USERS’ METAPHORIC INTERACTION WITH THE INTERNET AMY LOUISE HOGAN A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Bath Department of Psychology March 2008 COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rests with its author. This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. This thesis may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purposes of consultation. .................................................................................. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS _____________________________________________ ii LIST OF TABLES __________________________________________________ xi LIST OF FIGURES ________________________________________________ xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS __________________________________________ xix ABSTRACT ______________________________________________________ xxi STRUCTURE OF THESIS _________________________________________ xxii DEFINITIONS ___________________________________________________ xxvi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH _________________1 1.1 OVERVIEW _____________________________________________________ 2 1.2 THE INTERNET _________________________________________________ 7 1.2.1 The contemporary Internet: 2001-2004 ____________________________ 9 1.2.2 The current Internet: 2005-2009 ________________________________ 11 1.2.3 The future of the Internet ______________________________________ 12 1.3 CONTEXTUALISING THE RESEARCH _____________________________ 13 CHAPTER 2. USABILITY, MODELS AND METAPHORS ____________ 15 2.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 16 2.2 MODELS IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION __________________ 16 2.3 METAPHOR ___________________________________________________ 18 2.3.1 Defining metaphor ___________________________________________ 18 2.3.2 Visual metaphors ____________________________________________ 19 2.3.3 This thesis' approach to defining metaphor ________________________ 20 2.4 THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR __________________________________ 21 2.4.1 Metaphors enable comprehension _______________________________ 21 2.4.2 Metaphors provide insight _____________________________________ 22 2.4.3 Metaphors facilitate communication _____________________________ 22 2.4.4 Metaphors aid technological comprehension ______________________ 23 ii 2.5 THE FUNCTION OF METAPHORS IN HCI _______________________ 23 CHAPTER 3. COMMON INTERNET METAPHORS AND THEIR ORIGINS 25 3.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 26 3.2 POPULAR METAPHORS OF THE INTERNET _______________________ 26 3.2.1 Metaphors shape and are shaped by technologies ___________________ 28 3.3 METAPHORICAL MODELS OF THE INTERNET _____________________ 32 3.4 INTERFACE METAPHORS _______________________________________ 35 3.4.1 Desktop metaphor ___________________________________________ 35 3.4.2 Iconic metaphors ____________________________________________ 37 3.4.3 Document metaphors _________________________________________ 38 3.5 SYSTEM METAPHORS __________________________________________ 38 3.5.1 Spatial metaphors ___________________________________________ 39 3.5.2 Container metaphors _________________________________________ 40 3.5.3 Orientation metaphors ________________________________________ 40 3.5.4 Personification metaphors _____________________________________ 40 3.6 MAPPING THE INTERNET _______________________________________ 40 CHAPTER 4. CULTURAL AND INTERFACE METAPHORS ___________ 44 4.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 45 4.2 CULTURAL METAPHORS _______________________________________ 45 4.3 INTERFACE METAPHORS _______________________________________ 47 4.3.1 Problems with interface metaphors ______________________________ 51 4.4 DESIGNERS' METAPHORS VERSUS USERS' METAPHORS __________ 54 4.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE USER CENTRED DESIGN LITERATURE ______ 57 CHAPTER 5. USERS AND THEIR INTERNET METAPHORS __________ 59 5.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 60 5.2 USERS’ METAPHORS OF THE INTERNET __________________________ 60 5.2.1 User variation in Internet metaphors _____________________________ 63 5.3 USERS OF THE INTERNET _______________________________________ 65 5.3.1 Internet self-efficacy _________________________________________ 66 5.3.2 Attitudes __________________________________________________ 68 iii 5.4 USING THE INTERNET __________________________________________ 69 5.4.1 Communication _____________________________________________ 70 5.4.2 Information gathering ________________________________________ 71 5.4.3 Entertainment and Commerce __________________________________ 71 CHAPTER 6. METHODOLOGICAL AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL ISSUES __ 73 6.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 74 6.2 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN HCI ________________________ 74 6.3 BEYOND USABILITY TESTING __________________________________ 75 6.4 MEASURING SUBJECTIVTY _____________________________________ 77 6.4.1 Using Q Methodology to measure subjective understanding __________ 78 6.4.2 Q as a mixed method _________________________________________ 80 CHAPTER 7. RESEARCH GOALS AND RATIONALE _______________ 82 7.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 83 7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND GOALS _____________________________ 83 7.2.1 Users’ metaphors of the Internet ________________________________ 84 7.2.2 Textual and visual metaphors __________________________________ 86 7.2.3 User variation in metaphor use _________________________________ 88 CHAPTER 8. Q SORT: METHODOLOGY _______________________ 91 8.1 INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 92 8.2 CONDUCTING A Q STUDY ______________________________________ 92 8.2.1 Concourse generation ________________________________________ 93 8.2.2 Q Sample selection __________________________________________ 93 8.2.2.1 Structured Q samples ____________________________________ 94 8.2.2.2 Unstructured Q samples __________________________________ 94 8.2.2.3 Q samples, representativeness and emergent meaning __________ 95 8.2.2.4 Q sample size __________________________________________ 96 8.2.2.5 Preparing the Q sample __________________________________ 96 8.2.3 P Set selection ______________________________________________ 98 8.2.4 Q Sorting procedure _________________________________________ 98 8.2.4.1 Post Q sort ____________________________________________ 99 8.2.5 Factor Analysis ____________________________________________ 100 iv 8.2.5.1 Extraction and rotation of factors _________________________ 100 8.2.5.2 Factor loadings _______________________________________ 101 8.2.6 Interpretation ______________________________________________ 102 8.2.6.1 Bipolar loadings _______________________________________ 102 8.2.6.2 Distinguishing and consensus items _______________________ 103 8.2.6.3 Interpretation and context _______________________________ 103 8.2.6.4 Synthesising Q and R data _______________________________ 104 8.3 ONLINE Q SORTING ___________________________________________ 104 CHAPTER 9. Q STUDY PREPARATION: PILOT STUDIES __________ 107 9.1 INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________ 108 9.2 PILOT STUDIES _______________________________________________ 108 9.3 PILOT 1: CONCOURSE GENERATION ____________________________ 109 9.3.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 109 9.3.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 109 9.3.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 109 9.3.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 111 9.3.4.1 Internet vs. World Wide Web _____________________________ 112 9.3.4.2 Concourse generation __________________________________ 112 9.4 PILOT 2: Q SAMPLE SELECTION ________________________________ 120 9.4.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 121 9.4.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 121 9.4.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 121 9.4.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 123 9.4.4.1 Number of Q sample items _______________________________ 123 9.4.4.1 Combining Q sort mediums ______________________________ 123 9.5 PILOT 3: Q SAMPLE REFINEMENT ______________________________ 124 9.5.1 Aims ____________________________________________________ 124 9.5.2 Participants _______________________________________________ 125 9.5.3 Method ___________________________________________________ 125 9.5.4 Outcomes _________________________________________________ 128 9.5.4.1 Image Q sample selection ________________________________ 128 9.5.4.2 Text Q sample selection _________________________________ 129 9.5.4.3 Development of online Q sorting interface __________________ 130 v 9.5.4.3.1 FEATURES OF THE ONLINE INTERFACE ___________________ 130 9.5.4.4 Testing the Characteristics Profile Questionnaire _____________ 133 9.5.4.4.1 ORIGINAL QUESTIONNAIRE SETUP ______________________ 133 9.5.4.4.2 MODIFICATIONS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE _________________ 136 CHAPTER 10. METHOD AND PROCEDURE_____________________ 137 10.1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________ 138 10.2 P SET SELECTION ____________________________________________ 138 10.2.1 Website indexing (self-selection)