei as home mixed or commercial patties. A relatively small number of large scale the mated queens are caged. In less queen breeding enterprises produce favourable conditions nuclei are left Protection from disease is important. most of the queen bees with much queenless for a day or two. Commercial queen breeders are 16 Rhodes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� J and Somerville D (2001) Introduction and Early Performance Success of Queen Bees. Honeybee News 2(1):13-14 25 permitted to feed fumagillin to control new breeder queen bees are selected where brood is moved above the queen Nosema disease. Both commercial from daughter queens of existing excluder and grafting is carried out queen breeders and honey producers breeders, based on personal observation 2 - 3 days later, is also common, as is rearing their own queens commonly and on the favourable reports from starting cells in a queenless colony and feed oxytetracycline hydrochloride client. Artificial insemination is used by finishing them above a queen excluder. (OTC) to prevent European some breeders. As noted above, breeder Foulbrood. Since commercial queen queens continue to be imported. Although many types and sizes of breeders are constantly working their mating nuclei are found, the standard hives the possibility of an infection of Honey Producer Queen hive body containing multi-nuclei is going undetected Breeding preferred because it can quickly be is quite remote. converted to a honey production unit It is probable that over half of the when not required for queen mating Queen banks are sometimes used to beekeepers in Australia rear most or purposes. Demaree boards (or splits, as hold queen bees during the collection all of their queens. Of the remaining they are also called) are also popular. periods prior to despatch. Queen bees beekeepers, most rear some and buy are generally banked for less than a some, and it is only a minority who Single nuclei are sometimes carried week and one month is considered buy all of their queens. However, with each load of bees and used to the maximum period. The short term the number of queens reared by paper both queen and bees onto weak banking colonies are made up in singles commercial apiarists for their own colonies. Both Miller cages and mailing using brood and bees from several lines. use, verses the number purchased cages are used to introduce queen bees It is important to ensure that queen from commercial queen breeders into stronger colonies. Several apiarists bees are transferred to the bank within obviously varies, depending on seasonal prefer to bank purchased queen bees 20–30 minutes of being caged. conditions, the price of honey and a minimum of overnight to provide demands on the beekeepers time. access to free flight worker bees before Queen bees are shipped in both Spring and autumn are the most introduction. wooden and plastic mailing cages. popular times for queen rearing. The cages are taped into small groups, Probably 95% of queens are Italian. State Differences packed into ventilated foam boxes, The few commercial beekeepers in the overnight express bags or into Riteway Whilst some breeder queen bees are Northern Territory purchase queens queen shippers (a mini bank for queen purchased, mass selection from within from Queensland queen breeders, despatch). Queen cells are packed in the production apiaries is popular. mainly because seasonal conditions and sawdust in foam coolers. Queen bees Beekeepers are usually on the lookout birds, Rainbow Bee Eaters, make queen are despatched by post, overnight coach for a good line of bees that they think rearing in the Northern Territory or express courier. may do well in their situation. hazardous. Some queens are reared locally. Seasonal Production There is no universal method of The domestic demand is spread from starting cells nor is there a standard South Australia beekeepers rely a peak in the spring through summer mating nucleus. The Cloake method is more heavily on mated queen bees and into autumn, depending on the popular while the supersedure method, from queen breeders than do their season.

Export markets, both for queens and for queens in packages, tend to be the reverse of Australian seasons. Thus autumn here corresponds to spring in the northern hemisphere. The export of both queens and packages extends from December through to as late in the autumn as bees can be produced, say April or even early May, depending somewhat on markets.

Breeder Queen Bees Queen producers carry a range of breeder stock from both AI and natural mating programs. As noted above, genetic improvement programs have attempted to maximise the productivity of Australian honeybees. Commonly, Painted queen bee 26 counterparts in other states. Shipments producers relied to some degree on varroa mites. Its weakness is the arrive in spring and early summer supersedure and self-raised queens. finite limit on cargo space aboard and commonly some of the queens A feature of Western Australian international flights. As well, it may be are introduced directly into hives beekeeping is the almost continuous necessary to feed hives shaken late in (sometimes via queen banks) whilst supply of pollen of many varieties summer to prepare them for winter. others are first introduced into nucleus which enables honey producers to raise colonies. The nucs are for later use, their own queens at times which fit in It is a requirement of importing even to be over-wintered to provide with honey production. countries that the apiaries from which young colonies for almond pollination. the bees are shaken must be inspected Packaged Bees by government officials, within a Tasmanian beekeepers have a strong specified time prior to shipping, preference for locally produced queens, The packaged bee industry in Australia and certified free of prescribed pests but climatic and other considerations began in 1963 with a shipment to and diseases. In New South Wales, dictate a significant use of mainland England from Queensland. Previously inspection costs are borne by the queen bees. It is said that the major there had been a modest trade in beekeeper. problem with mainland queen bees nucleus colonies. Packaged bee exports is their tendency to breed late in the remained steady until the late 1980s At the time of writing there are three season and consume stores. Local and early 1990s, when markets opened principal Australian package exporters, strains tend to cease breeding soon up in Korea. The Korean market was all based in New South Wales and after the leatherwood flow. This met by New South Wales exporters. all good at their job. They use the old minimises stress during the winter, Korea no longer accepts bees from imperial measure for packaged bees decreases the risk of starvation and Australia because of the presence here because exports to North America reduces the quantity of spring feeding of Small Hive Beetle. are sold by the pound – typically 4lb required. packages. The export of packages continues and The importation of queen bees into New South Wales remains the main Packaged bee production in Australia Western Australia was prohibited in producing state. It is estimated that is basically the same as anywhere else, November 1977. This has confined the NSW Department of Primary except that the shipping distance is the industry to the genetic pool of Industries staff inspected apiaries (on far greater and the shipping costs bees available in the State at that time. behalf of AQIS) for the export of consequently higher. Shipments These were predominantly Italian bees 25,000 packages during 2006. The leave Sydney airport in mid-summer with some Carniolan and Caucasian United States of America and Canada through to autumn; pass through the stock, also traces of North European were the principal markets. Australia’s tropics; and, arrive at their destination Black bees occur mainly in feral strengths as a source of queen bees and in mid-winter through to early spring. colonies on the south coast. There are packaged bees are its ability to deliver As a consequence of these factors few commercial queen breeders. In bees early in the northern hemisphere export is expensive and prone to the past a significant number of honey spring and its current freedom from occasional serious loss.

27 7. Diseases and Pests

Nosema disease Literature review and survey of beekeepers In Australia the serious diseases of bees are American foulbrood (AFB), European foulbrood (EFB), Chalkbrood, Nosema and Sacbrood; and the important pests are Wax Moth and the Small Hive Beetle. Other pests include ants, Cane Toads, the Bee Louse and the Rainbow Bee Eater.

The diseases and pests mentioned above are dealt with separately in this chapter. With a few notable exceptions they are common to all regions of Australia.

lopment Corporation May 2005

RIRDC Publication No 05/055 Legislation relating to bee diseases, both endemic by Michael Hornitzky A report for the Rural Industries Research and Deve RIRDC Project No DAN-228A and exotic, exists in all Australian states and territories.

Any of the common bee diseases may limit production. The worst of them, AFB, can be Legislation was first applied to the Exotic Diseases cripplingly expensive to control. The loss of hives beekeeping industry early last century All of the important exotic diseases destroyed because of AFB is a minor cost compared to in response to the spread of American the cost of the additional effort required to minimise are also notifiable. Exotic diseases, the risk of AFB spreading within the apiaries. foulbrood (AFB), Paenibacillus larvae. wherever found, are the concern of all Preventing the spread of AFB reduces, or even of the states and the Commonwealth. nullifies, some of the economies of scale achieved by Other important diseases and pests Attempting to contain or eradicate an modern large-scale beekeeping. of bees have appeared in Australia exotic disease that occurs in Australia The development of EFB, Chalkbrood and Nosema since legislation was first applied is a national effort coordinated is strongly influenced by temperature and nutrition. to beekeeping and they have been by the Agriculture and Resource The causal organisms for these diseases are present in incorporated into existing legislation. Management Council of Australia the colony for most of the time and symptoms appear and New Zealand’s Australian when conditions suit the development of the causal However, there is a clear trend by organism. Veterinary Emergency Plan, known as legislators to move responsibility for AUSVETPLAN. None of the diseases of bees found in Australia are controlling bee diseases, particularly transmissible to humans – they present no threat to AFB, from the State to the industry. AUSVETPLAN is a series of public health. technical response plans that describe With the possible exception of the Small Hive Beetle, Commonly, legislation regulating the the proposed Australian approach to the pests mentioned, although serious to individual keeping of bees has provisions for the an exotic animal disease incursion. The beekeepers on occasion, are generally regarded as registration of apiaries; identification of documents provide guidance based on nuisances that have to be dealt with as necessary. hives; disposal of infected hives; the use sound analysis, linking policy, strategies, The most important pests not in Australia are of removable frame hives; abandoned implementation, coordination and the mites – Varroa, Acarine and Tropilaelaps. or neglected hives; exposed honey; emergency-management plans. Africanised Bees are not generally considered a disease control; and, the declaration of serious threat. These exotic diseases are discussed A working group of industry specialists notifiable disease. separately in this chapter. has prepared a set of strategies for dealing with an incursion of exotic bee With regard to endemic diseases, Legislation diseases or pests. The strategy may be most legislation lists several diseases as viewed on the AUSVETPLAN web Endemic Diseases notifiable even though in practice most site. Legislation is in place in all states attention is paid AFB and its control. and territories aimed at limiting the Under certain circumstances the spread of endemic bee diseases; and Government agencies see advantage industry is obliged to share in the cost at containing or eradicating exotic in declaring certain diseases notifiable of controlling, or attempting to control, bee diseases, should they appear for the sake of maintaining an avenue an incursion of pests or disease. To in Australia. The Acts of State or for legislative control and so that finance this obligation an Emergency Territory Government have different international trade requirements may Animal Disease (EAD) Response Cost names – Apiaries Act, Stock Diseases be met. Some unusual anomalies exist Sharing Deed of Agreement has been Act, Animal Health Act and so on, but between states, though as mentioned, ratified by industry and a levy has been are similar in most respects. the regulations are generally similar. imposed to create a fund to be used in 28 the event of an exotic incursion. The detail.17 regulations exist for the disposal or fund is capped at an amount of AU$1 sterilisation of AFB infected material. million. Registration of beekeepers in Tasmania is not Treatments include destruction by compulsory. The Tasmanian apiary industry has established an Apiary Industry Disease Control burning, irradiation with Cobalt 60, Brood Diseases Program (AIDCP) under the conditions set out and, dipping in hot wax. Irradiation in section 46 of the Animal Health Act 1995. A American foulbrood (AFB) of infected hive material has largely committee comprising representatives from all replaced burning of infected hive stakeholder groups from within the industry has material as a control mechanism. formed to manage the program.

Each year beekeepers register with the AIDCP. They Hornitzky also developed an extremely receive free honey tests for AFB. The number of free sensitive test that can detect AFB in tests depends on the number of hives registered. They commercial honey samples, even at are also given the option of paying for more tests at a sub-clinical levels. Commercial honey reduced rate at the time of registration. The reduced rate is able to be offered due to economies in scale. If samples are cultured and linked to a the honey is tested with a positive spore count the trace-back system to the hives of origin. beekeeper is notified and receives free inspection and Several states provide a bulk honey AFB is contagious and is commonly advisory service from officers of the Department of testing service. spread throughout the apiary by the Primary Industry & Water. The honey testing also enables the Department to discover and target any The barrier system of minimising the interchange of infected hive material. If disease “hot spots” on a seasonal basis. untreated, infected colonies die and if spread of AFB that was pioneered in neglected, all the hives in an apiary may Unlike in the past when all registration fees collected Western Australia has been widely be expected to perish. were retained as consolidated revenue and lost to the adopted, in one form or another, industry, beekeepers register with the AIDCP which by beekeepers in most states. A full makes provision for the fees collected to be retained barrier system is one where honey AFB is endemic throughout most of in a bank account managed by the committee and Australia. It is generally regarded as the to be used by the committee to benefit the industry. supers and combs removed from nation’s most serious disease of bees. Funds are only spent on extension and management hives for extraction are returned to At various times industry organisations of bee diseases, both endemic and exotic, including the hives of origin. A variant, a partial have considered national campaigns bee incursions and mites. For example some of the system, ensures that hive materials funds have been used to reprint bee disease field are maintained in particular pallets to reduce the level of AFB infection, guides, pay for visiting experts to address beekeepers so far without adoption. Coordinated at field days and have been important in purchasing of particular loads or at least within control programs exist in some states. pheromone lures and materials for the establishment the same load. In South-eastern of a bait-hive program for Tasmanian ports. Australia loads of supers are commonly In some states beekeepers may be rotated as honey is harvested. When a compensated for material destroyed in Most Tasmanian beekeepers are very barrier system is introduced sufficient treating AFB. Most states have some aware of AFB and are diligent in additional supers must be provided to kind of inspection service available to searching for it. In the spring a very maintain the integrity of each apiary help enforce the provisions of their careful inspection of the brood nest – a significant additional capital cost. respective Acts and most states have a is made. In the early spring, hives are Some beekeepers have had their laboratory testing service available for usually low on stores and are being fed. extracting equipment tailor-made to the positive diagnosis of AFB. There is very little honey on the hives. suit the barrier system, by ensuring that This is when AFB is most likely to be the extractors hold discrete box loads of It is salutary to note that legislation found. Infected colonies usually have combs and that combs are returned to intended to control AFB has been in a few infected cells at the time of the the correct box after extraction. place throughout most of Australia spring inspection and are therefore for 90 years. In that time a fortune easily treated with oxytetracycline At least one beekeeper keeps track of has been spent on inspectors’ salaries, hydrochloride (OTC). hive material by labelling each box with registration fees and compensation a bar code and using a hand held bar schemes, yet nowhere has AFB In a major breakthrough Dr Michael code reader on each visit to each apiary, 18 been eradicated, or even adequately Hornitzky of the New South Wales thus enabling him to trace individual controlled. If anything, changes Department of Primary Industry boxes from hive to hive using a custom in beekeeping practices may have found that although the spores of the designed computer program. exacerbated the problem. causal organism of AFB, the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvae, Since OTC is available for the control The use of antibiotics to control AFB are very resistant to heat, chemical of European Foulbrood (EFB) in all is banned in all mainland states and disinfectants and desiccation, they are states except Western Australia, where territories and only in the island State quite sensitive to gamma radiation EFB does not occur, the possibility of Tasmania are antibiotics permitted. from cobalt 60. that it may be deliberately used for the In fact Tasmania’s approach to AFB control of symptoms of AFB cannot control is worth looking at in some In states other than Tasmania be discounted. In areas where OTC is 17 David���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� White, Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Pers com. 29 18 Hornitzky,��������������������������������������������������������������� MAZ; Wills, PA(1983) Gamma radiation inactivation of Bacillus larvae to control American foulbrood. Journal of Apicultural Research 22:196-199. routinely “blanket fed” to control EFB, and has been endemic throughout such colonies develop Chalkbrood. the possibility exists that symptoms eastern Australia since the mid 1970s. of AFB are being unintentionally In old larval remains the bacterium, Chalkbrood is caused by the fungus suppressed. In either case bulk honey Bacillus alvei, is commonly present as a Ascosphaera apis. It occurs widely in testing, if available, should show AFB secondary invader. the temperate regions of the Northern spores even if the symptoms of the Hemisphere and in Hawaii, New disease are not evident. EFB is controlled with the antibiotic Zealand and Western Samoa and was oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC). first diagnosed in Australia in 1993. The infection rate of AFB in most Procedures and protocols for treating It is now endemic in most areas of areas is probably less than 1% of EFB with antibiotics are similar in all Australia. registered hives. In recent years the states where the disease occurs. OTC reported incidence of AFB in New is the only antibiotic recommended for There is no cure for Chalkbrood, but South Wales has fallen, and from the treatment of EFB. it is believed that its symptoms may be March 2005 to March 2006 only 45 reduced by “good beekeeping practice”. beekeepers (out of 3,195 registered To obtain OTC, most states require a beekeepers) reported AFB in their prescription from a veterinarian or an It is accepted that some colonies clean apiaries. No one knows how many order to supply from a Government out Chalkbrood infected dead brood infected apiaries went unreported. apiary officer, although South Australia much faster and more thoroughly than is more rigorous in trying to prevent others, but more research is necessary European foulbrood (EFB) antibiotic treatment of EFB from to understand why.

accidentally or deliberately treating 19 American foulbrood (AFB) and Hornitzky says : requires evidence that AFB is not A. apis grows best in slightly chilled larvae as its optimal temperature for growth and formation present in the apiary and has not been of fruiting bodies is about 30oC (Maurizio, present for the previous six months. 1934). Experiments have shown that brood is most susceptible when chilled immediately after Great care is taken to minimise the risk it has been capped (Bailey, 1967). The chilling of OTC residues occurring in honey. need be only a slight reduction of temperature, from the normal 35 oC, for a few hours; and it can EFB is usually noticed in early spring easily occur, even in warm climates, in colonies when colonies are building up and to Western Australia and the Northern that temporarily have insufficient adult bees to a lesser extent in autumn. Low larval Territory are the only areas in Australia incubate their brood adequately. Larvae are most mortality may occur in light infections known to be free from EFB. To help likely to be chilled in early summer when colonies or when the colonies are on good maintain this EFB-free status, bees, are growing, and drone larvae often suffer most honey, used hives, hive products, or as they are generally on the periphery of brood nectar and pollen flow conditions. nests. The smallest colonies are at the greatest risk High mortality of larvae, pupae and used beekeeping equipment cannot of becoming chilled because they have the lowest young adult bees occurs during a heavy be imported into Western Australia capacity for heat and relatively large surface areas. infection or when colonies are on poor unless accompanied by the prescribed Heath (1982a, b), in extensive reviews, quotes certificate. several observations that chalkbrood is aggravated nutritional conditions. when colonies are rapidly expanding in spring, Chalkbrood i.e. when the ratio of brood to adult bees is high, or Sub-optimal brood rearing when it is increased experimentally; and that very temperatures in the spring and small colonies used for mating virgin queens or in frequent interruption of nectar flows observation hives are very susceptible. Koenig et al. and pollen production places hives (1987) also noted that decreasing the ratio of adult bees to brood aggravated chalkbrood; and Pederson under stress that stimulates the (1976) showed that artificially heating hives in development of not only EFB but spring diminished the incidence of the disease. Other also of Chalkbrood and Nosema. non-lethal factors, such as slight infections by viruses With all three diseases the symptoms Although Chalkbrood is not usually or bacteria, or poisoning, or inadequate food from fatal to honeybee colonies it can cause disease nurse bees may well cause the same effect as and severity of the infection may be chilling by slowing the rate of development of larvae reduced by “good beekeeping practice”. substantial production losses. (Bailey and Ball, 1991). That is, by having young queens, maintaining relatively new combs Chalkbrood varies greatly in its severity. The effects described above go a in the hive, particularly in the brood At its worst it causes major loss of long way to explain the often severe chamber; regulating the size of the colony strength with a consequent outbreaks experienced in Tasmania in hive to suit the strength of the colony; loss of production. This commonly the spring, when colonies are weak but rearing bees on good conditions; and, occurs in spring and autumn. At other being fed to encourage expansion of taking care when moving hives. times its presence in the hive is barely the brood nest. noticeable. Chalkbrood seems to European foulbrood is caused by become a problem when colonies are the bacterium Melissococcus pluton stressed for some reason, but not all

30 Sacbrood left untreated, and these showed an increase in The antibiotic, fumagillin is useful brood mortality due to Sacbrood during the same in controlling nosema disease, but period. We have observed similar results on smaller numbers of hives in several other apiaries. because of the persistence of fumagillin residues, its use is restricted. Short Other Diseases and Pests of feeding fumagillin, there is no real control for nosema. Beekeepers Nosema working areas where nosema is likely to be a problem pay particular attention Sacbrood is the most common of to nutrition, both pre and post winter a group of viral diseases infecting honey flows. honeybees in Australia. Hornitzky reported in 198720 that five viruses Small Hive Beetle were detected in samples of honeybees submitted to the New South Wales Department of Agriculture Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Glenfield, from Nosema disease, caused by the 1980 to 1983. They were Sacbrood protozoon, Zander, is virus (SBV), black queen-cell virus a parasite of the honeybee that can (BQCV), chronic bee-paralysis virus seriously limit production in some (CBPV), Kashmir bee virus (KBV) years, both by the direct effect of short- and cloudy-wing virus (CWV). lived bees and by infecting the queen, often resulting in early supersedure. It seems likely that bees carry the virus The Small Hive Beetle (SHB) Aethina Nosema is rated as a serious disease of tumida Murray, thrives in sub-tropical at all times but only show symptoms bees in most states. when they are stressed in some way. and tropical climates. It was identified Thus bees may not so much “catch” a The honeybee colony can tolerate a in colonies near Sydney late in 2002 viral disease but for some reason fail low to medium incidence of nosema. It and was probably present for a year to suppress a virus they are already is only when a large proportion of the or so before that. It has since spread carrying. bees within a colony become infected widely in South-eastern Australia. In with the parasite that the colony is the circumstances, eradication of the Many beekeepers have long believed adversely affected. Gross contamination exotic pest was not an option. that inadequate nutrition may be of the host occurs under conditions At first the SHB did not cause any responsible for outbreaks of Sacbrood. favourable to the parasite. serious damage. This fact alone Certainly Darling Pea has a strong probably explains why it took so long relationship with Sacbrood in north- N. apis develops most rapidly at about to recognise the pest. Beekeepers western New South Wales. However 30°C. Development is retarded once occasionally saw an apparently since Darling Pea contains a poison the temperature drops into the low harmless beetle or two in their hives. principal that produces a condition 10s (about clustering temperature) or They saw a few more after rain, when of “pea struck” or “loco” disease rises into the mid to high 30s (typical the humidity was high, but otherwise in livestock, it is possible that the summer temperatures in much of sightings were sporadic. Sacbrood symptoms exhibited by bees Australia). working Darling Pea are caused by Over time, however, damage became The temperature most suited to poisoning. evident. Although it is more likely nosema development is most likely to find SHBs in weak, diseased or Sacbrood is generally of little to be experienced by colonies queenless colonies that in normal importance, but in severe outbreaks, in autumn or spring. These are healthy ones, they have become a pest such as on Darling Pea, the quantity of times of suboptimal brood rearing of colonies over a wide area of the dead larvae overwhelms the colony. As temperature. Colonies having east coast of Australia, from south mentioned above, the mortality may be difficulty in maintaining optimum of Sydney to Cairns in Queensland. due to poisoning and not to Sacbrood brood rearing temperature commonly As mentioned in the chapter on virus. suffer from nosema. These are pollination, it is expected that bees will the conditions that also suit the have to be trucked into the Northern Observations in South Australia development of Chalkbrood. Thus one suggested the efficacy of feeding sugar Territory from Queensland to meet of the drawbacks of working winter syrup to treat Sacbrood.21 The report the need for pollination, and SHB will honeyflows and of manipulating said: almost certainly be carried with them. hives in cold weather is that the In an apiary heavily infected with Sacbrood. 40 hives treated with sucrose syrup showed a reduction disadvantages of suboptimal brood The beetle also damages supers of in Sacbrood. Brood mortality of 50% reduced to rearing temperatures with poor honey and stored combs in extracting 3% in three weeks. Another 40 ‘check’ hives were nutrition are often combined. premises well away from the high 20 �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Hornitzky M (1987) Prevalence of Virus Infections on Honeybees in Eastern Australia. Journal of Apicultural Research 26(3):181-185. 31 21 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Pinnock D E and Mew P H (1980) Sucrose Therapy for Sacbrood Disease of Bee Larvae. Waite Agricultural Institute. ABK 82(5):107 humidity of the coast. The micro- tropical north and the northern end the temperature to minus 7ºC for 4.5 climate of extracting premises provides of South-eastern Australia are ideal hours and all stages of the wax moth sufficient warmth and humidity for the for wax moth breeding whereas the life cycle will be killed. The same result beetle to reproduce. relatively cool climate in Tasmania will be achieved at minus 12ºC for 3 means that wax moth is less important hours or minus 15º for 2 hours. SHB has been found in feral in that state. colonies and has been observed to be Some beekeepers have purpose-built reproducing, pupation occurring in Beekeeping practices also influence the cold rooms capable of holding several composted material on the floor of severity of the wax moth problem. It thousand boxes whereas others use the nest site. Beetles apparently take is not so serious in Western Australia shipping containers fitted with a advantage of the area of the nest site because boxes and frames are usually refrigeration unit. inaccessible to bees. It is therefore used on a regular basis, leaving little possible that SHB may cause more time for wax moth to take hold. In Heat will also kill all stages of the wax damage to feral colonies than to the principal beekeeping areas of the moth, however the high temperatures managed ones. South-eastern Australia however, required; 46ºC for 1.3 hours or 50ºC honey flows are less regular and in for 40 minutes, present a generally At present, protecting stored combs by some seasons supers are not rotated unacceptable risk. refrigeration, as for wax moth, appears regularly enough to minimise wax to be effective – but experience is moth infestation. Thus it is probable Chemical-free control may also be limited. The recommended application that from time to time beekeepers attempted with one of the insect- of Phostoxin for the control of wax will have a large number of combs in attracting light devices. One type moth (see below) reportedly kills SHB storage during the warmer months, electrocutes the adult moths attracted larvae. posing a challenge to control methods. to the ultra-violet light and is generally known as a “Zapper”. Another type The Honey Bee Research and The older and darker the comb the attracts the moths into the device Development Committee is funding more prone it is to deprivation of where they drown in a tray of water research by the NSW Department wax moth, sorting combs to establish and is sold under the name of “Bug of Primary Industries to develop an priority for treatment is, in theory, an Eater”. effective in-hive bait for SHB control. advantage. In practice it may be too A bee-proof bait station has been time consuming. Ants successfully tested but use of the The ubiquitous ant is a common pest preferred chemical component has not Phostoxin is registered at an of bees in many areas, particularly the yet been approved. In the meantime application dose rate of 1.5 tablets/m³ under the brand names of SANPHOS, drier regions. SHB populations continue to grow and NUFARM/PESTCON and trade to spread. names FUMIGATION TABLETS In the past ants have largely been Wax Moth and FUMITOXIN respectively controlled by poison or pesticides, in New South Wales, Queensland, a practice that is no longer Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, environmentally acceptable. As well, in Western Australia and the Australian many of the areas where ants cause the Capital Territory and the Northern most problems, some landholders are Territory, “for the control of the Larger producing certified “organic” product Wax Moth and the Lesser Wax Moth and will not tolerate pesticides or in Beehives and Equipment”. The poisons being used. major problem with this chemical is The wax moth is a pest of stored that airtight conditions are required if In the meantime, beekeepers choose combs. Occupied hives, unless very all stages of wax moth are to be killed. sites as far from ants as possible – or at weak, have no problem with wax moth. These cannot always be easily achieved least sites with few nests. Italian bees are particularly aggressive and therefore reduces the effectiveness towards moths. Both the greater wax of Phostoxin in the industry. The significant losses that ants may moth Galleria mellonella and lesser wax cause have stimulated the development moth Achroia grisella are present in The preferred option is to build cold of a variety of stands to make the bees Australia but G. mellonella is the most rooms to provide a form of control that in hives inaccessible to ants. One of common and most destructive. does not depend on toxic chemicals. the most successful ideas is the use Maintaining cold rooms below 4ºC of beehive stands where the legs are Although wax moth can cause will protect combs from wax moth placed in pots of oil. This prevents extensive damage throughout most damage indefinitely, but the moth will the ants from crawling up the legs. of Australia, the generally warm become active again when combs are Unfortunately it is impractical for most conditions for much of the year in the removed from the cold room. Drop commercial beekeepers. 32 Cane toads In Tasmania the louse is widespread found in the north island of New and commonly encountered. B. Zealand in early 2000 and has since caeca is considered harmless by most spread to the South Island, so it is close. beekeepers. Beekeepers consider that the louse may aggravate the queen and Although the Varroa mite is a native despoil comb when developing to the parasite of the Asian honeybee Apis adult form. cerana, V. destructor can infest the European honeybee. While the Asian Rainbow Bee Eater honeybee can tolerate the mite, the European honeybee cannot. The cane toad, Bufo marinus is a major problem for beekeepers along the coast Overseas experience suggests that of Queensland and a lesser problem should Varroa become established in on the far north coast of NSW. The Australia it would spread rapidly and cane toad is becoming a pest in the would, within two or three years, kill Northern Territory around Katherine most colonies not being treated with and is reportedly spreading. an appropriate acaricide. Treatment is expensive both for the purchase of the The toads have voracious appetites and The Rainbow Bee Eater, Merops acaricide and for the additional labour have developed a liking for bees in their ornatus, is a serious pest of bees in the diet. Apiarists consider that the safest tropical north of Australia. The bird involved. Exports of queen bees and way to protect bees from this pest is to is often a nuisance in other regions, packaged bees could be affected. place the hives on stands. particularly to queen rearing operations. Australia has plans in place to attempt These stands are made of timber or The birds migrate north in the winter, to contain an outbreak should one which coincides with the dry season in occur. As well as strict quarantine steel pipe and usually carry two hives. 22 The legs of the toad stands fold under the tropical north. Bellis reports : requirements, Australia maintains the frame for travelling, while the The birds migrate from southern Australia to a network of sentinel hives close to northern Australia and some go beyond to PNG possible places of entry – ports and legs of the timber stands are usually and eastern Indonesia and return to southern dismantled from the frame. The legs Australia in August/September to breed. Huge airports – that are monitored for the splay out so that the stands are stable. numbers travel through the Torres Strait during presence of mites. The hives usually have to be up to these migrations. 500mm off the ground for the bees to Other Mites In the tropical north the presence of be safe from the toads. Tropilaelaps large numbers of the birds can force Bee Louse bees to remain in their hives for most The mite Tropilaelaps clareae may be of the day. Hundreds of birds can be more of a problem than even Varroa, present in or near apiaries. if it ever reaches our shores. It is about half the size of and During summer months the birds can even more deadly. Its native host is the be found in many parts of Australia Giant Honey Bee Apis dorsata but it is and are often blamed for eating young able to transfer to Apis mellifera. The queens that are on their nuptial flight. treatment for Tropilaelaps is similar to The so called Bee Louse, Braula coeca that for Varroa. (it is actually a wingless fly) occurs in Exotic Diseases and Pests Tasmania, but not on the Australian Varroa Tracheal Mite mainland. The tracheal mite Acarapis woodi, is the These insects may occasionally be cause of what was previously known found on worker bees and drones, as Acarine Disease, or Isle of Wright but they mainly infest queen bees. Disease. The mite infests the trachea As a rule the adult louse does little of the bee and slowly weakens the host, damage, although it may eventually eventually killing it, or at least causing cause the death of the queen. It is its premature death. Colonies may not a true parasite, but feeds on the The greatest threat to beekeeping in die when the infestation is acute. The nectar or honey which it extracts Australia is probably the species of disease is not as dramatic in its effect as from the mouth parts of its host. Varroa mite known as Varroa destructor the mites mentioned above. European The greatest damage is caused by the (known henceforth in this item simply honeybees have considerable tolerance larvae burrowing in the cappings of as Varroa). Australia is one of the few to the mite, which is reportedly more honeycombs. countries free from Varroa. It was of a problem in cooler climates. 22 ��������������������������������������������Glen Bellis, (2002), personal communication. 33 8. Appendices

Appendix I: Plant Names23

All scientific names of species shown in this list without nomenclatural authorities follow the nomenclature used in Harden (1990, 1992, 2002) Flora of New South Wales, Volumes 1, 3 and 2 (revised edition). Non-New South Wales species have the nomenclatural authorities shown. Common Names First

Apple Angophora species Leatherwood Eucryphia milliganii. Hook.F. Almonds Prunus amygdalus Batsch Lignum, Eremophila species Bangalay Eucalyptus botryoides Lucerne Medicago sativa Belbowrie Melaleuca quinquenervia Mallee Box Eucalyptus pilligaensis, Bimble Box Eucalyptus populnea Mangrove Aegiceras species Blackberry Rubus fruticosus, Mangrove Avicennia species Blackbutt Eucalyptus pilularis Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua Blue Billy Goat Weed Ageratum conyzoides Mint Weed Salvia reflexa Blue Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon Mountain Ash Eucalyptus oreads Boobialla Myoporum montanum Mugga Ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon Broad-leaved Ironbark Eucalyptus fibrosa Napunyah Eucalyptus ochrophloia Broad-leaved Tea-tree Melaleuca quinquenervia Narrow-leaved Ironbark Eucalyptus crebra Brown Box Eucalyptus microcarpa Paterson’s Curse Echium plantagineum Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua Pea bush Pultenaea villosa Brush Box Lophostemon confertus Pilliga Box Eucalyptus pilligaensis, Caley’s Ironbark Eucalyptus caleyi Pink Bloodwood Corymbia intermedia Caltrop Tribulus terrestris Pink Gum Eucalyptus fasciculosa F.Muell. Canola Brassica species Red Box Eucalyptus polyanthemos Cape Weed Arctotheca calendula Red Mahogany Eucalyptus resinifera Carbeen Corymbia tessellaris Red Mallee Eucalyptus oleosa Carpet Weed Phyla nodiflora Red Stringybark Eucalyptus macrorhyncha Coastal Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia Bonpl. Ribbon Gum Eucalyptus viminalis Coolibah Eucalyptus Coolabah River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis Darling Pea Swainsona species Salvation Jane Echium plantagineum Dryland Tea-tree Melaleuca lanceolata Sarsaparilla Alphitonia petriei Ellangowan Eremophila deserti Silver-leaved Ironbark Eucalyptus melanophloia, Forest Red Gum Eucalyptus tereticornis Spotted gum Corymbia maculata Fuzzy Box Eucalyptus conica St. Barnaby’s Thistle Centaurea solstitialis Gidgee Acacia cambagei Sugar Gum Eucalyptus cladocalyx F.Muell. Glycine Glycine tomentella Sydney Blue Gum Eucalyptus saligna Grey Box Eucalyptus microcarpa Tasmanian Blue Gum Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Grey Gum Eucalyptus punctata Turnip Weed Rapistrum rugosum Grey Ironbark Eucalyptus paniculata Vipers Bugloss Echium vulgare Horehound Marrubium vulgare White Box Inland Bloodwood Corymbia tumescens White clover Trifolium repens Inland Grey Box Eucalyptus microcarpa White Mahogany Eucalyptus acmenoides Jarrah Eucalyptus marginate White Mallee Eucalyptus gracilis Donn ex Smith White Stringybark Eucalyptus globoidea Jelly Bush Leptospermum species Wild Turnip Brassica tournefortii Karri Eucalyptus diversicolor F.Muell. Yellow Box Leatherwood Eucryphia lucida (Labill.) Baill. Yellow Stringybark Eucalyptus muelleriana 23 34 ����������������������������������������������������������������������Thanks to botanist Dr Peter Myerscough for his help with plant names. Botanical Name First

Angophora species Apple Eucalyptus microcarpa Brown Box Acacia cambagei Gidgee Eucalyptus coolabah Coolibah Aegiceras species Mangrove Eucalyptus muelleriana Yellow Stringybark Ageratum conyzoides Blue Billy Goat Weed Eucalyptus obliqua Brown Stringybark Alphitonia petriei Sarsaparilla Eucalyptus obliqua Messmate Arctotheca calendula Cape Weed Eucalyptus ochrophloia Napunyah Avicennia species Mangrove Eucalyptus oleosa Red Mallee Brassica species Canola Eucalyptus oreades Mountain Ash Brassica tournefortii Wild Turnip Eucalyptus paniculata Grey Ironbark Centaurea solstitalis St. Barnaby’s Thistle Eucalyptus pilligaensis Mallee Box Corymbia intermedia Pink Bloodwood Eucalyptus pilligaensis Pilliga Box Corymbia maculata Spotted Gum Eucalyptus pilularis Blackbutt Corymbia tumescens Inland Bloodwood Eucalyptus polyanthemos Red Box Corymbia tessellaris Carbeen Eucalyptus populnea Bimble Box Echium plantagineum Paterson’s Curse Eucalyptus punctata Grey Gum Echium plantagineum Salvation Jane Eucalyptus resinifera Red Mahogany Echium vulgare Viper’ s Bugloss Eucalyptus saligna Sydney Blue Gum Eremophila species Lignum, Eucalyptus sideroxylon Mugga Ironbark Eremophila deserti Ellangowan Eucalyptus tereticornis Blue Gum Eucalyptus acmenoides White Mahogany Eucalyptus tereticornis Forest Red Gum Eucalyptus albens White Box Eucalyptus viminalis Ribbon Gum Eucalyptus botryoides Bangalay Eucryphia lucida (Labill.) Baill. Leatherwood. Eucalyptus caleyi Caley’s Ironbark Eucryphia milliganii Hook.F. Leatherwood Eucalyptus camaldulensis River Red Gum Glycine tomentella Glycine Eucalyptus cladocalyx F.Muell. Sugar Gum Leptospermum species Jelly Bush Eucalyptus conica Fuzzy Box Lophostemon confertus Brush Box Eucalyptus crebra Narrow-leaved Ironbark Marrubium vulgare Horehound Eucalyptus diversicolor F.Muel. Karri Medicago sativa Lucerne Eucalyptus diversifolia Bonpl. Coastal Mallee Melaleuca lanceolata Dryland Tea-tree Eucalyptus fasciculosa F.Muell Pink Gum Melaleuca quinquenervia Belbowrie Eucalyptus fibrosa Broad-leaved Ironbark Melaleuca quinquenervia Broad-leaved Tea-tree Eucalyptus globoidea White Stringybark Myoporum montanum Boobialla Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Tasmanian Blue Gum Phyla nodiflora Car pet Weed Eucalyptus gracilis White Mallee Prunus amygdalus Batsch. Almonds Eucalyptus leucoxylon Blue Gum Pultenaea villosa Pea bush Eucalyptus macrocarpa Hook. Grey Box Rapistrum rugosum Turnip Weed Eucalyptus macrocarpa Hook. Inland Grey Box Rubus fruticosus Blackberry Eucalyptus macrorhyncha Red Stringybark Salvia reflexa Mint Weed Eucalyptus marginata Jarrah Swainsona species Darling Pea Eucalyptus melanophloia Donn ex Sm. Silver-leaved Ironbark, Tribulus terrestris Caltrop Eucalyptus melliodora Yellow Box Trifolium repens White clover

35 Appendix II: Government Agencies

Commonwealth Agencies Hamish Lamb, Apiary Experimentalist, QDPI, PO Box Agriculture and Resource Management Council of 5165 SCMC Nambour QLD 4560 Australia and New Zealand’s Australian Veterinary Phone: 07 5444 9613. Email: [email protected] Emergency Plan (AUSVETPLAN) Website: www.aahc.com.au\ausvetplan South Australia Michael Stedman, Primary Industries and Resources, Australian Quarantine Inspection Service, GPO Box 858 South Australia, Apicultural Adviser, 33 Flemington Street Canberra ACT 2601. Glenside SA 5065. Phone 08 8207 7975. Email: stedman. Phone: 02 6272 3933. Email: [email protected] [email protected] Website: www.aqis.gov.au Tasmania Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation Rick Campbell, Veterinary Officer Department of Primary (RIRDC), PO Box 4776 Kingston ACT 2604. Industries, Water and Environment (DPIWE), PO Box Phone: 02 6272 4539. Email: [email protected] 303 Davenport TAS 7310. Phone: 03 6421 7644. Email: Website: www.rirdc.gov.au [email protected] State and Territory Agencies – Contact Details Graeme Raphael, Stock Officer, DPIWE, PO Box 96 Australian Capital Territory Oatlands 7120. Environment ACT, PO Box 144 Lyneham ACT 2602. Ph: 03 62545012. Email: [email protected] Phone: 02 6207 9777. Email: [email protected] Website: www.environment.act.gov.au Victoria Russell Goodman, Apicultural Scientist, Institute for New South Wales Horticultural Development, Private Bag 15, Ferntree Gully Doug Somerville, Apiary Officer, Department of Primary Delivery Centre Vic. 3156. Phone: 03 9210 9222. Email: Industries (DPI) PO Box 389 Goulburn NSW 2580. [email protected] Phone: 02 4828 6619. Email: [email protected]. gov.au Peter Kaczynski, Senior Apiary Inspector, Department of Primary Industries, Shire Hall, Barkly Street, Ararat VIC Michael Hornitzky, Principal Research Scientist, DPI, 3377. Phone: 03 5355 0527. Email: peter.kaczynski@dpi. Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, PMB 8, vic.gov.au Camden NSW 2570. Phone: 02 4640 6311. Email: [email protected] Western Australia Rob Manning, Project Manager, Agriculture Western Mick Rankmore, Regulatory Specialist, Apiaries, DPI, PO Australia, Baron-Hay Court, South Perth WA 6151 Box 546, Gunnedah NSW 2380 Phone: (08) 9368 3567. Email: [email protected] Phone: 02 6742 9274. Email [email protected]. gov.au Bill Trend, Senior Apiculturist, Agriculture Western Australia, Baron-Hay Court, South Perth WA 6151 Northern Territory Phone: 08 9368 3535. Email: [email protected] Vicki Simlesa, Technical Officer Crocodiles & Apiary Officer Berrimah Farm, GPO Box 3000, Darwin NT 0801 Australia Tel 08 8999 2036. Email [email protected]

Queensland Peter Warhurst, Senior Apiary Officer, Queensland Department of Primary Industries (QDPI) PO Box 231 Warwick QLD 4370. Phone: 07 4661 1733. Email: [email protected] 36 Appendix III: Beekeeper Organisations

National Beekeeper Organisations State and Territory Producer Associations Australian Honey Bee Industry Council (AHBIC), PO New South Wales Apiarists’ Association Inc, PO Box 3018 Box R838 Royal Exchange NSW 1225. Toongabbie East NSW 2146. Phone: 02 9247 1180. Email: [email protected] Web Phone: 02 9631 3934. Email: [email protected] site: www.honeybee.org.au Northern Territory Beekeepers’ Association, c/o Vicki Federal Council of Australian Apiarists’ Associations, RSD Simlesa, GPO Box 3000, Darwin NT 0801 Australia Tel 08 7440 Northern Highway, Strathallan VIC 3622. 89992036. Email [email protected] Phone: 03 5484 9231. Email: [email protected] Queensland Beekeepers’ Association Inc, PO Box 49 Australian Queen Bee Breeders’ Association, MS 825, Mapleton QLD 4560. Middle Road Peak Crossing QLD 4306. Phone: 07 5445 7512. Email: [email protected] Phone: 07 5467 2135. Email: [email protected] South Australian Apiarists’ Association, PO Box 293 National Association of Crop Pollination Associations, 17 Tintinara SA 5266. Goya Road Newnham TAS 7248. Phone: 08 8757 2001. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 03 6326 6892. Email [email protected] Tasmanian Beekeepers’ Association, 78 Hill Street, West Launceston TAS 7254 Phone: 03 6334 2027. E-mail: [email protected]

Victorian Apiarists’ Association, PO Box 40 California Gully, VIC 3556. Phone: 03 5446 1455. E-mail: [email protected]

Western Australian Farmers’ Federation (Inc.) Beekeepers Section, PO Box 6291 East Perth WA 6892. Phone: 08 9486 2100. E-mail: [email protected]

Appendix IV: Journals

Honeybee News, PO Box 352 Leichhardt NSW 2040. Phone: 02 9798 6240. E-mail: [email protected]

The Australasian Beekeeper, 34 Racecourse Road Rutherford NSW 2320. Phone: 02 4932 7244. E-mail: [email protected]

The Australian Bee Journal c/o Bookish, 6 High Street, Eaglehawk, VIC 3556 Phone: 03 5446 8211. E-mail: [email protected]

37 Commercial Beekeeping in Australia

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by Frederick S Benecke RIRDC Publication No 07/059. RIRDC Project No FSB1A

This report, which is a snapshot of the Average Australian honey production ranges conditions, access to public flora resources and Australian beekeeping industry describes the between 20–30,000 tonnes per year. The gross the industry’s ability to cope with pests and physical and cultural environment in which value of production is estimated to average diseases. beekeeping is undertaken and the production around $65 million and the average production methods commonly employed by beekeepers. per hive was 118 kilograms per hive in 2005. The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) manages Beekeepers have been assisted in their There are around 9,600 apiarists in Australia and funds priority research and translates results endeavours, particularly in recent years, by world operating around 500,000 hives. Over 70% of into practical outcomes for industry. standard research and RIRDC’s Honeybee hives are operated by commercial beekeepers R&D Program aims to to improve the managing more than 200 hives. Most Our business is about new products and services productivity and profitability of the Australian commercial honeybee keepers are regionally and better ways of producing them. beekeeping industry. based. Domestic honey consumption is likely to remain relatively elastic with other spreads Most of the information we produce can be Australian honey is regarded on the world representing a close substitute as retail prices downloaded for free from our website: www. market as a premium quality product. It is increase. There is currently a strong demand in rirdc.gov.au. produced over a large area from a wide variety the horticultural industry for hive pollination of flowering plants which, because of fluctuating services. rainfall patterns and the extended budding cycles of much of the honey producing flora, Future growth of the honeybee industry is tend to flower spasmodically. dependent on international demand and supply

Contact RIRDC: Level 2 15 National Circuit Barton ACT 2600

PO Box 4776 Kingston ACT 2604

Ph: 02 6272 4819 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] web: www.rirdc.gov.au www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop