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General Histology Lect1+2 2Nd Grade

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General Histology Lect1+2 2Nd Grade Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade The circulatory system pumps and directs blood cells and substances carried in blood to all tissues of the body. It includes both the blood and lymphatic vascular systems, and in an adult the total length of its vessels is estimated at between 100,000 and 150,000 kilometers. The blood vascular system, or cardiovascular system, consists of the following structures: (Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins) Two major divisions of arteries, microvasculature, and veins make up the pulmonary circulation, where blood is oxygenated in the lungs, and the systemic circulation, where blood brings nutrients and removes wastes in tissues throughout the body. 1 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade o HEART Cardiac muscle in the four chambers of the heart wall contracts rhythmically, pumping the blood through the circulatory system. The right and left ventricles propel blood to the pulmonary and systemic circulation, respectively; right and left atria receive blood from the body and the pulmonary veins, respectively. The walls of all four heart chambers consist of three major layers 1. The internal endocardium: Consists of a very thin inner layer of endothelium and supporting connective tissue, a middle myoelastic layer of smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue, and a deep layer of connective tissue called the subendocardial layer that merges with the myocardium. Branches of the heart’s impulse-conducting system, consisting of modified cardiac muscle fibers, are also located in the subendocardial layer 2. The middle myocardium The thickest layer, consists mainly of cardiac muscle with its fibers arranged spirally around each heart chamber. Because strong force is required to pump blood through the systemic and pulmonary circulations, the myocardium is much thicker in the walls of the ventricles, particularly the left, than in the atrial walls 3. The external epicardium Is a simple squamous mesothelium supported by a layer of loose connective tissue containing blood vessels and nerves. 2 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade 3 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade The vessels between arterioles and venules can be any of three types. (a) Continuous capillaries, the most common type, have tight, occluding junctions sealing the intercellular clefts between all the endothelial cells to produce minimal fluid leakage. All molecules exchanged across the endothelium must cross the cells by diffusion or transcytosis. (b) Fenestrated capillaries also have tight junctions, but perforations (fenestrations) through the endothelial cells allow greater exchange across the endothelium. The basement membrane is continuous in both these capillary types. Fenestrated capillaries are found in organs where molecular exchange with the blood is important, such as endocrine organs, intestinal walls, and choroid plexus. (c) Sinusoids, or discontinuous capillaries, usually have a wider diameter than the other types and have discontinuities between the endothelial cells, large fenestrations through the cells, and a partial, discontinuous basement membrane. Sinusoids are found in organs where exchange of macromolecules and cells occurs readily between tissue and blood, such as in bone marrow, liver, and spleen. 4 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade Lymphatic System Functions: 1. Reclaim lost fluid (3L) for return to cardiovascular system 2. Fat absorption from the digestive tract by special lymphatic vessel called lacteal which located in the lining of the small intestine, lymph passing through these lymphatic vessel has milky appearance because of its fat content and is called chyle. 3. Protect against pathogens & cancer cells:- → nonspecific defenses: general protection, does not distinguish threat specifics → specific defenses = immune response, identify and defend against one particular threat. Lymphatic System Components: 1. Lymph: fluid similar to plasma but less proteins. - lymph originates as fluid lost from blood capillaries - collected in blind end lymphatic capillaries - overlapping endothelial cells create one way mini- valves - fluid, solutes, large objects driven into lymphatic capillary by pressure in interstitial space (arteries, skeletal muscle) 2. Lymphatic vessels: carry lymph from tissues to veins. 5 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade Lymphatic capillaries, They begin as small, dead-end tubes called, excess fluid passes through spaces and enters lymphatic capillaries to become lymph, lymphatic capillaries are in almost all tissue of the body, with the exception of the central nervous system, the bone marrow, and tissue without blood vessels, such as cartilage, epidermis, and the cornea. Lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries in that the lack a basement membrane and the cells of the cells of the simple squamous epithelium slightly overlap and are attached loosely to one another, two things occur as a result of this structure: ❖ Lymphatic capillaries are far more permeable than blood capillaries and nothing in the interstitial fluid is excluded from the lymphatic capillaries ❖ Lymphatic capillaries epithelium functions as serious of one-way valves (allow fluid to enter capillary but prevent it from passing back into the interstitial spaces - The lymphatic capillaries join to form larger lymphatic vessels which resemble small veins, consist of three tunics: o Tunica intima consist of endothelium surrounded by an elastic membrane. o Tunica media consists of smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers. o Tunica adventitia thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. - Large ones have vasa vasorum. - Many valves (beaded appearance). - Many anastomoses. - Lymph nodes present along vessels. lymphatic capillaries → lymphatic collecting vessels →lymphatic trunks→ lymphatic ducts →subclavian veins …………………………………………………………………………………… 6 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade 3. Lymphocytes and Phagocytes: provide defense. Lymphoid cells: Macrophages: phagocytosis and T cell activation - Dendritic cells: antigen presentation (found in CT) - Lymphocytes: (3 classes) 1. T cells - “Thymus dependent”, 80% - cytotoxic T cells: kill “foreign” cells directly (cell mediated immunity). - helper T cells: activate T & B cells. - suppressor T cells: inhibit T & B cells. 2. B cells - “Bone marrow derived”, 10-15%, - when activated →plasma cell. → secretes antibodies, antibodies bind specific antigens (foreign molecules) (antibody mediated or humoral immunity). 3. Natural Killer Cell: 5-10%, attack abnormal cells: cancer cells, or virus- infected cells (nonspecific defense). 4. Lymphoid tissues and organs: site of development of lymphocytes and screening for pathogens. Lymphoid Tissue - reticular CT & lymphocytes & other lymphoid cells - functions: 1- Proliferation site for lymphocytes 2- Surveillance point for lymphocytes and macrophages - two types: lymphoid follicles and lymphoid organs: 1- Lymphoid Follicles / Nodules - CT packed with lymphocytes (T, B, and dendritic cells) - No capsule - Germinal centre in middle: dividing B cells - Germinal centre surrounded by dendritic cells, T cells and some macrophages - Follicles associated with respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts - special lymphoid nodule/follicle collections: 7 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade A. MALT (mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue): deep to intestinal epithelium, made up of individual nodules called Peyer’s Patches B. Appendix , beginning portion of large intestine C. Tonsils: large nodules in pharynx, have crypts to trap bacteria→encourage development of immunity 5 Total: palatine tonsils (2) pharyngeal (adenoid) (1) lingual tonsils (2) Lymphoid Organs - have fibrous CT capsule around outside - contain many lymphoid follicles - include: lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen A. Lymph nodes: - Each lymph node filters lymph and provides a site for B-cell activation and differentiation to antibody-secreting plasma cells. - bean shaped, 1-25mm - structure: - capsule: CT, surrounds outside - trabeculae: folds of capsule creating partitions inside - superficial cortex =lymphoid follicles: B cells & dendritic cells 8 Dijla University College Assistant lecturer: Ali Maki Hamed Faculty of Dentistry General Histology lect1+2 2nd grade - Underlying paracortex (deep cortex) = Most lymphocytes enter at the paracortex of the lymph node via high endothelial venules (HEVs) located there only; most lymphocytes in this region are T helper cells. - Inner medulla = centre: houses T, B & plasma cells, the medulla has medullary cords containing reticular fibers with many plasma cells, macrophages, and other leukocytes; between the cords are lymph-filled medullary sinuses that converge at the efferent lymphatic. (A) The medulla of a lymph node consists (B) Higher magnification of a medullary cord mainly of the medullary sinuses (MS) (MC) shows plasma cells (arrows) with separated by intervening medullary cords spherical, eccentric nuclei and much more
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