Studies on Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District, Kerala

Submitted by

Principal Investigator Co- Principal Investigator

Dr. Suhara Beevy S Dr. Kamarudheenkunju M

Professor, Department of Botany, Associate Professor,

University of Kerala, Department of Botany,

Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram University of Kerala,

Kariavattom, Thiruvanthapuram

2019 Studies on Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District, Kerala

REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE KERALA STATE BIODIVERSITY BOARD

BY PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR Dr. Suhara Beevy S AND CO-PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR Dr. Kamarudheenkunju M

2019 Department of Botany University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram- 695581

Studies on Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District, Kerala

2019

File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018

Team of experts

Dr. Suhara Beey S

Professor, Department of Botany,

Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram

Dr. Kamarudheenkunju M

Associate Professor, Department of Botany,

Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram Technical Assistance

Dr. Mariamma Cherian

Mr. Shibin V P

Mr. Deepudas

Mr. Arun Bahu B A

Mr. Sali Palode CONTENTS

1 Introduction 1-3 2 Objectives 3 3 Materials and Methods 4-6 4 Results and Discussion 7-131

Identification of the invasive plant species in the flood 4.1 7-97 affected areas

4.2 New introduction 119-121 4.3 Current status of invasive plant species in Karthikappally taluk 121-123 Impact of plant invasiveness in agricultural fields of 4.4 124 Karthikappally Taluk Soil profiling conducted in the 17 villages of Karthikappally 4.5 124-129 Taluk

Remedial measures and Recommendation for minimizing the 4.6 invasive plants species 129-132

5 Conclusion 133-134 6 Reference 135 7 Acknowledgement

List of Tables

TABLE NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1 Invasive plants reported in 9 the PBR-Cheppad village 2 Invasive plants identified 9-12 from Cheppad village 3 Invasive plants reported in 14-15 the PBR-Harippad Municipality 4 Invasive plants identified 15-18 from Harippad Municipality 5 Invasive plants reported in 19 the PBR-Kumarapuram village 6 Invasive plants identified 20-22 from Kumarapuram village 7 Invasive plants reported in 24-25 the PBR-Kandallor village 8 Invasive plants identified 25-28 from Kandallor village 9 Invasive plants reported in 30 the PBR-Karuvatta village 10 Invasive plants from 30-33 Karuvatta village 11 Invasive plant reported in 35 the PBR-Pallippad village 12 Invasive plants identified 36-39 from Pallippad village 13 Invasive plants reported in 41-42 the PBR-Arattupuzha village 14 Invasive plants identified 42-44 from Arattupuzha village 15 Invasive plants reported in 46-47 the PBR-Pathiyoor village 16 Invasive plants identified 47-52 from Pathiyoor village 17 Invasive plants reported in 53 the PBR-Chingoli village 18 Invasive plants identified 54-56 from Chingoli village 19 Invasive plants reported in 58-59 the PBR-Puthupally village 20 Invasive plants identified 59-61 from Puthupally village 21 Invasive plants reported in 62-63 the PBR-Karthikappally village

22 Invasive plants identified 63-66 from Karthikappally village 23 Invasive species reported in 68-69 the PBR-Veeyapuram village 24 Invasive plants identified 69-72 from the Veeyapuram village

25 Invasive species reported in 74 the PBR-Thrikunnapuzha village 26 Invasive plants identified 75-77 from Thrikunnapuzha village 27 Invasive plant reported in 79 the PBR-Muthukulam village 28 Invasive plants identified 79-82 from Muthukulam village 29 Invasive plant reported in 84 the PBR-Keerikkad village 30 Invasive plants identified 84-86 from Keerikkad village 31 Invasive plants reported in 88 the PBR-Cheruthana village 32 Invasive plants identified 88-92 from Cheruthana village 33 Invasive plants reported in 94 PBR-Krishnapuram village 34 Invasive plants identified 95-97 from Krishnapuram village 35 List of terrestrial spp. 98-114 identified from the study area during the present study 36 Invasive plants in wetland 114-116 system 37 Number of invasive spp. in 117-118 the different villages under the present study 38 Dominant invasive weeds in 120-121 the study area. KarthikappallyTaluk 39 Soil profiling from 17 125-126 villages of KarthkappallyTaluk 40 Recommendation for paddy 127-129 cultivation

LIST OF FIGURE

FIGURE CONTENT PAGE NO. NO. 1 Red alert districts of Kerala 2 2 Karthikappally Taluk 5 3 Data collection 4 Source of data collection- PBR 5 Source of data collection- PBR 6 Cheppad village 8 7 Harippad village 14 8 Kumarapuram village 18 9 Kandallor village 23 10 Karuvatta village 29 11 Pallippad village 34 12 Arattupuzha village 40 13 Pathiyoor village 45 14 Chingoli village 52 15 Puthuppally village 57 16 Karthikappally village 62 17 Veeyapuram village 67 18 Thrikunnapuzha village 73 19 Muthukulam village 78 20 Keerikkad village 83 21 Cheruthana village 87 22 Krishnapuram village 93 23 Familywise classification of invasive plant species 117 24 Invasive plant species diversity in terrestrial and wetland 118 ecosystem 25 Invasive plants species diversity in wetland ecosystem 119 26 Major invasive plants in agricultural field 27 28 29 Invasive species covered in the agricultural fields of different 30 villages 31 32 Dominant terrestrial invasive species in the study area of 122

Karthikappally Taluk

33 Dominant wetland invasive species in the 12 villages of 123 Karthikappally Taluk 34 Invasive species of Poaceae family 35 36 Mechanical Control- Method to invasive species 130 37 Chemical Controlling of invasive species 131 Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

INTRODUCTION

The severe flood of August 2018 due to unusual rainfall in the monsoon season affected different regions of Kerala drastically. It was the worst flood in Kerala in nearly a century; over 483 people died, 14 are missing, about a million of people were evacuated and the entire agro-economic status of the state drastically destroyed. According to the Government of Kerala, 1/6th of the total population of Kerala had been directly affected by the flood. India government declared Kerala flood as level 3 calamities or calamity of severe nature. The flood drastically affected the 8 districts of Kerala (Figure 1).

The drastic effects of flood totally changed the agricultural status of the State and caused the total destruction of the entire crops. The effects of flood also opened gates to some non-native plant species known as alien invasive plants into these areas.

INVASIVE PLANTS Invasive plants are those which are introduced as alien, exotic and non-indigenous species non-native to that locationbut very aggressive causing damage to the other plant species, human health and economic structure (Mack et al.2000, Saxena 1991). Invasion of exotic plant species leads to biodiversity losses (Inderjit et al. 2008, Rastogi et al. 2015) which chiefly include disruption of natural ecosystem processes, alteration of soil chemistry preventing the regrowth of native plants and economic crops and increased soil erosion. In India about 42% of the weeds in crop fields are aliens (Khuspe et al.1982, Nandpuri et al.1986) which caused 30% loss in crop production (Singh 1996). These plants have the potential to change the native plant biodiversity by forming dense colonies, competed aggressively and forced out the native plants. The major characteristics shown by invasive plants include rapid growth and short life cycle, resource uptake and use efficiency, prolific flowering and high seed production,

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

ability to grow in a wide range of habitats, high genetic variability and evolutionary genetics, long seed dormancy and staggered germination, efficient method

Figure 1. Red alert districts of Kerala

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

of seed dispersal, capacity of modifying invaded environment, ability to reproduce sexually/asexually, ability to use local pollinators, different phenology from native species allowing them to out compete, provide shade, which can be a great detriment for native plants, resistant to grazing, pests and diseases etc.The present study is aiming to interpret the vulnerability of our biodiversity due to invasiveness of different unused plants species by the flood during 2018 in the Karthikappally Taluk of Alappuzha District.

OBJECTIVES

 To identify the invasive alien plant species in the flood affected areas of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District, Kerala  To find out the new taxa, if any after flood  To study the current status of those invasive species  To study the impact of invasiveness in agricultural fields of Karthikappally Taluk  To suggest remedial measures for minimizing those species

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

MATERIALS AND METHODS

STUDY AREA

The area selected for the study is Kathikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District. Karthikappally Taluk is located in the upper Kuttanad region with North Latitude- 90.05‟ and 90.54‟ and East Longitude- 76.017‟ 30” and 76.040‟. Kuttanad in Alappuzha is known as the “Rice bowl of Kerala”. Rice cultivation followed by tapioca, sesame, coconut trees, plantains and pepper are the major agricultural practices in this area. Taluk area consists of 22.46 km2 of low land. Karthikappally Taluk is bordered with North Ambalapuzha and Kuttanad, East Chengannur and Mavelikara, West Arabian Sea and South Kollam District. The major water resources in the area consist of Pamba, Achenkovil River and Kayamkulam Lake. Karthikapplly Taluk is one of the main flood affected areas in Alappuzha District comprising 17 villages namely Arattupuzha, Veyapuram, Pallippad, Pathiyoor, Haripad, Cheppad, Thrikkunnappuzha, Cheruthana, Muthukulam, Chingoli, Karthikappally, Karuvatta, Kumarapuram, Kandhallor, Keerikkad, Puthuppally, Krishnapuram (Figure 2), of which Pallippad, Karuvatta, Veeyapuram, Thrikunnapuzha and Arattupuzha are rural villages andthe others urban.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 2.Karthikappally Taluk

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

METHOD OF STUDY

The members of the team conducted field survey in the villages of Karthikapally Taluk during the last week of December 2018 to April 2019. The team examined various fields, grasslands, waterbodies etc. of the study area. The invasive plant species were collected and identified by using flora and reference material (Sankaran et al., 2013). The plants were authenticated by the Curator, Department of Botany, University of Kerala and Dr. N. Mohanan, Scientist, JNTBGRI, Palode. The data were collected by field survey, unstructured interviews with authorities of Panchayaths including Panchayat secretary, President, Agricultural officers and also farmers and other local people (Figures 3-5). The People‟s Biodiversity Register, Development and Documents Plans were also used for sorting out the invasive alien spp. from the native ones.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Details of field survey conducted in 17 villages of Karthikapally Taluk during the study period are as follows.

A. IDENTIFICATION OF THE INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES

1. Cheppad village

Cheppad, a flatland village of Karthikappally Taluk belongs to Muthukulam block panchayath and is bordered with different other panchayaths such as north pallippad, west chingoli and muthukulm, south pathiyoor and east chettikulangara. National Highway-66, costal railway line, tributary of Achankovil river (Karipuzha- Kayamkulamvaliyathodu) and Pamba irrigation canal are the main characteristics of this village. This village has historical importance by the famous Eavoor temple, Kanjoor temple, Cheppadvaliyapalli, and NTPC (National Thermal Power Corporation). Geographically the place is a flatland with an area of 12.67 Sq. km (Figure 6). Agriculture is the backbone of this village and most of the people are moderate farmers. Coconut cultivation is the main farming followed by arecanut, rice, plantain and tuber crops etc. In paddy cultivation 20-25% of yield growth was observed in viripukrishi and 40-45% of yield growth in punchakrishi.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 6. Cheppad village  Latitude and longitude: 9.2363° N, 76.4737° E  Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

The PBR data revealed only three invasive species from Cheppad Village (Table 1), whereas present survey identified 48 species of terrestrial and 13 of wetland occurrence (Table 2).

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 1.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL LOCAL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO NAME Terrestrial

1. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Gini pulle 2. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Vayalchulli

Wetland

3. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Acanthaceae Vayalchulli Almeida

Table 2.Invasive plants identified from Cheppad village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

2. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

3. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

4. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

5. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

6. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

7. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

8. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 9. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

10. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

11. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

12. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

13. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

14. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

15. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

16. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

17. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

18. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

19. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

20. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

21. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

22. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

23. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

24. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

25. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

26. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

27. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

28. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

29. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

30. Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae

31. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

32. Merremia marginata (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

33. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

34. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

35. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

36. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 37. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

38. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

39. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

40. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

41. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

42. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

43. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

44. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston Fabaceae

45. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

46. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

47. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

48. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 49. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae 50. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

51. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

52. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

53. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

54. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

55. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

56. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae 57. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

58. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

59. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

60. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

61. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

2. Harippad Municipality Harippad Municipality, the capital of Karthikappalli Taluk (Figure 7) is with a population of 30977, includes 14333 male and 16644 females. Harippad is delimited by Veeyapuram and Cheruthana Panchayaths in the north, Pallippad Panchayath in the east, Karthikappalli and Chingoli Panchayaths in the south and Kumarapuram Panchayath in the west. Geographically the region is inclined from the east to the west direction. The Municipality is divided into 29

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

wards. Harippad Municipality is 10 km & 13 km away from Mavelikkara and Kayamkulam Municipalities respectively. Paddy, Coconut, Arecanut, Tapioca, Sesame, fruit crops and vegetables are the major crops cultivated here. The south west monsoon brings more rain to this region as compared to the north east monsoon. On an average the rainy season extends up to 7 months per annum here. Scanty rainfall is observed during the month of March April and May. Harippad comes under Onattukara agricultural zone.

The area is low lying land with blackish soil as well as 'Punja' region covered with muddy soil. Geographically it comes under coastal plain division. The ancient agricultural practices in the region followed feudal customs. 'Irippunilam' paddy cultivation is followed by Sesame and Horse gram cultivation. Fruit trees like Mango, Jack fruit, Arecanut, Plantains and Cashew, tubers like Tapioca and taro are also cultivating there. Harippad is blessed with the renowned and vast 'Punjapadam' like Vazhuthanam, Vadakkuthekk, Karakandam, Urulakkuzhi, Changanari, Pappad, Kalattinkari, Komkeri, Ambikkannari, Parambikeri, Chekkamayikeri, Nakrakkal, Thayamkeri, Sankerathilparamb, Kizhakkparambikerithuruth, Thonnurilpadav, Valiyaveshi, Koyikkari and Kannattuvila.

The invasive species reported in PBR and the present findings are shown in Tables 3&4 respectively.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 7. Harippad Municipality

Latitude and Longitude: 9.2799° N, 76.4592° E

 Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

Table 3.List of invasive plants in the PBR

Sl No Plant name Family Local name

Terrestrial

1. Panicum maximum Jacq Poaceae Gini pulle

2. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

3. Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Thottavadi

4. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. Asteraceae Communist pacha King&H. Rob 5. Eclipta prostrate (L.) L. Asteraceae Kayonni

Wetland

6. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Azolla

Table 4.Invasive plants identified from Harippad Municipality

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

2. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

4. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

5. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

6. Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae 7. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

8. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

9. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

10. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

11. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

12. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

13. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

14. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

15. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

16. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

17. Ecliptaprostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

18. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

19. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

20. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

21. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

22. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

23. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

24. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

25. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

26. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

27. Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae 28. Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Poaceae 29. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall.fil. Convolvulaceae

30. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

31. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

32. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

33. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

34. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

35. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

36. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

37. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

38. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

39. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

40. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

41. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.)Alston Fabaceae

42. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

43. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

44. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

45. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 46. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

47. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

48. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

49. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

50. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

51. Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

52. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

53. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

54. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

3. Kumarapuram village Kumarapuram comes under the Karthikappalli thaluk, lies in the south west border of Alappuzha (Figure 8). Formerly the region was under the ruling of Kayamkulam province. Kumarapuram which is a part of Onattukara agricultural zone is famous for paddy and sesame cultivation.

Figure 8. Kumarapuram village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and Longitude: 8.5126° N, 76.9254° E  Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

The village has an area of 13.75 sq. km which is divided into 15 wards. About 2.5 km of NH passes through the panchayath. The borders of the panchayath are East-Harippad Corporation and Cheruthana panchayath, North-Karuvatta and West- Thrikunnapuzha. The western region is rich with inland water bodies. The total population of this village is 27850. Koppara Karthikappalli waterway was made by Karthikathirunnal Maharaja in order to connect Kayamkulam Lake and Pamba River. But the drinking water is provided by public water supply authority. The major crop is coconut. The diseases and the pest attack diminished the coconut yield. According to the geography the panchayath can be subdivided into 3 zones. Eastern region is composed of silt and sand. The mid-western region is blessed with irippunilam. West is famous for inland water bodies.The traditional coir making marks the identity for Kumarapuram. The Vattakkayal region is also an eminent factor. The eastern region lies above the sea level and has some barren land.

The present study identified 36 terrestrial and 9 wetland plants compared to the few species in the PBR (Table 5&6).

Table 5. Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME Terrestrial 1. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Gini pulle

2. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Kallurukki 3. Eclipta prostrate (L.) L. Kayooni 4. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Kozupha Wetland 5. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Azolla

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 6.Invasive plants identified from Kumarapuram village

SL.NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

2. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

3. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

4. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

5. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

6. Cayratia pedata (Wall.) Gagnep. Vitaceae

7. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

8. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

9. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

10. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

11. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

12. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

13. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

14. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

15. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

16. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

17. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

18. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

19. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

20. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

21. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Rubiaceae

22. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

23. Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomatacea e 24. Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

25. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

26. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

27. Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae

28. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 29. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

30. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

31. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

32. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

33. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

34. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

35. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

36. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland

37. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

38. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Cabombaceae 39. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray

40. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae 41.

Acanthaceae 42. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida

43. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae 44.

Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae 45.

4. Kandalloor village Kandalloor village belongs to Muthukulam block panchayath, Karithikapplly Taluk, Alappuzha district (Figure 9). The place gets the name from the combination of two words „Kandal‟ means Mangrove forest and „ooru‟ means village or place.The village is located 44 km away from the district headquarters of Alappuzha with an area of 9.74 Sq. Km. The nearby villages of Kadallooor are Devikulangara, Arattupuzha, Pathiyoor and Muthukulam. The village is mainly boarded with Ochira block towards south, Mavelikara block towards east, Haripad block towards north and Baranicavu block towards west. Kayamkulam, Adoor, Mavelikara and Chenganoor are the nearby cities to Kandallooor village.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 9. Kandallor village

 Latitude and longitude: 9.1817° N, 76.4621° E  Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

The village is well-known by the richness of paddy fields followed by coconut lagoons, fish culturing, coir industry, apiculture and other agricultural practices. Most of the lands in the village are marshy in nature with thick mangrove plantation and plenty of inland water bodies with isolated landmasses. In ancient history Kandalloor belong to Kayamkulam Kingdom but later it was annexed by Travancore Kingdom under the leadership of Marthanda Varma. Southern tip of the village is covered by Kayamkulam backwater with thick

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

population of mangrove forest. Most of the mangrove forest in this village was well-known ecosystem of different flora and fauna.

Details of the invasive species from Kandallore village are given below (Table 7& 8).

Table 7. Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL. PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO. Terrestrial

1. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Poaceae Karuka

2. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacace Kozhupha

3. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Kavada

4. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. Asteraceae Communist pacha King & H. Rob.

5. Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng Lamiaceae Paradeshithumba

6. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae Ithilkanni

7. Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Thottavadi

8. Tragia involucrate L. Euphorbiaceae Choriyanam

9. Phyllanthus niruri L. Phyllanthaceae Keezharnelli

10. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Plantaginaceae Brahmi

Wetland

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

11. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch. Salviniaceae African payal

Table 8.Invasive plants identified from Kandallor village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

2. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

3. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

4. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

5. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

6. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

7. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

8. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

9. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 10. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

11. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

12. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

13. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

14. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

15. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

16. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

17. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

18. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

19. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

20. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

21. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

22. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

23. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

24. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

25. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

26. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

27. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

28. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

29. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

30. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

31. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

32. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

33. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae

34. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

35. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

36. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae 37. Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae

38. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

39. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

40. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

41. Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britton Cyperaceae 42. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

43. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

44. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

45. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

46. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

47. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

48. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

49. Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae

50. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

51. Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae

52. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

53. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

54. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

55. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

56. Wattakaka volubilis (L. fil.) Stapf. Asclepiadaceae

Wetland 57. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

58. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

59. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

60. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

61. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

62. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

63. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

64. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

65. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae

66. Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae

67. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

68. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

5. Karuvatta village Karuvatta the 4thsmallest village in Alappuzha District lies in the intersection between Haripad and Thottappally (Figure 10). The village is boarded with Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, Pallipad, Thrikunnapuzha, Arattupuzha and harippad with an area of 17.68 Sq.Km. The place is famous for vallam kali known as Karuvattavallam kali during onam season. The place is blessed with lot of paddy field, coconut lagoons and black water.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure10. Karuvatta Village

 Latitude and longitude: 9.3103° N, 76.4274° E  Altitude: 7 meters.Above Sea level

The river Achankovil and pamba reached directly through Arabian Sea by a leading channel in the Thotappallly beach of Karuvatta village. Pallana kumaranashansmarakam is a famous place nearby to Karuvatta. Karuvatta is also famous for its annual snake boat race or vallamkali. KaruvattaChundan, Karuvatta SreeVinayakan belongs to all people of Karuvatta and it is participating in the famous Nehru trophy boat race. The place is well known for its communal harmony. Karuvatta is famous for the legend of Karuvattaswamikal, a saint. There is an asramam and temple built for the Swamikal by his devotee. Karamuttu is an island which is at the northern border of Karuvatta.There is more than 300 houses in this area.

The invasive plant species identified in the present study and those reported in the PBR are given in Table 9 & 10.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 9.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME

Terrestrial

1. Panicum maximum Jacq Poaceae Gini pulle 2. Loranthus longiflorus Desr Loranthaceae Ethill

3. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. Asteraceae Communist pacha King & H. Rob 4. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka

5. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Kavada

Table 10.Invasive plants from Karuvatta village

SL. PLANT NAME FAMILY NO. Terrestrial 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

2. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

3. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

4. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

5. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

6. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

7. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

8. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

9. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

10. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

11. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

12. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

13. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

14. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

15. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

16. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

17. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

18. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

19. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

20. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

21. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

22. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

23. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

24. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

25. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

26. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

27. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

28. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

29. Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

30. Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Poaceae 31. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

32. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

33. Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae

34. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 35. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

36. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

37. Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britton Cyperaceae 38. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

39. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

40. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

41. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

42. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

43. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

44. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

45. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

46. Wattakaka volubilis (L. fil.) Stapf. Asclepiadaceae

Wetland 47. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

48. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

49. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

50. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

51. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

52. Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae

53. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

54. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

6. Pallippad village Pallippad village belongs to Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District (Figure 11). Pallippad is the name derived from the Buddhist terminology and it belongs to South Kerala Division. It is located 34 KM towards South from District headquarters Alappuzha, 5 KM from Harippad and 119 KM from State capital Thiruvananthapuram.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure11. Pallippad village

 Latitude and longitude: 9.2804˚N 76.4819˚E  Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Chingoli( 5 KM ), Cheppad ( 5 KM ), Karthikappally ( 6 KM ), Kumarapuram ( 6 KM ) and Cherukol (7 KM) are the nearby Villages to Pallippad and boarded with Mavelikkara Block towards East, Muthukulam Block towards South, Pulikeezhu Block towards North and Chengannur Block towards East.

Achankovil River passes the Pallippad before it reaches Veeyapuram. The place has abundant water resource, small lakes and water path with an area of 18.93 Sq. Km. In ancient times the place is known as the rice bowl of Travancore kingdom. Details of the plants identified in the village in comparison to those reported are shown in Table 11 & 12.

Table 11.Invasive plant species reported in the PBR SL. LOCAL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO. NAME

Terrestrial

1. Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piperaceae Mashipatcha

2. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Oxalidaceae Mukkutti

3. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Asteraceae Communist Rob. pacha 4. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Apocynaceae Shavamnaari

5. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae Moodillathali

6. Vanda spathulata (L.) Spreng. Orchidaceae Maravazha

7. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae Thamara

8. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. A Poaceae Karukapullu

9. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Kozhuppacheera

Wetland

10. Salvinia molesta Mitch Salviniaceae African payal

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 12.Invasive plants identified from Pallippad village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

2. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

3. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

4. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

5. Aervalanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

6. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

7. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

8. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

9. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

10. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

11. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 12. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

13. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

14. Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae

15. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

16. Cayratia pedata (Wall.) Gagnep. Vitaceae

17. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

18. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

19. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

20. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

21. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

22. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

23. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

24. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

25. Cyperus distans L. f. Cyperaceae

26. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

27. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

28. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

29. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

30. Epipremnum aureum (Linden & André) G.S.Bunting Araceae

31. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

32. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

33. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

34. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

35. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

36. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

37. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

38. Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae

39. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

40. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Rubiaceae

41. Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

42. Merremia emarginata (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

43. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

44. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

45. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

46. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 47. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

48. Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae

49. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

50. Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. & R. Br. Urticaceae

51. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

52. Ruellia tuberosa L. Acanthaceae

53. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

54. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

55. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

56. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

57. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

58. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

59. Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze Poaceae

60. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

61. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

62. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

63. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

64. Wattakaka volubilis (L. fil.) Stapf. Asclepiadaceae

Wetland 65. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

66. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

67. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

68. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

69. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

70. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

71. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

72. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

73. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

74. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

7. Arattupuzha village Arattupuzha, acoastal village, situated in the Muthukulam block in KarthikapallyTaluk (Figure 12) comprises an area of 22.7 Sq Km.

Figure12.Arattupuzha village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and Longitude:10.4182° N, 76.2262° E  Altitude: 6 meters. Above Sea level

Arattupuzha village is located in the south western border of Alappuzha. As per the 2011 census Arattupuzha has a population of 29246, of which 15378 are females and 13886 are males. The literacy rate of the village is 93%.The village is divided into 18 wards, of these, 14 lie between the lake and the sea, while the rest to the east of the lake. The village is bordered by Thrikunnapuzha Panchayath in the north, Karthikapally, Chingoli and Kandallor in the east, Arabian Sea in the west and Kayamkulam pozhi, Alappad and Devikulangara panchayaths in the south. The distributaries of Pamba River flow through the village and join the lake through Thrikunnapuzha. Being a coastal village Arattupuzha is formed by muddy and sandy soil. The presence of the sandy soil makes the region suitable for coconut plantation. Rice is the major crop cultivated in the village other than coconut. Salt water intrusion, lack of properly maintained irrigation system and frequent incidence of plant disease have diminished the agriculture practice in the area. Small scale industries like Dairy farming and inland pisciculture are the other major sources of income for the native people of Arattupuzha.

The list of invasive plant speciesidentified in the present investigation and those reported in the PBR are given (Table 13& 14).

Table 13.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME Terrestrial 1. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Gini pulle 2. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Azolla 3. Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Thottavadi 4. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

5. Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Communist pacha (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob 6. Tragia involucrata L. Euphorbiaceae Choriyanam

Table 14.Invasive plants identified from Arattupuzha village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

2. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

4. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. Ex DC. Amaranthaceae

5. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

6. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 7. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

8. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Plantaginaceae

9. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

10. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

11. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

12. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

13. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

14. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

15. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

16. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

17. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

18. Cyperus javanicus Houtt. Cyperaceae 19. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

20. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

21. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

22. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

23. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

24. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

25. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulacea e 26. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulacea e 27. Ipomoea pes-caprae pes-caprae Convolvulacea e 28. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

29. Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle Fabaceae

30. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 31. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

32. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

33. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

34. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

35. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

36. Sesamum radiatum Schum. &Thonn. Pedaliaceae

37. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

38. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

39. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.)Alston Fabaceae

40. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

41. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Asteraceae

42. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

43. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

44. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 45. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

46. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

47. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

48. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

49. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

50. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

51. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

8. Pathiyoor village Pathiyoor village belongs to Muthukulam block of Karthikapally Taluk (Figure 13). Total area of the village is 16.27 Sq km.

Figure13.Pathiyoor village

 Latitude and Longitude: 9.2155° N, 76.4968° E  Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

The Village is delimited by Cheppad Panchayath in the north, Kandalloor and Muthukulam Panchayaths in the west, Kayamkulam Municipality in the south and

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Chettikulangara panchayath in the east. It is situated in the central region of onattukara agricultural zone. The population of the region is 33925. Major agricultural crop in the village is coconut which spreads up to 1022Ha of land. Paddy cultivation is also in practice. Of the 657Ha of paddy field, 510Ha is virippunilam and 147 Ha belong to oorumundakam. Besides these, tapioca, ginger, turmeric, taro, pepper, legume and vegetables are cultivating as inter crops. Cashew nut and arecanut are the cash crops grown in the village. The direction of water flow is towards the west. Seven wetland divisions are also there in pathiyoor.

1. South Evoor wet land 2. East Pathiyoor wet land 3. Eruva wetland 4. Karilakulangara wetland 5. Pullukulangara wetland 6. West Pathiyoor wetland 7. Ramapuram wetland

Table 15. Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO Terrestrial 1. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Plantaginaceae Bramhi 2. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Asteraceae Communist Rob. pacha 3. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Bali karuka Poaceae 4. Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Wight Poaceae Vallipull &Arn. 5. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae Bhoothachadayan 6. Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. Lamiaceae Paradeshithumba 7. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae Ithilkanni 8. Peperomia pellucida Kunth Piperaceae Venal pacha

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Wetland 9. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Kappa pola Pontederiaceae 10. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch. African payal Salviniaceae

Table 16.Invasive plants identified from Pathiyoor village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

2. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

3. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

4. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

5. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

6. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

7. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

8. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

9. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. Ex DC. Amaranthaceae

10. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

11. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 12. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

13. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

14. Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) C.B.Clarke Cyperaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

15. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

16. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

17. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. Asteraceae

18. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

19. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

20. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

21. Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae

22. Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae

23. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

24. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

25. Croton bonplandianus Baill. Euphorbiaceae

26. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

27. Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae

28. Cyperus distans L.f. Cyperaceae 29. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

30. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

31. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

32. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

33. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

34. Epipremnum aureum (Linden & André) G.S.Bunting Araceae

35. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

36. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

37. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

38. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

39. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

40. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

41. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

42. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

43. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

44. Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Convolvulaceae

45. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

46. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Rubiaceae

47. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae

48. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

49. Ludwigia peruviana (L.) Hara Onagraceae

50. Merremia emarginata (Burm. fil.) Hall. Fil. Convolvulaceae

51. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. Fil. Convolvulaceae

52. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

53. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

54. Mucuna pruriens (L.)DC. Fabaceae

55. Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae

56. Operculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso Convolvulaceae

57. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 58. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

59. Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae

60. Polytria sindica (Houtt.) Veldkamp Cyperaceae 61. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

62. Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. & R. Br. Urticaceae

63. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

64. Ruellia tuberosa L. Acanthaceae

65. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

66. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

67. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

68. Senna occidentalis (L.)Link Fabaceae

69. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

70. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

71. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

72. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

73. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

74. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

75. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Asteraceae

76. Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze Poaceae 77. Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae

78. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston Fabaceae

79. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

80. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

81. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

82. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

83. Wattakaka volubilis (L. fil.) Stapf. Asclepiadaceae

Wetland 84. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

85. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

86. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

87. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

88. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

89. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

90. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

91. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

92. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

93. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae

94. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

95. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

96. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

97. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

98. Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog &Plas Araceae

9. Chingoli village Chingoli is an urbanized village within the Muthukulam block of Karthikapally Taluk (Figure 14).

Figure 14.Chingoli village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and Longitude: 9.2503° N, 76.4520° E  Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

The total area of the village is 6.60sq km and borders with the regions North – Karthikapally village and Harippad Municipality, East – NH 47, South – Cheppad 53 panchayath road and

West – Arattupuzha, Karthikapally village. The population of Chingoli is 13755 (2011 census) with 6336 males and 7419 females. Chingoli belongs to the costal planes of

Karthikapally Taluk. There are evidences which states the region was once flourished with mangroves. There are 12 canals in the village which join the Kayamkulam Lake in the west.

The major soil type is silt.Chingoli is an agricultural village. The major crops are paddy and coconut. Inter crops are also practiced with the crops such as tapioca, banana, elephant gram, pepper and vegetables. Salt water intrusion and soil acidification due to the excess use of chemical fertilizers are the major issues encountered and were accelerated by the devastating flood. In fresh water as well as salt water ponds oorujalamalsyakrishi has been conventionally practiced in chingoli, which are supported by the authorities as well.

Table 17.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

LOCAL SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY NAME

Terrestrial

1. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka

2. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. Asteraceae Communist King & H. Rob. pacha 3. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae Ethill

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 18.Invasive plants identified from Chingoli village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

2. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

3. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

4. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

5. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

6. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 7. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

8. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

9. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

10. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

11. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

12. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

13. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

14. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

15. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

16. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

17. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

18. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

19. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

20. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

21. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

22. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

23. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

24. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

25. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 26. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

27. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

28. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

29. Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

30. Senna tora (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

31. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

32. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

33. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

34. Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae

35. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

36. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

37. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 38. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

39. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae 40. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray. Cabombaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

41. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

42. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

43. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

44. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

45. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

46. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

47. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

48. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

49. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

50. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

10. Puthuppally village Puthuppally is a small village in Muthukulam Block in Alappuzha District of Kerala state (Figure 15). It comes under Devikulangara Panchayath of South Kerala Division. It is located 51 KM towards South from District headquarters of Alappuzha, 11 KM from Muthukulam and 102 KM from State capital Thiruvananthapuram. Vadakke Anjilimoodu is main junction and Kayamkulam, Adoor, Mavelikkara, Chengannur are the nearby Cities to Puthupally. Puthupally is famous for beaches and festivals. The village is bordered with

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Muthukulam Block towards North, Karunagappally Block towards South, Bharanicavu Block towards East and Mavelikkara Block towards North. Most of the places in the villages are Pattaya bhoomi. The land system of this village is categorized into Household area, paddy fields, coconut lagoons and backwaters. Coconut cultivation is the main agriculture practice in this place, which is followed by paddy cultivation and intercrop farming. The introductions of fishing harbour in this place reduce the paddy cultivation by the transfer of saline water from the pozhi and azhi.

Figure15. Puthuppally village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and longitude: 9.1394° N, 76.4852° E  Altitude: 23 meters. Above Sea level Table 19.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME

Terrestrial

1. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Fabaceae Sheemakonna Walp. 2. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae Ithil

3. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Guiana pulle

Wetland

4. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Azolla

Table 20.Invasive plants identified from Puthupally village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

2. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

4. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

5. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

6. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

7. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

8. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

9. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

10. Coi x lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae

11. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

12. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

13. Cyathula prostrate (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae

14. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

15. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

16. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

17. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

18. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

19. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

20. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

21. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

22. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

23. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

24. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Rubiaceae

25. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

26. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

27. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae

28. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

29. Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

30. Senna tora (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

31. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

32. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

33. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

34. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

35. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

36. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

37. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 38. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

39. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

40. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

41. Dryopteris formosana (Christ) C. Chr. Dryopteridaceae

42. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

43. Lemna minor L. Araceae

44. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

45. Persicaria barbata (L.)H.Hara Polygonaceae

46. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

47. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

11. Karthikapally village Karthikapally village is situated in the Harippad block of KarthikapallyTaluk (Figure 16). The total area of the village is 6.75 Sq.km, which is divided into 13 wards.These are delimited by theHarippad Corporation in the east, Thrikunnapuzha village in the west, Kumarapuram village in the north and Chingoli and Arattupuzha in the south. The village is a part of Onattukara which is constituted by Karthikapall, Karunagapalli and Mavelikkara Taluks. The region is a costal plane formed of greenish white sand deposited by waves. The soil contains organic matters from the sea. Karthikapally is blessed with paddy fields, and coconut plantations. Karthikapally is also blessed with canals. Karthikapally – Mankuzhy (Karuvatta) canal is the one among the route by which water from Pamba and Achankovil reach the Arabian Sea via Kayamkulam kayal. Coir making is the major small scale industry of this region.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 16.Karthikappally village

 Latitude and Longitude: 9.2575° N, 76.4508° E  Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

Table 21.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME

Terrestrial

1. Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Meliaceae Pulippan

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

2. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae Madantha

3. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka

Table 22.Invasive plants identified from Karthikappally village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

2. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

3. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

4. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

5. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

6. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

7. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson Acanthaceae 8. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

9. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

10. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

11. Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae

12. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

13. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

14. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

15. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

16. Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae

17. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

18. Cyperus javanicus Houtt. Cyperaceae 19. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

20. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

21. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

22. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. poaceae

23. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

24. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

25. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

26. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

27. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

28. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

29. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

30. Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Vitaceae

31. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

32. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

33. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

34. Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Bergius Poaceae 35. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 36. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

37. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

38. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

39. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

40. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

41. Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

42. Senna tora (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

43. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

44. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

45. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

46. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Asteraceae

47. Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae

48. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.)Alston Fabaceae

49. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

50. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

51. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

52. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 53. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

54. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

55. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

56. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

57. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

58. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

59. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

60. Lemna minor L. Araceae

61. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

62. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

63. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae

64. Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae

65. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

66. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

67. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

68. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

69. Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog &Plas Araceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

12. Veeyapuram village Veeyapuram located in Karthikappally Taluk of Alappuzha district in the state Kerala with an area of 14.02 Sq.km (Figure 17).

Figure 17.Veeyapuram village

 Latitude and Longitude: 9.3000ºN, 76.4667ºE  Altitude: 7 meters above sea levels

It is surrounded with Pamba and Achankovil River. This village is under Kuttanad sector having a lot of paddy fields and streams, originating from these two rivers. In Veeyapuram, about 15 acres of land belonging to forest department was declared as reserve forest by Kerala forest department in 2013. It is the one and only forest in Alappuzha District. Payippad snake boat race is conducted in this village. The Boat race is a 3-day annual event

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

starting on "Thiruvonam" day in "Chingam Month" every year. Final race is on the 4th day of Onam (Chadhayam). Star and month mentioned above are as per Malayalam calendar. These days fall on August or September in Gregorian calendar.Agriculture(paddy, coconut and vegetables),cultivation of pepper, banana, tapioca and nutmeg, cattle farming,fishing and marketing, cow dung selling,dredging of lime shells andspin threading are the major activity carried out in this village.

Table 23.Invasive species reported in the PBR

SL. PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO. Terrestrial 1. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae Chuvannacheera

2. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Kattumullenkeera

3. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

4. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae Kilukilikki

5. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae Nelapalai

6. Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae Thekkada

7. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae Nattapoochedi.

8. Merremia hederacea (Burm.fil.) Hall. Convolvulaceae Kudicivalli fil.

9. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae Poochavalanpullu,

10. Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae Malamtakara

11. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae Mattantakara

12. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae MalatanniShiruparuv a

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

13. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Vankuruntotti

14. Talipariti tiliaceum (L.) Fryxell Malvaceae Velipparuthi.

Wetland 15. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae Mullanpayal

16. Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae

17. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Pontederiaceae Kakkapola, Presl Kolachempu, Karimkovalum

18. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae African Pyle, Water moss, Giant Salvinia

Table 24.Invasive plants identified from the Veeyapuram village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO

Terrestrial 1. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

2. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

4. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

5. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 6. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

7. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

8. Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae 9. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

10. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae

11. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

12. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

13. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

14. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

15. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

16. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

17. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

18. Cyperus javanicus Houtt. Cyperaceae 19. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

20. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

21. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

22. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

23. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

24. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

25. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

26. Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae

27. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

28. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

29. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

30. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

31. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

32. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae

33. Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae 34. Merremia emarginata (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

35. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

36. Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

37. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

38. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

39. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 40. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

41. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

42. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

43. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

44. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

45. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

46. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

47. Sidacordifolia L. Malvaceae

48. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

49. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

50. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston Fabaceae

51. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

52. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

53. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

54. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 55. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

56. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

57. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

58. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

59. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

60. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

61. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

62. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C.Presl Pontederiaceae

63. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

64. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

65. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

13. Thrikkunnapuzha village Thrikkunnapuzha is the south-west part of Alappuzha district, Kerala, India (Figure 18).

Figure 18.Thrikunnapuzha village

Renowned as Sreemoolavasam, this coastal area found its place in the Kerala history. Thrikkunnapuzha is one of the gateways to the inland water ways of Alappuzha. This place where narrow canals, rivers, lakes lagoons and land meet are aptly called "backwaters". It is the land of fishermen with an area of 12.53 Sq.km. It is famous for its Ayyappa Swami Temple. National Waterway 3 passes through the place. Kumaran Asan, the great Malayalam poet died in a boat accident at Pallanayar in Kumarakodi of Thrikkunnappuzha. Assembly of God Revival Centre also situated here. Assembly of God Church of Thrikkunnapuzha is situated near the Marthoma U.P. School, Guest House Jn. Thrikkunnapuzha. This is the only one Christian fellowship in this village. Thrikkunnapuzha beach is very famous for "KarkidakaVavu Bali". The beach of Thrikkunnapuzha is very rich in mineral sand called 'black sand. “Thrkkunnappuzha Sri Dharma Sastha Temple” is one of the famous temples in Alappuzha District. Important agricultural practices carried out in this village are epper, rice, coconut, banana, vegetables, tapioca and nutmeg

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and Longitude: 9º150N 76º240E/ 9.25000ºN 76.40000ºE  Altitude:7 meter above sea level

Table 25.Invasive species reported in the PBR SL. PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO Terrestrial

1. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Plantaginaceae Neerbrahmi, Pennell

2. Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae Konda-pullu

3. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Belikaruka

4. Cyperus exaltatus Retz. Cyperaceae

5. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Muthanga.

6. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae Kayoonni

7. Leucaena Fabaceae coffee bush, cow tamarind leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit 8. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae

9. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Kozhuppacheera

Wetland

10. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Water Velvet, Feathered Water fern, Mosquito Fern

11. Hygrophila auriculata Acanthaceae Vayalchulli Schumach. 12. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae African Pyle, Kariba Weed, Aquarium Water moss, Giant

Salvinia

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 26.Invasive plants identified from Thrikunnapuzha village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

2. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

4. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

5. Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae

6. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 7. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

8. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

9. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

10. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

11. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

12. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

13. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

14. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

15. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

16. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

17. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

18. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

19. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

20. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

21. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

22. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

23. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

24. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

25. Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

26. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

27. Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae

28. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 29. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

30. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

31. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

32. Sesamum radiatum Schum. &Thonn. Pedaliaceae

33. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

34. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

35. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

36. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Asteraceae

37. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.)Alston Fabaceae

38. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

39. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

40. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 41. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

42. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

43. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

44. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

45. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

46. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

47. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

48. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

49. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

50. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

51. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

14. Muthukulam village Muthukulam is a small backwater village in Central Kerala (Figure 19). It is bordered by the Kanyakumari-Panvel National Highway 66 on the east and the backwaters to the west

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

with an area of 11.58 Sq. Km. A narrow strip of land comprising Aratupuzha village beyond the backwaters separates Muthukulam from the Arabian Sea in the West. Major crops: Coconut, Sesamum, Eruppunellu and VaazhaKrishi.

Figure 19.Muthukulam village  Latitude and Longitude: 9.2164° N, 76.4621° E

 Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 27.Invasive plant species reported in the PBR

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO Terrestrial 1. Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Communist pacha (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob 2. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka 3. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Kavada 4. Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Thottavadi 5. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Gini pulle

6. Tragia involucrate L. Euphorbiaceae Choriyanam Wetland 7. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) Acanthaceae Chulli, Vayalchulli, Voyal- M. R. Almeida & S. M. chullai, Neermully, Almeida Bahelsohulli, Culli

Table 28.Invasive plants identified from Muthukulam village

SL PLANT NAME FAMILY NO Terrestrial 1. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

2. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

4. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

5. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

6. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae

7. Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) C.B.Clarke Cyperaceae

8. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

9. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

10. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

11. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

12. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

13. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

14. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

15. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

16. Cyperus distans L.f. Cyperaceae 17. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

18. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

19. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

20. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

21. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

22. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

23. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae

24. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

25. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

26. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

27. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae

28. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

29. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

30. Mimosa diplotricha Sauvalle Fabaceae

31. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 32. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

33. Physalis angulate L. Solanaceae

34. Polytrias indica (Houtt.) Veldkamp Cyperaceae 35. Senna occidentalis (L.)Link Fabaceae

36. Senna tora (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

37. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

38. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

39. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

40. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

41. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

42. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

43. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

44. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 45. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

46. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae 47. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

48. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

49. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

50. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

51. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

52. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

53. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

54. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

55. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariacea e

15. Keerikkad village

Keerikkad village is located in Karthikappally Taluk of Alappuzha district in Kerala (Figure 20). Karthikappally, Ambalappuzha, Chengannur, Cherthala, Kuttanad, Mavelikkara etc. are the nearest town to Keerikkad village.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 20.Keerikkad village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Agriculture is the main profession of this village. Still this village is waiting for Industrial development. Education, drinking water, road and electricity are the main concern of this village. If banks and finance institutions provide loan and other financial support to the villagers, this village will see the real development. Medical and health services have to be improved.

 Latitude and Longitude: 9.1744° N, 76.4823° E

 Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

Table 29.Invasive plant species reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME

Terrestrial

1. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Poaceae Karuka

2. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Kavada

3. Loranthus longiflorus Desr. Loranthaceae Ithilkanni

Wetland

4. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch. Salviniaceae African payal

Table 30.Invasive plants identified from Keerikkad village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY

Terrestrial

1. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

2. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

4. Blumea acera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

5. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

6. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

7. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

8. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

9. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

10. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

11. Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae

12. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

13. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

14. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

15. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

16. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

17. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

18. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae

19. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

20. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

21. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

22. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

23. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

24. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

25. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

26. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

27. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland

28. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

29. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

30. Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae

31. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

32. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

33. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

16. Cheruthana village

Cheruthana is a Village in Harippad Block in Alappuzha District of Kerala State, India (Figure 21). It belongs to South Kerala Division. It is located 24 KM towards South from District headquarters Alappuzha, 7 KM from Harippad, 129 KM from State capital Thiruvananthapuram with an area of 14.25 Sq. km.Edathua (4KM), Karuvatta ( 4 KM ), Thakazhi ( 5 KM ), Harippad ( 8 KM ), Kumarapuram ( 8 KM ) are the nearby villages to Cheruthana. Cheruthana is surrounded by Veliyanad Block towards North, Champakulam Block towards North, Ambalappuzha Block towards west, Pulikeezhu Block towards East. Chengannur, Mavelikkara, Thiruvalla and Changanassery are the nearby Cities to Cheruthana. This Place is in the border of the Alappuzha District and Pathanamthitta District. Pathanamthitta District Pulikeezhu is east towards this place. It is near to Arabian Sea. There is a chance of humidity in the weather. The main agricultural practices carried out in this

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

village arebanana, tuber crops, sesame, coconut and tapioca of which sesame farming is carried out in the upland region. The village is blessed with so many paddy fields, there are 22 paddy fields (NaduvilePochaThekku, KizhakkuPocha, Thekku, Pocha 400, PandiThekku, PandiThekku, NaduvilePochaVadakku, KizhakkuPochaVadakku, Kannancheri, VeloorPdinjare, KotheryPerikkateri, Cheruthuruth, PadinjarePocha, Ottaveil, PalathinkalKizhakku, AmpakkattuPocha, Madayanari, Kozhikkuzhi, Pothanodi Thulachankari, Theveri, Narayana Chira, Palelil Kizhakk and ValiyaVallam) in this village with an area of 6.45Sq.km.

Figure 21.Cheruthana village

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

 Latitude and longitude:9.3433° N, 76.4390° E  Altitude: 7 meters. Above Sea level

Table 31.Invasive plants reported in the PBR

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME Terrestrial 1. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. Asteraceae Communist pacha King & H. Rob 2. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Mulamkaruka 3. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Poaceae Kavada 4. Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae Thottavadi 5. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae Gini pulle

Table 32.Invasive plants identified from Cheruthana village

SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

2. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

3. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

4. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

5. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

6. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

7. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae

8. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

9. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

10. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae

11. Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae 12. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

13. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

14. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

15. Cleome burmanni Wight &Arn. Cleomaceae

16. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

17. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

18. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

19. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

20. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

21. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

22. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

23. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

24. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae

25. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

26. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

27. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae

28. Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae

29. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

30. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

31. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

32. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

33. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

34. Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae

35. Ludwigia peruviana (L.) Hara Onagraceae

36. Merremia hederacea (Burm. fil.) Hall. fil. Convolvulaceae

37. Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae

38. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

39. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

40. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae

41. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

42. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

43. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

44. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

45. Ruellia tuberosa L. Acanthaceae

46. Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae

47. Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae

48. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

49. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae

50. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

51. Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae

52. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

53. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

54. Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski Asteraceae

55. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.)Alston Fabaceae

56. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

57. Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Talinaceae

58. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

59. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 60. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae

61. Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Cabombaceae

62. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

63. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

64. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

65. Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida Acanthaceae

66. Lemna minor L. Araceae

67. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

68. Persicaria barbata (L.)H.Hara Polygonaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

69. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

70. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

71. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

72. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

17. Krishnapuram village Krishnapuram is avillage in Muthukulam Block, Alappuzha District of Kerala State, India (Figure 22). It belongs to South Kerala Division. It is located 51 KM towards South from District headquarters Alappuzha, 11 KM from Muthukulam and 101 KM from State capital Thiruvananthapuram with an area of 10.64 Sq.km. The place is well known by the presence of Krishnapuram palace. The Krishnapuram Palace is a tourist attraction, just 400m from NH-47 located between Kayamkulam town and Oachira. The palace is maintained by the Archaeological Department and contains exhibits that belonged to the Palace and its former occupant, the Travancore Maharaja Marthanda Varma. Devikulangara (4KM), Vallikunnam (6KM), Kandalloor (9KM), Pathiyoor (9KM), Punnamoodu (10KM) are the nearby villages to Krishnapuram. Krishnapuram is surrounded by Bharanicavu Block towards East, Muthukulam Block towards North, Mavelikkara Block towards North, and Karunagappally Block towards South. Kayamkulam, Mavelikkara, Adoor, Chengannur are the nearby cities to Krishnapuram. This Place is in the border of the Alappuzha District and Kollam District. It is near to Arabian Sea. There is a chance of humidity in the weather. Main agriculture practices in this village are coconut, arecanut, tapioca, plantains and sesame.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Figure 22.Krishnapuram village

 Latitude and Longitude: 9°9′0″N 76°30′0″E

 Altitude: 9 meters. Above Sea level

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 33.Invasive plants in PBR report

SL. PLANT NAME FAMILY LOCAL NAME NO. Terrestrial 1. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae Kutakam

2. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae Kilukilikki

3. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae Moodillathali

4. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Karuka 5. Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Hypoxidaceae Nilampana N. P. Balakr. 6. Peperomia pellucida (L.) Piperaceae VettaMashi Kunth 7. Saccharum munja Roxb. Poaceae 8. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae Ponnanthakara

9. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae uram

Wetland 10. Azolla pinnata R.Br. Salviniaceae Water Velvet, Feathered Water fern, Mosquito Fern

11. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Convolvulaceae Vayalcheera 12. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae African Pyle, Kariba Weed, Aquarium Water moss, Giant

Salvinia

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Table 34.Invasive plants identified from Krishnapuram village SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY Terrestrial 1. Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae

2. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Amaranthaceae

3. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson Amaranthaceae

4. Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Amaranthaceae

5. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

6. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae 7. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

8. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteraceae

9. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Fabaceae

10. Centrosema molle Benth. Fabaceae

11. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King&H.Rob. Asteraceae

12. Cleome burmanni Wight&Arn. Cleomaceae

13. Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae

14. Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae

15. Corchorus trilocularis L. Malvaceae

16. Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae

17. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Convolvulaceae

18. Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae

19. Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Fabaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

20. Dissotis rotundifolia (Smith) Triana Melastomataceae

21. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae

22. Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae

23. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae

24. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae

25. Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. Malvaceae

26. Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae

27. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae

28. Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal Convolvulaceae

29. Ipomoea carnea Jace. Convolvulaceae

30. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae

31. Mikania micrantha Kunth. Asteraceae

32. Mimosa diplotricha inermis (Adelb.)Verdc. Fabaceae

33. Panicum maximum Jacq. Poaceae 34. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Fabaceae 35. Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. Fabaceae

36. Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae

37. Ruellia tuberosa L. Acanthaceae

38. Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

39. Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae

40. Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae

41. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

42. Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murray Asteraceae

43. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

44. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

45. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae

Wetland 46. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae

47. Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae

48. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae

49. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae

50. Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae

51. Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae

52. Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

53. Riccardia multifida (L.) Gray Aneuraceae

54. Salvinia molesta Mitch. Salviniaceae

55. Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae

Majority of the wetlands and terrestrial crop lands as well under study were totally covered by different types of invasive species which caused severe adverse effect in agricultural sector. A

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

total of 134 invasive plant species were identified and documented from the 17 villages. On the basis of risk management, they were categorized as high risk, moderate risk and low risk category. The identified plant species were subdivided into two categories on the basis of their habitat- terrestrial and wetland type (Tables 35 and 36). In terrestrial habitat 115 invasive plant species were identified, from which 35 invasive plants are high risk types followed by 37 moderate and 43 low risk types. Out of the 19 invasive plants identified from the wetlands, 14are high risk type and the rest (5) moderate type.

Table 35.List of terrestrial spp. identified from the study area during the present study

ORIGI IMPA N AND LOCAL NATIVE/E SL NO PLANT NAME FAMILY CT DISTRI NAME XOTIC RISK BUTIO N 1. India Sri lanka Acalypha Euphorbiac Perimmunj Native/ Philipin Low fruticosa Forssk. eae a Exotic s Tropical Africa

2. India Sri lanka Native / Acalypha indica Euphorbiac Philipin Kuppameni exotic Low L. eae s

Tropical Africa

3. South Acanthospermu Exotic Asteraceae Njeringil Low America m hispidum DC.

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

4. India Achyranthes Native / Amaranthac Katalati exotic Moder Sri aspera L. eae Marathi ate lanka

5. India Aerva lanata (L.) Amaranthac cherula Native Low Juss. ex Schult. eae Sri lanka

6. Ageratum Exotic America Asteraceae Kattappa, High conyzoides L.

7. Alternanthera Tropical bettzickiana Amaranthac Exotic High America (Regel) G. eae

Nicholson

8. Alternanthera Chuvannac Amaranthac brasiliana (L.) heera High eae Kuntze

9. India Alternanthera Native/ Amaranthac Ponnankan Sri sessilis (L.) R. exotic High eae nikkira lanka Br. ex DC.

10. Amaranthus Amaranthac Kattumulle Exotic Moder America spinosus L. eae nkeera ate

11. Amaranthus Amaranthac Kattupacha Native India Low viridis L. eae cheera

12. Asystasia Acanthacea Native / Moder India gangetica (L.) Upputhali e exotic ate Africa T.Anderson

13. Bacopa monnieri Plantaginac Neerbrahm Native / Low India

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

(L.) Pennell eae i, exotic Sri lanka

14. India Sri lanka Native/ Australi Blumea lacera Kukkravrik Asteraceae exotic Low a (Burm.f.) DC. sham China Singapo re

15. Moder India Boerhavia Nyctaginace Native/ talutama ate diffusa L. ae exotic Sri lanka 16. India: Assam, Brachiaria Buffalo Moder Poaceae Native Maharas mutica (Forssk.) grass ate Stapf tra, Gujarat

17. Bulbostylis India: Assam, barbata (Rottb.) Cyperaceae Watergrass Native Low Punjab; C.B.Clarke Nepal

18. Calopogoniumm Tropical Fabaceae Exotic High America ucunoides Desv.

19. Souther Cayratia pedata Velutha- n Vitaceae Native Low (Wall.) Gagnep. sori-valli western Ghats

20. Centella asiatica Native/ India Apiaceae kutakam Low (L.) Urb. exotic Sri

100

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

lanka Africa

21. Centrosema Mexico, Fabaceae Kattupayar Exotic High Central molle Benth. America 22. India: Mayilpullu, Assam, Chloris barbata Konda- Poaceae Native Low Gujarat, Sw. pullu, Madhya Kodappullu Pradesh 23. Chromolaena America odorata (L.) Communist Moder Asteraceae Exotic , R.M. -pacha ate Mexico King&H.Rob.

24. Cleome India, Native / Moder burmanni Wight Cleomaceae Naivela Indonesi exotic ate &Arn. a

25. India, Cleome viscosa Native / Moder Cleomaceae Thyivela,. Sri L. exotic ate lanka 26. India Native / Srilanka Clerodendrum Moder Lamiaceae Peruvelam Exotic infortunatum L. ate Malaysi a

27. India Native/ Coix lacryma- Kattugotam Sri Poaceae exotic High jobi L. pu lanka

28. Commelina Commelina Kanankolai Native/ Low India

101

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

benghalensis L. ceae exotic Srilanka

29. India Native / Corchorus Sri Malvaceae Arenukam. exotic Low trilocularis L. lanka

30. Native / Crotalaria Moder India Fabaceae Kilukilikki exotic pallida Aiton ate srilanka

31. Croton South Exotic bonplandianus Euphorbiac Barokherui Moder America eae e ate Baill.

32. India Sri Native lanka Cuscuta Convolvula Moodillath Moder /exotic Iran chinensis Lam. ceae ali ate Australi a

33. India Cyathula Native / Amaranthac Cherukadal Sri prostrata (L.) exotic Low eae adi lanka Blume

34. Cynodon Native / India dactylon (L.) Poaceae Belikaruka exotic Low srilanka Pers.

35. America s, Cyperus distans Slender Cyperaceae Exotic High Mexico, L.f. Cyperus India and the

102

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Caribbe an southwa rds. 36. America s, Cyperus Mexico, javanicus Houtt. India Cyperaceae Exotic High and the Caribbe an southwa rds. 37. All Cyperus Native Moder cosmop Cyperaceae Muthanga. olitan rotundus L. /exotic ate

38. Desmodium Cherupulla Singapo triflorum Fabaceae Exotic Low di, re. (L.)DC.

39. Digitaria Africa, tropical longiflora Poaceae Crabgrass Exotic Low Asia and (Retz.) Pers. New Guinea, 40. Spanish Dissotis Shawl, Melastomat Moder Tropical rotundifolia Pinklady,Tr Exotic aceae ate Africa. (Smith) Triana ailing Dissotis 41. India Native/ Eclipta prostrata Sri Asteraceae Kayoonni exotic Low (L.) L. lanka

42. Eleusine indica Raahi, Moder India: Poaceae Native (L.) Gaertn. Kattuthina ate Assam, Madhya

103

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Pradesh, Punjab; Africa

43. Eleutheranthera Tropical Exotic High ruderalis (Sw.) Asteraceae ----- America

Sch.Bip.

44. Epipremnum

aureum (Linden Money Moder Solomo Araceae Exotic & André) plant ate n island G.S.Bunting

45. Eragrostis India: Feathery Assam, amabilis (L.) Poaceae Native Low Eragrostis Meghala Wight &Arn. ya

46. India Eragrostis Sri Native/ lanka unioloides Karayampu Moder Poaceae exotic (Retz.) Nees ex llu. ate Africa

Steud. Nepal

47. Central Euphorbia Euphorbiac Exotic Nelapalai Low America heterophylla L. eae

48. Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiac Nelapalai Exotic Low India L. eae

49. Asia Fimbristylis Summer Native/exoti and Cyperaceae Low aestivalis (Retz.) fimbry c Australi Vahl a

50. Grangea Native / Moder India Asteraceae Nilampala maderaspatana exotic ate srilanka

104

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

(L.) Poir. Africa

51. India Nepal Native / Heliotropium Boraginacea Thekkada exotic Low China indicum L. e America

52. India

Hemidesmus Native/ Srilanka Apocynacea indicus (L.) R. Narunandi exotic Low Pakistan e Br. Iran

53. Hibiscus Native Moder India hispidissimus Malvaceae Njaaranpuli /exotic ate Africa Griff.

54. Hyptis capitata Nattapooch Exotic Tropical Lamiaceae High Jacq. edi. America

55. Hyptis naattapooc Tropical suaveolens (L.) Lamiaceae Exotic High hedi America Poit.

56. Ipomoea Native/ South High aquatica Convolvula Vayalcheer exotic America ceae a Forsskal

57. Tropical Ipomoea cairica Exotic High Convolvula Kolambipo Africa (L.) Sweet ceae o

58. Ipomoea carnea Convolvula Neyvelikat Exotic High South Jace. ceae a America

105

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

59. Ipomoea pes- Convolvula Aattadamb High India caprae pes- Native ceae u caprae

60. Ipomoea Tropical Convolvula Exotic High purpurea (L.) Taliyari. Africa ceae Roth

61. India Knoxia Karinthara Native Sri sumatrensis Rubiaceae ve Low lanka (Retz.) DC.

62. India: Assam; Kyllinga Native/exoti Moder Malaysi Cyperaceae Nutsedge brevifolia Rottb. c ate a, Australi a, Africa 63. America s, Kyllinga Mexico, Elutthanirv nemoralis India asi, Moder (J.R.Forst. Cyperaceae Exotic and the Vallimutha ate &G.Forst.) Caribbe nga Dandy ex Hutch. an & Dalziel southwa rds 64. India Sri Native / lanka Leea indica Moder Vitaceae erattayani, exotic (Burm. f.) Merr. ate Fiji

Colombi a Australi

106

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

a China Nepal

65. India: Assam Punjab; Erali, Rice Native/exoti Leersia Poaceae High Tropical grass c hexandra Sw. Regions Of World 66. South Leptochloa Chinese East chinensis (L.) Poaceae sprangle Exotic High Asia Nees top and india 67. India Srilanka Native / Leucas zeylanica China Lamiaceae Thumba, exotic Low (L.) W.T.Aiton Malaysi a

68. Ludwigia Native Exotic High to new peruviana (L.) Kattukaray Onagraceae world amapu Hara

69. Melastoma South Melastomat Thodukkar malabathricum Exotic Low East aceae a L. Asia

107

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

70. India Merremia Sri Native / emarginata Convolvula Moder lanka Elichevi exotic (Burm. fil.) Hall. ceae ate East

fil. asia

71. Merremia Tropical Asia, hederacea Convolvula Australi Kudicivalli Exotic High (Burm. fil.) Hall. ceae a and fil. the Pacific. 72. Ghana east Microstachys ,Central Euphorbiac Njettavana African chamaelea (L.) Exotic Low eae kku Republi Müll.Arg. c, Australi a 73. Mikania Tropical micrantha Asteraceae Vayara Exotic High America Kunth. .

74. Mimosa

diplotricha Aanathotta Exotic Java Fabaceae High inermis (Adelb.) vadi Verdc.

75. Mimosa Pandithotta diplotricha Fabaceae High vadi. Sauvalle

76. Mucuna pruriens Native/ India Fabaceae Naicorna exotic Low (L.) DC. Sri lanka

108

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

South east asia

77. India Native/ Ocimum Ramathulas Sri Lamiaceae exotic Low basilicum L. i lanka

78. Native/ India Operculina exotic Moder turpethum (L.) S. Convolvula Trikolpako ate Sri ceae nna, lanka Manso

79. America s, Mexico, India Panicum Poaceae Ginipullu Exotic High and the maximum Jacq. Caribbe an southwa rds 80. India: Assam; Hilograss, Paspalum Native/exoti Moder America Poaceae Buffalo conjugatum c ate , Africa, grass P.J.Bergius Tropical Region 81. Tropical Passiflora Exotic Passiflorace Poochapala Moder America foetida L. ae m ate

82. India Pennisetum Poochavala Native/ West pedicellatum Fabaceae High npullu, exotic Africa Trin.

83. Pennisetum Fabaceae Kuthira Native / High India

109

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

polystachion (L.) pull exotic Sri Schult. lanka

84. Tropical Asia, Physalis Njottanjodi Africa Solanaceae Exotic Low angulate L. an and Australi a 85. India: Assam, Madhya Phleum Pradesh, Polytrias indica Native/exoti Cyperaceae indicumHo Low Uttar (Houtt.) c Veldkamp utt Pradesh, Karnata ka; Sri Lanka 86. North Portulaca Portulacace Kozhuppac Exotic Low America oleracea L. ae heera

87. Pouzolzia India Native/ Moder zeylanica (L.) Urticaceae Bula exotic ate Malaysi Benn. & R. Br. a

88. Quisqualis Combretace Yashodapo Native High India indica L. ae ovu

89. America s, Mexico, India Rhynchospora Moder Cyperaceae Matamat Exotic and the corymbosa (L.) ate Britton Caribbe an southwa rds 90. Ricinus Euphorbiac Avanakku Exotic Moder America

110

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

communis L. eae ate

91. Tropical Ruellia tuberosa Acanthacea Exotic Moder America L. e ate

92. India Native / Saccharum Sri Poaceae Nannana exotic High spontaneum L. lanka

93. India: Sacciolepis Cupscale Poaceae Native High Assam, interrupta grass (Willd.) Stapf Odisha 94. Moder Tropical Scoparia dulcis Plantaginac Exotic Kallurukki ate America L. eae

95. Senna alata (L.) Malamtaka South Fabaceae Exotic High Roxb. ra America

96. Senna Mattantaka Tropical occidentalis (L.) Fabaceae Exotic High ra America Link

97. India , Senna tora (L.) Ponnanthak Native / Fabaceae High Australi Roxb. ara exotic a

98. Sesamum Tropical Exotic west radiatum Schum. Pedaliaceae Kattueallu Low Africa

&Thonn.

99. India Native/ Sida acuta MalatanniS Sri Malvaceae exotic Low Burm. f. hiruparuva lanka

111

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

100. India Sri Native/ Kurunthotti lanka Sida alnifolia L. Malvaceae exotic Low . Malaysi

101. India Native/ Sida cordifolia Sri Malvaceae Katturam exotic Low L. lanka

102. Native / India Sida rhombifolia Vankurunt Malvaceae exotic Low Asia L. otti

103. India, Sri Native/ Solanum nigrum Mulakutha lanka, Solanaceae exotic Low L. kkali Cosmop

olitan

104. Mexico, Sphagneticola Central Singapore Moder America trilobata (L.) Asteraceae daisy, cree Exotic ate , and the ping-oxeye Pruski Caribbe an 105. India, Sri Spilanthes Native / lanka, Palluvedan Moder acmella (L.) Asteraceae exotic China achedi ate Murray and Nepal

112

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

106. Indo- Sporobolus malesia Indian Native/exoti indicus var. Poaceae Low to dropseed c diander Australi a, India

107. Stachytarpheta Tropical Exotic jamaicensis (L.) Verbenacea Kattupunnu Moder America e thu ate Vahl

108. Native of Central, St. Stenotaphrumsec Moder India; Poaceae Augustine Exotic undatum ate Kerala grass (Walter) Kuntze and north America

109. Struchium Tropical Exotic Moder sparganophorum Asteraceae America ate (L.) Kuntze

110. India & Stylosanthes Native / Cherru- Moder Sri fruticosa Fabaceae exotic pullate ate lanka (Retz.)Alston

111. Synedrella Mudianpac West nodiflora (L.) Asteraceae Exotic High ha indies Gaertn.

112. Talinum Tropical Sambar Exotic triangulare Talinaceae Low America Cheera. (Jacq.) Willd.

113. Central Tridax Kumminni Exotic Asteraceae Low America procumbens L. ppacha

113

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

114. tropical Urena lobata L. Malvaceae uram Exotic Low Asia 115. Wattakaka Asclepiadac Vattakakka Moder India. volubilis (L. fil.) Exotic eae kkoti ate Stapf.

Table 36: Invasive plants in wetland system

PLAN IMPA SL COMMON T PLANT NAME FAMILY CT ORIGIN NO NAME HABI RISK TAT

1. Alternanthera Southern Amarantha Ponnankannikk and philoxeroides Exotic High ceae ira eastern Au (Mart.) Griseb. stralia

2. Water Velvet, Azolla pinnata Feathered Salviniacea Africa, R.Br. Water fern, Exotic High e Mosquito Fern Asia

3. Cabomba Cabombace caroliniana A. mullanpayal ae New Gray Exotic High England

4. Water Hornfern, Ceratopteris Oriental thalictroides (L.) Pteridaceae Waterfern, Malaysia, Brongn. Exotic High Water Fern, ndonesia Water Sprite

114

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

5. Kaattuchembu, Chempakizhan Colocasia na, esculenta (L.) Araceae Moder Indomalay Schott Seppankizhang Exotic ate a ecozone u, Chempu,

Chembu, Madantha 6. Dryopteris Dryopterid Eastern formosana (Christ) wood fern, Moder aceae Exotic Asia, the C. Chr. Buckler fern ate Americas

7. Eichhornia Pontederiac crassipes (Mart.) Kulavazha, Amazon eae Exotic High Solms Kakapola basin

8. Chulli, Hygrophila schulli Vayalchulli, (Hamilt.) M.R. Acanthacea Voyal-chullai, Tropical Almeida & S.M. e Neermully, Exotic High Asia and Almeida Bahelsohulli, Africa. Culli

9. Africa, Asia, Lemna minor L. Araceae Common Exotic High Europe duckweed and North America

10. Ludwigia perennis Neerkarayamb Onagraceae Exotic High America L. u

11. Four Leaf Clover, Marsilea Marsileace European New quadrifolia L. ae Exotic High Water clover, England. Sushni

115

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

12. Monochoria vaginalis Kakkapola, Pontederiac Moder Kolachempu, Exotic Asia (Burm.f.) C.Presl eae ate Karimkovalum

13. Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbona Gaertn. Tamara Exotic High Asia ceae

14. Bearded Persicaria barbata Polygonace Knotweed, South East High Asia, (L.) H.Hara ae veluthamuthala Exotic mooku Tropical Aisa

15. Water Lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae Water Lily, Muttapayal Exotic High Pantropica

16. Riccardia multifida Aneuraceae Moder North (L.) Gray Exotic ate America

17. African Pyle, Kariba Weed, Salvinia molesta Salviniacea Aquarium Kenya, Mitch. e Exotic High Water moss, Tanzania Giant Salvinia

18. Utricularia aurea Native India, Lentibulari Lour. / High Japan and aceae Exotic Australia. 19. Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog Araceae Asian water Moder Asia and &Plas Exotic meal ate America

116

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

Familywise analysis of invasive plants showed dominance of Poaceae (16 plants) followed by Fabaceae (13), Asteraceae (13), Amaranthaceae (9), Convolvulaceae (9), Euphorbiaceae (6), Salviniaceae, Cleomaceae and onagraceae (2 each) (Figure 23).

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

0 NUMBER OF PLANTS SPECIES

FAMILY

Figure23. Familywise classification of invasive plant species

The detailed survey in the 17 villages revealed that effect of flood also acclerated the growth of the invasive plant species. On the basis of flood effect, 17 villages can be categorized into 3 major groups (Highly affected region, partially affected region and least affected region). Flood impact revealed that highest number of invasive spp.were identified in the highly flood affected region i.e, in Pathiyoor village and lowest in the least flood affected region i.e, in Keerikkad, Kumarapuram and Puthuppally villages (Table 37)

Table 37. Number of invasive spp. in the different villages under the present study

VILLAGE NAME NUMBER OF PLANTS FLOOD IMPACT ARATTUPUZHA 51 Least affected CHEPPAD 61 Partially affected CHERUTHANA 72 Highly affected CHINGOOLI 50 Least affected HARIPPAD 54 Least affected KANDALLOR 68 Highly affected

117

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

KARTHIKAPPALLY 69 Partially affected KARUVATTA 54 Least affected KEERIKKAD 32 Least affected KRISHNAPURAM 55 Partially affected KUMARAPURAM 45 Least affected MUTHUKULAM 55 Least affected PALLIPPAD 74 Highly affected PATHIYOOR 98 Highly affected PUTHUPPALLY 47 Least affected THRIKUNNAPUZHA 51 Partially affected VEEYAPURAM 65 Highly affected

The present study carried out in the 17 villages also showed that the percentage of invasive species was highest (86%) in the terrestrial than in the wetland (14%) (Figure 24).

14%

Terrestrial Aquatic 86%

Number of Plant species

Figure24. Invasive plant species diversity in terrestrial and wetland ecosystem

118

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

The wetland invasive plants under study were of submerged, free-floating or emergent types. Around 50% were emergent types followed by 39% free-floating and 11% submerged (Figure 25)

11% Submerged

50% Free floating 39% Emergent

Wetland Invasive Plant Species

Figure25. Invasive plants species diversity in wetland ecosystem

2. New Introductions

The identified and documented plants were compared with the People‟s Biodiversity register (PBR) of the different Panchayaths. Since the PBR are not updated only very few invasive plants are enlisted in them. The plant listed in the PBR data chiefly included Eupatorium, Salvinia, Cuscuta, Cynodon and Vanda. Based on this it can be concluded that majority of the presently documented invasive plants are new introductions in the study area, though may not be the result of 2018 flood. However, it has accelerated the growth of these invasive plants which could withstand the flood and over dominate and replace the entire

119

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

crops and native plants. Table 38 lists the dominant invasive weeds in the study area of the report period.

Table 38. Dominant invasive weeds in the study area. Karthikappally Taluk

SL PLANT LOCAL NATIVE/EXO ORIGIN AND FAMILY NO NAME NAME TIC DISTRIBUTION India Talipariti America Velipparuthi Native / exotic 1. tiliaceum (L.) Malvaceae Sri lanka . Fryxell Africa

India Pandanus Srilanka odorifer Pandanace Native / exotic 2. Kaitha Africa (Forssk.) ae Kuntze South America

Tilia

platyphyllos Large leaf subsp. linden, 3. Malvaceae Large- Exotic Europe Cordifolia leaved (Besser) linden C.K.Schneid.

Calamus India Native / exotic 4. pseudo tenuis Arecaceae cerucuural Sri lanka

Becc.

India Ficus hispida Native / exotic 5. Moraceae kaattaththi Srilanka L. f. Australia

120

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

China

India Derris Native / exotic Sri lanka 6. trifoliate Fabaceae Ponumvalli Tropical asia Lour.

India Cerbera Sri lanka Apocynace Native / exotic 7. odollam Odhalam Pacific island ae Gaertn. Australia

Australia, Acanthus Acanthace 8. Vayalchulli Exotic Australasia, and ilicifolius L. ae Southeast Asia

Garcinia Kudapuli, gummi-gutta Clusiaceae Marapuli, 9. (L.) Robs. Exotic Asia, America Pinar

3. Current status of invasive Plant species in karthikappally Taluk

The present study showed that the effects of 2018 flood led to the invasion of invasive plants species to new areas and also accelerated the growth of invasive plants species already present in that particular area. A total of 134 invasive plants including terrestrial as well as wetland ecosystem were identified and documented from the 17 villages of Karthiakppally Taluk. Of these 27 plant species (Terrestrial and Wetland) were found to totally invade the whole agricultural fields replacing the crops while others showed only partial invasion (Figure 26-28). The invasion of these plants totally changed the crop rotation

121

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

status and also affected the production strategies of the crops (Figure 29-31). In land system 17 invasive plants showed heavy invasion in agriculture fields (Figure 32). Most of them were competent with native plants and led to entire destruction of plants.

Saccharum spontanum

Struchium sparganophorum

Coix lacryme jobi

Mimosa diplotricha var innermis Amaranthus spinosus

Alteranthera bettzickiana

Altrenthera brasiliana

Calopogonium mucunoides

ipomea carnea

Ipomea aquatica

pennisettum polystachion

Pennisetum pedicellatum

Hyptis capitata

Merremia hederacea

Figure 32. Dominant Terrestrial invasive species in the villages of Karthikappally Taluk

In terrestrial ecosystem the dominant plant species namelyMikania micrantha, Merremia hederacea, Hyptis capitata, Calopogonium mucunoides and Pennisettum pedicellatum totally covered the entire fields and compete with native plants for nutrients and minerals drastically reducing the number of native plants and changing the entire crop rotation strategies and made that as a barren land. From the (figure 32) it‟s clear that Pathiyoor village showed maximum number of high-risk invasive plants species followed by Cheppad, Pallippad and Karuvatta. Least number of invasive plants was observed in Chingoli village.

In wetland ecosystem 10 invasive plant species dominated the agriculture fields of the 17 villages in Karthikappally Taluk (Figure 33). Most of these invasive plants belong to high risk category and covered the entire crops, compete with them and caused destruction of the

122

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

entire crops. The heavy invasion of these plants caused total damage to the irrigation bund system and made the water bodies polluted. The presence of Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Azolla pinnata and Salvinia molesta plants totally covered the entire wetland system and reduced the oxygen demands which adversely affected the life of aquatic animals. The effects of flood shifted the surface soils from one place to another helping easy propagation and growth of the invasive plants. The flood effects lead to eutrophication process which also leads the invasive plants abnormal growth.

Ceratopteris thalictroides Ludwigia perennis

Lemna minor

Marsilea quadrifolia

Hygrophila schulli

Utricularia aurea

Persicaria barbata

Cabomba caroliniana

Salvinia molesta

Azolla pinnata

Figure 33. Dominant wetland invasive species in the villages of Karthikappally Taluk

The flood drastically influenced the growth of Poaceae and Cyperaceae members. Several members of this plant family showed invasive nature and disturbed the growth as well as propagation of native plants. During the study 24 invasive plants species were identified from these families, which were widely distributed in terrestrial and wetland ecosystems (Figure 34-35). The drastic effects of flood caused the abnormal spread of these plant species from one place to another. The abnormal vigorous nature of these plant species reduced the propagation and growth of native plants, changed the crop rotation programme and converted most of the agriculture fields to wastelands.

123

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

4. Impact of plant invasiveness in agricultural fields of Karthikappally Taluk

The impact of invasive plant species in the flood affected areas of Karthikapally Taluk observed during the study are the following

• Heavy surface soil erosion • Loss of Earthworms in the soil • Total destruction of crop plants likeTapioca, plantains and pepper • Invansion of species like Eichornia, Salvinia, Azolla and Pstia in paddy fields • Deposition of Alluvial soil and clay in the agricultural field helping the easy growth and propagation of invasive plants • Reduction in crop yield by competing for water, light, soil nutrients, space and crop quality • These noxious weeds were found to limit the choice of crop rotation sequences and cultural practices in several fields. • In Kandallor and Karuvatta regions most of the agricultural fields were partially covered with the invasive species like Eichornia and Persicaria barbata which hindered the cultivation as well as field activity. • Changed the soil fertility and made the soil more acidic • Irrigation as well as bund system were totally damaged • Competition with native plant species reduced native plant populations • The effects of invasion led to eutrophication process in wetland system • In Karuvatta village low land area, the farmers got beneficial effects due to deposition of fertile soil from other highland areas. They got double the yield of rice than the previous years.

5. Soil profiling conducted in the 17 villages of Karthikappally Taluk

Invasive plants can lower soil nutrient levels directly through competition or indirectly through additions of nutrient-poor or recalcitrant litter or via accumulations of salts that

124

Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

decrease nutrient availability or dramatically alter soil pH. Changes in nutrient levels in plant tissues due to invasive plants are therefore mediated through changes in soil nutrient levels. Soil nitrogen and phosphorus are the nutrients that most often limit plant growth. Each is found in soil in a range of forms, from fractions readily available for plant uptake (but susceptible to erosion) to fractions bound within organic compounds and thus completely unavailable for plant growth.

Thus, for analysing the impact of the flood and invasive plants on the soil fertility of the taluk, major macronutrients such as Nitrogen (N) (indirect measurement in terms of organic carbon), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) as well as primary profiling such as pH and TSS (Total Soluble Salts) were determined.data on the analysis of soil from the 17 villages of the present investigation are given in table 38.

Table 39: Soil profiling from 17 villages of Karthkappally Taluk

SL NO: VILLAGE UPPER SOIL LOWER SOIL

pH TSS OC P K pH TSS OC P K

(EC in (%) (Kg/ha (kg/ha. (EC in (%) (Kg/ha (Kg/h .) ) ) a) mhos/c mhos/c m) m)

Highly affected Villages

1 Cheru 4.9 0.4 0.88 47 88 3.9 0.90 1.49 63.66 192. thana 33

2 Kanda 5.8 0.68 1.18 87 112.3 6 0.74 0.84 81.66 107. lloor 3 6

3 Pallip 5.6 0.42 0.70 60.66 82.33 5.5 0.19 0.63 99.33 67 pad

4 Pathiy 5.5 0.15 0.70 47.33 64.33 5.5 0.13 0.95 90.66 125. oor 66

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5 Veeya 4.0 1.34 1.36 95 275.5 6.2 2.55 0.81 82.5 206 puram

Partially affected Villages

6 Thrik 6.2 0.54 0.47 45.66 80.66 4.9 0.77 1.39 57.66 243. unnap 33 uzha

7 Chep 5.7 0.25 1.18 79.66 109 5.0 0.22 0.81 31 13.3 pad 3

8 Krish 4.1 1.16 1.14 49.66 304.6 5.4 0.91 0.66 68.33 67.3 napur 6 3 am

9 Karthi 5.1 0.58 1.05 69.33 171.6 5.3 2.13 1.04 90.33 225. kapall 6 33 y

Least affected Villages

10 Puthu 5.7 0.30 1.20 62 382 5.9 0.3 0.90 65.66 291 ppalli

11 Ching 5.9 0.22 1.23 55 291.3 5.7 0.15 0.72 40.33 124 oli 3

12 Arattu 6.6 0.48 0.74 60.33 244.6 6.1 2.54 0.51 64.6 153. puzha 66

13 Keeri 5.6 1.91 0.95 56.33 140.6 6.0 0.17 1.05 87.37 137. kkad 6 33

14 Muth 5.9 0.09 0.41 55.33 204.6 5.9 0.12 0.42 39.33 73.3 ukula 6 3 m

15 Harip 5.2 0.35 0.68 47 119.6 5.6 0.16 0.65 83.66 131. pad 6 33

16 Karuv 4.7 0.59 0.69 31 130 5.6 1.35 1.12 46.33 73 atta

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17 Kuma 5.7 0.17 1.02 64 231 5.9 0.54 1.29 41.33 142 rapura m

Slightly acidic soil was found in all the villages of the Taluk. Salinity in terms of TSS comes in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 mhos/cm. The organic carbon (OC) of the soil samples from highly affected villages were in a range of 0.5% to 1.5%. And that of partially and lest affected villages were 0.5% - 1.4 and 0.4% - 1.3% respectively. The phosphorous measurement was found to be 45-100 kg/ha, 45-90 kg/ha and 45-90 kg/ha for the highest, partially and least affected villages respectively. The Potassium levels showed a greater range for all the regions; highly affected villages- 80-275 Kg/ha, partially affected villages- 80-300kg/ha and least affected- 70-300Kg/ha.

Based on the parameters obtained the amount of commonly used fertilizers to be applied for medium- and short-term paddy varieties were also recommended (Table 39). The selected fertilizers were urea, rock phosphate, murate of potash and organic manure. Irrespective of the type of affected area the requirements were almost similar for all the villages.

Table 40: Recommendation for paddy cultivation

RECOMMENDED AMOUNTS OF FERTILIZERS TO BE

APPLIED PER ONE CENT OF LAND.

MEDIUM DURATION SHORT DURATION

PADDY PADDY

SL NO VILLAGE Urea RP MOP Lime OM Urea RP MOP Lime O M (g) (g) (g) (Kg) (Kg) (g) (g) (g) (Kg) (K g)

Highly affected villages

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1 Cheruthana 733 261 318 226 20 570 203 247 2.2 20 6

2 Kandalloor 641 225 305 0.73 20 499 175 238 0.7 20 3

3 Pallippad 751 225 340 0.93 20 584 175 264 0.9 20 3

4 Pathiyoor 762 294 340 1.13 20 593 175 229 1.9 20 3

5 Veeyapuram 555 200 154 3.4 20 572 200 135 3.4 20

Partially Affected Villages

6 Thrikunnapuzha 835 225 317 0.6 20 471 175 246 0.6 20

7 Cheppad 636 225 306 0.93 20 495 175 238 0.9 20 3

8 Krishnapuram 655 294 145 3.4 20 509 229 113 3.4 20

9 Karthikapally 676 225 237 1.8 20 525 175 184 1.8 20

Least affected villages

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

10 Puthuppalli 644 225 156 0.93 20 501 175 121 0.9 20 3

11 Chingoli 641 225 225 1.2 20 499 175 175 1.2 20

12 Arattupuzha 761 225 190 1 20 392 175 148 1 20

13 Keerikkad 722 294 271 1.4 20 562 229 211 1.4 20

14 Muthukulam 859 261 225 0.8 20 667 203 175 0.8 20

15 Harippad 749 225 295 1.93 20 582 175 230 1.9 20 3

16 Karuvatta 749 330 282 2.06 20 582 256 219 2.0 20 6

17 Kumarapuram 675 294 248 0.93 20 526 229 193 0.9 20 3

6. Remedial measures and Recommendation for minimizing the invasive plants species

Present study was carried out in the flood affected region of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District. Throughout the study 134 invasive plants species were identified from both terrestrial as well as wetland ecosystems of Karthikappally Taluk. These invasive plant

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

species totally covered the entire agricultural field and influenced the crop yield, crop propagation and crop rotation srtategies. Their invasion also changed the soil topology and also the earth worm populations. To overcome such problems in the field prevention, early detection and eradication of weedy species is the most economical and effective means of invasive plant management.

1. Mechanical Control

Mechanical control usually refers to the mowing or mechanical cutting of an invasive plant infestation to limit seed production. Invasive plants must be removed before the plants go to seed in order to be an effective method of control. Plants should be cut as close to the ground as possible and may have to be treated more than once in a growing season to achieve desired results. Heavy invasions in large fields can be removed with the help of tractor, JCB, Hitachi etc. In small fields they can removed manually with the help of knife, spade etc (Figure 36)

A B Figure 36.A) Removal of plants with the help of JCB, B) with the help of spade

2. Manual Control Manual control of invasive plants usually refers to hand-pulling or digging.This method of control works well for dealing with single plants or small infestations that can be eradicated with a small amount of labour. It is most effective, if invasive plants are shallow rooted and the soil is loose or moist.

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

3. Chemical Control Farmers presently use the herbicide dolomite for weed control. The other herbicides like

salts and calcium carbonate (CaCO3, Kummayam) approved for treatment of invasive plants can be one of the effective option for certain persistent invasive plants (Figure 37). Selection of herbicide should depend on the target weed species, other crops or plants on site, environmental considerations. Application of bio fertilizers marginally in the agriculture fields reduces the invasion of weedy, invasive plant species.

A B

Figure 37. Effective tools for new and small infestations of invasive plants A) calcium carbonate application B) dolomite spray

4. Biological Control Biological control involves using living organisms to reduce seed production and vigour of an invasive plant species. Before an insect is released, it must undergo extensive testing to ensure that it will not attack any other plants. Another approach to biological controls is the inundative or bioherbicide method which usually involves native, naturally occurring pathogens applied in a manner that can cause death or significant damage to the target weed.

5. Recommendations 1. Application of ecofriendly Bio-fertilizers 2. Invasive plants belonging to the family Fabaceae can be effectively used for mulching in the agriculture fields to improve the soil fertility and earthworm population, since they have the capacity of nitrogen fixation.

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

3. Proper monitoring and awareness about these plants to Local people, helping down the spreading of invasive plant species.

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

CONCLUSION

The present investigation on Invasive Alien Plant species in the flood affected area of Karthikapplly Taluk analyzed 17 villages viz, Arattupuzha, Veyapuram, Pallippad, Pathiyoor, Haripad, Cheppad, Thrikkunnappuzha, Cheruthana, Muthukulam, Chingoli, Karthikappally, Karuvatta, Kumarapuram, Kandhallor, Keerikkad, Puthuppally and Krishnapuram and documented the following:

A total of 134 invasive plant species were identified from the 17 villages, of which 115 were of terrestrial and 19 from aquatic ecosystems. The study noticed 35 high risk type followed by 37 moderate and 43 low risk types within the terrestrial and 14 high risk and the rest (5) moderate types in the aquatic plants.

Familywise analysis of the invasive plants revealed, dominance of the families, Poaceae (16 plants) followed by Fabaceae (13), Asteraceae (13), Amaranthaceae (9), Convolvulaceae (9), Euphorbiaceae (6), Salviniaceae and Cleomaceae and Onagraceae (2 each).

The detailed survey in the 17 villages revealed that effect of flood also influenced growth of invasive plant species. On the basis of flood effect, the villages were categorized into 3 major groups (Highly affected region, partially affected region and least affected region). The study also found that the highest number of invasive specis was in the highly flood affected region i.e, in Pathiyoor village and lowest in the least flood affected regions i.e, in Keerikkad, Kumarapuram and Puthuppally villages.

The investigation also noted that the number of invasive species was highest (86%) in the terrestrial ecosystem than in the wetland ecosystem (14%). The wetland invasive plants under study were of submerged, free-floating or emergent types. Around 50% were emergent types followed by 39% free-floating 11% submerged.

The study found out that out of 134 species identified including terrestrial as well as wetland species, 27 were invaded the whole agricultural fields replacing the crops, while the others showed only partial invasion. The invasion of these plants totally changed the crop rotation status and also affected the production strategies of the crops. In the terrestrial ecosystem 15 invasive plants showed heavy invasion, whereas in wetland ecosystem 12

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Invasive Alien Plant Species in the Flood Affected Areas of Karthikappally Taluk

species were dominant. Most of these invasive plants belong to high risk category and covered the entire crops, compete with them and caused destruction of the entire crops. Thus the species invasiveness of Karthikapally Thaluk indirectly affected the production and yield of agricultural crops, particularly in the quantum of rice production in the villages of Karthikapally Taluk except in Karuvatta

The effect of flood drastically increased the population of Poaceae and Cyperaceae species. Most of the members of these plant families showed invasive nature and disturbed the growth of the native plants as well as their propagation.

Analysis of soil revealed low nutrient contents in the flood affected area. Invasive plants can lower soil nutrient levels directly through competition or indirectly through additions of nutrient-poor or recalcitrant litter or via accumulations of salts that decrease nutrient availability or dramatically alter soil pH. Changes in nutrient levels in plant tissues due to invasive plants are therefore mediated through changes in soil nutrient levels.

The study also noticed the adoption of different mechanical and chemical methods like use of JCB and spade and the application of chemical herbicides for the eradication of the invasive plants.

The study further recommends an awareness programme to the public especially to the farmers on the harmful effects of the invasive species and the methods of eradication. It would also be of benefit to the farmers to adopt methods to increase soil nutrients so as to enhance yield.

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REFERENCES

1. Development and Document Plans. 2017-2019. Local government bodies, Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District

2. Gamble, J. S. Flora of the Presidency of Madras Vol I- III, 1915- 1924,Allard & Son,Ltd, London

3. Inderjit, Pollock J.L., Callaway, R.M. and Holben, W. 2008. Phytotoxic Effects of (±)-Catechin In vitro, in Soil, and in the Field. PLOS ONE 3(7): e2536. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002536

4. Khuspe, V.S., Subbaiah, R. and Mande, J.V. 1982. A Compendium of Indian Weed Science Research. Metropolitan Book Co, New Delhi.

5. Mack, R. N. Simberloff, D. lonsdale, W. M. Evans, H. C. Clout, M.and Bazzaz, F. A. 2000. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences and control. Ecological Applications 10: 689 – 710.

6. Nandpuri, K.S., Singh, B., Kolar, J.S., Kang, M.S. and Chahal, B.S. 1986. Field Problems of Important Crops. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.

7. People‟s Biodiversity Registers- 2011 to 2016. Villages of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District under study

8. Rastogi, J., Rawat, D.S.and Chandra, S. 2015. Diversity of invasive alien species in Pantnagar flora. Tropical Plant Research 2(3): 282–287.

9. Sankaran, K. V., Suresh, T. A. and Sajeev, T. V. 2013. Handbook on Invasive plants Of Kerala; Kerala Biodiversity Board.

10. Saxena, K.G. 1991. Biological invasions in the Indian subcontinent: review of invasion by plants. 53-73.

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A B

C D

E F

G H

Figure 3. Data collection- through field survey, personal communication with authorities of Panchayaths including Panchayat secretary, President, Agricultural officers and also farmers and other local people

Figure 4. Source of data collection- PBR

Figure 5. Source of data collection- PBR

A B

C D

E F

G H

Figure 26. Heavy invasion of invasive plants in agricultural field-A) Persicaria barbata B) Alternanthera philoxeroides C) Ipomoea carnea D) Salvinia molesta E) Microstachys chamaelea&Leucas zeylanica F) Ipomoea pes-caprae G) Portulaca oleracea H) Spilanthes acmella

I J

K L

M N

O P

Figure 27. I) Saccharum spontaneum J) Nelumbo nucifera K) Passiflora foetida L) Grangea maderaspatana M) Alternanthera brasiliana N) Eichhornia crassipes(flowering stage) O) Cabomba caroliniana P) Alternanthera bettzickiana

Q R

S T

U V

W X

Figure 28.Q) Azolla pinnata R) Brachiaria mutica S) Ipomoea aquatica T) Utricularia aurea U) Sphagneticola trilobata V) Colocasia esculenta W) Hemidesmus indicum X) Pennisetum pedicellatum A B

C D

E F

G H

Figure 29. Invasive species in the agricultural fields of A) Pallippad, B) Cheppad, C) Kumarapuram, D) Harippad, E) Karuvatta F) Pathiyoor, G) Veeyapuram, H) Krishnapuram I J

K L

M N F

O P

Figure 30.I) Kumarapuram, J) K) Karthikappally, L)Muthukulam, M) Harippad N) Veeyapuram,O) Kandallure, P) Karuvatta

Q R

S T

U V

W X

Figure 31.Q) Karthikappally, R) Kumarapuram, S) Puthupally T) Pallippad U) Cheruthana, V) Veeyapuram, W) Cheppad X) Pallippad

A B

C D

E F

G H

Figure 34. A) Chloris barbata Sw., B) StenotaphrumH secundatum (Walter) Kuntze, C) Cyperus javanicus Houtt.. D) Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf, E) Cyperus distans L.f., F) Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalziel, G) Bulbostylis puberula (Kunth) C.B.Clarke, nom. superfl. H) Ischaemum timorense Kunth I J

H H

K L

H H

M N

H H

O P

FigureH 35. I) Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.)H Britton,, J) Typha angustifoliaL., K) Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., L) Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees M) Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult.N) Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin., O) Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. P) Saccharum spontaneum L.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project, ‘Studies on Invasive alien plant species in the Flood affected areas of Karthikappally Taluk, Alappuzha District,Kerala’ is sponsored by the Kerala State Biodiversity Board. We are thankful to Kerala State Biodiversity Board for the approval and funding of the project.

We would like to acknowledge all the office staff of different village offices in the Karthikapally Taluk for extending their cooperation for accessing the Peoples’ Biodiversity Register (PBR) of the respective villages.

We are thankful to the Agricultural Officers in the Taluk for sharing their knowledge on various crops and the related issues. Thanks are also due to the local inhabitants of the area without whom the survey could not have been successfully conducted.

We also extend our thanks to the Department of Botany, University of Kerala, Kariavattom for providing the necessary facilities and support for the completion of the project.