Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Effects of Gender and Training

among Kuwait Teachers

A dissertation presented to

the faculty of

the College of Education of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Hamed Alrasheedi

November 2009

© 2009 Hamed Alrasheedi. All Rights Reserved. 2

This thesis titled

Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Effects of Gender and Training

among Kuwait Teachers

by

HAMED ALRASHEEDI

has been approved for

the Department of Educational Studies

and the College of Education by

Teresa J. Franklin

Associate Professor of Educational Studies

Renée A. Middleton

Dean, College of Education 3

ABSTRACT

ALRASHEEDI, HAMED, Ph.D., November 2009, Curriculum and Instruction,

Instructional Technology. Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Effects of

Gender and Training among Kuwait Teachers (206 pp.)

Director of Dissertation: Teresa J. Franklin

ICT integration into classroom teaching and learning practices depends on

teachers’ attitude toward ICT and the extent of their training in the technology. Early

research suggests that males have more positive attitudes toward ICT and have more

knowledge and skills about technology than females. Contemporary research, however,

suggests that females have more or less equivalent positive attitudes as they receive more

and more knowledge and training about the ICT.

The present study used a two way-factorial MANOVA design to examine effect

of gender and ICT training on Kuwait public high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT

and their use of ICT in their classroom practices. The instrument used to collect the data

was a questionnaire prepared by the researcher. In addition to the descriptive and the

inferential analyses, the study applied a qualitative analysis to analyze teachers’

responses to the open-ended questions.

Results indicated that teachers’ attitude toward ICT was slightly positive with

male teachers’ mean attitude was slightly higher than female teachers’ and teachers’

mean attitude with ICT training was higher than those without training. Teachers were

found to use ICT for educational purposes moderately with female teachers used slightly

less ICT. In analyzing the interaction between independent variables (gender and ICT 4 training) on dependent variables (teachers’ attitudes and ICT use), the findings suggested that training played an important role in affecting the male teachers’ attitudes toward

ICT, but had even a greater effect on female teachers’ ICT use.

Approved: ______

Teresa J. Franklin

Associate Professor of Educational Studies 5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Allah for giving me the opportunity, health, and the ability to complete this work, I cannot thank Him enough for all his mercy, guidance, and unlimited favors and blessings.

I would like to express profound thanks and heartfelt appreciation to my major advisor and chairman of my dissertation committee, Teresa Franklin, who has provided me with kindness, guidance, and support through my academic years at Ohio University.

Dr. Franklin has been generous in providing me with support and encouragement to complete this dissertation. I consider myself a very fortunate person to have had her as my advisor. Dr. Teresa Franklin Thank you, Dr Franklin. You are one of the best epitomes of University teaching and education.

Sincere appreciation also goes to my committee members: Dr. George Johanson,

Dr. Najee Muhammad, and Dr. Greg Kessler. Thank you all for your intelligence, patience, guidance, moral support, and constructive criticism, which made the completion of this dissertation possible.

My deepest appreciation and sincere gratitude go to my mother, brother, and sisters for their support, patience, and encouragement.

Special and deep thanks goes to my lovely family, my beloved wife Arij

Alrasheedi and four lovable children Jori, Weroud, Noura, and Abdullah for their encouragement, patience, and support. Thank you for your love and support as you have guided me through my Ph.D. program from beginning to end. Thank you for all the sacrifices you made and patience you had when I was away from you working on my dissertation.

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ...... 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 5 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 10 CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 11 Introduction ...... 11 Background of the Study ...... 13 A Brief History of Education in Kuwait ...... 15 Statement of the Problem ...... 17 Purpose of the Study ...... 19 Research Questions ...... 19 Research Hypotheses ...... 20 Significance of the Study ...... 21 Limitations of the Study...... 22 Basic Assumptions ...... 23 Definition of Terms...... 23 Organization of the Study ...... 25 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 27 The History of Kuwait Education ...... 27 Internet Usage in Arab Countries ...... 34 ICT and Social Change ...... 40 ICT and Constructivist Learning Theory ...... 48 Roles of Teachers and Learners in an ICT Environment ...... 54 Web 2.0 and Education ...... 56 Attitudes, Gender, Training, and Experience ...... 59 ICT-Learning Environment: Promises and Challenges ...... 69 Summary ...... 73 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...... 75 Research Questions ...... 75 Research Variables ...... 76 Research Hypotheses ...... 76 Research Design ...... 77 Statistical Analysis and Procedures ...... 78 Assumptions for MANOVA ...... 79 The Population, Sample, and Sampling Procedure ...... 82 Instrumentation ...... 86 Validity of the Instrument ...... 88 Reliability of the Instrument ...... 88 7

Data Collection Procedure ...... 90 Summary ...... 91 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ...... 92 Introduction ...... 92 Reliability of Instrument ...... 94 Construct Validity ...... 96 Translation of the Instrument (Arabic to English) ...... 98 Scoring Procedure ...... 99 Tests for MANOVA Assumptions ...... 100 Demographic Characteristics ...... 109 Findings of the Research Questions ...... 118 Inferential Questions ...... 122 Findings of the Open-ended Questions ...... 129 Summary ...... 132 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS ...... 135 Summary ...... 135 Discussion of the Findings ...... 136 Inferential Questions ...... 138 Conclusion ...... 139 Recommendations ...... 141 Recommendations for Further Study ...... 142 REFERENCES ...... 144 APPENDIX A: HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KUWAIT ...... 165 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 166 APPENDIX C: FACTOR ANALYSIS ...... 171 APPENDIX D: ARABIC QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 185 APPENDIX E: IRB APPROVAL ...... 195 APPENDIX E: PERMISSION FROM MINISTRY OF EDUCATION TO COLLECT THE DATA ...... 196 APPENDIX F: RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS’ ANALYSIS ...... 198 APPENDIX G: LISTWISE DELETION AND PAIRWISE ...... 202 APPENDIX H: SAMPLE DEMPGTAPGIC...... 203 APPENDIX I: MULTVARIATE TESTS ...... 205 8

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants in the Pilot Study ...... 85

Table 2. Reliability Measures for Pilot Study’s Questionnaire Items on ICT attitudes .. 89

Table 3. Reliability Measure for Pilot Study’s Questionnaire Items on ICT Use ...... 89

Table 4 Overall Internal Consistency of the Instrument...... 95

Table 5. Factor Analysis Result ...... 98

Table 6. Statistics for the Data Set of Teachers’ Attitudes and ICT Use ...... 101

Table 7. Box’s M of Test Equality of Covariance Matrices ...... 109

Table 8. Sample Demographics ...... 111

Table 9. Distributions of the Participants’ Subjects Taught, by Gender (N= 167) ...... 113

Table 10. Participants’ Educational Level by Gender ...... 113

Table 11. Participants’ Computer Ownership by Gender ...... 114

Table 12. The Places for Teachers toUse Computer by Gender ...... 114

Table 13. Teachers with Internet Access by Gender ...... 115

Table 14. The Places Teachers Obtained Internet Access ...... 116

Table 15. The Number of Teachers Who Had ICT Training ...... 116

Table 16. Teachers Who Were Interested in ICT Training ...... 117

Table 17. ICT Training Appropriateness ...... 117

Table 18. Overall Teachers’ Attitudes Toward ICT in Education ...... 119

Table 19. Teachers’ Attitudes Toward ICT in Education Based on Gender and ICT

Training ...... 119 9

Table 20. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Teachers’ ICT Use ...... 120

Table 21. Teachers’ ICT Use in Education Based on Gender and ICT Training ...... 121

Table 22. Distribution of Attitudes toward ICT based on Gender and ICT Training: Mean

and Standard Deviation ...... 123

Table 23. Descriptive Statistics for ICT Use by Gender and ICT Training: Mean and

Standard Deviation ...... 125

Table 24. Main Effect, Interaction, Effect Size of Gender and ICT Training on Teachers’

Attitudes ...... 126

Table 25. Main Effect, Interaction, Effect Size of Gender and ICT Training on Teachers’

ICT Use ...... 128

Table 26. Technology Training that the Participants Had Taken ...... 130

Table 27. Technology Training that the Participants would like to have ...... 131 10

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Boxplot for ICT attitudes by gender...... 103

Figure 2. Graphical representations of ICT use based on gender and training...... 105

Figure 3. Graphical representation of attitudes based on gender and training...... 106

Figure 4. Scatterplots for ICT attitudes and ICT Use by gender and training...... 107

Figure 5. Interaction between gender and ICT training on teachers’ attitudes toward ICT

...... 127

Figure 6. The interaction between teachers’ ICT training and their gender on their ICT

Use...... 129

11

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Introduction

Information and communication technology (ICT), used to describe computer and

Internet services offered in the commercial world, has found its way to educational institutions (Beekman & Rathswohl, 2002). The computer and Internet have become an integral part of the educational systems not only in developed countries such as the

United State (Lockard, Abrams, & Many, 1997), where government and community support for expenditures on ICT in schools has been great compared to other expenditures in education (Lemke, 1999), but also in developing countries such as

Kuwait (Almahboub, 2000).

Economic demands for national development have generally driven educational institutions to the adoption of ICT into their curriculum as a tool to provide students with necessary knowledge and skills for their continuing academic career, employment preparation, or participation in general national social and economic development, in which media, business, and industry have become increasingly technology-oriented

(Modum, 1998; Brandenburg & Dudt, 1998).

In this technology-oriented information age, there is a growing need to reform the educational system to accommodate the new technological tools (Pelgrum, 2001).

Governments in developing countries, such as Kuwait, have responded to the challenge by initiating national programs to integrate ICT into education.

As the price of computers continues to drop, ICT is increasingly influential in today’s schools. Nowadays, schools are not complete without computers, Internet 12 connections, projectors and a variety of other high-tech devices in their classrooms

(Keane, 2002); they are equipped with the best hardware and software they can afford.

Almost all public schools in the United States have access to the Internet (Cattagni &

Farris, 2001); schools in Kuwait are constantly striving for a similar technological infrastructure (Al-Furaih, Al-Sadoun, & Ebeid, 1997).

Since the mid-1990s the Kuwait government has launched a project to put information and communication technologies in all its secondary schools (Al-Furaih, Al-

Sadoun, & Ebeid, 1997). Although computers and Internet access in schools have become a priority in Kuwait’s development plan, the existing technologies have been utilized mostly for administrative purposes.

In public elementary, middle, and high schools, computers are mostly used for student registration, grading, correspondence, and the like. They are not commonly used to enhance the learning and teaching process. Some private schools and schools affiliated with companies have computer labs that students can use for some instructional tasks such as math or reading.

Despite extensive efforts by the Kuwait government to equip schools with information and communication technologies, it is unlikely that teachers and students will use them effectively without adequate training (Hasselbring et al, 2000). Central to this is the significant role of teachers, successful adoption of ICT into classroom practices to be satisfying to both teachers and students.

13

Background of the Study

The rapid spread of information and communication technologies is changing the way educational development occurs in many countries, including Kuwait. According to

Burkhart and Goodman (1998), Kuwait is the first Arabian Gulf and the second Arab country to connect to the Internet and to offer Internet services to the public. The Internet was introduced in Kuwait in 1992, and 1998. Internet use had grown in Kuwait to reach

62,800 Internet users (Hindley, 2000). Ten years later (2008) Internet users numbered

900,000 or 34.7 % of the Kuwait population of 2,596,799 (Internet World Stats, 2009).

With the increasing affordability of computer hardware and software and wide- spread use of the Internet, the Kuwait government made it a priority in the mid-1990s to provide computers and Internet access to all its schools (Al-Furaih, Al-Sadoun, & Ebeid,

1997). The government increased funding to enhance the adoption of the technology, and created training programs in various school districts to provide teachers with opportunities to develop technology skills.

The Kuwait Ministry of Education (KME) has proposed curriculum reform to incorporate Internet education to meet the needs of the 21st century society with relevant

skills for future employment. All students in eighth grade and above are required to learn

technology and schools are required to use the Internet for teaching and learning

(Carpenter, 2003).

In 2002, the Ministry of Education (MOE) initiated a large reform training project

to apply the International Computer Driving License (ICDL) for all Kuwait in-service

teachers expected to undertake the course by the end 2007/2008. Implemented ICDL 14 became a prerequisite for teachers to proceed in the ranking system (MOE, 2008) with the aim of improving teachers’ ICT proficiency (MOE, 2008). The program followed

UNESCO’s guidelines covering basic IT literacy: ICDL focused on improving teachers’ word processing, database, spreadsheet, and Internet surfing skills.

MacLaren (2008), ICDL program director, said that the implementation of ICDL is not only a means to acquire higher teaching skills but is also a tool to improve the quality of teaching and learning through information and communication technologies

(ICT). Teachers who successfully complete the program will receive internationally recognized certification which will contribute to their future advancement and promotion.

As an important teaching and learning tool, classroom use of ICT has created both opportunities and challenges. Various studies have shown that technology improves teaching and learning (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 2001; Roblyer & Edwards, 2000;

Sharp, 2005; Trucano, 2005). New ICT-related tools can make educational institutions and practitioners more productive, enhance skills and learning, improve school governance at all levels, and make it easier for all educational stakeholders to access services and make their voices heard. It is generally believed that “ICTs can and will empower teachers and learners, promote change and foster the development of 21st

Century skills” (Trucano, 2005, p. 5).

ICT can be used for instruction, research and communication. In order for its use to be effective, teachers need to have positive attitudes towards the technologies, skills to use those technologies, and enthusiasm to motivate and engage students for learning in a technologically based classroom environment (Trucano, 2005). 15

There is an indication that students and teachers alike feel that ICT use greatly contributes to students’ motivation for learning. In a study on the use of ICT in a science education class, Friedrichsen, Dana, Zembal-Saul, Munford and Tsur (2001) found that students were motivated to contribute to the learning because of the computer simulations and online course management systems that were incorporated into the course. The authors stated that, “The students moved from that of a science learner to a science teacher. In a mentored, small group setting, the students used the technology tools to support other students’ scientific inquiry” (p. 385). Teachers’ positive perceptions about technology result in exploiting the potential of interactive technology, changing teaching style, assisting classroom management and having greater feelings of self-worth.

Teachers believe technology supports superior forms of learning (Cilesiz, 2009).

A Brief History of Education in Kuwait

The State of Kuwait, whose capital is Kuwait City, is located at the northwestern corner of the Arabian Gulf, in the northeast corner of the Arabian Peninsula. On the east,

Kuwait is bounded by the Arabian Gulf. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is on the south and southwest borders. Its area is about 17,818 sq km (6200 square miles), with a population of 2.596.799 million. Forty-five percent of the population is Kuwait, while the rest come from over 110 different countries (IWS, 2009). Oil profits have allowed

Kuwait to build a broad-based educational system, resulting in a 93% literacy rate

(Encarta, 2007).

Education system has been changed over time to reveal the influences of changes in the Kuwait people’s socioeconomic and political status and the cultural influence that 16 have affected education. Early in the 20th Century, the educational facilities in the state

were limited to a small number of Qur’anic schools, called al-Katatib, in which reading, writing, and some arithmetic were taught. Although there was no formal public education, wealthy citizens provided funding for education (MOE, 2007). In 1939, the government took control of education and by 1945, 17 schools had been opened. As the oil revenue increased, the government placed an increasing amount of the money into social services which included education. By 1960, the Kuwait educational system enrolled roughly 45,000 students, 18,000 of whom were girls (MOE, 2007).

Public education in Kuwait is centralized. The Kuwait government through its

Ministry of Education operates all public schools and oversees private schools with the standardized curricula and policies for the whole country. In 1995, the Ministry of

Education established the national committee in support of education. It is a permanent committee to improve quality and delivery of education in Kuwait. The committee has facilitated technology education by equipping computer labs in secondary schools, providing the curriculum for computer studies, and introducing computer projects in guidance and extension service offices at syllabus schools. The committee has set-up and maintained school science laboratories and established reference centers in a number of middle and high schools.

Kuwait’s current education system is the result of a long struggle against challenges as previously described. Kuwait formal education has developed to become a modern educational system. Learning from other countries’ academic achievement, experiences and modern educational theories and by adopting what is best for the country 17 in terms of technological innovation, Kuwait education has been improved and upgraded to an international standard without losing its cultural identity.

Kuwait is divided into six educational governorates: Al-Ahmadi, Al-Asimah, Al-

Farwaniyah, Al-Jahra, Hawalli, and Mubarak Al-Kabeer. A more complete discussion of the history of Kuwait is found in chapter 2.

Statement of the Problem

The rapid growth of ICT has had a profound impact on many levels of Kuwait society, such as business, news organizations, and government institutions. Online banking and commercial transactions have become common practices. Reading online newspapers and magazines and, watching online TV programs, as well using the Internet for communication have started to become routine. In addition to using the technology as a means to communicate with people, provide information, and offer a variety of services to the people, the government uses the ICT to update and improve its education system

(Wheeler, 1998)

The Kuwait government has adopted a policy to incorporate the Internet into its education system. Knowledge of Internet use is considered a basic point to integrate technology into the existing curriculum. The Ministry of Education has developed textbooks for the eighth grade and beyond that teach how to use the Internet for class- related works (Wheeler, 1998).

High schools play a strategic role in preparing students for information age occupations or more technologically integrated colleges. Since many graduates will not continue their education beyond high school, the schools are required to provide their 18 prospective graduates with skills that will prepare them for employment that has become increasingly technologically oriented. For the graduates who will continue on to college, high schools serve as a bridge to ease that transition to colleges which, in many cases, are widely wired. Teachers thus play a crucial role in facilitating the adoption of an ICT integration plan and its implementation process in the classrooms. Teachers’ attitudes are very important; unless they feel positive toward ICT, they will not use it in their classrooms (Ma, O'Toole, & Keppell, 2008).

Research on teachers’ attitudes is very important and, identifying the factors that may have impact on shaping their attitudes is equally important. Research has shown that attitudes are a product of different factors, such as computer competence (Albirini, 2006), computer access (Marshall & Ruohonen, 1998), computer training (Torkzadeh & Van

Dyke, 2002), experience, and gender (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001; Zuga,

1999).

There is research concerning teachers’ attitudes towards ICT, factors affecting these attitudes, and the relationship between these factors and teachers’ attitudes. The results are mostly context-specific due to population, sampling, and/or design limitations

(Albarini, 2004; Al-Oteawi, 2002; Sooknanan, 2002) and may not necessarily reflect the

Kuwait context. Besides the contextual variations, the research findings may not be applicable because of various conditions, such as the nature of the participants and different level of schools as the research subjects. The above reasons call for a study that focuses on Kuwait teachers. 19

The purpose of this study is to explore the Kuwait teachers’ attitudes toward ICT in education and to examine the relationship between these attitudes and the factors suspected to have influence on them, specifically gender and training. In segregated the

Kuwait public schools gender plays an important role.

Purpose of the Study

High schools have a strategic position in the country’s development. On the one hand, high schools may serve as a terminal education for their graduates who enter the job market. On the other hand, they also prepare their graduates for higher education.

This study explores Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in education and their use of ICT in teaching and learning. Particularly, it will investigate the relationship between the teachers’ attitudes and the use of ICT and consider the two factors of gender and technological training that are thought to influence attitudes and use of ICT.

While some degree of qualitative measure, such as follow-up e-mail interviews with some respondents was used in the data analysis, the main procedure utilized to analyze the data was quantitative in nature.

Research Questions

This study was an attempt to answer the following questions, in which one part was descriptive in nature and the other part was hypotheses testing:

1. What are the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in

education?

2. How do Kuwait high school teachers use ICT in their classrooms? 20

3. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school

teachers?

4. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training

(T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2)?

Research Hypotheses

Based on the research questions above, no hypotheses were tested for the first two questions. Rather, they were analyzed using a descriptive analysis, examining means, standard deviations, and frequencies. For the last two research questions (Questions 3-4), a two-way MANOVA was used to test their hypotheses. The null hypotheses for these questions were made as follows:

Null Hypothesis 1:

Ho1: There are no significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school

teachers. 21

Null Hypothesis 2:

Ho2: There are no significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training

(T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2).

Null Hypothesis 3:

Ho3: There is no significant interaction between gender (M-F/IV1) and ICT training

(T-NT/IV2) on the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2).

Significance of the Study

The present research is important for three reasons. First, this study will provide a

general picture of the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers towards ICT and its use in

an educational setting. Considering that attitudes have a strong connection to behavior

(Ajzen, 2005), it is possible to change teachers’ behavior toward using ICT in education

once their attitudes are identified. The results should then provide suggestions on how

useful ICT could be to current and future Kuwait teachers.

Second, the findings of this study may help the Kuwait Ministry of Education consider teachers’ attitudes towards ICT as one of the influential factors in implementing the technology policy in the educational system. Knowledge of teachers’ attitudes will surely help the education decision-makers to design appropriate training for teachers.

Necessary steps to change negative attitudes and/or foster positive ones may be needed to push the technological transformation in education forward.

Third, it is hoped that the findings of this study would contribute to the existing

body of knowledge and research about the integration of ICT into education in 22 developing countries, many of which may have similar challenges and opportunities in the novelty of their technology initiatives. This study should provide valuable findings that other researchers could use as a guide to generate additional data on the topic in similar educational contexts.

Limitations of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of high school teachers’ technological training and gender on their attitudes towards the use of ICT in education in

Kuwait. The limitations of this study are:

1. The participants of this study will include only teachers working in either

public or private Kuwait high schools. Thus, it will not include teachers at

kindergarten and elementary schools (1-6), middle schools (7-9), or

colleges/universities.

2. The focus of the study is on the attitudes of the high school teachers towards

their use of ICT in the teaching and learning.

3. Even though many factors could influence the shaping of attitudes of high

school teachers, the factors being investigated in this study are limited to

gender (Male/Female) and ICT training (Yes/No).

4. The attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers and their use of ICT are

measured by a questionnaire developed by the researcher with no prior

evidence of its validity and reliability. A pilot study was conducted with a

sample of teachers from a number of high school teachers in Kuwait. 23

Modification and adjustments were made to maintain the appropriateness and

content validity of survey items.

5. The survey questionnaire was written in English but translated into Arabic

which most, if not all, of the targeted participants speak and understand. The

participants’ responses will then be translated from Arabic into English for

interpretation and reporting.

Basic Assumptions

It was assumed that participants of the survey would be able to describe their attitudes and perceptions as the research instrument demands. It was also assumed that the participants would be candid in their responses to the survey items. Finally, the responses of participants in this random sample were presumed to be representative of those of Kuwait high school teachers constituting the population of this study.

Definition of Terms

Some terms used in this study might have different meanings based on their contexts. The following operational definitions were used to clarify the terms in this study:

ICT Attitudes: In this study, ICT attitude is operationally defined as the degree of favor or disfavor with which high school teachers in Kuwait evaluate the presence and use of ICT in Kuwait education.

High School: This term refers to the last three years (grades 10-12) of general education in the Kuwait educational system. 24

International Computer Driving License (ICDL): This term refers to an

“internationally recognized computer proficiency standard that is owned by the European

Computer Driving License Foundation (ECDL) and was introduced by UNESCO's Cairo

Office (UCO) for Arab states in 2001. Gaining increasingly acceptance in the Middle

East and offered in 36 languages, including Arabic, it has been adopted by the Kuwait government and prescribed to its employees. The programs offered are all based on one standard syllabus and question set” (Albawaba, 2005).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT). This term generally refers to

“Technologies and tools that people use to share, distribute, gather information, and to communicate with one another…through the use of computers and interconnected computer networks” (Association for Progressive Communication, 2000). In this study this term refers to the combination of computer-based and communication-based technologies used for teaching and learning, data processing, information gathering, sharing, and disseminating purposes.

ICT Training: The operational definition of ICT Training in this study is simply whether or not the participants have had any prior exposure to computers and Internet technology training.

Kuwait Governorates: Kuwait is divided into six governorates (Muhafazah) as follows: Al-Ahmadi, Al-Asimah, Al-Frawaniyah, Al-Jahra, Hawalli, and Mubarak Al-

Kabeer.

Ministry of Education: This term refers to the Kuwait educational institution that is responsible for creation, development, and fulfillment of K-12 education in Kuwait. 25

Teacher Attitudes: This term encompasses teachers’ feelings or perceptions about technology integration in the curriculum, teachers’ motivation for adoption of instructional technology, teachers’ perceived training with computers and the Internet, and teachers’ perceived effects/benefits of instructional technology on students and pedagogy.

Teacher Technology Use: This term refers to teachers’ use of computers and the

Internet for instructional/learning, research/information gathering, and communication purposes.

Technology Integration: This term refers to the use of computers and the Internet in classrooms as an instructional/learning tool, research/information-gathering tool, and communication tool. This includes the use of mainstream application software (such as word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation software), curriculum/subject-based software, the Web, and multimedia hardware.

Organization of the Study

This study is organized into five chapters: Introduction, Review of the Literature,

Methodology, Results, and Conclusion/Recommendations. The first chapter covers an introduction to the study, the background of ICT in education, the background of the problem, the purpose of the study, research questions, research hypotheses, the significance of the study, the study’s scope and limitations, and definition of terms.

The second chapter includes a review of literature about ICT in education, specifically in secondary education; computer attitudes; gender use of ICT, the Kuwait education system; and ICT in Kuwait secondary schools. 26

The third chapter explains the methodology used in this study, and consists of an introduction, population identification, sample description, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis procedure. The fourth chapter provides a description of the data analysis and presentation of the research findings. The fifth chapter includes the summary and interpretation of the findings and gives recommendations and suggestions for further practice and research.

27

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of high school teachers’ technological training and gender on their attitudes toward the use of ICT in education in

Kuwait. The literature review focuses on (1) the history of Kuwait education,

(2) Internet usage in Arab counties, (3) ICT and social change, (4) ICT and constructivist learning theory, (5) roles of teachers and learners in an ICT environment, (6) Web 2.0 and education, (7) attitudes, gender, training, and experience, and (8) ICT learning environment: promises and challenges.

The History of Kuwait Education

Education in Kuwait has come a long way from its early development after its independence from Great Britain in 1961 to the modern education in the present days.

The 1962 Kuwait constitution specified that education is a fundamental right of all citizens and must be promoted by the state (MOE, 2007). Therefore, all levels of public school are free, including higher education, and is compulsory for age 6-18.

Since Kuwait is an Islamic country, students (males and females) are educated separately. All children may attend coeducational kindergartens, which are not compulsory. But once a child enter first grade, the first year of compulsory education, boys and girls attend separate schools, and the faculty and staff of the school are of the same gender as the students.

Education in the modern sense started after Kuwait’s independence from Great

Britain in 1961. The state assumed the responsibility of providing free education to every

Kuwait citizen from kindergarten to the university level. 28

The education system is connected with the nature of the Kuwait society and, philosophy and the contemporary educational trends to cope with the nature of this change. So, the Ministry of Education establishes general principle for the school system.

According to the Ministry of Education (1976), the objective of education in

Kuwait is to create opportunities for individuals to develop spiritually, morally, intellectually, socially, and physically as much as their aptitudes and abilities permit.

There are related to the nature, philosophy, and the aspirations of the Kuwait society and in accordance with the values of Islam, Arab, and contemporary culture. The aim is to a strike a balance between an individual’s interests and society’s needs for positive participation in the progress of Kuwait society in particular, and Arab society, Islam society, and the world in general (MOE, 2007).

All schools and institutes, public and private, are subject to regulations formulated by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. The Private

Education Department of the Ministry of Education supervises all foreign schools in

Kuwait, which must be registered with the department (MOE, 2007).

The Kuwait government’s policy on education is reflected in the following constitutional provisions, which identify the role of the state concerning the education process (MOE, 2007):

Article 10:

The state cares for the young and protects them from exploitation and from moral,

physical, and spiritual neglect. (The Constitution of the State of Kuwait, 1962, p.

7) 29

Article 13:

Education is a fundamental requisite for the progress of society, assured and

promoted by the state. (The Constitution of the State of Kuwait, 1962, p. 7)

Article 40:

Education is a right for Kuwaits, guaranteed by the state in accordance with law

and with the limits of public policy and morals. Education, in its preliminary

stages, shall be compulsory and free in accordance with law. The law shall lay

down the plan necessary to eliminate illiteracy. The state shall devote particular

care to the physical, moral and mental development of the youth. (The

Constitution of the State of Kuwait, 1962, p. 11)

In 1965, a law was passed adopting universal compulsory education for every

Kuwait child up to age 18, which covers kindergarten, elementary, intermediate, and high school levels. The educational system’s educational ladder included the following stages:

1. Kindergarten: A two-year course, ages 5-6.

2. Elementary school: A four-year course, ages 7-10.

3. Intermediate school: A four-year course, ages 11-14.

4. High school: A four-year course ages, 15-18.

A New Educational Ladder

The Ministry of Education, in its non-stop efforts to develop Kuwait’s educational system, introduced a new educational ladder in the 2004-2005 academic year. The Kuwait cabinet agreed on a change which had been proposed by the educational specialists in their official conference (MOE, 2007). 30

The new educational ladder will last five rather than four years at the elementary stage, four years for the intermediate stage and three rather than four years at the secondary stage. According to the Ministry of Education (MOE, 2007), such a change was needed to ensure consistency among the development plans of all aspects of the educational processes including curriculum, textbooks and unifying the secondary system. The new plan takes into account the learners’ developmental stages and physical, psychological, mental and social needs, providing an appropriate school environment to help them grow comprehensively without negative effects. It is further meant to help primary school students acquire basic skills such as reading, writing and memorizing the Holy Qur'an.

The new educational ladder consists of the following stages:

1. Kindergarten: A two-year course, ages 5-6.

2. Elementary school: A five-year course, ages 7-11.

3. Intermediate school: A three-year course, ages 12-15.

4. Secondary school: A three-year course ages, 16-18.

A private school system was established in 1967 with substantial financial support from the government (MOE, 2007). The private schools available to the population of

Kuwait include the Bayan Bilingual School, the American School of Kuwait, the

American International School, the British School of Kuwait, and the French School.

While most private schools are coeducational, the Kuwait public schools are segregated by gender beginning in the first grade. Granted the same rights to education, male 31 students and female students in Kuwait have the same school facilities and activities

(Kuwait Culture, 2006).

The Ministry of Education has required that each new school have a library. The numbers of books in existing school libraries has risen from 230,000 in the late 1980s to more than three million today (MOE, 2000). Through the Education Net Project promoted by the government, every public school and library in Kuwait is connected to a telecommunication data network.

According to the latest statistics from the Ministry of Education, during the

2006/2007 academic year, there were 838 schools served by 39,510 teachers. The

456,783 students were approximately 30% of the entire population (MOE, 2007).

Higher Education in Kuwait

The Kuwait government has recognized the need for higher education to reinforce all the efforts being made to build Kuwait into an advanced, modern country.

Article No. 13 of the 1962 Kuwait Constitution states that education is the cornerstone of the progress of society, governed and guarded by the state. Therefore, Kuwait

University, established in 1966, and the Public Authority for Applied Education and

Training, established in 1972, marked the start of higher education in Kuwait.

Kuwait University

Kuwait University was established in October, 1966, five years after Kuwait emerged from Britain protection. Kuwait University started its work with the colleges of

Science, Arts and Education and a Women’s College, with 418 students and 31 teaching 32 staff (Kuwait University, 2007). Currently, Kuwait University has approximately 19,000 students attending 12 colleges. The colleges are:

(1) Business Administration Sciences

(2) Arts

(3) Education

(4) Engineering and Petroleum

(5) Health Sciences

(6) Law

(7) Sharia and Islamic Studies

(8) Social Sciences

(9) Medicine

(10) Pharmacy

(11) Dentistry

(12) Graduate Studies.

The main aims of Kuwait University are to train and develop specialized human resources and to increase their efficiency in order to develop a generation of young people respectful of their society’s values and traditions. These graduates will be effective and capable of assuming leadership roles in society, of closely following scientific progress and contributing to it through scientific research directed towards solving the problems of society. They will promote its economic, social and cultural development, strengthening the Arab/Muslim cultural heritage and putting it to use in order to achieve spiritual exaltation as well as scientific and intellectual progress for 33 future generations. Making world culture accessible to the younger generation in the areas of science and the arts, prepares them for the future in all areas (Al-Shahen, 2000;

Kuwait University, 2007). Kuwait University offers bachelors’ degrees, normally awarded after four to seven years of study, and masters’ degrees in science, engineering, philosophy, education, arts, and medicine, through the College of Graduate Studies.

The Public Authority for Applied Education and Training (PAAET)

The applied education and training programs were laid historically along with the beginning of the exploration for and production of oil in Kuwait. In the 1950s, Kuwait began to establish training centers and organized programs to prepare the workforce needed for the oil industry. After building the fundamental structure of the educational system, the Ministry of Education established a number of specialized institutions to face the growing demand for trained and skilled labor. Other ministries established their own training centers and institutes as well. For instance, the Applied Engineering Institute is a training ground or the Ministry of Public Works: the Telecommunication Institute for the

Ministry of Communication; and the Industrial Training Center graduates find positions with the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour. The Technical and Vocational

Education Department was officially established in 1972 with a supervisory brief as a central body to manage and organize the activities of these various institutes. At the same time, the Ministry of Education established specialist technical schools such as the

Teachers’ Institute, an industrial college and a commercial secondary school for girls.

The Public Authority for Applied Education and Training was established on

December 28, 1982. One of its aims was to organize all the previous institutes into one 34 centralized authority to include all types of vocational education under one umbrella

(PAAET, 1997). Its other major aim was to develop the national technical workforce and meet the human resource needs of the country through education and training. The

Applied Education Department consists of four colleges with various specializations: (a) the College of Basic Education, (b) the College of Business Studies, (c) the College of

Technological Studies and (d) the College of Health Sciences. In addition, there are a number of training institutes, such as the Telecommunications and Navigation Institute, the Electricity and Water Institute, and the Industrial Training Institute; the last accepts students who have an intermediate school certificate.

Today there are five private universities, including the American University, the

Gulf University for Science and Technology and the Arabic Open University. These educational institutions have been mainly responsible for providing the State of Kuwait with a national workforce and high-quality technical specialists (Al-Aryan, 1998).

Internet Usage in Arab Countries

The information and communication technology has become a very important part of the development program in the Middle East. As a result of Arab government initiatives to increase the number of computers installed at educational institutions and homes, Internet use continues to grow, albeit slowly.

Comprising mostly of Arab countries, the Middle East with a population of approximately 197,090,443 is one of the regions—the other being Africa—that has relatively the lowest Internet usage compared to that in other parts of the world. As of 35

March 2008, it was estimated that only 2.9 % of the population had Internet access (IWS,

2008).

In its survey covering 18 countries in the Middle East and Africa—excluding

Somalia, Mauritania, Djibouti and Comoros—Madar Reseach Group (2005) conducted a study on the Internet use broken down by countries. The study findings reported that the

United Arab Emirates (UAE) had the highest Internet penetration rate with 27.69 % of the population having access to the Internet. The second highest was Bahrain with 22.06

% penetration rate. The Internet penetration rate of both countries was expected to increase substantially in the coming years with the predicted of 38 % growth for the UAE and 32 % growth for Bahrain.

Currently, the countries with the largest Internet community among all Arab countries include Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and the United Arab Emirates (Madar

Research Group, 2005). By the end of 2005, Egypt with 6.5 million Internet users became the country with the largest Internet community, followed by Saudi Arabia with 4.48 million users, Algeria with 2.4 million users, and the UAE with 900,000 users respectively.

There is still a disparity among Arab countries regarding Internet connection

(MRG, 2005). While most Arab countries experience significant increases in their online community, others such as Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and Sudan remain lagging behind other countries in spite of increasing Internet user numbers. While some countries have used

Internet broadband connections, others still use dial-up connections to access the Internet. 36

The Internet has been used for educational purposes in Arab countries, such as

Jordan and Saudi Arabia. In a study on how often education faculty members in

Jordanian public universities utilized the Internet in their academic work, Aldojan (2007) found that the range of faculty members used the Internet was from daily to 2-3 times a week, with no difference across academic rank and age. Among the Internet tools most frequently used by the faculty included e-mails, followed by the World Wide Web, electronic journals, online databases, list-serves, file transfers, online services, and discussion groups. The study also reported some factors that limited the faculty use of the

Internet in their academic work such as limited access to the Internet, Internet content, administration-related matters, lack of time, and affordability-related issues.

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Al-Asmari (2005) conducted an investigation on the use of the Internet by teachers of English as a Foreign Language

(EFL) in the college of technology. The study mainly explored the relationship between teachers’ use of the Internet and such variables as EFL, teachers’ personal characteristics, level of access to the Internet, perceived computer and Internet expertise, and perception of the Internet as a tool for instruction. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, the study findings indicated that while the teachers had positive perceptions of the use of the

Internet as a pedagogical tool, they used the Internet more for personal purposes than for instructional ones. The study showed a significant impact of such factors as computer and

Internet expertise, place of access to the Internet, perception of the Internet, computer and

Internet experience on the teachers’ level of the Internet use. To increase Internet use among EFL teachers, the study recommended providing more Internet training to the 37 teachers, especially in-service training with a primary focus on using the Internet as a tool for teaching and learning. The study recommended maintaining the EFL teachers’ positive perception of the pedagogical use of the Internet by putting more financial resources in developing computer infrastructure in the College of Technology.

Development of the Internet in Kuwait Education

The extensive growth of the Internet with its World Wide Web has prompted its global use for educational purposes. Educators around the globe have shown more interest in the World Wide Web than any other technology (Owston, 2007). Educational institutions in both developed countries, such as the United States and Europe, and developing countries, such as the Gulf States, have embraced the technology as a very important factor advancing education.

As one of the Gulf States members, Kuwait was the first country in the Middle

East to connect to the Internet and to offer Internet services to the public (Burkhart &

Goodman, 1998). The Internet began in Kuwait in 1992 with three Internet service providers (ISPs). Two of them are subsidiaries of the same company, GulfNet. Kuwait

Computer Company, one of the providers, is a partner of the government’s Ministry of

Communication. Kuwait Electronics Messaging Service (KEMS), is another Internet services provider. It is connected to the Internet in United States via a satellite circuit leased from SpringLink. Kuwait has the greatest number of Internet sites in the Arabian

Gulf region, amounting to almost half of the area total (Wheeler, 1998). Since 1992,

Internet use in Kuwait has grown to reach 900,000, 34.7% of the Kuwait population, as of March, 2008 (IWS, 2009). 38

The Internet proliferation in Kuwait, however, still lags behind that in developing countries and even that in the neighboring countries such as the U.A.E., Bahrain, Saudi

Arabia, and Qatar. Some factors contributing to this unusual phenomenon included government control, cultural and religious values, and insufficient infrastructure

(Burkhart & Goodman, 1998).

In its early development, Internet use was censored by the Kuwait government by blocking access to sites considered inappropriate or dangerous by the authorities. In

Kuwait religion plays an important role in monitoring a new technology such as the

Internet to preserve the society’s existing cultural values, the Kuwait authorities attempted to regulate Internet use with the intention of minimizing possible delinquencies resulting from accessing adult materials by minors or those deemed inappropriate according to Islamic teachings or Arab culture. Furthermore, efforts to upgrade technological infrastructure and transfer from dial-up to broadband Internet connection have been accelerating (IWS, 2009).

The wide availability of computers and the Internet has prompted efforts to integrate computers and the Internet into the Kuwait educational system. when computers were first commercially available, they have been placed in educational institutions

(Newhouse, 2002). Educators even suggested that the computers should be used to support teaching and learning (Keengwe, Onchwari, & Wachira, 2008). Nowadays, computers and the Internet have become an integral part of the Kuwait school system; there is almost no school without them. Many private schools are now connected to the

Internet and allow teachers and students to have access to online resources. As part of the 39

Kuwait educational policy, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has developed a textbook for students in the eighth grade and above to enable students in government schools to learn how to use the Internet (Wheeler, 1998).

There are a number of studies about Internet usage in Arab countries; a few of them have been conducted in Kuwait. Al-Najran (1998) conducted a study to explore the adoption and use of the Internet by Kuwait University students. Designed to understand the students’ attitude toward the Internet, the survey findings estimated that more than

50% of Kuwait University students used the Internet on a regular basis. The demographic findings of the study characterized the Internet users as male engineering students with above average GPAs, more than average computing skills, and a high level of technical proficiency. The Internet adopters were found to be innovators and motivated, to have no problems with English, and to have more technical skills and greater access to the

Internet. Educational advantages of the Internet and its compatibility with their cultural and religious beliefs were mentioned as reasons for their adoption.

A study by Safar (2001) investigated the opinions and attitudes of administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community members toward the use of computers and technology in K-12 education. Designed to find out value implementation for computer technology as an independent subject in K-12 schools versus integrating the computer in all other subjects, the research findings indicated that most of the participants had very positive attitudes toward the use of computer technology in education, supported the use of computer technology both as an independent discipline and as an integrated element with other subjects. Despite some differences in the computer technology attitudes across 40 demographic variables such as governorates, computer ownership, computer usage, and age, the findings of the study also indicated that the Kuwaits did value computers and related technologies.

Another study by Alkhezzi (2002) was conducted to identify both the general and educational uses of the Internet by Kuwait College of Education students and to determine whether the Internet was, or could be, an important tool for them. The findings of the study revealed that the Kuwait University students at the College of Education used the Internet in a variety of ways and for many purposes. Nonacademic uses included browsing, searching, communication, and entertainment. Academic uses included research material searches, completion of assignments, discussions, collaboration, academic communication, and access of online courses. It was found that the Internet was still a new medium, and most of the students lacked proper Internet training. However, regardless of all barriers and obstacles such as the lack of training, the experiences short time, and the quality and availability of the Internet, there was a strong belief among these students that the Internet was a valuable tool that could enhance the quality of education in all its aspects including learning, teaching, research, and communication.

ICT and Social Change

Rapid growth of information and communication technology has moved the life of modern society from the industrial age to the information age. The educational system in the industrial age provided students with “basic facts and survival skills they would need for jobs in industry and agriculture” (Beekman & Rathswohl, 2002, p. 476), a called a ‘factory model’ education. Beekman and Rathswohl describe it as follows: 41

1. It assumes that all students learn the same way and that all students should

learn the same things.

2. The teacher’s job is to ‘pour’ facts into students, occasionally checking the

level of knowledge in each student.

3. Students are expected to work individually, absorb facts, and spend most of

their time sitting quietly in straight rows. (p. 476)

As the world changes with the advance of information and communication technological innovation, this type of education is no longer adequate to keep up with the information revolution. Hence, countries around the globe in both developed and developing countries alike are compelled to adjust their educational systems to meet the demands of the information age. Kuwait is one them: It has been actively reforming its educational system by making ICT a very important component in the country’s development plan (Wheeler, 1998; Kuwait Culture, 2006).

Integration of ICT into Education

Integrating ICT into education is a logical response to the demands of the information age in terms of preparing students for future academic careers or employment that is increasingly technology oriented (Gura & Percy, 2005). The type of schools in the information age should provide students with (a) technological familiarity,

(b) literacy, (c) mathematics, (d) culture, (e) communication, and (f) learning how to learn (Beekman & Rathswohl, 2002). Technological familiarity is very important, especially to older students or workers, who have trouble adjusting to the information age 42 because of so called technophobia—the fear of technology. In this process, they need to learn not only how to work comfortably with all kinds of knowledge tools, including the computer and the Internet, but also to understand the potentials and limitations of the technology. Literacy is crucial in the information age as well; students need to know how to read and write when they graduate. In addition, reading and writing skills are an absolute necessity to survive in a technologically reliant workplace. Students who are able to see the mathematical system in the world around them and to apply math concepts to solve problems will likely survive in a high-tech world (Beekman & Rathswohl, 2002).

Next, strong cultural components in education, such as liberal arts and social studies, will enable students to recognize the interconnections that turn information into knowledge and, give a global perspective to the impact of technology on human life in the information-age society. Furthermore, communication is a survival skill in the information age. As Beekman and Rathswohl (2002) wrote, “Modern jobs involve interactions—between people and machines and between people and people. Fast–paced information-based society depends on our human ability to communicate, negotiate, cooperate, and collaborate, both locally and globally.” (p. 477). But most importantly, education should provide students with “learning how to learn” (Beekman & Rathswohl,

2002, p. 477), which means making learning a lifelong process, Schools must teach students how to think and learn, so they can adjust to unprecedented changes in their lives.

Teachers play an important role in the integration of ICT into school curricula.

Although much of the technology is already in place and available to educators, and 43 promises to redefine goals and methods of teaching and learning, this will not come into reality without teachers’ understanding and positive attitudes about the technology, practical skills to use it, as well as the willingness to use technology in classrooms.

Among the problems are teachers’ resistance to change, lack of training, lack of time, degree of the learning curve, and an unclear vision about technology (Gura & Percy,

2005).

In an ICT-rich classroom environment, teachers are required to adjust their method of teaching in ways that promote students’ learning. For ICT to have a strong effect, the structure of teaching needs to change from teacher-centered to student- centered, from traditional chalk and board to multimedia engagement, in which students become active participants in the process of learning (Gura & Percy, 2005). The use of

ICT is to improve learning and turn students into creative thinkers. By using ICT to learn, students will learn “how it satisfies human needs, how technology changes the flow of learning, knowing, and communicating” (Gura & Percy, 2002, p. 24). This perspective is important to prepare them to become active participants in a technology-supported environment.

ICT is an instructional tool and a medium to help in content delivery. Using ICT needs appropriate and sound instructional practices. Effective technology application requires proper pedagogical practices. According to Earle (2002),

Technology must be pedagogically sound. They [pedagogical practices] must go

beyond information retrieval to problem solving; allow new instructional and

learning experiences not possible without them; promote deep processing of 44

ideas; increase student interaction with subject matter; promote faculty and

student enthusiasm for teaching and learning; and free up time for quality

classroom interaction - in sum improve the pedagogy. (p. 7)

The focus should always be on how the technology is used as ICT can never replace teachers. The ICT teaching/learning environment provides teachers with both new possibilities and imperatives for radical changes in teaching behaviors. As a result of incorporating ICT into education Roblyer & Edwards (2000) note the following shifts in classroom behaviors:

1. Whole-class to small-group instruction

2. Lecture and recitation to coaching

3. From working with better students to working with weaker ones

4. From passive to more engaged students

5. Test-based assessment to that based on products, progress, and effort

6. Competitive to cooperative social structures

7. All students learning the same things to students learning different things

8. Primarily verbal learning to an integration of visual and verbal thinking. (p. 33)

Though teachers can encourage their students to use technology, students’ use of technology depends on factors such as student attitude, motivation, interest, access, and anxiety. Students who have technology experience are more likely to use it than those without (Lim, 2002; Kosakowski, 2002). 45

ICT can be detrimental to learning if introduced without careful instructional design. The benefits of ICT may not be realized if appropriate instructional styles, student interest, and teacher’s input are disregarded. Brackett (1998) states that

It is the pedagogy, not the technology, which is the key … It’s a mistake to put

technology center-stage as we plan and execute educational reforms. Technology

should hover shyly in the wings, ready to lend its power out only as needed. (p.

30)

ICT has great potential to nurture the development of the individual by encouraging students to take responsibility for their learning and by providing enjoyable opportunities for them to use imagination and inquisitiveness for creative expression. ICT use also offers reduced workload opportunities for teachers. The use of ICT in recording data electronically, storing it centrally, and sharing it with colleagues is vital to reducing workload. ICT connects the classroom with the outside world (Zehr, 2001). The use of computers helps students develop critical thinking skills and problem-solving techniques by providing them with real-life situations. The use of technology in schools can be make learning more realistic and enjoyable (Manzo, 2001).

The Use of the Internet in Education

The utilization of the Internet for teaching and learning has increased tremendously. Many educational institutions have accepted the significance of the

Internet in increasing learning and facilitating teaching. The Internet has been used to support learning in traditional classrooms and in distance education. There are many reasons why Web-based learning is increasingly popular. Web-based learning provides 46 students with access to materials and related digital curricular resources through a secure online environment. It allows individual access to tutorial support and subject experts; facilitates online peer collaboration; allows assignments to be stored, submitted and assessed online; and promotes interaction among students, students and teachers, and other interested parties.

Online learning overcomes the time and place barriers associated with traditional classroom learning. Flexible scheduling is one of the main reasons for faculty to use the

Internet for distance education. This incentive offers a sense of empowerment that is impossible to achieve within a brick-and-mortar campus. Student services, registration, and even the community calendar often dictate on-campus schedules and instructors are expected to conform. Distance learning allows that same calendar to be molded and revised to correspond to the needs of the individual students and faculty.

The Internet makes learning and teaching more enjoyable and interesting (Murphy

& Beggs, 2003). Students need high-level instruction for effective learning and the

Internet helps them critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The Internet has changed in many positive ways how teachers teach and students learn. It has increased motivation, communication skills and even writing skills in students (Joo, Bong & Choi, 2000).

According to Lee (2004), as a result of the benefits and features of the Internet,

Web-based instruction (WBI) is increasingly being implemented in education. WBI provides many benefits for teachers and students. By making it easier for staff and students to use ICT, it creates flexibility of (time and place) access. It helps students gain

ICT skills and improves motivation as well as discovering successful approaches to 47 learning through trial and error in discussion. WBI encourages passive students to contribute more effectively to their learning using e-mail and Web forums. It provides a communication gateway between home and school.

Grey (1999) summarized some of the advantages of the Internet technologies in education. She implies that the Internet provides access to unlimited sources of information that are current, updated and inaccessible in other ways. Internet reinforces the concept of students as active agents in the process of learning. The Internet provides students with information in different styles such as text, graphics, audio and video, and these can be used to individualize learning and allow students to learn according to their preferred learning styles and abilities. With the advancement of Web 2.0 the Internet has become a social network for students to advance their potentials in a collaborative way

(Kumar, 2009; Scordias, Jaradat, & Hoagland, 2009).

Technology builds a better teaching force as professional development for teachers can be achieved via the Internet. The Internet is helping foster professional development simply by offering teachers a chance at information that would be difficult to access any other way. (Alzafiri, 2000) states that constant chatting with other teachers and being reinforced and re-encouraged is a real advantage over single-shot workshops.

Loges and Jung (2001) examined telecommunications-mediated learning activities such as those that include use of the Internet that are occurring in pilot and project settings throughout the world and stressed that these types of learning environments are appropriate for a broad range of education applications. The Internet is now being used in teaching to support a variety of courses and teaching functions. 48

ICT and Constructivist Learning Theory

Constructivist Learning Theory

The idea of integrating ICT into education is based on constructivist learning theory that has been used to investigate the effect of the computer on teaching and learning. This learning theory is expected to help describe curriculum a phenomena or events and understand their relationship as well as to provide guidance for research and practice. Influenced by the progressive education movement, the constructivist learning theory emphasizes the central role of learners in the curriculum and proposes that the curriculum be developed according to the learners needs and interests (Gredler, 2000;

(Woolfolk, 2006). This theory promotes individual growth and makes the individuals

(students) explore their potentials, discover and construct learning as well.

Although theorists disagree about the definition of learning, most would agree that learning occurs when experience causes a permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior (Weiten, 2002). What is meant by “experience” in this definition refers to

“the interaction of a person with his or her environment” (Woolfolk, 2006, p. 196).

Principles of Constructivism

In the 20th century the learning theories whose foundations and principles

promoted a structured learning practice win which here the teacher transmitted

information and knowledge to students through such styles as lectures were the

behaviorist and cognitive theories. Behaviorism and cognitivism did not value students’

input and contribution to their own learning, so under these theories the students were

passive participants in the learning process (Woolfolk, 2006). Unlike the behaviorist and 49 cognitive theories that emphasized the important role of the teacher and the structured delivery of content, the constructivist theory emphasized the central role of students in the learning process and recognized the ability of students to construct meaning out of their learning (Kanuka & Anderson, 1999).

Although the application of constructivist practices was touted in the latter half of the last century, theories that modeled student-centered learning existed easier.

Constructivism as a learning theory has been influenced by the writings and thoughts of

Piaget and Vygotsky (Woolfolk, 2006). Constructivist learning environments are structured in such a way that students are required to create meaning out of the context, and become actively involved in solving problems. Constructivism promotes interaction between students and their mentors, and this creates an environment where all students and mentors contribute to learning. Learning in a constructivist environment is constructed at different time, and thus there are no predetermined goals and structures to be followed (Gance, 2002). Generally, the following principles are derived from constructivism (Brooks, & Brooks 1999; Kanuka & Anderson, 1999):

1. Learning is an active process in which the learner constructs meaning out of it.

2. Prior experience and knowledge are needed to learn new things.

3. People learn to learn as they learn. Learning consists of constructing both

meaning and systems of meaning.

4. Motivation is critical to learning.

5. Experiencing learning is important for effective learning. Hands-on activities

should be promoted. 50

6. Learning is a social activity where our interaction with others is crucial.

7. Language is an important part of the learning process.

8. Learning is contextual: We learn in relationship to what else we know, what

we believe, our prejudices and our fears.

9. Learning is not instantaneous: Learning takes place over a period of time

(p. 8).

Constructivist Classroom

The constructivist theory emphasizes the importance of experience and learning based on experiences. Students have a central role in the learning process. The role of the teacher is to guide and support students in making meaning and understanding out of situations. Practitioners and scholars put forth the view that constructivism cannot be practiced in a traditional, cognitive environment. They argue that constructivism involves much more than formal learning as it is about students’ earlier experiences. Howe & Berv

(2000) recognize the futility of evading direct instruction, especially when teaching children, and stress that it is not feasible to rely solely on constructivist teaching styles.

Constructivism differs from other learning practices in that while most other learning styles focus on cognitive knowledge acquisition, the core of constructivism is the individual’s personal learning experience and reflection (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson,

1999; Kafai & Resnick, 1996). In the learning process, student activities are significant and central to knowledge construction. Meaningful learning occurs when there is collaboration between learners, teachers and specialists in the field. 51

Activities in a constructivist classroom are not formally structured with schedules and plans that students are required to follow. Students collaborate actively in planning and organizing activities for the classroom, and this motivates and encourages them to think. Teaching and learning styles are flexible and accommodate students’ views and ideas (Gould, 1996; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999).

Constructivist classrooms and programs display the following characteristics

(Gould, 1996; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999): Learning focuses on ideas rather than facts; the learning process involves interactions between students and teachers; focus is on knowledge construction rather than replication; dialogue and discourse are promoted and encouraged in a complex world where there are multiple representations of knowledge; students’ interests determine learning; and learning experiences accentuate authentic activities.

Criticism of Constructivism

Despite its progressive ideas of learning, constructivism draws a variety of criticisms. Concerns about its principles and practices center around (Roblyer &

Edwards, 2000): (1) Certification of skill learning—“although constructivists deplore formal tests or objective measurement, schools must sometimes certify that students have learned key skills” (p. 68); (2) prior knowledge—many students lack the prerequisite skills to be able to approach and solve complex problems as required by constructivist strategies; (3) choosing the most effective instruction—it is difficult for students to choose themselves methods by which they will learn and solve problems; and (4) deciding topics suitable for constructivist methods—sometimes there is tension in 52 choosing suitable topics for a particular event and in favoring “depth coverage of one topic over breath of coverage on many topics” (p. 68); and (5) transfer of skills to practical situations—concern also arises about whether skills of problem solving learned in authentic situations in school will be transferred easily to problems that students must solve in real life.

As with any change, constructivist approaches to learning, with or without technology, are subject to risks for students, parents, teachers, and administrators

(Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). Some may argue that constructivism burdens students and relieves teachers of their teaching responsibility. However, contrary to this perception, in a constructivist learning environment teachers do not abandon their responsibilities but play a different role as a facilitator to students’ learning (Brooks &

Brooks, 1999).

ICT and Constructivism

Increased need for learning environments and practices that require interpersonal interaction, collaboration and opportunities to experience learning, principles that constructivism promotes, can be accomplished through the use of technology. Many educational institutions, especially at the post-secondary level, are promoting and adopting the integration of technology into teaching and learning. Reviewing McManus’

(1996) work, Kanuka & Anderson (1999) gave the example of using the Web for learning where learners use and explore the Web in different ways and from different directions, and small group discussions and presentations following the search lead to multiple interpretations of content and higher-order thinking. 53

According to Gance (2002), it is not always correct to assume that just because technology facilitates student-centered learning, the constructivist strategies which are based on learners taking a central role in their learning are implemented. Most of the time, the use of software and the Web promotes behaviors or practices that are not in line with the constructivist philosophy. For example, an online course geared towards individual learners which does not promote collaboration or interaction and software program that is meant for drill and practice cannot be assumed to be applying the constructivist model. Gance states that,

While certainly increasing the interaction available to the student over a passive

viewing of content, the interactive quiz nevertheless requires a short answer or

multiple choice format. This is a technique long associated with an information

transfer view of teaching and learning: present the material and then test how well

it has been learned. Constructivism, on the other hand, calls for students to show

their understanding in deeper ways, to explain or demonstrate their knowledge by

synthesizing previously learned information into new inferences or design

solutions. Such quizzes do not allow this. The current quiz technology, while an

impressive improvement in software technology, is not an improvement in

educational practice. (p. 14)

Technology can be an important tool to facilitate and enhance the application of the constructivist model but it is not the only model that can be ideal for constructivism.

Using technology only to create a learning environment based on the principles of 54 constructivism will not lead to the desired effect. It can in fact, have the opposite effect of undermining constructivist practices (Gance, 2002).

Roles of Teachers and Learners in an ICT Environment

According to the National Education Technology Standards (ISTE, 2007), technology is not to be promoted “in isolation, but rather as an integral component or tool for learning and communications within the context of academic subject areas” (p. 8). In this process, it is important to understand that technology integration is dependent upon teachers’ technical expertise as well as pedagogical knowledge of its utilization for educational purposes (Otero & Peressini, 2005; Sandholtz, 2001).

Depending on the quantity and quality of training received, teachers’ attitudes toward and confidence in technology could determine students’ involvement in the learning process. The technology could be used to develop students’ basic skills, reassess the classroom structure, and innovate teachers’ instructional practices (Deacon, 1999;

Denson, 2005; Griffin, 2003; Kitchenham, 2006; Leys & Adviser, 2004; Romano, 2004;

Royer, 2002; Woodridge, 2003; Yang, 2004).

Role of Teachers

ICT has changed the role of teachers from being masters to being facilitators for students in the learning process (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). It is stated that the computer can help learners solve problems and communicate with others. At the same time, working with computers influences the way teachers teach, too.

As facilitators, teachers play a role in structuring activities, introducing tasks, answering questions, prompting discussion and summarizing/presenting outcomes. 55

Students work either independently or collaboratively on computer-based tasks, ask for help or guidance while engaged in these tasks and report on or present their work to the teacher and/or other students. The classroom becomes a place where the teacher talks less and the students talk more than was previously the case (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson,

1999).

Role of Students

ICT has changed the way students learn in schools. Students no longer are expected to learn specific sets of knowledge or skills. Unlike before, when content and subject matter were packaged for students, today’s students have access to various tools

(notably technology) for use in learning (Maier, et al., 1998). ICT empowers students by providing them with opportunities to solve problems. It enables students to share their skills and resources with their counterparts and teachers. ICT helps students to complete projects that would be difficult without it (Moursund, 1999).

Teachers and students become involved in teaching and learning at the same time.

In a study on the use of ICT in a science education class, Friedrichsen et al. (2001) found that students were motivated to contribute to the learning because of the computer simulations and online course management systems that were incorporated into the course. They stated that “the students moved from that of a science learner to a science teacher. In a mentored, small group setting, the students use the technology tools to support other students’ scientific inquiry.” (p. 385). The emergence of Web 2.0 with its social networking capabilities has opened up more possibilities for the advancement of teachers’ and students’ academic collaboration. 56

Web 2.0 and Education

A new technology that has emerged and gained increasing attention is the so- called Web 2.0 Invented in 2004. The term Web 2.0 was officially coined by Dale

Dougherty in late 2005 (Gutmans, 2006). It was meant to suggest the next generation of

Web applications that were turning the Web from a static experience into a more interactive, dynamic, and democratic one. Web 2.0 offers free new tools such as blogs, wikis, photo and video sharing and social networking that have been talked about and used by many Web users.

This new phenomenon is changing the way people, including teachers and students, interact with the world. Whereas the old Web was static, and one-dimensional, the new Web is “a participatory, interactive place where we create information collaboratively and share results” (Soloman & Schrum, 2007, p. 8). Picture and video- sharing sites such as Picasa, Flickr, YouTube, Yahoo! Video, MySpace, Facebook, and

Twitter are some examples of Web 2.0 applications and communities that are appearing on the Web.

Teachers and students can benefit from Web 2.0 technologies. Characterized by their quick set-up and ease of use, the Web 2.0 tools do not require as much knowledge and skills, allowing learners to concentrate on information sharing and collaboration

(Boulos, Maramba, & Wheeler, 2006). Teachers and students can utilize Web 2.0 resources to express their social presence, enhance their engagement with content and with fellow teachers or students (Gutmans, 2006). Without having to download the software, they can create blogs and upload videos to the blogs, or share their works (texts, 57 pictures, videos) on educational Web sites with other educators or students worldwide.

Teachers can use blogs to post syllabi or work assignments, showcase students’ works, promote social and school events, share ideas about teaching strategies, or discuss school issues with parents. Students can use blogs to submit their work, share learning experiences, collaborate on school projects, or build online relationships with other students worldwide.

The significance of blogs is enormous. According to a Pew Internet and American

Life Project national phone survey (2006), about 40% of the approximately 147 million adult Internet users in the United States say they read blogs and 8% of them write blogs.

Although the exact number of bloggers in Kuwait is unknown, according to recent blogtoplist.com data (2009, May 15) there are 66,718 blogs (7.5% of Internet users) registered in its directory; the statistics reset every week.

Wiki is another new technological tool that can be used for collaborative work.

Information can be added, deleted, or edited by anyone with access privilege and a Web browser. A characteristic of wiki called the wisdom of crowds, has four elements including diversity of opinion, independence of opinion (an individual’s opinion not influenced by others’), decentralization of information, and mechanism for aggregating the information, and allows learners to reach a higher level of thinking (Surowiecki,

2005).

Wikis could be a powerful educational tool in allowing “thinking and learning thought processes to become visible,” making “concrete manipulation and restructuring of knowledge,” providing “a structure for the revision of knowledge or creation of new 58 learning,” and providing “an equitable environment for true collaboration” (Scordias,

Jaradat, & Hoagland, 2009, p. 2674). Other wiki features that enable users to engage in collaborative work in education are ease of use, sharing of resources, being engaged with the content and the class, and a feeling of belonging to a group (Kumar, 2009).

The interactive nature of Web 2.0 with its social networking capabilities helps and supports learning through social interaction in a broader context involving content, fellow learners, teachers, and any interested individuals worldwide who have access to the social networking sites. Through this process, an individual’s intellectual and cognitive development is shaped in social and cultural contexts (Lave & Wenger, 2001).

Technology has developed over the years with its distinctive characteristics.

Television, video cameras, and early versions of computers marked the 1980s’ technology. Static Web pages and email characterized the 1990s’ technology. More personal and interactive technologies have emerged in the 21st century. Throughout these

developments, teachers have been caught in the middle, needing to adapt the ever and

adopt to changing technologies.

Teachers’ perception of technology in education has changed over time. From an

add-on in the eighties and a school requirement in the nineties, teachers now perceive

technology as essential and useful for their professional development in the 21st century.

This changing perception could be a determining factor in adopting the technology in

schools. Success for technology integration in the educational system depends on

teachers’ attitude towards technology and these attitudes improve as teachers master the

use of technology (Albarini, 2006). Technology training for teachers is important for 59 successful technological implementation in the classroom (Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon, &

Byers, 2002).

Attitudes, Gender, Training, and Experience

Attitudes toward ICT

Technology has become one of the most important teaching and learning tools used in schools. Its use for teaching and learning has created opportunities and challenges, and various studies have shown that it improves learning. However, for technology to have an impact, the role of teachers and their perceptions and attitudes toward it need to be examined. If teachers have positive attitudes, technology use will likely be effective and easy. Teachers’ attitudes toward ICT are a key element in their adoption of the technology (Rogers, 1995). This assumption confirms the commonly accepted belief that attitudes affect behavior (Albirini, 2004).

Hardy (1998) reviewed existing studies on teacher attitudes, developed a profile of ‘technology-using’ teachers and summarized that variables such as access to equipment, administrative support and time did not have as strong an effect on the use of technology as did the teachers’ own confidence level. Demetriadis et al. (2003) determined that one-third to two-thirds of the teachers they surveyed were not using computer technology personally or with their students because they lacked confidence, felt uncomfortable and were even a bit frightened by technology. Parr (1999) longitudinally studied a school in which all staff members were given laptop computers.

After five years, reported personal use of the computer was extensive. Teacher 60 confidence level and skill improved markedly, but use of computers in the classroom with students remained relatively low.

Although knowledge and skills in computers use is important, successfully incorporating it depends on the attitudes of the teachers and their readiness to use technology. Teachers’ attitudes can affect their readiness to implement technology in their classrooms (Koszalka, 2001). Teachers’ perceptions about technology are influenced by a combination of factors such as teacher self-efficacy, teacher philosophy, openness to change, and amount of professional development.

Teachers’ positive perceptions about or attitudes toward technology result in their exploiting the potential of interactive technology, changing teaching style, exercising effective classroom management and having greater feelings of self-worth. Teachers believe technology supports superior forms of learning (Alavi & Dufner, 2004).

Gender and ICT

Many gender studies have been conducted over time to find the answer to the question of gender differences in ICT attitude and use (Bame, Dugger, deVries, &

McBee, 1993; Boser, Palmer, & Daugherty, 1998; Comber, Colley, Hargreaves, & Dorn,

1997; Durndell, Glissov, & Siann, 1995; Liao, 1999; Meelissen, 2008; Whitley, 1997; and Young, 1999). Most of the researchers in the early studies found that attitudes toward technology differed significantly between males and females, with male indicating greater interest and knowledge. With the exception of Liao (1999) who conducted a meta-analysis, all of the researchers investigating students’ attitude and use of computers confirmed the widely accepted belief that males had a more positive attitude toward 61 computers and used computers more than females did. Other researchers found that females perceived technology as more difficult and less interesting than males did (Boser,

Palmer, & Daugherty, 1998; Krendl & Broihier, 1990).

However, the difference in gender attitudes toward technology is not due to their biological construct but rather to their cultural and social construct. The attitude differences could be traced back to the placement and use of computers in education, where they were mainly used in research and administrative offices by white males (Linn,

1999). The differences may also have resulted from the dominant culture of males in technological fields; males use computer equipment more than females. (Hill, Loch,

Straub, & Elsheshai, 1998). In addition, the differences may be the direct impact of the technological environment at home. Many males and females perceived their homes as being more technological and rated both parents’ occupations as more technical (Bame et al., 1993).

Other possible reasons for gender differences in terms of attitude toward and use of computers can be found in the following (Sharp, 2005):

Most of the computer games are violent and appeal to the male population;

computers are linked to math and science, fields that show an overrepresentation

of males; magazines and newspapers depict men using the computer more than

women; when women are associated with the computer, it is in a secretarial role;

and many teachers encourage boys to use computers but discourage girls from

doing so. (p. 405) 62

Recent studies, however, show that gender attitudes toward computers are no longer significantly different. Female participants of a focus group conducted by the

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation claimed that they like computers—they just use them differently than males (Bain & Rice, 2006). As gender has an effect on attitudes, perceptions, and use of technology, it is important to understand gender differences in this regard.

ICT Training for Teachers

Education in the Information Age requires technological familiarity. Nowadays many, if not most, training programs in business, education, and industry rely heavily on

ICT. Consequently, specialists in ICT—or instructional technology specialists for education—are in high demand. There is a need for a variety of technological professionals with specialties such as training coordinators, trainers, instructional designers, training specialists, and training managers (Smaldino, Russell, Heinich, &

Molenda, 2005).

Teachers’ mastery of technological knowledge and skills undoubtedly plays a key

role in integrating ICT into education (Beekman & Rathswohl, 2002). Teachers are

required to know about hardware operation, software selection, technology-based

classroom organization and management, risks and potentials of the technology (Sharp,

2005).

ICT is an important tool that can be used for instruction, research and

communication. The question that arises is whether teachers use ICT effectively in the

classroom. This depends on the ability and interest of the teacher. A commonly cited 63 reason for many teachers’ limited or lack of technology use is lack of skills (Ali, 2003;

DeBourgh, 1999; Hope, 1998). A study by Batane (2004) revealed that both new and veteran teachers feel inadequately prepared to use computers in their classrooms. The study showed that most teachers agree that more technology training is needed for teachers. They propose that teacher education programs should focus on training prospective teachers to integrate technologies in their teaching and learning activities. By using technology as a natural and necessary part of classroom practice, teachers could give students needed knowledge and experience.

To overcome teachers’ concerns and lack of skills in using technology, it is important that teacher training should take into account teachers’ varying levels of computer experience and learning styles (Sandham, 2001). There needs to be adequate access to computers in the classroom if teachers are to be motivated to use them. Schools must be prepared to provide teachers with adequate and necessary experience. Hardy

(1998) and Anthony, Clarke, and Anderson (2000) suggest that anxiety, or technophobia, can lead to a situation where adoption is almost impossible. Limited access or experience with technology has been shown to be a predictor of technophobia.

Teachers who are poorly informed or not informed at all as how the technology may be used pedagogically become bewildered and overwhelmed by ICT. The use of ICT should be a means of instruction in education without becoming a preoccupation. The subject matter, and more importantly the learner, should determine the type of technology used and ICT should not undermine or compromise principles upon which learning is based (Barak, 2006). 64

Experience of ICT Use

Technology use in K-12 schools has seen a dramatic climb over the two-decade period between 1984 and 2004. Schools have increasingly invested in technology, teacher and student computer use has increased and the access and level of technology used has grown. Whereas in 1983-84, the student-computer ratio was 125 students for every computer, in 2000, there was one computer for every six students (Ely, 2002).

In the eighties, teachers had mixed perceptions about the technology because they had limited access to it to examine and experience its impact. Technology focused on the use of text-based drills and practice instruction. According to Dwyer, Ringstaff, &

Sandholtz (1990), “students continued to receive steady diets of whole group lectures and recitations and individualized seatwork. Although much has changed physically in the classrooms, more remained the same.” (p. 4) According to Dougiamas (1998), the eighties marked the beginning of teachers using computers in their classrooms. However, the school culture remained far from being technologically revolutionized. Computers were only available in the labs and the teaching was generally about the technology, not with the technology. In the early nineties, despite computers being widely used in workplaces, homes, and school computer labs, computer use in education was still limited. The main obstacle was teachers’ lack of knowledge on how to use the new technologies for teaching.

In the eighties and nineties, software programs focused on drill and practice. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the focus has been the use of technology to promote thinking skills. Toward the end of the eighties when teachers became more comfortable 65 with technology, their role started changing. Teachers “were becoming facilitators rather than dispensers of knowledge” (Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1990, p. 6).

They used computers to supplement instruction, but did not completely embrace technology which they considered an-add on to their work. Furthermore, many of them complained that they did not have easy access, the training or the curriculum reform to integrate the technology. Teachers need continuing training as the technology changes, as new and more effective applications are developed, and as more is learned about learning with technology. Challenges include: hardware problems-limited hardware, lack of time to obtain computer training, financial and technical support, and difficulties in school system (Russell, Bebell, O’Dwyer, & O’Connor, 2003).

Various programs and models have been developed to support teacher staff training. Models such as the Cupertino (CA) Model technology schools projects and the

Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) provided support and guidelines to teachers and impacted tremendously the ways teachers were trained and used technology (Coley,

Cradler, & Engel, 1997).

In 1997 Educational Testing Service (ETS) released its Policy Information Report concerning the status of computer technology in U.S. schools, which can be summarized as followed:

1. There are major differences among schools in their access to different

kinds of educational technology. 66

2. Students attending poor and high-minority schools have less access to

most types of technology than students attending other schools.

3. Ninety-eight percent of all schools own computers. The current student-to-

computer ratio of 10 to 1 represents an all-time low ratio. The ratio ranges

from about 6 to 1 in Florida, Wyoming, Alaska, and North Dakota to 16 to

1 in Louisiana.

4. While 85 percent of U.S. schools have multimedia computers, the average

ratio of students to computers is 24 to 1, nearly five times the ratio

recommended by the U.S. Department of Education. The ratio ranges from

about 9 to 1 in Florida to about 63 to 1 in Louisiana. Students attending

poor and high-minority schools have less access than students attending

other schools.

5. Thirty-eight percent of our schools are using local area networks (LANs)

for student instruction. This ranges from 57 percent of the schools in

Colorado, Utah, and North Carolina, to 16 percent of the schools in

Vermont. Students attending poor and high-minority schools have less

access to LANs than students attending other schools.

6. Just under one-fifth of our schools have access to satellite technology,

ranging from 50 percent of the schools in Missouri to only 1 percent of

Hawaii’s schools. While students attending high-minority schools have

less access to this technology than students attending other schools, 67

students attending poor schools have more access than students attending

rich schools. (Coley, Cradler, & Engel, 1997, p. 3)

Teachers believed that computers had led them to expect more from their students. The teachers also believed that computers provided the opportunity to individualize instruction. Students were more able to interact with students one-on-one.

Teachers functioned more as guides and coaches and the use of technology had turned their classrooms from teacher directed to student-centered classrooms. Teachers had come to see computers as encouraging and facilitating student interaction, group activities and more student-directed work. (Hadley & Sheingold, 1993).

A national survey using the Fast Response Survey System (FRSS) commissioned by NCES (National Center for Educational Statistics) in 1999 reported that “99 percent of full-time regular public teachers…had access to computers or the Internet somewhere in their schools” (U. S. Department of Education, NCES, 2000, p. 1). Baylor and Ritchie

(2002) stated that successful technology use in schools was influenced by the following factors:

1. Tech planning: The teacher's role in creating the technology use plan is

important if technology is to have meaningful impact.

2. Technology leadership: There should be positive technology-using role models,

such as the principal, and the presence of incentives for teacher use of

technology; 68

3. Curriculum alignment: Technology activities should be aligned to specific

curriculum;

4. Professional development: Professional development programs, incentive

provided to attend programs, access to technical support, and appropriateness of

technology equipment;

5. Technology use: Focus should be on teaching and learning with computers;

6. Teacher openness to change: Teacher openness to change influences teachers'

willingness to integrate technology into the classroom;

7. Teacher non-school computer use: The extent to which teachers use technology

outside of the classroom may be an indicator of their interest and corresponding

skill in using technology (p. 402).

Technology in the eighties focused on television, video cameras and limited computer use, technology in the nineties used statistic Web pages and email extensively.

In the 21st Century, technology has evolved and become more interactive with teachers

using Web 2.0 tools. Though teachers found technology to be an-add on in the eighties,

and a school requirement in the nineties, they have considered technology to be essential

and useful to their professional development after the nineties. The trend over time has

shown that teachers have learned how to use technology in multiple ways. How

technology is used in the classroom determines its successful implementation. 69

ICT-Learning Environment: Promises and Challenges

ICT-Based Learning Environment

The increasing significance of ICT in educational programs partly results from the fact that the use of ICT for instruction is: (a) promoting more individualized learning,

(b) giving learners with a flexible time (day, night, weekend) and place (home or class) for their learning, (c) allowing interactivity; (d) facilitating understanding of abstract information by using multiple features such as graphics, voice, and video, (e) giving immediate feedback, and (f) giving an users opportunity for more learning and practice until they get correct answers (Richards, 2005). New applications of technology can help overcome some of the barriers to learning such as location of learning centers, schedule problems, physical handicaps, learning style, and nature of learning (Dawes, 2001).

Technology allows students to (a) work in collaborative inquiry projects, (b) access online resources in several languages, and (c) click onto video, audio, and literacy aids in multiple languages (Garcia, 2000).

Confirming the above statements, Waxman and Padrón (2002), who studied the impact of instructional technology on students at risk of failure, found that it benefited them in the following ways: (a) it was motivational; (b) it was non-judgemental; (c) it could individualize learning and tailor the instructional sequence to meet students' needs and rate of learning; (d) it allowed for more autonomy; (e) it could give prompt feedback;

(f) it provided the students with a sense of personal responsibility and control; (g) it could be less intimidating to students; (h) it gave students a rich linguistic environment; (i) it 70 diminished the authoritarian role of the teacher; and (j) it decreased situations where students could be embarrassed in class for not knowing answers.

The use of computer networks and telecommunications is another area that holds promise for improving teaching and learning. Teachers and students can communicate with authentic audiences through the Internet and other technologies. In his research on

ICT and the writing class, (Garcia, 2000) found that it provided a risk-free environment which made students feel comfortable about expressing their ideas and showed improvement in sentence structure and the breadth of content.

As ICT allows individual learners to control their learning activities without being directed by the teacher, it gives them a greater role in the learning process. However, using ICT as the only medium for learning will not be helpful to learners unless it is used with the teacher’s lectures, group interaction, and in a conducive environment. Schall,

Leake, and Whitaker (1998) point out that ICT motivates learners to learn. They explain,

Many learners who were not interested in school work before are becoming

interested and involved because of the visual and dynamic features of the

computer … its ability to provide immediate feedback and user interaction

makes it appealing not just to learners, but to teachers as well. (p. 246)

ICT can be tailored to the specific needs of learners, and many of its programs are suitable for different groups of learners. Pedro (2005) presented ICT as allowing flexibility for teaching and learning pertaining to time and place. He further pointed out that. Many computer programs can provide a choice of program to suit individual backgrounds and characteristics. Concerning the learners’ needs and interests, he stated 71 that the variety of computer programs, with instructional use of simulation, tutorials, and presentational use of audio and video, is good for learners. As self-direction involves self-evaluation, he stated that ICT conveniently and accurately hosts continuous learner self-evaluation and allows for a comparison of performance at different times and stages of learning; learners’ freedom in decision making in their learning is important for motivation.

Not all people agree on the effectiveness of ICT for learning. According to Earle

(2002), despite the benefits associated with ICT, its effective application and implementation has been challenged by a several factors some of which are cited below:

1. Difficulty in accessing hardware and software;

2. High cost of technology;

3. Lack of technology skills and training by instructional staff;

4. Time for planning and training;

5. Negative attitudes as a result of existing teaching traditions (p.9).

Lai and Kritsonis (2006) added that—especially in the case of teaching reading, listening, and writing skills—the disadvantages included the imperfection of software and the inability of computers “to deal with learners’ unexpected learning problems and to response to learners’ question immediately as teachers do” (p. 4).

Promises of ICT Use

Learning is improved when students are taught in an environment where different methods and media are used, and technology happens to be the tool for improving the method of teaching in this period (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 2001). Technology- 72 mediated learning environments represent a means to implement learning theories, particularly those that provide an alternative to the traditional delivery model of instruction. Technology lends itself well to real-life problem solving, recreation and simulation of authentic situations and contexts, learner-controlled and student-centered activities. As such, it is well suited to the realization of theories based on constructivist philosophy.

Technology engages students in schools. It is motivational because it enhances interactivity and collaboration. It changes the environment of the classroom from typical lecturing to a series of experiences. Research has shown that using technology in classrooms makes learning more fun (Sandham, 2001).

Challenges of ICT Use

Use of ICT in education will continue to generate questions, redefine roles and create new possibilities (Gura & Percy, 2005). Many issues will need to be addressed by increased use of ICT in schools. Ethical and equity issues and questions of copyright are just some of the areas that will require consideration and clarification. System-wide studies of ICT implementation will need to be carried out in order to capture the complex, interrelated combination of variables and to address the many related questions and issues. For this reason, educational use of technology will create challenges as well as possibilities.

Some challenges to making use of ICT in education more effective are outlined as follows: 73

1. The potential for positive transformation that technology promises has not

been realized (Gura & Percy, 2005).

2. Constant changes of technology requires constant updating of technological

knowledge and skills of both teachers and students (Maddux, Johnson, &

Willis, 2001; Sharp, 2005).

Summary

Effective application and use of ICT for teaching and learning requires integrating technology into learning instead of treating it as separate from instructional activities.

Technology should be part of the teaching and learning process. Teachers should be provided with the training and support needed and should change their teaching practices to models and styles that facilitate technology use. Constructivism is one of the theories that works well with the use of technology as it enhances and focuses on student-centered learning where students actively contribute to their learning. Though various technologies have been used in education, the Internet is increasingly becoming the most commonly used technology in classrooms and virtual environments. It can be used to supplement classroom teaching and learning and at the same time it is the most ideal medium for distance learning.

Educational institutions should encourage experienced educators to explore and learn more about information technologies. Also, research suggests that ICT facilitates the educational process and makes learning interesting and fun. The research reviewed here acknowledges that there are barriers to effective and successful integration of technology. Such barriers can be overcome with the careful adoption and application of 74 technology. Technology should be introduced when it is needed and appropriate and when educational institutions are prepared to provide not only the technology but support for its use and maintenance. 75

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

This chapter addresses the methodology used to investigate Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and their use of ICT in the classroom. The following topics are addressed in subsequent sections of the chapter: (a) research questions; (b) research variables; (c) research design; (d) population, sample, and sampling procedures;

(e) instrumentation development; (f) data collection procedures; and (g) methods of data analysis.

Research Questions

To improve the quality of education in the 21 Century, the Kuwait Ministry of

Education had introduced information and communication technology to Kuwait high schools. The implementation of the technology in the classrooms did not go occur without problems. Several factors have influenced the adoption of ICT in schools, such as lack of understanding and training as well as cultural issues pertaining to gender.

This study examined the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT and their use of it in the classroom. Particular attention was given to the effect of gender and

ICT training on the aforementioned variable. The research questions investigated in this study are as:

1. What are the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in education?

2. How do Kuwait high school teachers use ICT in their classrooms?

3. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and

ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school

teachers? 76

4. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and

ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training

(T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2)?

Research Variables

Based on the research questions above, two independent variables and two dependent variables were investigated in this study. The independent variables includes gender (IV1), with two scales of males and females, and ICT training (IV2), also with two scales of those with training and those without training. The dependent variables consist of attitudes (DV1) of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT and their use of ICT (DV2) in the classroom.

Research Hypotheses

Based on the research questions above, no hypotheses were tested for the first questions. Rather, they were analyzed using a descriptive analysis, examining means, standard deviations, and frequencies. For the last two questions (Questions 3 and 5), a two-way MANOVA was used to test their hypotheses. The null hypotheses for these questions are:

Null hypothesis 1:

Ho1: There are no significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school

teachers.

77

Null hypothesis 2:

Ho2: There are no significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training

(T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2).

Null hypothesis 3:

Ho3: There is no significant interaction between gender (M-F/IV1) and ICT training

(T-NT/IV2) on the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2).

Research Design

A quantitative research method was used in this study. Quantitative studies

generally use at least one of the following three research designs: descriptive, relational,

or experimental (Light, Singer, & Willett, 1990). These designs have functions; for

example, descriptive study describes the conditions without explaining why those

conditions were the way they are. Relational in this study was geared toward

understanding the relationship between two or more variables. Experimental researchers

looked for a causal relationship between an action and an outcome (Light, Singer, &

Willet, 1990).

This study was descriptive using inferential statistical methods to collect data

about Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and their use of ICT in teaching

and learning. It samples a population (high school teachers) at one point in time (Ary,

Jacobs, & Razavieh, 2002).

Survey research has some advantages. Using a survey for gathering information

from the research subjects is concerned with “attitudes, opinions, preferences, 78 demographics, practices, and procedures” (Gay & Airasian, 2003, p. 275). It was valuable in describing the characteristics of a large population. Tuckman (1999) and Dillman

(2000) reported that one of 76 advantages of using a survey was the ability to reach a large number of respondents with little effort and few resources. Surveys, especially self- administered, were relatively inexpensive as they could be administered from a distance using mail, e-mail, or telephone. Consequently, very large samples may be feasible and this increased the likelihood of statistically significant results even when multiple variables are investigated; standardized surveys ensure that uniform data from various groups could be collected, interpreted, and then compared in a precise method (Babbie,

1990; Fowler, 2002).

Statistical Analysis and Procedures

The study investigated high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and their use of

ICT in the classroom. For this study, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was employed. A two-way factorial MANOVA design was used to examine the effect of two independent variables, gender and ICT training, on two dependent variables, attitudes and use of ICT. Both independent variables were categorical and include gender and training. Gender was categorized as male students and female students. Training was expressed by training (T) and no training (NT). This type of analysis identifies any interaction between the

independent variables and two or more dependent variables (Pallant, 2001).

Van de Vijver and Leung (1997) pointed out that analysis of variance was the

most frequently reported statistical test to test level differences. Thus MANOVA was an

appropriate technique to test the significance of group differences on several dependent 79 variables (Bray & Maxwell, 1985; Field, 2000; Hair et al., 1998; Mertler & Vannatta,

2002; Stevens, 2002; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

Assumptions for MANOVA

For the multivariate test procedures of MANOVA to be valid, based on Mertler and Vannatta (2002), a set of assumptions must be met:

1. The observations within each sample had to randomly sampled and must be

independent of each other; when dependence was suspected, a lower level of

significance (e.g., .01 or even lower) should be used (Hair et al., 1998). In

addition, a random sample might also reduce the risk of violating

independence (Mertler & Vannatta, 2002).

2. The observations on all dependent variables had to follow a multivariate

normal distribution in each group; researchers had found no direct test for

multivariate normality. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001),

multivariate normality indicates that the sampling distribution of the means of

each dependent variable and all linear combinations of them were normally

distributed.

3. The population covariance matrices for the dependent variables in each group

must be equal. This assumption is also known as the homogeneity of

covariance matrices assumption or the assumption of homoscedasticity.

Stevens (2002) indicates that the assumption of homogeneous covariance

matrices suggested that the dispersion within gender and training groups was

assumed identical for all. Stevens also mentions the importance of using 80

Box’s Test for the sake of testing homogeneity of covariance matrices, where

this type of test should be non- significant if the matrices were the same. On

the other hand, in case of that homogeneity of covariance matrices was

violated, a more robust multivariate test statistic (e.g., Pillai’s Trace) could be

selected when interpreting the multivariate results (Mertler &Vannatta, 2002).

4. The relationships among all pairs of dependent variables for each cell in the

data matrix had to be linear. MANOVA evaluated the differences between

combinations of dependent measures (gender and training in this study), yet

constructed a linear relationship only between the dependent measures (Hair

et al., 1998). Linearity can best be inspected by using scatterplots.

This study was carried out in a 2 X 2 factorial design (two-way MANOVA) to test the significance of group differences (Mertler & Vannata, 2002). The variables under investigation included two dependent variables and two independent variables. The former includes ‘Attitudes toward ICT’ (ATT) and ‘Use of ICT’ (USE) in the classroom.

The latter includes two independent variables: One was ‘Gender’ (IV1), whether ‘Male’

(M) and ‘Female’ (F) differ in their attitudes toward ICT (ATT/DV1) and in their use of

ICT (USE/DV2) in the classroom. The other independent variable was ‘ICT Training’

(IV2), whether those ‘With ICT Training’ (T) and those ‘With No ICT Training’ (NT) differ in their attitudes toward ICT and in their use of ICT in the classroom.

Multivariate (MANOVA) would give an overall F and significance level p for the difference between ‘Gender’ (two levels of Male and Female) and between ‘ICT

Training’ (two levels of teachers with ‘Training’ and those with ‘No Training’), in terms 81 of how much they differ on the combination of the two dependent variables (Attitudes toward ICT and Use of ICT in the classroom).

The assumption for independent variable Gender (M/F) on dependent variables

Attitudes toward ICT (ATT) and Use of ICT (USE) was as follows:

Ho: µM = µF, which means there was no difference between males and females on

attitudes and use of ICT.

The assumption for independent variable ICT Training (T/NT) on dependent

variables Attitudes toward ICT (ATT) and Use of ICT (USE) was as follows:

Ho: µT = µNT, which means there was no difference between teachers who had

ICT training and teachers who had no ICT training on attitudes and use of ICT.

In investigating the effects of ‘Gender’ (IV1) and ICT ‘Training’ on Kuwait high

school teachers’ ‘Attitude’ (DV1) toward ICT and ‘Use’ of ICT in the classroom, the

researcher’s analysis provided three linear combinations resulting in three P values: one

for gender main effect, one for ICT training main effect, and one for the interaction

between gender and ICT training, which was described in Mertler and Vannata (2002) as

follows:

(1) The first linear combination would maximize the separation between males

and females (IV1);

(2) The second linear combination would maximize the separation between

teachers with training and those with no training (IV2); 82

(3) The third linear combination would maximize the separation among various

cells of the interaction between gender (IV1) and ICT training (IV2). (Mertler

& Vannata, 2002, p. 120).

In conducting the MANOVA, the researcher completed the following steps:

(1) Examined the overall multivariate test of significance (testing the overall

multivariate hypothesis, which was that all groups were equal on the

combination of DVs). If the results are significant, the researcher continued to

the next step; otherwise, the researcher will stop and conclude that the

conditions (IVs) had no effect on the DVs.

(2) Examined the univariate tests of individual DVs, by conducting a series of

univariate analyses of variance on individual DVs. To avoid an inflated Type I

error rate as a result of multiple tests of significance, an adjustment was made

to the alpha level used for the test—for this a Bonferroni-type adjustment

could be used, in which the overall α-level for the analysis (α = .05) was

divided by the number of DVs. Since this study had 2 DVs, the new alpha for

the set of DVs was .025.

The Population, Sample, and Sampling Procedure

Population Identification

Population was defined as “The entire group of subjects to which a researcher intends the results of a study to apply; the larger the group to which inferences are made on the basis of the particular set of people studies” (Aron & Aron, 2005, p. 311). The 83 targeted population of this study was Al-Frawaniyah high school teachers in Kuwait in

2008-2009 academic year.

High schools in Kuwait are divided into six educational governorates: Al-

Ahmadi, Al-Seimah, Al-Farwaniyah, Al-Jahra, and Mubarak Al-Kabeer. Each of those governorates included a number of international schools. According to Educational

Statistical Group (2006-2007), there were 4676 teachers in Kuwait high schools, comprising 1957 males and 2810 females (Appendix A).

Sample Description

Sample is defined as “The scores of the particular group of people studied; usually considered as representative of the scores in some larger population” (Aron &

Aron, 2005, p. 312). The sample for this study was drawn from the list of teachers in one of Kuwait’s educational governorates, which was Al-Farwaniyah high school.

According to Tuckman (1999), a sample size concerns the question of how many cases have to be tested in order to detect a hypothesized difference. A representative sample size determination is related to a variety of factors. Alpha level, power, and effect size are three of the most important factors that determine an adequate sample size for a planned study (Creswell, 2002; Tuckman, 1999). In the case of two-way MANOVA,

Stevens (2002) provides power value for two to seven variables with group size varying

2 2 from 15 to 100, and with effect size varying from D = .25 (medium) to D = 2.25 (very

large). In this study, G*Power had been run to calculate sample size which was found to

be 42 cases in order to satisfy the following criteria: a power of 0.80, and effect size of

0.25, and a 0.05 level of significance (alpha). 84

Sampling Techniques

The sample for this study is selected randomly. Random samples (of adequate size) are likely to represent the populations from which they were drawn. In other words, in a representative sample, the relevant characteristics of sample members were generally the same as those of the population members (Bennett, Briggs, & Triola, 2001).

Pilot Study

Researchers have suggested that a pilot study is an important step in developing a good questionnaire (Appendix B). According to Light, Willett, & Singer (1990), conducting a pilot study had advantages such as examining the survey questions, modifying the instrument, and measuring its ability to reach the intended respondents.

Bell (2005) stated that the purpose of the questionnaire was to find answers related to the questions that ask what, where, when, and how. Dillman (2000) indicated that piloting has always been an important part of questionnaire design. Piloting and evaluation of the content and format of the questionnaire are an essential step in identifying the problematic issues in the questionnaire. Moreover, according to Oppenheim (2000),

“questionnaires have to be composed and tried out, improved and then tried out again, often several times over, until we are certain that they can do the job for which they are needed” (p. 47). The piloting stage was useful in assessing the comprehensibility and ambiguity of the items so that any errors and unclear instructions are corrected (Litwin,

1995).

A pilot study was conducted in August, 2008, to examine the design, wording, relevancy, length, and other potential problems of the questionnaire that the researcher 85 had developed. Thirty high school teachers, 16 males and 14 females, with different backgrounds of teaching subjects (Table 1), from the Ministry of Education in Kuwait participated in the pilot survey. They were given adequate time to complete the questionnaire and return it with their feedback and comments.

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants in the Pilot Study Subject Respondents

Social Study 4

Islamic Study 5

Math 6

History 6

English 5

Biology 4

Male 16

Female 14

Total 30

With the pilot study, the researcher attempted to find out whether the

questionnaire items achieved the desired qualities of measurement. In other words, the

questionnaire instrument was tested for both validity and reliability. 86

The Finding of the Pilot Study

The pilot study gives enriched feedback that is very useful to adjust the instrument.

Tuckman (1999) identified that “Most studies benefit substantially from precaution of

running pilot tests on their questionnaires, leading to revision based on the results of the test”

(p. 256). According to Wiersma (2000), conducting a pilot study allows a researcher to

confirm the usefulness of an instrument. Information from a pilot study can provide feedback

to a researcher that can assist in deciding which items to retain, remove, or modify.

According to the results of the pilot study and comments and suggestions from the

respondents, some changes were made to the questionnaire by deleting or revising the items

to avoid wordiness, vagueness, and low positive or negative correlations. As a result, five

items were removed and three items were modified. The items that were removed

included items in Part B, items 1.8, 2.9, 3.5, 4.3, and 5.7, majority of the respondents left

it blank. The modified items were 4 items in Part A.1.11 and Parts B.3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and

3.4.

Instrumentation

Developing Instrument

The researcher had reviewed related literature to find out if there was any

instrument that could be used to collect the needed data about high school teachers’

attitudes toward ICT and their use of ICT in the classroom. However, no instrument for

the same purpose could be found due to differences in the nature, characteristics, and

elements of this study and those of previous studies. As a result, rather than using

existing instruments, a new instrument was developed by the researcher to obtain the necessary information needed for the study. 87

Description of the Instrument

The quantitative instrument served as a means of collecting self-reported data from the participants. The questionnaire consisted of three parts (Part A, B, and C) that correspond to the main variables of the study, as follows:

Part A, which covered the issue of attitudes, had two scales, namely “Attitudes toward ICT” (A1) and “Attitudes toward ICT Use and Implementation Policy” (A2). The former has eight Likert-type questions for attitude measurement; the latter had 11 Likert- type questions for ICT Use and Implementation Policy measurement.

Part B, which deals with the use of ICT in the classroom, had five scales including (1) “Access to Computer for Teaching” (8 items), (2) “The Use of Internet” (8 items), (3) “The Use of Productivity and Application Programs” (4 items) (4) “The Use of Hardware Devices” (3 items), and (5) “The Use of Internet Functions.” (6 items).

Part C comprised demographic questions concerning the participants’ or the teachers’ characteristics. It has 11 question items about gender, age, teaching experience, grades taught, subjects taught, level of education, computer ownership, place of using computer, Internet access, place of using the Internet, and previous ICT training.

All statements in the questionnaire were either constructed by the researcher or selected from previous research based on their relevance to the current study and on their cultural and contextual appropriateness. For Part A and Part B, positive and negative items were balanced across the scales. 88

Validity of the Instrument

The validity of a questionnaire is achieved if items measure what they intend to measure (Bell, 2005). The validity was tested by feedback from participants’ and

Instructional Technology advisor. Moreover, some professional experts in this field in

Kuwait provided comments and suggested changes and eventually they agreed on the corrections that had been made.

In addition, computer technology experts in Kuwait examined the content validity of the instrument before this research was conducted. Finally, the researcher conducted the pilot study to ensure the content validity of the instrument so that the data collected from the pilot study ensured that the contents of questionnaire were valid.

Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability is “the consistency of measurement” (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001, p. 181). The purpose of the reliability is to inform the researcher as to which items work better than the others to measure what is supposed to be measured that enables the items to be revised from the instrument to make the questionnaire consistent. “The goals of developing reliable measure is to minimize the influence on the scores of chance or other variable unrelated to the intent of the measure” (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001, p. 181).

The number of participants in the pilot study was (n=30). Descriptive statistics

(means, standard deviations, frequencies, etc) were computed for the subjects and variables in this study. This method of analysis was used because it could assist in determining which independent variable(s) might or might not be most effective in predicting the dependent variable. The statistical computer software used in analyzing 89 and computing data obtained from this pilot study was Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS), version 15 (2007), by SPSS Inc., to determine the reliability coefficient

(Cronbach Alpha). Table 2 shows the summary value for the Cronbach Alpha coefficient for attitudes and ICT Use.

Table 2. Reliability Measures for Pilot Study’s Questionnaire Items on ICT attitudes Cronbach's Alpha N of Items

.951 19

Table 3. Reliability Measure for Pilot Study’s Questionnaire Items on ICT Use Cronbach's Alpha N of Items

.845 29

The Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient values shown in these two tables were

formulated after performing item analysis and applying the necessary adjustment to the

items. Table 2 shows ICT attitudes, the analyses of the data that was collected by the pilot study, indicated that the Cronbach Alpha degree for the first dependent variable was .95.

Table 3 illustrating ICT Use, the analyses of the data that was collected by the pilot study, indicated that the Cronbach Alpha degree for the first dependent variable was .84. The result suggested that the questionnaire items in the pilot study were reliable. 90

Data Collection Procedure

The researcher traveled to Kuwait to collect the data once his committee has approved the proposal and after obtaining the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval

(Appendix E). The researcher sent a request to the Kuwait Ministry of Education for the permit to conduct the research using the teachers in six Kuwait educational governorates

(Appendix F). Upon receiving approval, in this study the researcher conducted survey focused only on Al-Farwaniyah Educational governorate for the distribution the questionnaire. For two high schools for males and two high schools for females were randomly selected from a school list provided by the Ministry of Education.

The instrument of this study used to collect the necessary data was a questionnaire that was provided to participants through their school administrators. The school administrators then distributed the questionnaire to all school departments. The researcher’s goal was to collect data from a sample of full-time high school teachers in the academic year 2008/2009.

A cluster sampling procedure was implemented in which the researcher started the data collection by obtaining a list of all schools in Al-Farwaniyah Educational governorate from the Ministry of Education’s secretary. Then the researcher visited schools, introduced himself, explained the study, and asked the schools’ principals to voluntarily participate in the study by distributing the questionnaire to all teachers in their schools. As a precaution, Gay (2000) pointed out that those who are doing research should ensure that all of the participants in the study are a willing to participate voluntarily and that they are available in their schools. This sorting process continued 91 until the intended number of teachers in the governorate was reached. Each teacher was told that participation in this questionnaire was voluntary. The schools’ principals were advised to explicitly tell their teachers that they had the option to participate in this study as well as the option to quit at anytime. The school principals were advised to ask their teachers not to respond if they had already participated before with other schools; hence, the possibility of duplication was controlled.

After teachers had completed their responses, the principals thanked them for their participation and collected the questionnaires. Then the researcher collected the questionnaires from the schools and thanked the principals for their cooperation in this study.

Summary

This chapter provides discussion of the specific methods used in the research study. It was organized in two sections. The first section was the research design which includes the following: (a) research questions; (b) research variables; (c) research design;

(d) population, sample, and sampling procedures; (e) instrumentation; (f) data collection procedures; and (g) methods of data analysis and (h) and Data Collection Procedure. This research design used a two-way MANOVA to answer the research questions posed for this study. 92

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of gender and technology training on Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and on their use of ICT in education. The data were collected through a three-part survey: Part A was about attitudes toward ICT and ICT Use; Part B was about access and function of ICT; and Part

C included demographic information.

The collected data in this study were used to answer the following questions:

(1) What are the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in

education?

(2) How do Kuwait high school teachers use ICT in their classrooms?

(3) Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school

teachers?

(4) Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1)

and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training

(T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2)?

Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data for the first two questions

(questions 1-2) and an inferential statistics was used to analyze the data for the last two questions (questions 3-4). The research hypotheses for research question three are: 93

Ho: There are no significant differences in the means of combined attitudes

(ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1)

Kuwait high school teachers.

HA: There are significant differences in the means of combined attitudes

(ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1)

Kuwait high school teachers.

The research hypotheses for research question four are:

Ho: There are no significant differences in the means of combined attitudes

(ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who

had ICT training (T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2).

HA: There are significant differences in the means of combined attitudes

(ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who

had ICT training (T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2).

In addition, the interaction effects of both independent variables (gender and ICT training) will be tested in the means of combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and ICT use

(USE/DV2) for male and female Kuwait high school teachers and for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training (T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2).

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS V. 16, 2006) was used to analyze the data for this study. A two-way MANOVA was used to analyze the combined effect of gender and ICT training (independent variables) on attitudes and ICT use

(dependent variables). When dependent variables were analyzed separately, an adjustment (Bonferroni adjustment) was made by considering .05/2 = .025 as the level of 94 significance (Popham & Sirotnik, 1992). This adjustment was intended to avoid any inflation of Type I Error.

This chapter presents the results and analyses of three types of outcomes: first, the result and analysis of the demographic data, which include information about respondents’ gender, age, years of teaching experience, grades taught, subjects taught, educational background, computer ownership, place using computers, Internet access, place accessing the Internet, and ICT training background; second, the result and analysis of the descriptive and inferential questions of this study, providing the means and the standard deviations of all the cells of the 2 X 2 design, with the dependent variables being teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and ICT use in education and possible interaction between the two independent variables on attitudes and ICT use as well; and finally the result and analysis of participants’ answer to an open-ended question.

Reliability of Instrument

The main source of data for this study was a questionnaire. The minimum sample size required for this study was 43 teachers in order to meet the following standards: a power of 0.80, a small effect size of 0.15, and 0.05 level of significance (alpha). The total number of 200 questionnaires (100 for males and 100 females) was distributed among

Kuwait high school teachers in Al-Farwaniyah educational governorate. Of these 200 questionnaires, 167 questionnaires were received by the researcher, reflecting an 83 % usable response rate. The other thirty-three questionnaires were not returned to the researcher. 95

A total of 167 valid data were entered into the statistical software, SPSS version

16.0, for analyzing the study. The computer software Statistical GPower was used to determine the power of the present study.

While the reliability of the instrument in Chapter 3 was calculated with piloted data, here the reliability of the instrument was calculated with the study data. The values of the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient presented in Table 4 resulted from performing item analyses for 167 surveys. The results supported a high degree of internal consistency

(Cronbach’s Alpha = .73, N = 19 for Attitudes toward ICT; Cronbach’s Alpha = .96, N =

29 for ICT Use), similar to the reliability analysis for the pilot study (Cronbach’s Alpha =

.85, N=29). (For more details see Appendix G)

Table 4 Overall Internal Consistency of the Instrument Category Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items

Attitudes toward ICT in education .73 19

ICT Use in classrooms .96 29

As can be noted from Table 4, the value for the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for attitudes toward ICT (.73) was relatively lower than that for ICT use in education (.96). A

possible explanation for this difference is that, as expected before collecting the research data, the former had fewer items (N = 19) than the latter (N = 29). 96

Construct Validity

Validity of the Instrument

One way to check the validity of the instruments is by using factorial analysis, an approach “used to discover patterns among the variations in values of several variables”

(Babbie, 1990, p. 418), by determining how many factors to extract. Three statistical measures in conducting factor analysis include assessment of the factorability of the data, factor extraction, and factor rotation and interpretation.

The first statistical measure uses Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the Kaiser-

Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was found to be significant (p < .05) indicating the factor analysis for the instrument was considered appropriate. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) index result was .87 indicating a good sampling adequacy for factor analysis (Appendix C).

The second measure involves factor extraction determining the smallest number of factors that can be used to best represent the inter-relation among the set of variables.

The first extraction techniques used for this instrument was principal component analysis

(PCA), a default option in statistics packages including SPSS to obtain the initial factor solution. The principle component analysis (PCA) is a factor extraction method used to form uncorrelated linear combinations of the observed variables. The first component usually has maximum variance and consecutive components have smaller portions of the variance and are all uncorrelated with each other (Thompson & Daniel, 1996). The PCA procedure, as shown in Appendix C, indicated that the 48 items of the questionnaire 97 loaded heavily on nine factors that explained 69.39 % of the variance. The first factor alone explained 29.8 % of the variance.

However, the parallel analysis, a technique conceptualized by Horn in 1965 for determining the number of factors to retain in exploratory factor analysis, has been considered superior to other methods (Kaufman & Dunlap, 2000). Using this technique, a raw data matrix of the same rank as the actual raw data matrix was generated and then was factor analyzed using the principal component analysis (PCA). The procedure compared the pairs of eigenvalues across the real and the random data. By applying the rule that a factor extracted from the real data for any real eigenvalue exceeding the associated value from the random data, only five factors were extracted for the real data

(see plot comparing the pairs of eigenvalues in Appendix C).

The final measure in the factorial analysis for this instrument was factor rotation and interpretation. Using Varimax rotation on the real data resulted in the extraction of six factors and the suppression of the coefficients with absolute values less than 0.30

(Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). The factor analysis result, as shown in Table 5. Indicated that the six factors extracted explained 58.97 % of the total variance. 98

Table 5. Factor Analysis Result Initial Eigenvalues

Component Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 14.31 29.81 29.81

2 6.21 12.95 42.75

3 3.13 6.52 49.27

4 2.55 5.31 54.58

5 2.11 4.39 58.97

The factor analysis procedure revealed that all the twenty-two items that

constituted the first theme, teachers’ ICT use, loaded heavily on the first factor. Seven

items that constituted the second theme, teachers’ attitude toward ICT, loaded heavily on

the second factor. However, of the eleven items loaded on factor three, only four items that constituted the third theme, ICT planning.

The result of the factor analysis procedure indicated that while most items clustered around their themes, other items overlapped on other themes indicating a limitation in the instrument. Therefore, it is suggested for other researchers who are interested in this instrument to modify and revise first the items that loaded around other themes and those that had low correlation before using it for further research.

Translation of the Instrument (Arabic to English)

The survey instrument was written in English and then was translated into Arabic, the language that the survey participants spoke, understand, and use in their daily 99 activities. According to Behling and Law (2000), the correctness of the instrument’s translation was necessary to maintain its validity and reliability. For this reason, the methods the researcher followed to ensure the appropriateness of the instrument translation consisted of two parts. First, a native Arabic- speaking educator translated the instrument from English to Arabic. Second, another Arabic- speaking educator translated the instrument back from Arabic to English (Appendix D).

Scoring Procedure

Part A has 19 attitude-related statements reflecting the Attitude toward ICT

(ATI) scale. The ATI consisted of two subscales: (a) attitudes towards ICT (items 1-8) and (b) ICT use and implementation policy (items 1-11). These two components refer respectively to (a) teachers’ emotional response or liking to ICT in education, and (b) their factual knowledge about ICT.

The attitude toward ICT, as the dependent variable, was quantified by the score of

19 items using a 5-point, Likert-type scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree/SD (1), through Disagree/D (2), Somewhat/N (3), and Agree/A (4), to Strongly Agree/SA (5). The responses were summarized into a mean score that demonstrates how positive/negative each survey respondent’s attitude toward ICT was. Since respondents rated their attitudes on each item from Strongly Disagree/SD (1) to Strongly Agree/SA (5), the range of possible mean scores was between 1 and 5, with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes.

Part B has 29 behavior-related statements (items 15-25), which refer to the teachers’ overt behavior directed toward using ICT in the classroom. The ICT use was 100 quantified by the score of 29 items using a 5- point, Likert-type scale, ranging from Daily

(5), Weekly(4), Monthly(3), Once a term(2), Never(1): Access to Computer for Teaching

(8 items), Use of Internet (8 items), Use of Productivity and Application Programs (4 items), Use of Hardware Devices (3 items), and (5) Use of the Internet Functions (6 items). The responses were summarized into a mean score that demonstrate how positive and negative each survey respondent’s ICT Use was. Since respondent rated their use on each item from Never (1) to Daily (5), the range of possible mean scores was between 1 and 5, with higher scores indicating more positive use.

Part C has 11 statements. The items used to characterize high school teachers in

Kuwait are gender, age, teaching experience, grades taught, subject taught, educational background, computer ownership, computer use, and Internet access (when and where).

Demographic variables were correlated with attitudes to ensure maximum control over extraneous variables by building them into the design of the study. Gay and Airasian

(2003) mentioned that “two types of extraneous variables in need of control are participant variables and environmental variables. Participant variables are the characteristics of the participants (such as gender) that cannot be altered but that can be controlled” (p. 383). The selected variables were quantified by individual scores on 10 items. The responses to all ten items were treated separately as descriptive information that is correlated with attitudes toward ICT.

Tests for MANOVA Assumptions

MANOVA has several assumptions such as sample size, outliers, normality, linearity, homogeneity of regression, multicolinearity, and homogeneity of variance- 101 covariance matrices. A total 167 cases were available for multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Data were evaluated using SPSS for Windows version 16.0 to screen for any missing data, outliers and fulfillment of the assumptions.

Missing Data

There was no missing data from the collected questionnaires. Based on the descriptive statistics by frequency analysis in SPSS, one data was found to have missing values. Table 6 presents statistics the data set of attitudes and ICT use.

Table 6. Statistics for the Data Set of Teachers’ Attitudes and ICT Use ICT Attitudes ICT Use

Male Female Male Female n Valid 82 84 82 84 Missing Value 0 1 0 1

Mean 3.43 3.30 3.13 3.01 Std. Error of Mean .05 .04 .11 .11 Median 3.42 3.30 3.22 3.15 Std. Deviation .45 .37 .99 1.01 Variance .20 .13 .99 1.01 Skewness -.30 -.03 -.29 -.26 Std. Error of Skewness .27 .26 .26 .26 Kurtosis 4.78 -.19 -.86 -1.12 Std. Error of Kurtosis .52 .52 .53 .52 Minimum 1.47 2.42 1.00 1.00 Maximum 4.84 4.17 4.93 4.66

102

Some approaches commonly used to deal with missing data include listwise deletion and pairwise deletion (Appendix H). The former involves “deleting from the particular statistical analysis all cases that have missing data…In this method, a single missing value on just a single variable in the analysis is cause for a case to be excluded from statistical analysis” (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006, p. 59). The latter “computes summary statistics (e.g. means, standard deviation, correlations) from all available cases that have values…Thus, no cases are necessarily completely excluded from data analyses” (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006, p. 60). While the former is a standard practice for computer statistical packages such as SPSS, the latter is the SPSS default method of handling missing values in computing descriptive statistics. Since only one value is missing, SPSS Missing Values Analysis was used to handle such a case; the result indicated a confidence that the missing value intervention reflected “statistical reality” (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006, p. 65).

Outliers

MANOVA is sensitive to outliers, which are scores that are “very different from the rest of the data” (Stevens, 2007, p. 12). Hair et al. (2006) identify four reasons for outliers in a data set as follows:

1. Outliers can be caused by data entry errors or improper attribute coding.

2. Some outliers may be a function of extraordinary events or unusual

circumstances.

3. There some outliers for which we have no explanation. These unexplainable

outliers are good candidates for deletion. 103

4. There are multivariate outliers whose uniqueness occurs in their pattern of

combination values of several variables. (p. 66)

The technique used to check outliers in the data was descriptive statistics boxplots. Boxplot for attitude by gender did show some outliers, which appeared as small circles with a number attached, in the following cases: 9, 53, 54, 58, 164, and 119

(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Boxplot for ICT attitudes by gender.

Despite the existence of seven outliers, the results of comparing the multivariate

test with and without outliers showed similar results. Therefore, the researcher decided to

retain the outliers in the data analysis. 104

Normality

Multivariate normal distribution is the basis for the significance tests of

MANOVA, which assumes that the distribution of scores on the dependent variables is

‘normal’ (a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve). However, it is a reasonably robust to modest violation of normality as long as the violation is not due to outliers. “A sample size with at least twenty in each cell would ensure robustness” (Tabachnick & Fidell,

1996, p. 381).

Two steps were taken to test multivariate normality. First, univariate normality as a necessary condition for multivariate normality was assessed by using descriptive statistics with histogram, skewness and kurtosis values (Stevens, 2007). In univariate analysis, histograms for attitudes and ICT use based on gender and training showed a slightly negative skewness of normal distribution (Figure 2).

105

Figure 2. Graphical representations of ICT use based on gender and training.

Histograms for attitudes and ICT use based on gender and ICT training showed a slightly negative skewness of normal distribution (Figure 3). 106

Figure 3. Graphical representation of attitudes based on gender and training.

The second, for future analysis, the non-graphical test was conducted by using

One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test. The null hypothesis of this test is that the dependent variable distribution is normal. The revealed p-value was ICT Attitudes .11 and ICT Use .12, which were not significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was failed to reject; and thus this assumption was met.

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Linearity

The assumption of linearity refers to the presence of a straight-line relationship between each pair of the dependent variables. One way to assess the linearity is by generating scatterplots between each pair of the variables. To test linearity for this study, the data file was split by gender and training then scatterplots were generated. The output for attitude and ICT use scatterplots can be seen in Figure 4. These plots did not show evidence of non-linearity, therefore the assumption of linearity was satisfied.

Figure 4. Scatterplots for ICT attitudes and ICT Use by gender and training.

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Multicollinearity

Multicollinearity refers to a situation when dependent variables are highly correlated. This could occur when one of the variables is a combination of other variables

(Stevens, 2007). Multicollinearity can be avoided by knowing what the variables are and how the scores are obtained.

The simplest way to check for multicollinearity is to run correlation and to check the strength of the correlation among the dependent variables. For this purpose, the relationship between attitudes and ICT use was investigated using the Pearson product- moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a weak positive correlation between the two variables [r = .23, n = 167, p < .05], with attitudes associated with ICT training.

Homogeneity of Variance-Covariance Matrices

Box’s M Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices was used to assess homogeneity assumption. MANOVA output generated the Box’s M Sig. value of .740, which was larger than .05. Therefore, it did not violate the homogeneity assumption (Table 7).

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Table 7. Box’s M of Test Equality of Covariance Matrices Box's M 6.341 F .666 df1 9.000 df2 5754.594 Sig. .740

In conclusion, all the tests previously discussed indicated that there was no clear

violation on MANOVA assumptions of normality, linearity, homogeneity of regression,

multicolinearity, and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices.

Demographic Characteristics

All educational governorates had approximately similar number of teachers ,

students, and facilities. Al-Farwaniyah educational governorate high schools chosen for

this study had 964 teachers, 372 males and 592 females (KMOE, 2007). For this study to

be representative, the sample required only 43 cases. However, the researcher eventually

obtained the sample comprising 167 Kuwait high school teachers, which was more than

adequately representative for the targeted research population. A demographic

questionnaire (Part C) was used to obtain the information regarding participants’ gender,

age, years of teaching experience, grades taught, subject taught, highest degree obtained,

computer ownership, place of computer use, internet access, place of internet use, and

ICT training.

Participants’ demographic characteristics showed that gender of participants

included 82 male (49.1 %) and 85 female (50.9 %) participants respectively (Table 8).

Participants age ranges were 22-30, 31-39, 40-49 and 50 or elder. The majority (44.9%) 110 of the participants were aged between 31 – 39 years, 23.4% were between 22-30, 22.2% were between 40-49, and only about 9.5 % were more than 50 years old. Regarding participants’ years of teaching experience, 166 of them responded; one did not. The two largest categories of years of teaching experience were 1-5 years (45 = 27.1%, which represented 28 male teachers and 17 female teachers) and 6-10 years (39 = 23.5%, which represented 15 male teachers and 24 females teachers). This indicated that the younger generation of teachers in Kuwait was likely to have used the Internet more than the older generation of teachers.

Most of the respondents taught grade 10 teachers (60 or 36.0 %), comprising 33 male teachers (20.0 %) and 27 female teachers. There were 45 teachers (27.0 %) from grade 11, consisting of 19 males (11.0 %) and 24 females (16.0 %); and 61 teachers (37.0

%) from grade 12, with 30 males (18 %) and 31 females (19.0 %). One respondent was missing (for more details see Appendix J). 111

Table 8. Sample Demographics Sample Demographics N = 167 %

Gender Male 82 49.10% Female 85 50.90% Age 22 – 30 37 23.40% 31 – 39 71 44.90% 40 – 49 35 22.20% 50 – above 15 9.50% Teaching Experience in years 1 to 5 45 26.94% 6 to 10 39 23.35% 11 to 15 29 17.36% 16 to 20 31 18.56% 21 and over 22 13.17% Grade Level 10 60 36% 11 45 27% 12 61 37% *Table demonstrates Arabic version of Survey.

The teachers were asked about the subjects that they taught. Their responses were

broken down into various categories depending upon the 11 subjects taught. Eleven teachers taught Islamic studies, representing 6.7% of the subjects (eight male teachers and three female teachers). Nineteen respondents taught mathematics, representing 11.5

% of the subjects (eight male teachers and 11 female teachers). Twenty-two participants taught Arabic language, representing 13.3% of subjects (12 male teachers and 10 female teachers). Twenty- four participants taught English as a Foreign Language (EFL), 112 representing 14.5% of subjects (10 male teachers and 14 female teachers). Twenty-six participants taught Social Studies, representing 15.8 % of the subjects (13 male teachers and 13 female teachers). Thirty-one participants taught science, representing 18.8 % of subjects (14 male teachers and 17 female teachers). Six participants taught computer science, representing 3.6% of subjects (five male teachers and one female teacher). Two participants taught library science, representing 1.2% of the subjects (two male teachers only). The number of physical education participants was 10, or 6.1%, comprising two male teachers and eight female teachers. There were ten, or 6.0% French language teachers. One participant (male) taught a philosophy class, representing 0.6% of the participants. Three participants (1.8 %), all females, taught history and geography (Table

9).

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Table 9. Distributions of the Participants’ Subjects Taught, by Gender (N= 167) Subject Taught Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Islamic Studies 8 (4.8) 3 (1.8) 11 (6.7) Mathematics 8 (4.8) 11 (6.7) 19 (11.5) Arabic language 12 (7.3) 10 (6.1) 22 (13.3) English language 10 (6.1) 14 (8.5) 24 (14.5) Social studies 13 (7.9) 13 (7.9) 26 (15.8) Science 14 (8.5) 17 (10.3) 31 (18.8) Computer science 5 (3.0) 1 (0.6) 6 (3.6) Library 2 (1.2) 0 (0.0) 2 (1.2) Physical education 2 (1.2) 8 (4.8) 10 (6.1) French language 5 (3.0) 5 (3.0) 10 (6.1) Philosophy 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0) 1 (.6) Other 0 (0.0) 3 (1.8) 3 (1.8) Total 80 (48.5) 85 (51.5) 165 (100.0)

The participants were asked about their level of education in their fields. Their responses showed that whereas the majority of the participants (88.1 %) had obtained a bachelor’s degree, which represented 42.5% male teachers and 45.6% female teachers, less than 5.6% of the teachers had a master’s degree, representing 3.1% male teachers and 2.5% female teachers. The remaining 6.3% had doctoral degrees (Table 10).

Table 10. Participants’ Educational Level by Gender Educational Level Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Bachelor's 68 (42.5) 73 (45.6) 141 (88.1) Master's 5 (3.1) 4 (2.5) 9 (5.6) Other 4 (2.5) 6 (3.8) 10 (6.3) Total 77 (48.1) 83 (51.9) 160 (100.0)

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The majority of teachers (149 or 89.8 %) said that they had their own computers, with males (45.2 %) and females (44.6 %) owning computers almost equally. The remaining 17 teachers (10.2 %) said they did not have computers; one did not respond

(Table 11).

Table 11. Participants’ Computer Ownership by Gender

Have a computer Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Yes 75 (45.2) 74 (44.6) 149 (89.8)

No 7 (4.2) 10 (6.0) 17 (10.2)

Total 82 (49.4) 84 (50.6) 166 (100.0)

The table 12 illustrates that most of the teachers (65.5%) used computer from both home and school. Thirty nine respondents (23.6%) said they used the computer only from home. Six percent of the teachers said they used the computer only from school. About

3.0 % of the sampled teachers did not respond to this question. Those who claimed to use computer from other places were about 1.8 %.

Table 12. The Places for Teachers toUse Computer by Gender Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Home 15 (9.1) 24 (14.5) 39 (23.6)

School 6 (3.6) 4 (2.4) 10 (6.1)

Both 56 (33.9) 52 (31.5) 108 (65.5)

I don't use it 3 (1.80) 2 (1.2) 5 (3.0) Other (Internet 1 (0.6) 2 (1.2) 3 (1.8) cafe) Total 81 (49.1) 84 (50.9) 165 (100)

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The teachers were asked whether or not they had access to the Internet. The majority of respondents (117, 71.3%), reported that they had access to the Internet; while the teachers who had no Internet access represented the minority (47, 28.7%) of respondents. Female teachers who had Internet access had a slightly larger number (37.2

%) than male teachers (34.1 %) who did (Table 13).

Table 13. Teachers with Internet Access by Gender

Internet Access Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Yes 56 (34.1) 61 (37.2) 117 (71.3)

No 26 (15.9) 21 (12.8) 47 (28.7)

Total 82 (50.0) 82 (50.0) 164 (100.0)

Most of the teachers (43.7%) had access to the Internet from both home and

school. Since most Internet companies offered Internet access to teachers at reasonable

rate, 39 respondents (39.9%) said they obtained the Internet access only from home.

(8.2%) said they accessed the Internet only from school. About 4.4 % of the sampled

teachers did not respond to this question. Those who claimed to receive Internet access

from other places were about 3.6 % (Table 14). 116

Table 14. The Places Teachers Obtained Internet Access Usual place of using computer Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Home 21 (13.3) 42 (26.6) 63 (39.9) School 12 (7.6) 1 (.7) 13 (8.2) Both 41 (25.9) 28 (17.7) 69 (43.7) I don't use it 2 (1.3) 5 (3.2) 7 (4.4) Other 2 (1.3) 4 (2.5) 6 (3.6) Total 78 (49.4) 80 (50.6) 158 (100)

The teachers were asked whether they had ICT training to acquire skills and knowledge of information technology. (see table 15) The majority of respondents

(85.5%) said they did have ICT training, with female teachers in a greater number (45%) than male teachers (40.4%).

Table 15. The Number of Teachers Who Had ICT Training ICT training Male Female Total

Yes 67 (40.4) 75 (45.4) 142 (85.50) No 15 (9.0) 9 (5.4) 24 (14.5) Total 82 84 166

There were 24 respondents (14.5%) who indicated that they did not have ICT

training, 15 males and 9 females (Table 15). However, most of those without ICT

training (19, 11.5%) indicated that would like to have it (Table 16).

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Table 16. Teachers Who Were Interested in ICT Training Valid Cumulative If No, Interested in Training Frequency Percent Percent Percent Yes 19 11.4 11.5 97 No 5 3 3 100 Total 165 98.8 100 Missing 2 1.2 Total 167 100

The teachers were asked whether the ICT training they had received was

appropriate. The majority of teachers (117, 73.6 %) reported that the quality of the

training they had received was appropriate for their jobs. Twenty teachers (12.6 %)

responded that the ICT was not appropriate, and 22 (13.8 %) of them did not answer the question (Table 17).

Table 17. ICT Training Appropriateness If yes, Was it appropriate ICT training Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

No Answers 14 (8.8) 8 (5.0) 22 (13.8)

Yes 52 (32.7) 65 (40.9) 117 (73.60)

No 11 (6.90) 9 (5.7) 20 (12.6)

Total 77 (48.4) 82 (51.6) 159 (100)

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Findings of the Research Questions

Descriptive Questions

There were two descriptive questions that this study attempted to answer. The first question was concerned with the attitude of Kuwait high school teachers toward information and communication technology (ICT) in education. The second question was regarding the ways Kuwait high school teachers were using ICT in their classrooms. The first question was based on a five-point Likert scale, in which each point was given a numerical value ranging from 1 = ‘strongly disagree,’ 2 = ‘disagree,’ 3 = ‘neutral,’ 4 =

‘Agree,’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree.’

Research Question No. 1: What are the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in education?

The attitude subscale (N = 19 items) consisted of two sections: Section A1 (eight items), regarding the attitudes toward the benefits of ICT, and section A2 (11 items), regarding attitudes toward the implementation policy of ICT. The overall teachers’ answers to Research Question One were summarized in Table 18. The mean of 3.36 for their answers indicated that the general Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes toward

ICT in education occurred between “Somewhat Agree” (three points of a Likert scale) and “Agree” (four points of a Likert scale) periphery. With the mean of 3.36, it could be concluded that the teachers’ attitudes toward ICT was fairly positive.

119

Table 18. Overall Teachers’ Attitudes Toward ICT in Education Std. N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation

ICT Attitude 167 1.47 4.84 3.36 0.416

Male teachers’ mean attitude (3.43) was found to be higher than female teachers’

(3.28) and teachers’ mean attitude with training (3.38) was higher than those without

training (3.20) as well. This indicated that male teachers and teachers with ICT training

had more positive attitudes toward ICT in education than female teachers and those

without ICT training respectively (Table 19).

Table 19. Teachers’ Attitudes Toward ICT in Education Based on Gender and ICT Training

Based on Gender Based on Training

Std. Std. Mean N Deviation Mean N Deviation Male 3.43 82 0.45 Yes 3.38 142 0.40539

Female 3.28 85 0.36 No 3.20 24 0.46793

Total 3.35 167 0.42 Total 3.35 166 0.41786

Research Question No. 2: How do Kuwait high school teachers use ICT in their

classrooms? 120

The ICT-use subscale (N = 34 items) consisted of five sections: Section B1 (nine items), section B2 (nine items), section B3 (five items), B4 (4 items), and B5 (7 items).

The overall teachers’ answers to Research Question Two were summarized in Table 20.

The mean of 3.06 for their answers indicated that the general Kuwait high school teachers’ ICT use in education occurred in the middle of the scale, which was “Somewhat

Agree” (three points of a Likert scale). This indicated that Kuwait high school teachers used ICT in education moderately.

Table 20. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Teachers’ ICT Use Std. N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation ICT Use 167 1 4.93 3.06 0.99

A closer examination to the teachers’ answers to Research Question Two showed

that the majority of the teachers had ICT training (N = 142) and they used more ICT in

their classrooms (M = 3.16). While a greater number of female teachers (N = 75) than

male teachers (N = 67) had ICT training, females used less ICT in their classrooms than

did male teachers (M = 3.10) (Table 21).

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Table 21. Teachers’ ICT Use in Education Based on Gender and ICT Training ICT Gender Mean Std. Deviation N training ICT Use Male Yes 3.23 .95 67 No 2.69 1.11 15 Total 3.13 .99 82 Female Yes 3.10 .99 75 No 2.25 .85 9 Total 3.01 1.01 84 Total Yes 3.16 .97 142 No 2.53 1.03 24 Total 3.07 1.00 166

Further findings, based on the researcher's observation at two high schools-

Arabiya High School (all-female) and Malek ibn Anas (all-male)-in the Al-Farwania

Educational governorate, revealed that technologies commonly used in schools included

the following:

1. Audio players and recorders. This technology was used in language and

Qur'an reading classes.

2. Television. Television programs were commonly used for a variety of

educational purposes.

3. VCRs or video players. They were used to play videotapes or disks related

to subjects' topics. The Kuwait Ministry of Education produced and

provided the video materials, especially materials related to sciences.

4. Overhead projectors. They were available in all schools and used for

teaching in all subjects and grade levels. 122

5. Computers. Each school observed had a computer lab with 25 computers in

each lab. The computers were mainly used to teach general information

courses about computers including hardware components, operating

systems, and application programs such as word processing, database,

spreadsheets, and programming. Computers used were mainly Windows-

based personal computers (PCs), no Macintosh computers. In addition, there

were computers in staff rooms, used mainly for administrative works

including handling schedules, keeping students' grades and records, and

similar tasks. Only the computers in the staff rooms were connected to the

Internet.

Inferential Questions

This study attempted to answer two inferential research questions. The first

Question was related to the effects of gender and ICT training on teachers’ attitude toward ICT in education. The second question pertained to the effects of gender and ICT training on teachers’ ICT use in classrooms.

The hypothesis testing procedure to analyze these two questions was two-way

MANOVA using the 0.05 significance level (alpha). To answer the two inferential questions, a two-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance was performed to investigate gender and training differences in attitudes toward ICT in education and use of ICT in classrooms. Two dependent variables were used: attitudes toward ICT and use of ICT. Preliminary assumption testing was conducted to check for normality, linearity, 123 univariate and multivariate outliers, homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, and multicollinearity, with no violations noted.

Research Question No. 3: Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for male and female (gender/IV1) Kuwait high school teachers?

There was not a statistically significant difference between males and females on the combined dependent variables: F (2,161) = .98; p =.38; Wilks’ Lambda =.99; partial eta squared=.01. When the results for dependent variables were considered separately, using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .025, there was no difference to reach statistical significance for both attitude toward ICT F(1,162)=.67; p =.41) and use of ICT

F(1,162 ) =1.63; p =.20). Table 22 below provides the distribution of attitudes toward

ICT based on gender and training. (See Appendix K for details.)

Table 22. Distribution of Attitudes toward ICT based on Gender and ICT Training: Mean and Standard Deviation Gender ICT training Mean Std. Deviation N Male Yes 3.49 .41 67 No 3.19 .54 15 Total 3.43 .45 82 Female Yes 3.28 .38 75 No 3.24 .35 9 Total 3.28 .37 84 Total Yes 3.38 .41 142 No 3.21 .47 24 Total 3.36 .42 166

124

Research Question No. 4: Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes (ATT/DV1) and ICT use (USE/DV2) for Kuwait high school teachers who had

ICT training (T/IV2) and who had no ICT training (NT/IV2)?

There was a statistically significant difference between teachers who had ICT training and those who had no ICT training on the combined dependent variables: F

(2,162) = 5.62; p =.004; Wilks’ Lambda = 94; partial eta squared=.07. When the results for dependent variables were considered separately, the only difference to reach statistical significance using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .025, was ICT Use: F (2,162) =

9.72; p =.002; Wilks’ Lambda = 94; partial eta squared = .06.) (for details see Appendix

K). An inspection of the mean scores indicated that male teachers reported higher levels of use of ICT (M = 3.13, SD = 0.99) than female teachers (M = 3.01, SD = 1.07) (Table

23). 125

Table 23. Descriptive Statistics for ICT Use by Gender and ICT Training: Mean and Standard Deviation Gender ICT training Mean Std. Deviation N Male Yes 3.23 .95 67 No 2.69 1.11 15 Total 3.13 .99 82 Female Yes 3.10 .99 75 No 2.30 .85 9 Total 3.01 1.01 84 Total Yes 3.20 .97 142 No 2.53 1.03 24 Total 3.07 1.00 166

The two-way MANOVA results obtained by considering variables of gender and

ICT training as independent variables and teachers’ attitude as the dependent variable are

presented in Table 24. As displayed in Table 24, there was no significant relationship (p

> .025) between teachers’ gender and their attitude toward ICT. By examining the means

of males and females on the variable of teachers’ attitude toward ICT (Table 22), the

difference indicated that male teachers had more a favorable attitude toward ICT. The

Eta Squared, which represented the effect size value for the variable of gender on

teachers’ attitude toward ICT, could be considered small [.004]. In Table 24, teachers’

ICT training appeared to have no significant effect (p > .025) on teachers’ attitude toward

ICT. The interaction between the variables of gender and training on the teachers’

attitude was not significant (p > .025). The effect size value for this interaction on the

teachers’ attitude toward ICT would be considered small (.012). 126

Table 24. Main Effect, Interaction, Effect Size of Gender and ICT Training on Teachers’ Attitudes Sum of df Mean F Sig Eta Squared Square Squared Gender .111 1 .111 .673 .413 .004

ICT Training .562 1 .562 3.41 .067 .021

Gender ICT Training .334 1 .334 2.03 .156 .012

Error 26.678 162 1.65

Corrected Total 28.81 165

In order to interpret the interaction between the independent variables (gender,

ICT training) on teachers’ attitudes toward ICT, Figure 5 shows the plot of the cell means of the teachers who differ in their gender across all levels of training variable regarding their attitude. As shown in Figure 5, there appeared to be an ordinal interaction between the independent variables, which suggested that ICT training had greater effect on the male teachers’ attitude toward ICT than on female teachers.’ The difference on teachers’ attitude toward ICT between those with training and those without training for males was

larger than the difference between with and without training for females. In other words,

ICT training played a more important role than gender in effecting teachers’ attitude

toward ICT. 127

Figure 5. Interaction between gender and ICT training on teachers’ attitudes toward ICT.

The two-way MANOVA results for variables of gender and ICT training as independent variables and teachers’ ICT use as the dependent variable are presented in

Table 25. As displayed in Table 25, there was no significant relationship (p > .025) between teachers’ gender and their ICT training on their ICT use. By examining the means of males and females on the variable of teachers’ ICT use (Table 23), the difference indicated that male teachers used ICT more (M = 3.13) in their classrooms than female teachers did (M = 3.01). The Eta Squared, which represented the effect size value for the variable of gender on teachers’ ICT use, could be considered small (.01). As seen in Table 25, teachers’ ICT training appear to have a significant effect (p < .025) on 128 teachers’ ICT use. The interaction between the variables of gender and training on the teachers’ attitude was not significant (p > .025). The effect size value for this interaction on the teachers’ attitude toward ICT would be considered very small (.003).

Table 25. Main Effect, Interaction, Effect Size of Gender and ICT Training on Teachers’ ICT Use Sum of df Mean F Sig Eta Squared Square Squared Gender 1.563 1 1.563 1.628 .204 .01

ICT Training 9.329 1 9.329 9.720 .002 .06

Gender * ICT Training .472 1 .472 .491 .484 .003

Error 155.492 162 .960

Corrected Total 165.427 165

To interpret the interaction between the independent variables (gender, ICT

training) on teachers’ ICT use, Figure 6 shows the plot of the cell means of the teachers

who differ in their gender across all levels of training variable regarding their ICT use. As

shown in Figure 6, there appeared to be another ordinal interaction between teachers’ training and their gender on their ICT use, which meant that the mean of male teachers was always higher than that of female teachers. Figure 6, however, indicated that the difference on teachers’ ICT use between those with ICT training and those with no ICT

training was larger for female teachers than for male teachers. It could be concluded that 129

ICT training had a greater effect on female teachers than on male teachers in driving them to use ICT in the classroom.

Figure 6. The interaction between teachers’ ICT training and their gender on their ICT Use.

Findings of the Open-ended Questions

There were two open-ended questions that this study asked the participants as a

follow-up to questions no. 12 and 13 in the demographic section, they were:

1. (If your answer to the question 12 is “Yes”) Please name the technology

training you have taken.

2. (If your answer to the question 13 is “Yes”) What training would you like to

have? 130

The answers that the participants provided for Question one were summarized in the following table:

Table 26. Technology Training that the Participants Had Taken Name of Technology Training N Percent Internet Training 5 4% International Computer Driving License (ICDL) 64 51.2% Cambridge Training 5 4% Computer Literacy 19 15.2% Microsoft Office Software and Windows 19 15.2% Networking, A+, A++, Photoshop and Flash 1 0.8% Using Computers as Tools in the Subject Matter 12 9.6% Total 125 100%

Only 125 participants responded to the first open-ended question, (“If your answer to the question no. 12 is ‘Yes’), please name the technology training you have taken.” Almost half of those responding to this question, 64 (51.2%), said they had taken

International Computer Driving License (ICDL) course training so ICDL training was

greatly varied among teachers from the two school of Kuwait. Others mentioned a

variety of training courses: 38 (30.4%) of the teachers said they had taken Computer

Literacy or, Microsoft Office Software and Windows. Another 12 (9.6%) stated they had

taken Using Computers as Tools in the Subject Matter. another group of teachers had

taken Internet Training and Cambridge Training numbered ten (8.0%). 131

The participants’ answers for Question Two are summarized in the following

Table 27:

Table 27. Technology Training that the Participants would like to have Name of Technology Training N Percent

International Computer Driving License (ICDL) 24 16.1% Flash, Photoshop and Web Design 21 14% Internet Training 10 6.7% Computer as a Teaching Tool 32 21.4% Computer Practicum 8 5.3% Microsoft Word, Excel, and Power Point 18 12% Graphics and Movies Productivity 9 6% Computer Training Assistantship 27 18.1% Total 149 100%

Only 149 participants responded to the second open-ended question, about

technology training that they would like to have in the future. To answer this question,

the participants were asked in the distributed questionnaire, open-ended question: “What

training would you like to have?”

Interestingly, Table 27 shows that 32 teachers (21.4%) of the teachers would like

to have Computer as a Teaching Tool training; 27 (18.1%) favored Computer Training

Assistantship; 24 (16.1%) participants mentioned the International Computer Driving

License (ICDL); 21 (14%) said they would like to have Flash, Photoshop and Web 132

Design training;18 teachers (12%) opted for Microsoft Word, Excel, and Power Point; and 10 teachers (6.7%) mentioned Internet training.

Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to show the statistical analyses used in the study.

The findings focused primarily on four questions: two descriptive and two inferential.

The first question was about Kuwait high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT in education. The second was regarding how Kuwait high school teachers used ICT in their classrooms. The third asked whether there was a difference in the attitudes toward ICT and their use in the classroom between male and female teachers. The last question examined differences in their attitudes toward ICT and their ICT use in the classroom between teachers who had ICT training and who did not. Two open-ended questions were offered as a follow-up in the demographic section.

A Cronbach’s alpha procedure was performed to check the reliability of the questionnaire. The reliability coefficient appeared to be reliable with an alpha of .73 for

“Attitudes toward ICT” section, and an alpha of .96 for the “ICT Use” section.

MANOVA assumptions (random sample, normal distribution, homoscedasticity, linear relationship between dependent variables) to insure a valid analysis were met

The analyses for the first research question showed that male teachers had more positive attitudes (M = 3.43) than female teachers (M = 3.28) toward ICT in education.

The teachers with ICT training (M = 3.38) showed more positive attitudes than those with no ICT training (M = 3.21). 133

The analyses for the second research question showed that most of the teachers had ICT training (N = 142) and used more ICT in their classroom practices, with male teachers (M = 3.23) leading the groups despite female teachers with ICT training (N =

75) numbering slightly more than male teachers (N = 67).

From the researcher’s observation, it was revealed that some technologies, such as audio and video players and recorders, TVs, and overhead projectors have been used for educational purposes. Even though the schools had computers in the labs and staff rooms, their use was limited to administrative works and teaching about computers; they were not fully utilized as learning and teaching tools.

The analysis of the third research question indicated that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers on the combined dependent variables of attitudes and ICT use. The mean scores, however, pointed to a more positive attitude for male teachers. The analyses of the fourth research question revealed that there was no significant difference between teachers who had ICT training and who did not on the combined dependent variables of attitudes and ICT use, despite an indication that ICT training had a significant effect on the teachers’ ICT use.

Both interactions between the independent variables of gender and ICT training on the teachers’ attitude and ICT use were ordinal. Male teachers’ means appeared to be higher than female teachers’, with training having a greater effect on male teachers on the attitude scale and on female teachers on the ICT-use scale. 134

Answers to two open-ended questions were listed in the end of the chapter. The first question was about technology training that the teachers having taken. The second one was regarding technology training that teachers would like to have. 135

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS

Summary, Discussions, Conclusion, and Recommendations This chapter presents a summary and discussion of the findings elaborated in chapter four, followed by the researcher’s conclusions and recommendations.

Summary

Along with the accelerating growth of information and communication technology (ICT), more and more educational institutions in the Arabian Gulf countries—Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman—are incorporating ICT into their educational systems. Internet access in public and private schools in Kuwait has grown rapidly. The Ministry of Education has developed a book to guide for students in grades eight to twelve on how to use the Internet (Wheeler, 1998).

The use of ICT in education is expected to enhance the teaching and learning process that would provide students with the necessary skills demanded in the 21st Century

environment.

As schools in the Gulf countries are largely segregated, with separate schools for

boys and girls, ICT has resulted in a number of issues, such as issues of gender

differences and of technology training, which are worthy of exploring. The common

assumption prevalent in such countries is that girls/women lag behind boys/men in

utilizing ICT in their daily activities.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of gender (male

versus female) and ICT training (with ICT training versus no ICT training) on Kuwait

high school teachers’ attitudes toward ICT in education and their use of ICT in the 136 classroom. Four research questions, two descriptive and two inferential, were posted for this study as follow:

1. What are the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in

education?

2. How do Kuwait high school teachers use ICT in their classrooms?

3. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes and ICT use

for male and female Kuwait high school teachers?

4. Are there significant mean differences in the combined attitudes and ICT use

for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training and had no ICT

training?

Discussion of the Findings

Descriptive Questions

The first descriptive question concerned the attitudes of Kuwait high school teachers toward ICT in education. The analysis was based a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = ‘Strongly Disagree,’ 2 = ‘Disagree,’ 3 = ‘Neutral,’ 4 = ‘Agree,’ to 5 =

‘Strongly Agree.’ Based on this scale, the mean score for overall teachers’ attitudes was

3.35. This score indicates that the teachers’ attitude toward ICT is fairly positive.

Further analysis shows that male teachers (Mean = 3.43) and teachers with ICT training (Mean = 3.38) had more positive attitudes toward ICT in education than female teachers (Mean = 3.28) and those without ICT training (Mean = 3.20) respectively. These findings complement the literature. In gender studies trying to answer the question of gender differences in attitude toward ICT, males are perceived to have higher attitudes 137 toward computers do than females (Liao, 1999; Young, 1999, Sharp, 2005). According to

Parr’s (1999) five-year longitudinal study, teachers who were given laptop computers— technology training—indicated improved confidence levels and skill. This should suggest that gender and training are still factors in shaping teachers’ attitudes toward ICT. The difference of attitudes or confidence level should diminish by providing computers and more ICT training to female teachers.

The second descriptive question was related to the Kuwait teachers’ use of ICT in the classroom. For this question, the analysis revealed that in general Kuwait high school teachers used ICT in education moderately (Mean = 3.06 on 5-point Likert scale). Further analyses showed that the teachers who had ICT training used more ICT in their classrooms (Mean = 3.16) While a greater number of female teachers had ICT training than did male teachers, female teachers (Mean = 3.10) used slightly less ICT in their classrooms than the male teachers did (Mean = 3.23).

From the researcher’s observation, it was found that the technology commonly used in the classrooms included audio players/recorders, televisions, video players/recorders, overhead projectors, and computers.

ICT promises to redefine goals and methods of teaching and learning that are suitable for education in the 21st Century. The promise, as the literature suggested, will

not become a reality without teachers’ understanding and positive attitude toward the

technology, practical skills to use it, and their willingness to use the technology in actual

classroom practice (Gura & Percy, 2005). The above findings of the study indicate that 138 the Kuwait high school teachers are moving in the right direction as far as the use of ICT for educational purposes is concerned.

The question about whether the teachers will be able to use ICT in the classroom in an effective way depends on the interest (attitudes) and ability of teachers. One reason commonly cited as a stumbling block for teachers to use ICT in the classroom is limited or lack of technological skills (Ali, 2003; DeBourgh, 1999). Therefore, providing more extensive ICT training—especially for female teachers—would enhance the interest and technological ability of teachers to incorporate ICT in the classroom practices.

Inferential Questions

There were two inferential questions. The first asked if there were significant mean differences in the combined attitudes and ICT use for male and female Kuwait high school teachers. The overall results in the combined attitudes and ICT use based on gender indicated that the difference was not statistically significant, where F (2, 161) =

.98; p = .38; Wilks’ Lambda = .99; and partial eta squared = .01.

The second question asked if there were significant mean differences in the combined attitudes and ICT use for Kuwait high school teachers who had ICT training or who did not. The result of analysis indicated there was a statistically significant difference between teachers who had ICT training and those who had no ICT training on the combined dependent variables, where F(2,162)=5.62; p=.004;Wilks’ Lambda=94; partial eta squared=.07. When the results for dependent variables were considered separately, the only difference to reach statistical significance using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .025, was ICT Use: F(2,162)=9.72; p=.002;Wilks’ Lambda=94; partial eta 139 squared=.06. An inspection of the mean scores indicated that males reported a slightly higher level of use of ICT (M=3.13, SD=0.99) than did females (M=3.01, SD=1.07).

The above result was consistent with the findings of both descriptive questions; all agreed that gender and ICT training were factors in shaping Kuwait teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and use of ICT, even though the difference was minimal. ICT training was a stronger factor than gender in determining the teachers’ attitudes and ICT use.

Conclusion

Kuwait, as many other Gulf countries, has been trying to reform its educational system by incorporating ICT into the curriculum to meet the needs of the 21st Century

society. One of the key players that will determine the success of this technological

reform is teachers. Teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and their willingness to use ICT in

their classrooms are among the determinant factors to the success of ICT practical

implementation. Other factors that play roles in teachers’ adoption of ICT in their classrooms include gender and technological training.

The descriptive results of this study indicate that Kuwait high school teachers

have relatively positive attitudes toward ICT. Male teachers have only fairly more

positive attitudes than female teachers. Technology (ICT) training has a greater impact on

male teachers’ attitudes toward ICT than on female teachers’ attitudes.

The descriptive findings of the teachers’ use of ICT show that the teachers use

computers and the Internet both at home and school in high percentage. The findings also

seem to indicate that ICT training has a greater impact on female teachers’ use of ICT 140 than male teachers’ use. The difference between those with ICT training and those with no ICT training, however, is very minimal.

Other findings from the open-ended questions and the researcher’s observation reveal that such technologies as audio players/recorders, televisions, video players/recorders, overhead projectors, and computers have been part of school facilities and classroom practices. However, they are not fully utilized as to foster teaching and learning in an effective way.

The other findings indicate that teachers desire to obtain technological knowledge and skills and to use Internet tools effectively in their classroom teaching. They want to keep up with current technological trends in their teaching, learning and research.

Based on the researcher’s observation, it was found that there were two ways the teachers used the computers in the classroom: using computers as a subject matter and using computers as a teaching/learning tool. In the first context, the teachers taught an introduction to the computers’ hardware, software, and Internet. In the second context, the teachers used computers to teach their subject matters, such as (foreign) languages,

Islamic studies, math, science, and social studies. The teachers also used the Internet to communicate and collaborate with the students and fellow teachers.

141

Recommendations

General Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following general recommendations can be presented:

1. The study indicated that male teachers had more positive attitudes toward ICT

in education than female teachers. To boost female teachers’ attitudes toward

ICT and its educational use, schools should provide a more ICT-friendly

environment for female teachers that enable them to have full access to

Internet at anytime, at their convenience.

2. The study showed that training improved ICT use among teachers. Therefore,

the Ministry of Education and other related institutions responsible for

planning and implementing staff development programs should provide the

teachers with sufficient training on how to effectively integrate ICT into

education. Priorities of training should be given to female teachers on the use

of ICT as an instructional tool, besides providing them with knowledge about

ethical and legal issues related to the use of the Internet.

3. The Ministry of Education should develop a policy that would promote using

the curriculum emphasizing the use of ICT and encourage changes in teaching

methodologies from teacher-centered traditional methods of teaching and

learning to student-centered ICT-based ones. 142

4. To keep up with rapid technological change in the age of information

technology, Kuwait teachers and students today and in the future must be

exposed to new technology and constantly update their technological skills

and knowledge.

5. To produce a globally-competitive ICT training program for the teachers, it is

recommended that the Ministry of Education build a technological standard

for the country benchmarked against ISTE (International Society for

Technology in Education) standard.

Recommendations for Further Study

This is an original research study that focuses upon high school teachers’ attitudes toward computers and their use at the Al-Farwaniyah Educational governorate in Kuwait. The following are recommendations for further research on similar topics:

1. As the study was limited to the Al-Farwaniyah governorate and the sample

chosen was high school teachers, it is recommended that this study be

replicated and extended to other educational governorates in Kuwait involving

all educational levels so that the result would be generalizable to the whole

country.

2. The sample study was chosen only among teachers. Future studies may need

to include other groups such as students and administrators (principals and

supervisors) to see how closely the teachers’ attitudes match the attitudes of

other groups toward ICT and its use. 143

3. This study showed that there were significant differences in teachers’ attitudes

and ICT use based on their gender and ICT training, without examining the

reasons that created these differences. Further study could investigate the

reasons that led to such differences.

4. This study examined some variables that might impact the teachers’ attitudes

toward computers and their use. Future studies need to examine other

variables that may impact the teachers’ attitudes towards computer and their

use, such as teachers’ achievement level, academic qualification levels,

employment status, economic status, geographic location, students’ learning

styles, and instructors’ teaching styles.

144

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APPENDIX A: HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KUWAIT

Table 3.Distribution of High School Teachers in Kuwait

Teacher Teacher Total Percentage Male Female Al-Asimah 213 203 416 8.7 %

Al-Farwaniyah 372 592 964 20.2 %

Al-Ahmadi 536 844 1380 29.1 %

Al-Jahra 348 570 918 19.2 %

Hawalli 268 229 497 10.4 %

Mubarak Al-kabeer 220 372 592 12.4 %

Total 1957 2810 4676 100 %

Percentage 41 % 59 % 100 % -

Note. From Statistical profile 2006-2007 166

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE 167

168

169

170

171

APPENDIX C: FACTOR ANALYSIS

KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .869

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 5032.161

Df 1128

Sig. .000

Communalities

Initial Extraction

1 I want to improve skills in 1.000 .470 using computers & the internet

2 I expect to increase my use 1.000 .629 of the internet in the future

3 I enjoy using the internet 1.000 .652

4 I feel comfortable using the 1.000 .616 internet

5 The use of computers will 1.000 .645 enhance my effectiveness in teaching

6 I feel that the internet will be 1.000 .691 useful for my teaching

7 Computer technology 1.000 .586 knowledge and skills are as important today as the knowledge and skills of reading, writing, science and mathematics

8 Computers can help make 1.000 .649 learning fun

9 Computer technology 1.000 .449 knowledge and skills should not be integrated into any subjects in all grade levels 172

10 Computer technology 1.000 .571 knowledge and skills should not be utilized in K-12 Education

11 Computer skills should not be 1.000 .529 taught as a separate subject

12 Computers and related 1.000 .717 technologies do not have the potential to improve teaching and learning

13 Government should not fund 1.000 .630 computer hardware and software in schools

14 Using computer technology 1.000 .539 as tools for teaching and learning is not a good idea

15 Knowing about computers 1.000 .646 does not give people an advantage at work

16 A well-planned technology 1.000 .656 training program is needed for K-12 educational system

17 Computers should be placed 1.000 .838 in all schools

18 Computers should be placed 1.000 .829 in every classroom

19 Institutes should not prepare 1.000 .304 computer teachers in addition to preparing mathematics, science, language, art, history, and social studies

20 A computer with internet 1.000 .499 access

21 A computer with internet 1.000 .180 access 173

22 Group of computer in 1.000 .616 classroom with internet access

23 Group of computer in 1.000 .557 classroom without internet access

24 Group of computer near/ 1.000 .707 adjacent to classroom with internet access

25 Group of computer near/ 1.000 .615 adjacent to classroom without internet access

26 Computers in the library 1.000 .733

27 Wireless laptops 1.000 .506

28 Finding information on the 1.000 .654 worldwide web

29 Exploring an application that 1.000 .618 you may want to use as part of your teaching

30 Designing learning materials 1.000 .598 to be used online

31 Using Management 1.000 .621 Information Systems (MIS) to inform teaching and learning

32 Participating in a teaching 1.000 .665 related "chat room" or Bulletin Board

33 Downloading lesson plans 1.000 .678

34 Uploading material onto the 1.000 .704 internet for use in lessons

35 Using the internet to 1.000 .642 communicate with pupils or their parents/ careers about school work 174

36 Presentation programs such 1.000 .479 as PowerPoint

37 Database programs such as 1.000 .553 Access

38 Spreadsheets programs such 1.000 .526 as Excel

39 Word processing programs 1.000 .418 such as Word

40 CD/DVD-ROMs 1.000 .545

41 Scanner or editing photos, 1.000 .586 image or film

42 Using digital camera/ 1.000 .564 camcorder

43 To store Information 1.000 .547

44 To distribute Information 1.000 .706

45 Email communication 1.000 .535

46 Other forms of 1.000 .389 communication

47 Student assessment 1.000 .599

48 Classroom management 1.000 .618

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

175

Total Variance Explained

Rotation Sums of Squared

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Loadings

% of Cumulative % of Cumulative % of Cumulative

Component Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance %

1 14.308 29.808 29.808 14.308 29.808 29.808 9.056 18.867 18.867

2 6.214 12.946 42.754 6.214 12.946 42.754 7.184 14.966 33.833

3 3.128 6.516 49.271 3.128 6.516 49.271 4.918 10.245 44.078

4 2.550 5.313 54.584 2.550 5.313 54.584 4.363 9.090 53.168

5 2.107 4.389 58.972 2.107 4.389 58.972 2.786 5.804 58.972

6 1.463 3.049 62.021

7 1.276 2.659 64.680

8 1.156 2.408 67.088

9 1.105 2.303 69.391

10 .903 1.881 71.272

11 .859 1.789 73.061

12 .821 1.710 74.770

13 .787 1.640 76.410

14 .732 1.524 77.934

15 .688 1.434 79.368

16 .651 1.357 80.724

17 .618 1.287 82.011

18 .602 1.254 83.265

19 .542 1.129 84.394

20 .524 1.092 85.486

21 .497 1.036 86.522

22 .476 .992 87.514

23 .454 .946 88.460

24 .429 .893 89.353

25 .395 .823 90.176

26 .366 .762 90.938 176

27 .357 .743 91.681

28 .339 .707 92.388

29 .321 .668 93.056

30 .309 .643 93.699

31 .303 .632 94.331

32 .268 .558 94.889

33 .247 .514 95.403

34 .232 .483 95.885

35 .216 .451 96.336

36 .203 .423 96.759

37 .191 .398 97.157

38 .178 .371 97.528

39 .175 .365 97.894

40 .149 .311 98.205

41 .147 .307 98.512

42 .133 .278 98.790

43 .126 .263 99.053

44 .123 .257 99.310

45 .107 .223 99.533

46 .085 .176 99.709

47 .075 .157 99.866

48 .064 .134 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Component Matrixa

Component

1 2 3 4 5

1 Downloading lesson plans .812

2 Participating in a teaching .794 related "chat room" or Bulletin Board

3 To distribute Information .789

4 Classroom management .780

5 Student assessment .772

6 Using Management .767 Information Systems (MIS) to inform teaching and learning 178

7 Using the internet to .765 communicate with pupils or their parents/ careers about school work

8 Uploading material onto the .752 .337 internet for use in lessons

9 Group of computer in .749 classroom with internet access

10 Scanner or editing photos, .748 image or film

11 Designing learning materials .734 to be used online

12 Database programs such as .731 Access

13 Exploring an application that .721 you may want to use as part of your teaching

14 Using digital camera/ .716 camcorder

15 Finding information on the .714 .330 worldwide web

16 Spreadsheets programs such .699 as Excell

17 A computer with internet .695 access

18 Computers in the library .690 -.381

19 Presentation programs such .689 as PowerPoint

20 Group of computer near/ .688 -.458 adjacent to classroom with internet access

21 To store Information .672

22 Wireless laptops .669 179

23 Group of computer in .659 classroom without internet access

24 CD/DVD-ROMs .614 .336

25 Group of computer near/ .587 -.503 adjacent to classroom without internet access

26 Email communication .531 .379

27 Other forms of .507 .353 communication

28 Word processing programs .398 .351 such as Word

29 A computer with internet .336 access

30 Computers can help make .716 learning fun

31 I feel that the internet will be .714 useful for my teaching

32 I enjoy using the internet .693

33 Computer technology .672 knowledge and skills are as important today as the knowledge and skills of reading, writting, science and mathematics

34 The use of computers will .669 enhance my effectiveness in teaching

35 I feel comfortable using the .663 internet

36 Knowing about computers -.652 .333 .304 does not give people an advantage at work

37 I expect to increase my use .606 .371 .333 of the internet in the future 180

38 Computers and related -.570 .530 technologies do not have the potential to improve teaching and learning

39 Computer skills should not be -.551 .402 taught as a separate subject

40 Using computer technology -.545 .331 .304 as tools for teaching and learning is not a good idea

41 Computer technology -.538 .367 knowledge and skills should not be utilized in K-12 Education

42 Government should not fund -.532 .459 .307 computer hardware and software in schools

43 Computer technology -.523 .404 knowledge and skills should not be integrated into any subjects in all grade levels

44 I want to improve skills in .489 .347 .312 using computers & the internet

45 A well-planned technology .559 -.534 training program is needed for K-12 educational system

46 Computers should be placed .543 -.674 in every classroom

47 Computers should be placed .572 -.656 in all schools

48 Institutes should not prepare .339 .391 computer teachers in addition to preparing mathematics, science, language, art, history, and social studies a. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. b. 5 components extracted. 181

Rotated Component Matrixa

Component

1 2 3 4 5

1 Computers in the library .833

2 Group of computer near/ .829 adjacent to classroom with internet access

3 Group of computer near/ .773 adjacent to classroom without internet access

4 Participating in a teaching .708 .398 related "chat room" or Bulletin Board

5 Group of computer in .707 classroom without internet access

6 Using the internet to .694 .331 communicate with pupils or their parents/ careers about school work

7 Group of computer in .679 .367 classroom with internet access

8 Using Management .661 .406 Information Systems (MIS) to inform teaching and learning

9 Wireless laptops .649

10 Spreadsheets programs such .643 .318 as Excell

11 Using digital camera/ .624 .355 camcorder

12 Database programs such as .619 .378 Access

13 Classroom management .595 .508 182

14 Scanner or editing photos, .561 .508 image or film

15 Student assessment .558 .505

16 Presentation programs such .481 .480 as PowerPoint

17 A computer with internet access

18 Uploading material onto the .364 .753 internet for use in lessons

19 Finding information on the .321 .735 worldwide web

20 To distribute Information .413 .723

21 CD/DVD-ROMs .697

22 Email communication .690

23 To store Information .309 .665

24 Exploring an application that .404 .657 you may want to use as part of your teaching

25 Designing learning materials .447 .622 to be used online

26 Word processing programs .598 such as Word

27 Downloading lesson plans .565 .597

28 A computer with internet .469 .504 access

29 Other forms of .378 communication

30 I enjoy using the internet .780

31 I expect to increase my use .773 of the internet in the future

32 The use of computers will .773 enhance my effectiveness in teaching

33 I feel that the internet will be .772 useful for my teaching 183

34 I feel comfortable using the .767 internet

35 Computers can help make .748 learning fun

36 Computer technology .741 knowledge and skills are as important today as the knowledge and skills of reading, writting, science and mathematics

37 I want to improve skills in .668 using computers & the internet

38 Computers and related .838 technologies do not have the potential to improve teaching and learning

39 Government should not fund .775 computer hardware and software in schools

40 Knowing about computers .765 does not give people an advantage at work

41 Using computer technology .716 as tools for teaching and learning is not a good idea

42 Computer technology .712 knowledge and skills should not be utilized in K-12 Education

43 Computer skills should not be .700 taught as a separate subject

44 Computer technology .607 knowledge and skills should not be integrated into any subjects in all grade levels 184

45 Computers should be placed .903 in all schools

46 Computers should be placed .892 in every classroom

47 A well-planned technology .796 training program is needed for K-12 educational system

48 Institutes should not prepare .312 .374 computer teachers in addition to preparing mathematics, science, language, art, history, and social studies

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

Component Transformation Matrix

Compo nent 1 2 3 4 5

1 .749 .636 .129 .131 -.012

2 -.137 .139 .750 -.618 .136

3 .024 -.239 .461 .628 .579

4 -.216 .066 .433 .421 -.764

5 -.610 .717 -.146 .174 .248

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

APPENDIX D: ARABIC QUESTIONNAIRE

اﻟﺠﺰء (أ): ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب

اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎت (1): ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ درﺟﺔ ﻣﻮاﻓﻘﺘﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ آﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻴﺎر اﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ

1. ﺗﻮﺟﻬﺎت اﻟﻤﺸﺎرآﻴﻦ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎل: ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﺑﺸﺪة ﺑﺸﺪة

1.1 أرﻏﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﻣﻬﺎراﺗﻲ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب واﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

2.1 أﺗﻮﻗﻊ أن أزﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﺎﺳﻮب واﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ.

3.1 أﺟﺪ ﻣﺘﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب واﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

4.1 أﺟﺪ راﺣﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب واﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

5.1 أﻋﺘﻘﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﺳﻴﻌﺰز ﻣﻦ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪرﻳﺴﻲ.

6.1 أﻋﺘﻘﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺳﻴﻜﻮن ﻣﻔﻴﺪا ﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ.

7.1 اآﺘﺴﺎب ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ وﻣﻬﺎرات ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ أهﻤﻴﺔ اآﺘﺴﺎب ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ وﻣﻬﺎرات اﻟﻘﺮاءة واﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ واﻟﻌﻠﻮم واﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎت 186

8.1 ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب أن ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ أﻣﺮا ﻣﻤﺘﻌﺎ

2. اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب وﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬهﺎ: ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﺑﺸﺪة ﺑﺸﺪة

1.2 ﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ وﻣﻬﺎرات ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﺟﺰءا ﻣﻦ آﻞ اﻟﻤﻮاد ﻓﻲ آﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت وﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ.

2.2 ﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ إدﺧﺎل اآﺘﺴﺎب ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ و ﻣﻬﺎرات ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ اﻟﻌﺎم.

3.2 ﻣﻬﺎرات اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺗﺪرﻳﺴﻬﺎ آﻤﺎدة ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ.

4.2 ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻠﺤﺎﺳﻮب واﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﺑﻪ أي دور ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺘﻲ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ واﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ.

5.2 ﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺘﻤﻮﻳﻞ ودﻋﻢ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب اﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ (hardware) وﺑﺮﻣﺠﻴﺎﺗﻪ(software). 6.2 اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب آﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ واﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻓﻜﺮة ﺟﻴﺪة.

7.2 ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻻ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ ﻟﻸﺷﺨﺎص ﻣﻴﺰة ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل ﻋﻤﻠﻬﻢ. 8.2 ﻧﺤﻦ ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺗﺪرﻳﺒﻲ ﻣﺤﻜﻢ وﻣﺮن ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻨﺎ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم.

9.2 ﻳﺠﺐ ادﺧﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ اﻟﻤﺪارﺳﻴﺔ. 187

10.2 ﻳﺠﺐ ادﺧﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ آﻞ اﻟﻔﺼﻮل اﻟﺪراﺳﻴﺔ.

11.2 ﻳﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ آﻠﻴﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻴﻦ أن ﻻﺗﻌﺪ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺬي ﺗﻌﺪ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﻲ اﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎت واﻟﻌﻠﻮم واﻵداب واﻟﻠﻐﺔ واﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ.

اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎت (2): ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﺪى اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻚ ﻟﻠﺨﺪﻣﺎت، واﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت، واﻷدوات اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﺧﺘﻴﺎر اﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ:

3. اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ:

ﻣﺮة آﻞ ﻻ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ اﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ أﺑﺪا 1.3 ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻣﻮﺻﻞ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

2.3 ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺻﻞ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

3.3 ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب داﺧﻞ ﻗﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺼﻒ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ

4.3 ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب داﺧﻞ ﻗﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺼﻒ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ. 188

5.3 ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺔ أو ﻣﻼﺻﻘﺔ ﻟﻘﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺼﻒ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ. 6.3 ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺔ أو ﻣﻼﺻﻘﺔ ﻟﻘﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺼﻒ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ.

7.3 أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ.

8.3 أﺟﻬﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب ﻣﺤﻤﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ.

4. اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ:

ﻣﺮة آﻞ ﻻ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ اﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ أﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ أﺑﺪا 1.4 ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻣﻦ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ

2.4 ﻻﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎف اﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل أﺣﺪ اﻟﺒﺮاﻣﺞ أو اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺮﻏﺐ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ 3.4 ﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻢ أوراق ﻋﻤﻞ و ﻣﻮاد ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﻐﺮض اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ 4.4 ﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻧﻈﻢ إدارة اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت MIS ﻹﻓﺎدة ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺘﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ واﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ : اﻻﻃﻼع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺠﻼت اﻟﻄﻼب ﻣﺜﻼ . 5.4 ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎرآﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ ﻓﻲ " ﻏﺮﻓﺔ ﺣﻮار" أو " ﺳﺒﻮرة أﺧﺒﺎر"

189

6.4 ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻄﻂ دروس ﻣﻦ اﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ

7.4 ﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴﻞ ﻣﻮاد ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﻐﺮض اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪروس

8.4 ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻄﻼب أو اﻵﺑﺎء/ أوﻟﻴﺎء اﻷﻣﻮر ﺑﺨﺼﻮص اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﻴﺔ : اﻟﻮاﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻼ

.5- اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت واﻟﺒﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:

ﻣﺮة آﻞ ﻻ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ اﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ أﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ أﺑﺪا

1.5 ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﻋﺮوض ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺒﺎور ﺑﻮﻳﻨﺖ ( PowerPoint)

2.5 ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﺜﻞ اﻻآﺴﺲ (Access)

3.5 ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺟﺪاول اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﺜﻞ إآﺴﻞ (Excel)

4.5اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص ﻣﺜﻞ وورد (Word)

190

6. اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﻴﺎت اﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ:

ﻣﺮة آﻞ ﻻ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ اﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ أﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ أﺑﺪا

1.6 ﻣﺤﺮآﺎت اﻷﻗﺮاص اﻟﻤﻀﻐﻮﻃﺔ / اﻟﻤﺪﻣﺠﺔ CD/DVD- ROMS.

2.6 ﺟﻬﺎز ﻣﺴﺢ اﻟﺼﻮر scanner أو ﺟﻬﺎز ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺼﻮر Photo editing أو اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻏﺮاﻓﻴﺔ أو اﻷﻓﻼم.

3.6 اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻴﺮا اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ/ "اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻜﻮردر".

7. اﺳﺘﺨﺪام وﻇﺎﺋﻒ اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ:

ﻣﺮة آﻞ ﻻ اﻟﺒﻨﻮد: ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ اﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ أﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﻟﺪراﺳﻲ أﺑﺪا

1.7 ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت: ﻣﺜﻼ (ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ اﻟﻤﻘﺮرات، اﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺎت، اﻟﺒﺤﻮث)

2.7 ﺗﻮزﻳﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت (ﻣﺜﻼ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎت، ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺎت..)

3.7 اﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺮﻳﺪ اﻷﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ

4.7 أﺷﻜﺎل اﻻﺗﺼﺎل اﻷﺧﺮى (ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺪردﺷﺔ ، اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺪﻳﺎت). 191

5.7 ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻤﻴﻦ (ﻣﺜﻼ اﺧﺘﺒﺎرات) 6.7 إدارة اﻟﺼﻒ (ﻣﺜﻼ ﺳﺠﻼت اﻟﺤﻀﻮر واﻟﺪرﺟﺎت)

اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎت (3): ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﻗﺮاءة اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﻤﻌﻦ واﺧﺘﻴﺎر اﻟﺘﻜﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻦ اﻟﺨﻴﺎرات اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻠﻴﻬﺎ:

- ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ، اﺳﺘﺨﺪم اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ آﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ...... ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ.

ﺑﺪﻳﻠﺔ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة

اﻟﺠﺰء (ب): ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب

ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎت: ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ اﻻﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﺣﻮل ﺧﺒﺮﺗﻚ وﺗﺪرﻳﺒﻚ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎل. ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﻗﺮاءة اﻻﺳﺌﻠﺔ واﺧﺘﻴﺎر اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ.

1- هﻞ ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪرﻳﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ ﻻ

اذا آﺎﻧﺖ اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﻨﻌﻢ, ﻓﻀﻼ اذآﺮ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ...... 2- ﻣﺎ هﻲ اﻟﺠﻬﺔ (اﻟﺠﻬﺎت) اﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻈﻤﺖ هﺬا اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ؟ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺗﺪرﻳﺐ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﺪرﻳﺐ ذاﺗﻲ 192

ﺟﻬﺔ أﺧﺮى (اﻟﺮﺟﺎء ذآﺮهﺎ) ......

3- ﻣﺎهﻲ اﻟﺪورات اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮد اﻟﻤﺸﺎرآﺔ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎل؟ ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﺳﻢ اﻟﺪورة (اﻟﺪورات): ......

4- ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ درﺟﺔ ﻣﻮاﻓﻘﺘﻚ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:

- ﺳﺎﻋﺪﺗﻨﻲ اﻟﺪورة اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ وزارة اﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺲ.

ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪة ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮاﻓﻖ ﺑﺸﺪة

اﻟﺠﺰء (ج): اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ:

ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎت: ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ هﺬا اﻟﺠﺰء ﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرآﻴﻦ. ﻳﺮﺟﻰ ﻗﺮاءة اﻻﺳﺌﻠﺔ وﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ.

1- اﻟﺠﻨﺲ: 2- اﻟﻌﻤﺮ: ذآﺮ 30-22 أﻧﺜﻲ 39-31 49-40 50 وﻣﺎﻓﻮق 3- ﻋﺪد ﺳﻨﻮات اﻟﺨﺒﺮة اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺴﻴﺔ: 4- اﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﻪ (اﻟﻤﺮاﺣﻞ) اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﻤﺖ ﺑﺘﺪرﻳﺴﻬﺎ: 1-5 ﺳﻨﻮات اﻟﺼﻒ اﻟﻌﺎﺷﺮ 6-10 ﺳﻨﻮات اﻟﺼﻒ اﻟﺤﺎدي ﻋﺸﺮ 11-15 ﺳﻨﺔ اﻟﺼﻒ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻋﺸﺮ 193

16-20 ﺳﻨﺔ 21 ﺳﻨﺔ ﻓﺄآﺜﺮ 5- ﻣﺎ هﻮ ﺗﺨﺼﺼﻚ؟ 6- ﻣﺎ هﻮ اﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﺆهﻞ دراﺳﻲ ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ؟ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻪ اﺳﻼﻣﻴﻪ ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮرﻳﻮس رﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎت ﻣﺎﺟﺴﺘﻴﺮ ﻋﺮﺑﻲ دآﺘﻮراﻩ اﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰي اﺧﺮى (ﻓﻀﻼ ﺣﺪد)...... اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺎت ﻋﻠﻮم أﺧﺮى (ﻓﻀﻼ ﺣﺪد)...... 7- هﻞ ﻟﺪﻳﻚ ﺣﺎﺳﺐ اﻟﻲ؟ 8- ﻋﺎدة، أﻳﻦ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻻﻟﻲ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ اﻟﺒﻴﺖ ﻻ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ آﻼهﻤﺎ ﻻ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ اﺧﺮى (ﻓﻀﻼ ﺣﺪد)...... 9- هﻞ ﻟﺪﻳﻚ اﺷﺘﺮاك ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ؟ 10- ﻋﺎدة، اﻳﻦ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ اﻟﺒﻴﺖ ﻻ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ آﻼهﻤﺎ ﻻ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ 194

اﺧﺮي (ﻓﻀﻼ ﺣﺪد)......

11- هﻞ ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺪرﻳﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﻜﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ ﻻ

12-إذا آﺎﻧﺖ اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ " ﻻ" هﻞ ﺗﺮﻏﺐ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺪرﻳﺐ ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ ﻻ

13- هﻞ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ؟ ﻧﻌﻢ ﻻ 14-ﻳﺮﺟﻲ ﺗﺴﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ اﻟﺬي ﺣﺼﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ؟ ......

15- ﻣﺎ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻴﻪ؟ ...... ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﺒﻴﺎن - ﻣﻊ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺷﻜﺮى واﻣﺘﻨﺎﻧﻲ

APPENDIX E: IRB APPROVAL

196

APPENDIX E: PERMISSION FROM MINISTRY OF EDUCATION TO COLLECT

THE DATA

197

198

APPENDIX F: RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS’ ANALYSIS

Reliability analysis – scale (alpha)

Item-Total Statistics

Scale Scale Corrected Item- Cronbach's Mean if Item Variance if Total Alpha if Item Deleted Item Deleted Correlation Deleted

1 I want to improve skills in using 58.84 56.558 .332 .713 computers & the internet

2 I expect to increase my use of 58.84 56.023 .419 .708 the internet in the future

3 I enjoy using the internet 59.12 56.268 .291 .715

4 I feel comfortable using the 59.34 55.831 .268 .717 internet

5 The use of computers will enhance my effectiveness in 59.02 57.629 .212 .721 teaching

6 I feel that the internet will be 59.02 56.220 .311 .714 useful for my teaching

7 Computer technology knowledge and skills are as important today as the knowledge and skills of 58.98 56.425 .297 .715 reading, writting, science and mathematics

8 Computers can help make 58.96 57.298 .281 .717 learning fun

9 Computer technology knowledge and skills should not be 60.82 55.944 .181 .728 integrated into any subjects in all grade levels

10 Computer technology knowledge and skills should not be utilized 61.52 56.441 .269 .717 in K-12 Education 199

11 Computer skills should not be 61.42 56.986 .185 .724 taught as a separate subject

12 Computers and related technologies do not have the 61.84 56.227 .399 .709 potential to improve teaching and learning

13 Government should not fund computer hardware and 61.76 55.744 .308 .714 software in schools

14 Using computer technology as tools for teaching and learning is 61.59 56.558 .207 .723 not a good idea

15 Knowing about computers does not give people an advantage at 61.73 57.003 .227 .720 work

16 A well-planned technology training program is needed for 59.47 51.653 .431 .700 K-12 educational system

17 Computers should be placed in 59.21 50.971 .481 .694 all schools

18 Computers should be placed in 59.34 51.125 .453 .697 every classroom

19 Institutes should not prepare computer teachers in addition to preparing mathematics, science, 60.48 52.976 .246 .726 language, art, history, and social studies

Item-Total Statistics

Scale Mean if Scale Variance if Corrected Item- Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted Item Deleted Total Correlation Item Deleted

1 A computer with internet access 82.72 828.972 .690 .960

2 A computer with internet access 83.11 858.603 .363 .962 200

3 Group of computer in classroom 83.65 821.934 .725 .959 with internet access

4 Group of computer in classroom 83.83 833.176 .645 .960 without internet access

5 Group of computer near/ adjacent to classroom with 83.81 830.235 .690 .960 internet access

6 Group of computer near/ adjacent to classroom without 83.87 839.786 .580 .961 internet access

7 Computers in the library 83.70 826.868 .675 .960

8 Wireless laptops 83.61 828.305 .641 .960

9 Finding information on the 82.37 844.562 .694 .960 worldwide web

10 Exploring an application that you may want to use as part of your 82.88 837.272 .710 .960 teaching

11 Designing learning materials to 82.73 836.001 .701 .960 be used online

12 Using Management Information Systems (MIS) to inform 83.44 823.756 .766 .959 teaching and learning

13 Participating in a teaching related "chat room" or Bulletin 83.55 820.331 .813 .959 Board

14 Downloading lesson plans 83.11 825.364 .809 .959

15 Uploading material onto the 82.80 834.294 .769 .959 internet for use in lessons

16 Using the internet to communicate with pupils or their 83.75 825.551 .741 .959 parents/ careers about school work

17 Presentation programs such as 83.03 848.425 .653 .960 PowerPoint 201

18 Database programs such as 83.89 836.921 .689 .960 Access

19 Spreadsheets programs such as 83.67 839.713 .664 .960 Excel

20 Word processing programs such 82.18 865.443 .407 .961 as Word

21 CD/DVD-ROMs 82.67 846.172 .616 .960

22 Scanner or editing photos, 83.37 829.922 .724 .959 image or film

23 Using digital camera/ camcorder 83.89 833.003 .691 .960

24 To store Information 82.98 835.729 .669 .960

25 To distribute Information 83.15 824.011 .774 .959

26 Email communication 82.78 848.124 .487 .961

27 Other forms of communication 83.66 844.833 .507 .961

28 Student assessment 83.63 831.695 .743 .959

29 Classroom management 83.47 821.464 .738 .959 202

APPENDIX G: LISTWISE DELETION AND PAIRWISE

Pairwise Comparisons

95% Confidence Interval for Differencea

Dependent (I) ICT (J) ICT Mean Difference Upper Variable training training (I-J) Std. Error Sig.a Lower Bound Bound

ICTUse Yes No .693* .222 .002 .254 1.132

No Yes -.693* .222 .002 -1.132 -.254

ICTAttitude Yes No .170 .092 .067 -.012 .352

No Yes -.170 .092 .067 -.352 .012

Based on estimated marginal means

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni.

Pairwise Comparisons

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Differencea Dependent Difference Variable (I) Gender (J) Gender (I-J) Std. Error Sig.a Lower Bound Upper Bound

ICTUse Male Female .284 .222 .204 -.155 .723

Female Male -.284 .222 .204 -.723 .155

Female Male -.076 .092 .413 -.257 .106

Male Female .076 .092 .413 -.106 .257

Based on estimated marginal means a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni. 203

APPENDIX H: SAMPLE DEMPGTAPGIC

Participants’ Gender Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 82 49.1

Female 85 50.9

Total 167 100

Participants Age Range Frequency Percentage

Age 22 – 30 37 23.4 (in years) 31 – 39 71 44.9 40 –49 35 22.2 50 – above 15 9.5 Total 158 94.6 Missing 9 5.4

Teachers’ Years of Teaching Experience Years Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

Teaching 1 to 5 28 (16.9) 17 (10.2) 45 (27.0) Experience 6 to 10 15 (9.0) 24 (14.5) 39 (23.5) (in years) 11 to 15 11 (6.6) 18 (10.8) 29 (17.5) 16 to 20 13 (7.8) 18 (10.8) 31 (18.7) 21 and over 15 (9.0) 7 (4.2) 22 (13.3) Total 82 (49.4) 84 (50.6) 166 (100) Missing 1 Total 167

204

Grades that Participants Taught Grade Level Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) 10 33 (20.0) 27 (16.0) 60 (36.0) 11 19 (11.0) 26 (16.0) 45 (27.0) 12 30 (18) 31 (19) 61(37.0) Total 82 (49.4) 84 (50.6) 166 Missing 1 Total 167

205

APPENDIX I: MULTVARIATE TESTS

Multivariate Tests

Hypothesis Partial Eta Effect Value F df Error df Sig. Squared

Intercept Pillai's Trace .970 2.619E3 2.000 161.000 .000 .970

Wilks' Lambda .030 2.619E3 2.000 161.000 .000 .970

Hotelling's Trace 32.539 2.619E3 2.000 161.000 .000 .970

Roy's Largest Root 32.539 2.619E3 2.000 161.000 .000 .970

Gender Pillai's Trace .012 .977a 2.000 161.000 .379 .012

Wilks' Lambda .988 .977a 2.000 161.000 .379 .012

Hotelling's Trace .012 .977a 2.000 161.000 .379 .012

Roy's Largest Root .012 .977a 2.000 161.000 .379 .012

Training Pillai's Trace .065 5.619a 2.000 161.000 .004 .065

Wilks' Lambda .935 5.619a 2.000 161.000 .004 .065

Hotelling's Trace .070 5.619a 2.000 161.000 .004 .065

Roy's Largest Root .070 5.619a 2.000 161.000 .004 .065

Gender * Pillai's Trace .018 1.506a 2.000 161.000 .225 .018 Training Wilks' Lambda .982 1.506a 2.000 161.000 .225 .018

Hotelling's Trace .019 1.506a 2.000 161.000 .225 .018

Roy's Largest Root .019 1.506a 2.000 161.000 .225 .018 a. Exact statistic b. Design: Intercept + Gender + Training + Gender * Training

206

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Type III Dependent Sum of Mean Partial Eta Source Variable Squares df Square F Sig. Squared

Corrected ICT Attitude 2.133a 3 .711 4.317 .006 .074

Model b ICT Use 9.935 3 3.312 3.450 .018 .060

Intercept ICT Attitude 846.299 1 846.299 5139.115 .000 .969

ICT Use 616.294 1 616.294 642.089 .000 .799

Gender ICT Attitude .111 1 .111 .673 .413 .004

ICT Use 1.563 1 1.563 1.628 .204 .010

Training ICT Attitude .562 1 .562 3.413 .067 .021

ICT Use 9.329 1 9.329 9.720 .002 .057

Gender * ICT Attitude .334 1 .334 2.030 .156 .012

Training ICT Use .472 1 .472 .491 .484 .003

Error ICT Attitude 26.678 162 .165

ICT Use 155.492 162 .960

Total ICT Attitude 1898.090 166

ICT Use 1728.301 166

Corrected ICT Attitude 28.811 165

Total ICT Use 165.427 165

a. R Squared = .074 (Adjusted R Squared = .057)

b. R Squared = .060 (Adjusted R Squared = .043)