SKEPTICAL INQUIRER V01.16, No. 3 Spring 1992/$6.25

Myths of Subliminal Persuasion

the Paranormal

MM THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization. Editor Kendrick Frazier. Editorial Board James E. Alcock, Martin Gardner, Ray Hyman, Philip J. Klass, Paul Kurtz. Consulting Editors Isaac Asimov, William Sims Bainbridge, John R. Cole, Kenneth L. Feder, C. E. M. Hansel, E. C. Krupp, David F. Marks, Andrew Neher, James E. Oberg, Robert Sheaffer, Steven N. Shore. Managing Editor Doris Hawley Doyle. Contributing Editor Lys Ann Shore. Business Manager Mary Rose Hays. Assistant Business Manager Sandra Lesniak Chief Data Officer Richard Seymour. Computer Assistant Michael Cione. Production Paul E. Loynes. Audio Technician Vance Vigrass. Librarian, Ranjit Sandhu. Staff Leland Harrington, Alfreda Pidgeon, Kathy Reeves, Elizabeth Begley (Albuquerque). Cartoonist Rob Pudim.

The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo. Barry Karr, Executive Director and Public Relations Director. Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director. Fellows of the Committee (partial list) James E. Alcock, psychologist, York Univ., Toronto; Isaac Asimov, biochemist, author; Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Kentucky; Irving Biederman, psychologist, University of Minnesota; Susan Blackmore, psychologist, Brain Perception Laboratory, University of Bristol, England; Henri Broch, physicist, University of Nice, France; Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University; John R. Cole, anthropologist. Institute for the Study of Human Issues; F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif.; L. Sprague de Camp, author, engineer; Cornelis de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands; Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K.: Paul Edwards, philosopher. Editor, Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K.; Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer, executive officer, Astronomical Society of the Pacific; editor of Mercury; Kendrick Frazier, science writer. Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER; Yves Galifret, Exec. Secretary, l'Union Rationaliste; Martin Gardner, author, critic; Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, California Institute of Technology; Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, broadcaster, Toronto; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.; C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales; Al Hibbs, scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human understanding and cognitive science, Indiana University; Ray Hyman, psychologist, Univ. of Oregon; Leon Jaroff, sciences editor, Time; Lawrence Jerome, science writer, engineer; Philip J. Klass, science writer, engineer; Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Fredonia; Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Observatory; Paul Kurtz, chairman, CSICOP, Buffalo, N.Y.; Lawrence Kusche, science writer; Paul MacCready, scientist/engineer, AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif.; David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, England; David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Research Center; Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley; H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president, Bangalore Science Forum, India; Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist, Cornell University. Joe Nickell, author, technical writing instructor, University of Kentucky; Lee Nisbet, philosopher, Medaille College; James E. Oberg, science writer; John Paulos, mathematician, Temple University; Mark Plummer, lawyer, Australia; W. V. Quine, philosopher, Harvard Univ.; Milton Rosenberg, psychologist. University of Chicago; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell Univ.; Evry Schatz- man. President, French Physics Association; Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive director, National Center for Science Education, Inc.; Thomas A. Sebeok, anthropologist, linguist, Indiana University; Robert Sheaffer, science writer; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, N.S.W., Australia; Robert Steiner, magician, author. El Cerrito, California; Carol Tavris, psychologist, UCLA; Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, Northwestern Univ.; Marvin Zelen, statistician. Harvard Univ. (Affilia­ tions given for identification only.)

Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto Dr., N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111. Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be addressed to: THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six weeks advance notice. Subscribers to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX: (716)-636-1733. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the views and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is indexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Copyright ©1992 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, 3965 Rensch Road, Buffalo, NY 14228. All rights reserved. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms International. Subscription Rates: Individuals, libraries, and institutions, $25.00 a year; back issues, $6.25 each. Postmaster: THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is published quarterly. Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Printed in the U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and additional mailing offices. Send changes of address to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. f\ SKEPTICAL

INQUIRER Vol. 16, No. 3, Spring 1992 ] ISSN 0194-6730 Journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

SPECIAL REPORT 254 The Maharishi Caper: JAMA Hoodwinked (But Just for a While) Andrew Skolnick MYTHS OF SUBLIMINAL PERSUASION The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion Anthony R. Pratkanis 260 Subliminal Perception: Facts and Fallacies Timothy £ Moore 273 Subliminal Tapes: How to Get the Message Across Brady J. Phelps and Mary £ Exum 282 ARTICLES The Avro VZ-9 "Flying Saucer" William B. Blake 287 Two 19th-century Skeptics: Augustus de Morgan and John Fiske Milton A Rothman 292 NEWS AND COMMENT 229 NAS Scientists Highly Skeptical / Altering Mental States / Astrology Disclaimer Update / Liquefying Blood / Orgonomists Convene / 1991 Psychic Predictions Fizzle / Big Foot Cemetery / Scientology Loses in Norway / For the Record NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER The Sad Story of Professor Haldane Martin Gardner 244 PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS Crashologists and Conspiracy-ologists Robert Sheaffer 249 REVIEWS Marshall McKusick. The Davenport Conspiracy Revisited; Stephen Williams. The Wild Side of North American Prehistory John Whittaker 299 Eugene F. Mallove, Fire from Ice: Searching for the Truth Behind the Cold Fusion Furor Steven N. Shore30 1 T. M. Luhrmann. Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England Robert £ McGrath 303 Michael Talbot, Your Past Lives Peter Huston 306 Tom Corboy, The New Believers (Video) Jeff Walker 309 NEW BOOKS 311

ARTICLES OF NOTE 312 FORUM 315 Credibility in Science and the Press / Spooky Presidential Coincidences Contest LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 324

Cover illustration by Bruce Adams. Friday (continued)

2:00 - 5:00 P.M.: GENDER ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE Moderator: James Alcock, professor of psychology, Glendon College, York University, Toronto Susan Blackmore, psychologist, University of Bristol, U.K. Carol Tavris, psychologist, University of California, Los Angeles Additional speaker to be announced.

5:00 - 8:00 P.M.: Dinner Break

8:00 P.M.: KEYNOTE ADDRESS Richard Dawkins, professor of zoology, Oxford University, and author of The Blind Watchmaker and The Selfish Gene

Saturday, October 17

8:00 - 9:00 A.M.: Registration

9:00 A.M. - 12 NOON: FRAUD IN SCIENCE Moderator: Elie Shneour, Director, Biosystems Research Institute Speakers to be announced.

12 NOON - 2:00 P.M.: CSICOP Luncheon Sergei Kapitza, editor of Russian edition of Scientific American; member Russian Academy of Sciences Evry Schatzman, former president, French Physics Society; member French Academy of Science

2:00 - 5:00 P.M.: Two Concurrent Sessions Session 1. CRASHED SAUCERS Moderator: Philip J. Klass, leading investigator of UFO claims and former senior editor of Aviation Week and Space Technology Robert Young, education director, Harrisburg Astronomical Society James McGaha, Major, U.S. Air Force (ret.), Tucson, Arizona Additional speaker to be announced. Session 2. THE PARANORMAL IN CHINA Moderator: Paul Kurtz, CSICOP Chairman and professor emeritus of philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo Guo Zheng-yi, Shen Zhen-yu, Weng Shi-da, Dong Guang-bi, and Zhong Hong-Lin, members of the Chinese Association for Science and Technology (Continued on next page.) Saturday (continued) 6:00 - 7:00 P.M.: Reception (cash bar) 7:00 - 10:00 P.M.: Awards Banquet Entertainment by Steve Shaw, mentalist, magician and "Project Alpha" alumnus

Sunday, October 18

9:00 A.M. - NOON: Conversation Session Screening of CSICOP video. This conference is hosted by the North Texas Skeptics, an independent, autonomous organization.

REGISTRATION FORM Preregistration is advised. (Students 25 or under with I.D., $25.00. Registration fee does not include meals or accommodations.) Mail to: 1992 CSICOP Conference, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226 • YES, I (we) plan to attend the 1992 CSICOP Conference in Dallas. O $125 registration for person(s), includes Keynote Address. $ O $15.00 Saturday Luncheon for person(s) $ D $25.00 Saturday Awards Banquet for person(s) $ • $10.00 nonregistrant tickets) to Keynote Address for person(s) $ O Charge my D VISA D MasterCard D Check enclosed Total $ Acct. # Exp Name Address City State Zip Phone: (day) (evening) • No, I will not be able to attend the conference, but please accept my contribution (tax- deductible) of $ to help cover the costs of this and future CSICOP events. Note: The CSICOP Hospitality Room will be open at 5:00 P.M. on Thursday, October 15 (cash bar 7:30 to 11:00 P.M.). This room will be available for the entire conference. Accommodations: The Harvey Hotel, near me Dallas-Fort Worth Airport, Highway 114 at Esters Blvd., 4545 W. John Carpenter Freeway, Irving, TX 75063. Free parking. Single $68.00, double $68.00 (plus 11% tax). (The Harvey will arrange shared doubles upon request) These special rates will be available from October 13 through October 19. For reservations call 214- 929-4500, FAX 214-929-0733. Benton's restaurant, Scoop's Diner, Cassidy's Lounge, and me Lobby Bar are on the premises, and the hotel will provide free transportation to Restaurant Row. Complimentary coffee will be available in me lobby for hotel guests. Transportation: For special conference airline rates call CSICOP's travel agent, Judy Pensack, Creative Destinations, 800-572-5440 or FAX 407-830-5530, who has arranged discounts. Free transportation to and from DFW Airport to the Harvey Hotel. For more information, call or write to Mary Rose Hays at CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226 / Telephone: 716-636-1425, FAX 716-1733. Media representatives should contact Barry Karn 716-636-1425. News and Comment

opinion but were basically skeptical. NAS Scientists Highly Only 2 percent answered that they felt Skeptical About ESP psi anomalies had been demonstrated, with 3 percent saying psi sometimes and PK, Survey Reveals occurs. The National Academy of Sciences is composed of more than 1,500 of the n interesting survey of members most distinguished scientists in the of the National Academy of United States, elected to membership Ai Sciences about their attitudes for significant and sustained contri­ toward parapsychology has been butions to scientific knowledge. Prob­ published in the journal of the American ably no group of scientists—other Society for Psychical Research (vol. 84, than U.S. Nobel Prize winners, of October 1991). whom virtually all are Academy It shows that these elite American members—could be considered more scientists are highly skeptical about eminent, and so their attitudes toward the existence of extrasensory percep­ parapsychology are of considerable tion (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK). In interest. They are also now of con­ fact, 77 percent either said such psi siderable concern to parapsycholo- abilities do "not occur" or said they gists. are "extremely skeptical" about them. Parapsychologist Robert A. An additional 19 percent voiced no McConnell, of the Biological Sciences

229 Department of the University of ogists, anthropologists, psychologists, Pittsburgh, carried out the poll. The social and political scientists, and motivating reason, he says, was his economists, and a randomly chosen 20 concern over the negative conclusions percent of the other NAS members. toward the evidence of parapsychol­ McConnell introduced his survey ogy contained in the 1988 National letter with reference to what he terms Research Council (NRC) report the "uncompromising stand against Enhancing Human Performance. The parapsychology" of the earlier NRC NRC, the operating arm of the NAS, report and then defined extrasensory is congressionally chartered to carry perception and psychokinesis in this out studies for branches of the federal way: government, and the NRC committee that examined parapsychology found The hypothesis of parapsychology "no scientific justification from re­ is that at least some humans can search conducted over a period of 130 bypass their sensory and motor years for the existence of parapsycho- mechanisms and, by means of voli­ logical phenomena." (See "Enhancing tion, can to some slight degree reach Human Performance: What About directly to space and time outside Parapsychology," SI, Fall 1988. The themselves to gather information or NRC committee's second report, on to exert a force. The gathering of information in this way is called altering mental states, was published "extrasensory perception" (ESP), in September; see pp. 233-234 of this and the exertion of a force is called issue.) "psychokinesis" (PK). Parapsychologists were deeply concerned about that conclusion and He asked three questions, begin­ other negative evaluations in the ning with, "What is your opinion report, and McConnell was among regarding the occurrence of ESP or PK?" those who counterattacked most The other two questions asked vociferously. He strongly complained respondents to give reasons for their to the president of the Academy and skepticism and their attitudes toward later circulated correspondence to encouraging further research in 6,690 persons, including 1,441 parapsychology. This time 239 of the members of the Academy, followed by recipients (49 percent) responded—a a second round of correspondence, percentage that McConnell feels is generally receiving very little high enough, with a few minor response. (That correspondence is caveats, to be generally extrapolated published in the appendices to his to the NAS membership as a whole. survey report.) He and others seem To the question about their belief sincerely not to understand why the in such psi abilities, 14 percent were evidence they feel parapsychologists certain that ESP and PK do not occur, have put forth for psychic phenomena and 63 percent were extremely skep­ has not gained scientific acceptance. tical. An additional 19 percent checked Part of the reason for the poll was "I have no opinion to offer, but I am, to find out why. of course, skeptical." Only 5 percent In January 1990, McConnell sent answered either that "unexplained a brief multiple-choice questionnaire anomalies . . . suggesting ESP and/or on parapsychology to a sample of PK" had been demonstrated or that about one-third (491) of the 1,564 they believe psi "sometimes occurs." members of the NAS. McConnell says It is interesting to compare these it went to nearly all NAS neurobiol- extremely low levels of belief by

230 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 TABLE 1 NAS Members' Opinions Regarding Parapsychology

Response to Question 1: Belief in Psi (ESP and PK) Tally Count and Percent of All Replies

Membership Groups Does not Extremely No Anomalies Psi (NAS Sections) occur skeptical opinion demonstrated occurs

Physical Scientists (A/=23) 3 (13%) 17(74%) 3 (13%) 0(0%) 0 (0%) Chemical Scientists (A/=22) 1 (5%) 19(86%) 1 (5%) 0(0%) 1 (5%) Geological Scientists (AM 1) 0 (0%) 8 (73%) 3 (27%) 0(0%) 0 (0%) Biochem. & Cellular (/\M8) 1 (6%) 12(67%) 5 (28%) 0(0%) 0 (0%) Neurobiologies (AM22) 6 (27%) 14 (64%) 1 (5%) 1(5%) 0 (0%) Organismic Biologists (A/=23) 3 (13%) 12 (52%) 7(30%) 1(4%) 0 (0%) Applied Physical (AM7) 5(29%) 8 (47%) 3 (18%) 1(6%) 0 (0%) Medical Scientists ( AM 7) 4 (24%) 8 (47%) 3(18%) 0(0%) 2(12%) Anthropologists (A/=23) 3 (13%) 12 (52%) 7(30%) 0(0%) 1 (4%) Psychologists (A/=27) 3(11%) 19 (70%) 4 (15%) 0(0%) 1 (4%) Social and Political (A£21) 2(10%) 12(57%) 6(29%) 1(5%) 0 (0%) Economists (AM5) 2 (13%) 9(60%) 3(20%) 0(0%) 1 (7%)

Gross Totals (A/=239) 33 (14%) 150 (63%) 46(19%) 4(2%) 6 (3%) Corrected Totals" (14%) (63%) (20%) (2%) (2%)

"Corrected totals are adjusted for sampling fraction. Source: McConnell and Clark. "National Academy of Sciences' Opinion on Parapsychology." J. Am Soc. of Psychical Research. 85:363-365. October 1991. eminent scientists with the levels percent. The remaining groups fell in found among adult Americans last the 77 percent to 65 percent range year by the Gallup poll (SI, Winter (anthropologists and organismic biol­ 1991, p. 138). Gallup found that 49 ogists both had this "lowest" level of percent of the general population skepticism). believes in ESP, 36 percent in tele­ The 77 percent of respondents (183 pathy, 26 percent in clairvoyance, and persons) who answered the first 17 percent in psychokinesis. question in the two most skeptical McConnell's questionnaires were categories were scored on the reasons coded to show to which of the dis­ for their skepticism. (See Table 2.) ciplinary sections of the NAS each They were allowed to check more than respondent belonged. (See Table 1.) one answer. Seventy-one percent of These breakdowns show that for these checked "The phenomena have some groups the rate of rejection of not been explained and do not fit into the psi hypothesis (answering, "ESP known science." Five percent checked and PK do not occur" or that they are "I have personally done experiments "extremely skeptical") is extremely and obtained only chance results." high: neurobiologists, 91 percent; Eleven percent checked "I have per­ chemists, 91 percent; physical scien­ sonally studied some of the sup­ tists, 87 percent; psychologists, 81 posedly best experiments and found

Spring 1992 231 The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal announces the 1992 CSICOP Conference at the Harvey Hotel in Dallas, Texas Friday, Saturday, and Sunday October 16, 17, and 18, 1992 FAIRNESS, FRAUD AND FEMINISM: CULTURE CONFRONTS SCIENCE

Keynote Address (Friday at 8:00 P.M.) Richard Dawkins distinguished professor of zoology at Oxford University, author of The Blind Watchmaker and The Selfish Gene

(Tentative Program)

Friday, October 16

7:30 - 9:00 A.M.: Registration

9:00 - 9:15 A.M.: Opening Remarks — Paul Kurtz, CSICOP Chairman

9:15 A.M. - 12 NOON: MULTICULTURAL APPROACHES TO SCIENCE: THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE UGLY Moderator. Eugenie Scott, Executive Director, National Center for Science Education Bernard Ortiz de Montellano, professor of anthropology, Wayne State University Diana Marines, professor of biochemistry, Michigan State University Joseph Dunbar, professor of physiology, Wayne State University 12 NOON - 2:00 P.M.: Lunch Break TABLE 2 NAS Members' Opinions Regarding Parapsychology

Response to Question 2: Reasons for Disbelief in Psi (ESP and PK) Tally Count and Percent of All Disbelieving Replies1

Psi does Personal Study of Evaluations Other not "fir experiments journals by others reasons

Gross Totals (AM83) 130(71%) 9(5%) 20(11%) 88 (48%) 20(11%) Corrected Totals2 (73%) (5%) (10%) (45%) (10%)

'Scored only for replies choosing the first or second answer to Question 1. For each group, multiple responses to Question 2 total more than 100%. 2Corrected totals are adjusted for sampling fraction. Source: McConnell and Clark, "National Academy of Sciences' Opinion on Parapsychology," J. Am. Soc. of Psychical Research. 85:363-365. October 1991. them unconvincing." (Seven of these As for their attitudes toward para­ 20 persons were psychologists, but in psychological research (see Table 3), his comments, McConnell laments of the 235 responding 25 percent said that few of the NAS members who it should be "discouraged," 63 percent checked this answer provided sup­ said it should be "allowed but not porting detail about journals, papers, encouraged," and 10 percent said it etc., as he had asked, leaving him should be "encouraged." Neurobiolo- suspecting that few are really familiar gists and psychologists were the most with the parapsychological literature.) negative in these attitudes; anthropol­ Forty-eight percent gave as a reason, ogists, the least. "I know of, and accept, negative All in all, the results seem most evaluations published by professional noteworthy for the extremely high scientists." Eleven percent checked levels of skepticism toward the exist­ "other reasons" (such as poor repro­ ence of ESP and PK held by members ducibility, questionable statistics, of the National Academy of Sciences. fraud, etc.). Given the much greater levels of belief

TABLE 3 NAS Members' Opinions Regarding Parapsychology

Response to Question 3: Attitude Toward Parapsychological Research Tally Count and Percent of All Replies

Should be Should be allowed but Should be discouraged not encouraged encouraged

Gross Totals (A/=235) 60 (25%) 150 (63%) 25(10%) Corrected Totals1 (25%) (65%) (9%)

'Corrected totals are adjusted for sampling fraction. Source: McConnell and Clark, "National Academy of Sciences' Opinion on Parapsychology," J. Am Soc. of Psychical Research. 85:363-365. October 1991.

232 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 documented among nonscientists, documents. He interprets the results they reinforce the view that there is as an indication that most members a tremendous gap in perception about of the NAS "have rejected the evi­ the validity of psi phenomena between dence for psi phenomena without the elite end of the scientific commun­ having examined it" and "base their ity, on the one hand, and the general opinions almost entirely (a) upon the public on the other. fact that the purported phenomena The results would seem to provide are not explainable by the known little comfort to parapsychologists. principles of science and (b) upon McConnell tries to salvage some satis­ the adverse opinions of 'other faction by pointing out that 1 in 25 scientists.' " NAS members accepts psi phenomena Whether that is a fair judgment or as having a nontrivial basis in reality not, his survey has provided some (leaving 24 out of 25 who do not), 1 much-needed hard data about the in 5 reserves judgment, and 3 out of beliefs and attitudes of eminent scien­ 4 do not oppose continuation of re­ tists toward claims of psychic phe­ search. Indeed, McConnell, a strong nomena for comparison with those of defender of parapsychology and a the wider public. harsh critic of its critics, has consid­ erable criticism for the attitudes he —Kendrick Frazier

Altering Mental States: review papers from outside specialists, made site visits to military and non- D NRC Evaluates Claims military settings, and invited consul­ tants and advocates to speak to the The following is from an opening committee. Our study builds upon an statement by Robert A. Bjork, professor earlier National Research Council of psychology, University of California, report, also sponsored by the Institute, Los Angeles, and chair, Committee on that was released three years ago Techniques for the Enhancement of [Enhancing Human Performance; see SI, Human Performance, National Research Fall 1988]. This time, we again exam­ Council, given at a news conference at ined this issue of "human technology," the National Academy of Sciences, in of how people can be helped to Washington, September 24, 1991, improve their performance in an era presenting conclusions of the Committee's of great technological advances. In the second report, In the Mind's Eye.* current study, we considered three specific areas: training, altering men­ tal states, and preparing to perform. hat is the best way to train troops for battle and other In the second area of study kinds of tasks? This is but I mentioned—altered mental states— one of several questions our commit­ we reach some interesting conclusions tee has been investigating at the about whether such states can lead to request of the U.S. Army Research better performance. Institute. Over a period of two years, Many people are trying to enhance we have examined the relevant scien­ performance with subliminal self-help tific literature, commissioned several tapes. Americans bought an estimated

Spring 1992 233 $50 million of these tapes in 1987, and state and, by inference, their inten­ sales probably have increased since tions. Learning these cues can help then. There are tapes purporting to someone spot a liar, although the lie- help listeners stop smoking, improve detection skills learned in dealing with their golf games, or become nicer Americans may not be valid with people. But can these tapes really alter people of other cultures. behavior and attitudes? We find such In the third area of the study— claims unwarranted from both a preparing to perform—we have favor­ theoretical and empirical standpoint. able findings to report about some Research on some tapes shows that methods that people use to prepare their embedded messages are below for sports and other physical activities. the level of subliminal perception. Before Mike Powell made his historic Furthermore, even when there are long jump a few weeks ago, for detectable subliminal messages on the instance, he stood on the end of the tapes, there is no evidence that these track and visualized himself in motion. messages can change complex human We conclude that this kind of mental behaviors, such as smoking or building rehearsal really can improve perfor­ self-esteem. [See articles in this mance. However, mental practice is issue.—ED.] less important than physical practice, Another way of altering a mental and it is more useful if done in state is through meditation. We find conjunction with the actual activity. no support for any special properties Imagining yourself swinging a golf of meditation as a technique to reduce club like Jack Nicklaus does is less stress or enhance performance. Ordi­ helpful than hitting a bucket of balls. nary rest and relaxation are as effec­ Another way to help performance tive. People who meditate regularly is through pre-performance rituals may pursue more peaceful lifestyles, that athletes use, like bouncing a but it is important to distinguish tennis ball before serving. These between the technique and lifestyle rituals contribute to physiological changes when determining why stress changes—such as reduced heart was reduced or other benefits rate—that are associated with better occurred. performance. We are more positive about psy­ In summary, there is reason to be chological techniques for managing skeptical of some of the performance- pain. Research suggests that people enhancement techniques being pro­ can be taught ways of handling moted to the American public. But physical pain without drugs. Relaxa­ there also is an opportunity to learn tion techniques, providing informa­ from a growing body of research and tion about what to expect, and to take advantage of some techniques enhancing a person's sense of control that do appear effective. Good inten­ all help people to deal with pain more tions and dramatic claims are not effectively. enough. We should learn from scien­ We also considered people's ability tific evidence and apply what has been to detect deception. Many people claim shown to really work. to have great skill at detecting lies. When asked to do this in random *Daniel Druckman and Robert A. Bjork, trials, however, they often fail. None­ editors. In the Mind's Eye: Enhancing Human theless, liars often do exhibit body Performance, Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance, movements and changes in their tone National Research Council (National of voice that reveal their emotional Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991).

234 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Astrology Disclaimer ing notice began to appear with the Los Angeles Times astrology column: • Now in 42 Newspapers "The astrological forecast should be read for entertainment only." According to Friedman: "Since the hen we last reported the horoscope column appears on the status of the CSICOP cam­ comic pages, near 'Calvin and Hobbes,' Wpaign to encourage newspa­ it will be easy for me to notice should pers to carry disclaimers with their the disclaimer disappear, and I will be astrology columns (SI, Fall 1990), the happy to keep track of it." He also said, number doing so stood at 33. Since "I don't know how long ago they began that time there have been a number to run the disclaimer [it began in May of additions to the list as well as a 1991], but it's another victory for couple of deletions. Currently we are skeptics." aware of 42 newspapers that carry However, not all papers that run some sort of disclaimer. disclaimers do so because of the CSICOP has done two mailings to actions of readers. Jeannine R. Schaub, every newspaper in the United States associate publisher of the Boone (Iowa) concerning the disclaimer request— News-Republican, decided to add a the first in 1984, and the second in disclaimer because of the articles she 1988. Since that time, additions to the read in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. When list have been largely the result of she contacted us, she said: contacts with their local papers by SKEPTICAL INQUIRER readers. As daily newspapers go, we're small potatoes. But we do have our Many times a single letter can make standards. the difference. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER With the Astro-graph we get reader Eugene Friedman sent a letter from NEA, we run this disclaimer: to the Los Angeles Times asking if they "The following feature is offered would consider a disclaimer. He purely for entertainment pur­ received a response from John Drey- poses." fuss, assistant to the associate editor, Add us to your list of those stating: newspapers who wish we'd never run that first astrology column. I discussed with both the Associate Editor and the View Editor the To the best of our knowledge these prospect of using a disclaimer are the papers that now carry dis­ similar to those suggested in the claimers with their astrology columns: article you sent us from the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Montgomery Advertiser (Ala.) We are giving the idea careful Alabama Journal (Montgomery, Ala.) consideration and want to take some Tuscaloosa News (Ala.) time to weigh the questions in­ Sun City Daily News (Ariz.) volved. Tucson Citizen (Ariz.) We appreciate both your bringing the idea of using a disclaimer to our Tucson Daily Star (Ariz.) attention and your interest in the Los Angeles Times (Calif.) Times. Wilmington News-Journal (Del.) St. Petersburg Times (Fla.) Apparently the weight of the Columbus Ledger-Enquirer (Ga.) questions involved came out correctly, Honolulu Advertiser (Hawaii) because shortly thereafter the follow­ Ka Leo O Hawaii (Honolulu, Hawaii)

Spring 1992 235 Charleston Times-Courier (111.) Asbury Park Press (N.J.) Mattoon Gazette (111.) Albuquerque Tribune (N.Mex.) Indianapolis Star (Ind.) Auburn Citizen (N.Y.) Boone News-Republican (Iowa) Hillsboro Press-Gazette (Ohio) Hiawatha Daily World (Kans.) Ravenna Record-Courier (Ohio) Baton Rouge Advocate (La.) Altoona Mirror (Pa.) Baton Rouge State Times (La.) Indiana Gazette (Pa.) Adrian Telegram (Mich.) Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (Pa.) Battle Creek Enquirer (Mich.) Memphis Commercial-Appeal (Tenn.) Hillsdale Daily News (Mich.) Oak-Ridger (Oak Ridge, Tenn.) Marquette Mining Journal (Mich.) Austin American-Statesman (Tex.) Tupelo Daily Journal (Mich.) Orange Leader (Tex.) Rochester Post-Bulletin (Mich.) Sherman Democrat (Tex.) Kansas City Star (Mo.) Milwaukee Journal (Wis.) St. Louis Post-Dispatch (Mo.) Manchester Union-Leader (N.H.) —Barry Karr

Duplicating the Miracle an example of thixotropy—the prop­ erty of certain gels to liquefy when • of the Liquefying Blood stirred or vibrated and to solidify again when left to stand. Shaking or even a slight disturbance makes a thixo- very few months since 1389 at tropic substance more fluid, even a cathedral in Naples, a vial of changing it from solid to liquid. Ewhat is said to be the blood of In a brief report in the British the martyred Saint Januarius, or San journal Nature (353:507, October 10, Genaro (who died about A.D. 305), is 1991), the authors describe how they ceremonially handled by religious reproduced liquefaction of samples leaders and, while observers watch, resembling the blood relics that they the contents turn from a clotted state prepared using substances available in to a liquid. This is treated as a religious the fourteenth century. They made a miracle. The event draws thousands solution of ferric chloride (found on of people to the cathedral, and in active volcanoes like Vesuvius), then recent times millions more witness it slowly added calcium carbonate on television. (chalk). After some evaporation was The phenomenon seems genuine allowed, they added a small amount and has generally been considered of sodium chloride (common salt) and unexplained. got a dark, brownish thixotropic fluid Now Luigi Garlaschelli of the that set in about one hour to a gel. Department of Organic Chemistry at They report that the gel can be the University of Pavia, Italy, and two easily liquefied by gentle shaking, and colleagues from Milan, Franco Ramac- the liquefaction/solidification cycle is cini and Sergio Delia Sala (of San Paolo highly repeatable. Hospital), have proposed a natural They note that in the typical blood- explanation for the event—and have liquefaction ceremony, the glass- even duplicated the process. walled relic case is repeatedly inverted. They suggest the phenomenon is "Thus a successful performance of the

236 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 rite does not involve any conscious Catholic teaching. People have always cheating. Indeed, inadvertent liquefac­ been free to believe or not believe in tion events have been observed many them as they wish." times over the centuries during hand­ The Times of London quoted Mer- ling for repairs to the case that vyn Alexander, a Roman Catholic contains the vial." bishop in Clifton, who pointed out The authors are continuing their that there was no suggestion of experiments to form bloodlike thixo- fakery: "Belief in the authenticity of tropic mixtures with other common such things is a personal judgment and substances and have had some success. some people feel moved to accept "The chemical nature of the Naples them." relic can be established only by open­ The London newspaper also ing the vial, but a complete analysis reported that chemist Garlaschelli is forbidden by the Catholic church. first became interested in the Naples Our replication of the phenomenon ceremony after reading some cor­ seems to render the sacrifice un­ respondence about it in the magazine necessary." CICAP, published by the Italian Church leaders were moderate in equivalent of the Committee for the their reaction. A spokesman for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of church, the Reverend Peter Verity, the Paranormal. was quoted as saying: "These phe­ nomena have never been a part of —Kendrick Frazier

skeptics organization). But while they Orgonomists Meet in are ostensibly committed to scientific Princeton, Promote methodology, the Reichians accept notions that are usually associated J Reichian Legacy

he American College of Orgon- omy, whose members are follow­ Ters of Wilhelm Reich, held their annual meeting October 5 and 6,1991, at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Prince­ ton, New Jersey. The College, headed by Richard Blasband, is one of three factions of "orthodox" Reichians laying claim to the legacy of the controversial psychoanalyst-turned- biophysicist. None of these three factions is to be confused with the "neo-Reichian" followers of either Alexander Lowen or Charles Kelley. The College's members include psychiatrists, physical scientists, and individuals from a variety of other professions (not unlike a typical

Spring 1992 237 with New Age mysticism: flying PEAR lab is also conducting experi­ saucers, clairvoyance, the power of ments to see if human consciousness prayer over plants, the laying on of can influence a random-number hands, mind over matter, and spon­ generator. Some of PEAR's research­ taneous generation. The orgonomists, ers find the results to be absolutely however, hold that these phenomena convincing. It was freely admitted that have all been demonstrated through this line of research originated with scientific experiments, not merely Targ and Puthoff at SRI International revealed by way of mystical in California, but no one seemed to experiences. be aware of the many questions that There were seven presentations on have been raised about that research. Sunday, following the annual dinner Steven Dunlap, a microbiologist for the previous night. Three were by a large chemical corporation, showed persons in the field of psychology; a video that purported to feature living their talks fell well within the parame­ microbes developing in a sterile ters of accepted, conventional knowl­ medium. The experiment involved edge in the discipline. But the four sterilizing beakers of dirt and then papers by the physical scientists were watching them through a microscope. another matter. It would have been easy enough to Bernard Grad of Montreal spoke of replicate, and it is curious that no one the effects of Reichian orgone accu­ other than orgonomists has ever done mulators on cancerous mice. Accord­ so. ing to his findings, mice treated with Richard Blasband gave the day's these Reichian devices were signifi­ final talk on an experiment of his with cantly less likely to die from cancer orgone accumulators that showed than the controls were. His statistics slight differences between the showed that this was because they temperature inside a small accumula­ were dying faster from other causes, tor and that inside a control box made but Grad did not follow this up. Part of plastic. Blasband said the temper­ of his talk concerned an alleged psychic ature inside his accumulator (made of healer, Oskar Estebany, an elderly layers of wood and metal) both rose man who had once served as an officer and fell faster than it did in the control. in the Hungarian army, whose "heal­ It was not clear what this proved, ing hands" were supposed to have other than the already known fact that beneficial effects on plants, animals, metal and plastic do not conduct heat and people. Water contained in bottles at the same rate. that had been held in Estebany's Considering the extraordinary "healing hands" for half an hour nature of the claims made by the displayed unique characteristics when presenters, it was curious that very analyzed through a spectroscope. little time was allowed for questions Again, the significance of the phenom­ from the audience of about 50. Bias- enon was left unexplained. band invariably intervened to cut off Roger Nelson, a colleague of discussion after two or three ques­ Robert Jahn at the Princeton Engi­ tions. Only at the end of his own neering Anomalies Research (PEAR) presentation did he permit more than Laboratory, which specializes in a minute or two for discussion. parapsychological studies, gave an During the meeting nothing was account of remote-viewing experi­ said about UFOs, which the Reichians ments that appeared to validate the put great stock in, and there were no phenomenon of clairvoyance. The papers on weather control ("cloud-

238 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 busting"), another favorite Reichian ors, for example, were also supposed preoccupation. The one paper on to possess "healing hands"; clair­ politics had to be canceled because the voyance and telekinesis were widely presenter was ill, although the far- believed in during the nineteenth right doctrines Reich identified with century; and even Reich's "orgone in his later years were very much in energy" was anticipated by Anton evidence. The word on the overthrow Mesmer's doctrine of animal mag­ of Communism in Eastern Europe was netism. that it was a Communist plot. The College of Orgonomy may The conference presented a curious have mellowed a bit since the recent picture all told. The orgonomists claim departure of some of its most fanatical to have invalidated the paradigms of adherents, led by Courtney Baker. virtually all other schools in every field And the psychotherapists in the of scientific endeavor—physics, biol­ group, in particular, have a more ogy, cosmology, meteorology, psy­ open-minded approach to theory and chology, and even the social sciences. research than their colleagues in the Yet no new theories have come out physical sciences. But it is obvious that of the College since Reich's death in orgonomists will have a difficult time 1957. All of the experiments were being taken seriously, whatever the aimed at proving the things that Reich merits of their work in the field of argued for during his lifetime. And the depth psychology, if they continue to phenomena described by the orgon­ peddle mystical notions in scientific omists usually predated the age of dress. science by centuries: Roman emper­ —Richard Morrock

dictions, conveniently forgetting Psychics' Predictions those made the year before. Each year, (Surprise!) Fizzle however, the Bay Area Skeptics dig up the predictions made the year for 1991 before, to the embarrassment of those who made them. Many of the psychics' predictions addam Hussein was not killed in are so vague that it is impossible to an accidental nuclear explosion, say if they came true or not. Many Snor was he brought to trial. A other "predictions" involve things that massive earthquake did not dump happen every year, or else are not California into the ocean. Pope John difficult to guess, such as hurricanes Paul II was not charged by a crazed along the Gulf Coast, marital strife camel, and Tom Cruise did not lose for Charles and Diana, or severe his hair. These were just a few of the winter storms. Many supposed "pre­ many predictions that had been made dictions" simply state that ongoing for 1991 by famous "psychics," but events and trends will continue, such they were dead wrong, as chronicled as economic uncertainty and conflict by the Bay Area Skeptics. in the Middle East. At the end of each year, many well- Other supposed "predictions" are known psychics issue predictions for not really predictions at all, but are the year to come. Twelve months actually disclosures of little-known later, they issue another set of pre­

Spring 1992 239 events that are already under way, Monaco's Prince Rainier and predicted such as movie productions, business that the world would be stunned as ventures, and developing scandals. "the old order" in China, Korea, and Because questionable claims of amaz­ Japan suddenly fell apart like the ing predictions frequently are made in Berlin wall. No major changes the wake of major news stories, the occurred in any of those governments Bay Area Skeptics only evaluates during 1991 (The Star, April 16,1991). predictions that were published or Another Southern California "psy­ broadcast before the events they chic," Clarisa Bernhardt, who is claimed to foretell. claimed to make "uncanny earthquake Denver "psychic" Lou Wright predictions," foresaw that the much- predicted that a magnitude 7.0 earth­ heralded earthquake that was sup­ quake would devastate the Los posed to hit Missouri in December Angeles area in September (The Globe, 1990 would actually strike in the fall December 25, 1990). She also pre­ of 1991. She also predicted that Imelda dicted that an air disaster would kill Marcos and Tammy Faye Bakker hundreds of vacationers on their way would team up to open a nationwide to Hawaii in March (National Enquirer, chain of clothing and shoe boutiques January 1,1991). (National Enquirer, January 1,1991). "Psychic" Tony Leggett predicted It is important to note that no that Vice-President Quayle would psychic predicted the genuinely sur­ temporarily stand in for the president prising stories of 1991: the military when Bush is stricken with heart coup in the Kremlin that was defeated problems, that a former president almost bloodlessly by supporters of would die in the fall, and that an democracy, followed just a few months assassination attempt on Soviet Pres­ later by the complete dissolution of ident Gorbachev would be foiled by the Soviet Union; Saddam Hussein a courageous American tourist (The deliberately causing one of the world's Examiner, December 25,1990). largest oil spills, then torching The famous Washington, D.C., Kuwait's oil fields; the most destruc­ "psychic" Jeane Dixon, who sup­ tive wildfire in California history posedly has a "gift of prophecy," saw devastating the Oakland and Berkeley the Reverend Jimmy Swaggart's min­ hills; and a highly publicized rape trial istry being "saved" by a last-minute of a member of the Kennedy family. donation this year, rather than being Based on the continuing failure of destroyed by another scandal involv­ psychics to make accurate predictions ing a prostitute. She also predicted over the years, the Bay Area Skeptics that Prince Charles and Princess urged everyone—including the Diana would announce their separa­ media—to exercise some healthy tion. (The Star, December 25, 1990). skepticism when psychics and other In April 1991, Jeane Dixon issued her purveyors of the paranormal make predictions for the aftermath of the extraordinary claims or predictions. Gulf War. While this did contain the "Anyone who swallows the psychics' correct prediction of the release of the claims year after year without check­ Western hostages in Lebanon, she also ing the record is setting a bad example predicted that Saddam Hussein would for students and for the public." either be assassinated or be put on trial for war crimes in a Moslem court. She —Yves Barbero, Robert Steiner, also saw terrorist attacks being made and Robert Sheaffer, of the against the British Royal Family and Bay Area Skeptics

240 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Big Foot Dead D Or Alive?

efore former CSICOP executive director BMark Plummer re­ turned to the wilds of Aus­ tralia, he visited this Big Foot Cemetery in northern Illinois, which has been in existence since 1840. As he asks, "What further proof is necessary?"

Legal Loss for people to an organization and to have them pay money in the way it was • Scientology in Norway done in this case. Sixty-year-old Marion Lem had never borrowed money until she he Norwegian Church Scientol­ became a Scientologist. A divorced and ogy lost a civil court case in Oslo lonely woman, she had earlier in her Trecently. The cult was ordered to life received psychological treatment return U.S. $20,000, which Marion and was looking for someone to help Lem had paid for courses and her with her problems. materials. In Scientology she took the basic Lem was a Scientologist for a few communication course as well as the months in 1985. Later she decided to so-called purification rundown. In quit and consulted a lawyer in order addition, she received 137 hours of to sue the cult. In 1988, however, Lem auditing. Altogether Lem spent about died of cancer. Her son, Steinar Lem, U.S. $20,000, of which about $14,000 decided to continue with the lawsuit was financed by a bank loan. on behalf of his late mother. The court found that it had been The city court of Oslo stated in its proved that Lem was physically and decision that there is a significant com­ psychologically exhausted after hav­ mercial and competitive aspect of ing taken the "purification rundown" Scientology in its effort to achieve course, Judge Berg wrote in her economic expansion. ruling. Judge Vigdis Berg also wrote that Judge Berg found that Lem's pay­ it is "morally improper" to attach ment of money to the Church of

Spring 1992 241 Scientology had taken place after improper pressure, almost coercion D For the Record from the cult. The Church of Scientology cult was ordered to repay the $20,000 to n the list of previous recipients of Lem's son in addition to covering his CSICOP's In Praise of Reason legal expenses. I Award, on page 16 of the Fall 1991 During the past two years, the issue, we inadvertently omitted the Norwegian Church of Scientology has name of Antony Flew and ascribed a settled a number of repayment claims wrong year to Sidney Hook's award. with ex-Scientologists out of court. British philosopher Antony Flew However, the cult consistently has received the 1985 award at the failed to fulfill these agreements. CSICOP meeting in London. Amer­ The Marion Lem decision was the ican philosopher Sidney Hook re­ first legal ruling of its type in Norway. ceived the 1984 award. SOS Norway, a support group for ex- * * * Scientologists, has described the The article "Lucien and Alexander: decision as a major victory in its fight Debunking in the Classical Style" (Fall against Scientology. 1991) was reprinted with permission The Norwegian Church of Scien­ from the Spring 1991 National Capital tology said in a press release that the Area Skeptical Eye, copyright 1991 cult will appeal the decision. It stated National Capital Area Skeptics. in its press release that the anti- * * * religious group SOS Norway has used In Susan Blackmore's article "Near- this court case to "promote gossips and Death Experiences: In or Out of the to try to hurt a religion which has Body" in our Fall 1991 issue, two enabled millions of people to have a references, to articles by R. L. Morris better life." et al. and C. T. Tart, incorrectly cited the Journal of the Society for Psychical —John Einar Sandvand Research instead of the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research. John Sandvand is a journalist in Oslo, The error occurred in the production Norway. process.

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

242 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 CSICOP LEGAL DEFENSE FOUNDATION Help Us Defend Skepticism Against Harassing Suits In the Winter 1992 issue of the Skeptical Inquirer we outlined the difficulties that the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal is experiencing because of harassing lawsuits filed against skeptics. We feel confident that these suits will eventually be dismissed. Still, we suspect that the lawsuits were brought for reasons other than the redress of alleged grievances. For what do these suits mean? They mean that the pro-paranormalists think they have finally found a way to strike below the belt of scientists and skeptics. For years they have been unable to prove their claims of miraculous abilities. They've grown tired of hearing our challenges. Now they have turned to intimidation by lawsuit in an effort to silence their only persistent critics. It doesn't necessarily matter if the plaintiff wins or loses the suit. Their purpose is to waste their opponents' resources and to intimidate and silence them—in effect, depriving individuals or organizations of their First Amendment rights. We are by no means a wealthy organization, but we are not prepared to surrender our rights. We have vowed to fight back. To do so, we need your support. CSICOP has established the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation. Its funds will be used to help pay the costs of existing lawsuits and any that may arise in the future, and to countersue when appropriate. Don't allow the claim-mongers to destroy CSICOP (and the values of science and reason it steadfastly represents) through unjust and frivolous legal proceedings. Support the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation today. It's the best way to blunt this frightening new weapon of the apostles of nonsense.

Yes, I want to help defend the rights of skeptics. Enclosed is my tax- deductible contribution of: $ (Please make check payable to the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation) Charge my • Visa D MasterCard • Check enclosed # Exp Signature . Credit-card contributors may call toll-free: 1-800-634-1610 Name Address City State Zip Mail to: CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226 Notes of a Fringe-Watcher

MARTIN GARDNER

he Sad Story of T Professor Haldane

e all know how intense reli­ science—even Einstein's relativity gious beliefs can prevent theory was attacked, not as Jewish Wintelligent people from science (as it was in Germany), but accepting well-confirmed scientific as "bourgeois idealism." In both theories. The church officials who countries it finally became obvious persecuted Galileo provide the classic that disregarding relativity would be instance. There were no good reasons fatal to physics, especially in efforts to doubt that the earth went around to construct an atom bomb whose the sun or that there were mountains energy is measured by Einstein's fa­ on the moon, but Roman scientists mous formula. would not even look through Galileo's In Russia, the major example of telescopes. how a science can be crippled by After Darwin, when evidence for political dogma was the abandonment evolution became as overwhelming as of modern genetics for the crackpot evidence for Copernican astronomy, Lamarckian views of plant-breeder strong belief in the historical accuracy Trofim D. Lysenko. Genetics in the of Genesis made it impossible for most Soviet Union is still struggling to conservative Christians to accept recover from Stalin's merciless purg­ evolution. Even today, millions of ing of his top biologists. fundamentalists commit the sin of Did any respected Western biolo­ willful ignorance by refusing to learn gist defend Lysenko? Yes, and though elementary geology and biology. almost beyong belief, it was England's A vast literature covers ways in most admired geneticist, J. B. S. which religious convictions can distort Haldane. There is no sadder example thinking about science. Much less of how political dogmas can corrupt attention has been paid to how poli­ the mind of a distinguished scientist. tical ideologies can have similar influ­ John Burdon Sanderson Haldane ence. The two outstanding instances was a tall, tweedy, bald, bearlike man, of all time are furnished by the with shaggy eyebrows, blue eyes, and ideologies of Nazism and Commu­ a clipped mustache. He was born at nism. During Hitler's reign of terror, Oxford in 1892, the son of a Scottish German anthropology became a pseu- physiologist. His sister, Naomi Mitchi- doscience. Under Stalin, Marxist son, became an admired novelist. JBS, ideology distorted almost every as he was known, took his degree in

244 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Drawing by David Levine. Reprinted with permission tram The New York Review of Books. Copyright • 1968 Nyrev. Inc. classics at Oxford. After fighting lotte married. After a year at the valiantly in World War I, he became University of California, JBS became an instructor in biochemistry at a professor at London University. Cambridge. Haldane's immense contributions Cambridge expelled him in 1925 to genetics and evolutionary theory when he was named correspondent in brought him many medals and honor­ a messy divorce suit involving Char­ ary degrees. In 1937 France declared lotte Franken. After various notables, him a chevalier in the Legion of including Bertrand Russell and G. K. Honor. His dozens of books made him Chesterton, came to his defense, the England's most widely read popular- ouster was rescinded. He and Char­ izer of science. "On Being the Right

Spring 1992 245 Size," from his collection Possible It was obvious to all biologists Worlds, became his most reprinted outside the USSR and its influence essay. "My own suspicion is that the that Lysenko was a classic example of universe is not only queerer than we a sincere but hopelessly ignorant suppose, but queerer than we can crank. "Lysenko's writings . . . are the suppose"—a sentence at the close of merest drivel," said H. J. Muller, a that book's title essay—became his Nobel prize-winner for his work in most quoted remark. genetics. S. C. Hartland, another top In the mid-thirties Haldane discov­ geneticist, called Lysenko "blazingly ered Karl Marx, and in 1942 he joined ignorant of the elementary principles the Communist Party. For the next of plant physiology and genetics." seven years he was chairman of the Talking to him, said Hartland, was like editorial board of London's Daily discussing the differential calculus Worker. He wrote hundreds of arti­ with a man who did not know how cles, mostly about science, for that to multiply. Not only did Lysenko publication and for New York's Daily totally reject Mendelian genetics; he Worker. His political quips were so did not even believe that genes existed! outrageous that he became one of But Stalin, who knew nothing England's comic eccentrics. What about science, admired Lysenko. In would JBS say next? Lenin, he 1948, at a Moscow meeting of the solemnly declared, had cured his Lenin Academy of Agricultural Scien­ constipation. "I had it for about fifteen ces, Lysenko made a now-famous years until I read Lenin and other speech (Stalin helped write it) in which writers, who showed me what was he announced that the Party had wrong with our society and how to approved his work. When he ended cure it. Since then I have needed no by shouting "Glory to the great friend magnesia." and protagonist of science, our leader Charlotte was as dedicated to Stalin and teacher, Comrade Stalin!" every­ as her husband, although her disen­ one obediently stood up and cheered. chantment preceded his. In Paris, Honor upon honor was heaped on where the Party sent her during the Lysenko. He was given the Order of Spanish Civil War, she fell in love with Lenin and made a vice-president of the Arnold Reid, an American communist Supreme Soviet. All over Russia who was an editor of New Masses. Reid laboratories were closed. Biologists died in action in the war, having who had disagreed openly with enlisted in the Lincoln Brigade. After Lysenko lost their jobs. Many were leaving the Party, Charlotte became sent to die in labor camps. bitter about how Reid had been In the fall of 1948, when the exploited. Lysenko controversy was at its height, For years Charlotte wanted to the BBC invited four distinguished divorce Haldane, but as she tells it in biologists to debate Lysenkoism. her autobiography Truth Will Out, Haldane was one of them, and the only the Party refused to allow it. She was one to defend Lysenko. His speech was told: "The Party would not for one a masterpiece of tap-dancing evasion instant tolerate a divorce between two and obfuscation. John Langdon- comrades whose partnership, in addi­ Davies, in his witty little book Russia tion to the usefulness of their indi­ Puts the Clock Back (1949), devotes a vidual services, was of immense chapter to Haldane's shameful fence- propaganda value to it." Charlotte fi­ sitting. It is from that chapter that I nally obtained her divorce in 1945. take what follows.

246 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 "I disagree with a lot of Lysenko's was to be "abolished as unscientific theories," JBS began, "but I agree with and useless." All Haldane could say him on some fundamental points." was that if true he was sorry! That One of Lysenko's startling claims was London has no courses in plant that he had altered the hereditary breeding, he said, is a serious matter nature of wheat so it would withstand "which we might well put right before severe winter frosts. "This is a very we start telling Moscow what it ought revolutionary discovery if true," said to do." Haldane. "Naturally I cannot form any In this speech Haldane seemed not serious opinion of this claim until I to know, as all biologists outside of have seen a full account." Repeatedly Russia knew, that Vavilov, the Soviet he spoke of withholding judgment Union's greatest biologist, had been until he had read a translation of all exiled to Siberia and accused of being 500 pages of a verbatim report by the an American spy. "You have been Academy. However, summaries had told," Haldane said, "that Vavilov died been published earlier that made clear in prison." JBS had heard differently. that existing genetic laboratories He "appears to have died in Magadan throughout the Soviet Union were to in the Arctic in 1942 while breeding be abolished, and all scientists fired frost-resistant plants." Either Haldane who favored what the report called did not know or would not say that the "pseudoscience" of Mendelian Magadan was a notorious slave-labor genetics. When the translation of all camp. "It has been hinted," he said, 500 pages finally appeared, Haldane "that the Soviet Academy bowed to remained silent. political dictation" when it put its "I find it very hard to believe," imprimatur on Lysenko's theories. "It Haldane said in a BBC speech, "that is also possible that they bowed to the Soviet Government would back facts." him [Lysenko] were he false." We may So unshakable was Haldane's Stal­ not like the Soviet Union, Haldane inist faith, and so obedient was he to continued, "but after their achieve­ Party discipline, that he could not see, ments in the war we really cannot say or was unable to say, that Lysenko that they are idle theorists." If the was a fanatical Savonarola as scien­ claim of "vernalizing" wheat is valid, tifically illiterate as Comrade Stalin. he went on, "we shall have to listen In an essay "J.B.S.," in Pluto's Republic, seriously to what Lysenko has to say Peter Medawar recalls conversations about heredity." Earlier experiments in which Haldane insisted that Beria, had already demolished Lysenko's whom Stalin executed, was in the pay vernalization theory, but Haldane was of Americans. He told Medawar that careful not to bring them up. Soon the Czech political leaders hanged by it was apparent even in Russia that the Russians "got the punishment efforts to vernalize wheat were a total they deserved." At no time did Hal­ failure. dane condemn Stalin's great purges, Haldane could not believe that the which sent millions of innocent people laboratories of eminent Soviet biolo­ to their deaths. gists were being dismantled. "If, as I Eventually the evil nature of Stal­ am told, Dr. Dubinin's laboratory in inism partially soaked through Hal­ Moscow has been closed down, I am dane's skull. He left the Party very sorry to hear it." Earlier that year furtively, sometime in the late forties, the Academy of Sciences had without explaining why. Fifteen years announced that Dubinin's laboratory later he said it was because Stalin had

Spring 1992 247 a convinced Marxist and a friend of the Soviet Union. Haldane and his second wife, Helen Spurway, a research assistant, moved to India in 1957, where they estab­ lished a laboratory in Calcutta. "One of my reasons for settling in India," he said, "was to avoid wearing socks." He became an Indian citizen and a stricter vegetarian, adopted Indian garb, and occasionally fasted, like Gandhi, to protest one thing or another. In 1964, at his home in Bhubaneswar, aged 72, he died of cancer. Shortly before dying, when he did not know his cancer was incurable, he wrote a long poem for the New Statesman that was widely reprinted, praised, and condemned as frivolous. It was titled "Cancer's a Funny Thing," Haldane as a Hindu, with his caste mark. a sentence taken from a poem by W. H. Auden. It began: "interfered" with science. However, he continued until 1950 to write for I wish I had the voice of Homer the U.S. Daily Worker. Seven years To sing of rectal carcinoma, later he resigned from University Which kills a lot more chaps, in fact, College, London, giving as his reasons Than were bumped off when Troy the continued presence of American was sacked. troops in England. Haldane never called Lysenko a Near the end came this couplet: crank. In an obituary he had written for himself, Haldane said, "I am often I know that cancer often kills, asked what I think of Lysenko. In my But so do cars and sleeping pills; opinion, Lysenko is a very fine biol­ ogist and some of his ideas are right." To which JBS might have added, had Some also are wrong, he added, and he been less politically blind: it was unfortunate that Stalin gave him powers to suppress valuable work Not to mention, now we know, by others. To the end, JBS remained The millions killed by Uncle Joe. •

248 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Psychic Vibrations

Crashologists and Conspiracy-ologists

ROBERT SHEAFFER

espite a dearth of exciting new survivor! Randle and Schmitt, who are cases, the Science of UFOlogy in the Center for UFO Studies Dmarches forward endlessly (CUFOS) camp, dispute this, charging rehashing the old ones. Now a third that a diary places the late Barney book on the Roswell, New Mexico, Barnett, claimed by Moore and Fried­ "saucer crash" of 1947 is in the works, man as a witness to the San Augustin this one by Stanton T. Friedman, who crash, hundreds of miles away on that calls himself "the flying saucer phys­ day. Friedman, who is in the Mutual icist," and Don Berliner. The first such UFO Network (MUFON) camp, book, The Roswell Incident (1980), by counter-charges that the work of Charles Berlitz and William L. Moore, Randle and Schmitt is "fatally flawed suggests that lightning struck a saucer by pettiness, by selective choice of flying near Roswell, causing debris to data, by false reasoning and by serious fall on the Brazel ranch. The crippled errors of omission and commission." saucer flew on another 150 miles Friedman relies heavily on the testi­ westward, crashing on the Plains of mony of 49-year-old Gerald Ander­ San Augustin, where the bodies of son, who claims that 44 years earlier, dead saucer aliens were later recov­ when he was five, he and some now- ered. A second book, UFO Crash at deceased relatives stumbled upon Roswell (1991), by Kevin Randle and three dead UFOnauts, and one still Don Schmitt, claims that four alien alive, at the San Augustin crash site. bodies were recovered, but at a site Unfortunately, Anderson told abso­ less than three miles from where the lutely no one about this remarkable debris was found, still on the Brazel event, not even his wife, until he ranch. recently saw the incident dramatized Now Friedman and Berliner have on the television show "Unsolved written a book that will be published Mysteries." But Friedman has great this year claiming that not one but two confidence in his witness, boasting saucers crashed in New Mexico in that Anderson passed a polygraph 1947—one on the Brazel ranch (which test. might account for the four ET bodies Randle and Schmitt write about) and one on the Plains of San Augustin, where the government recovered The recent "Phenomicon" conference three more alien bodies, plus one in Atlanta brought some noted UFOl-

Spring 1992 249 ogists together with some leading glimpse of nighttime training flights conspiracy-ologists to share some of of then-secret F-117A Stealth fight­ their weirdest fantasies. Bill Cooper, ers flying out of their base (active until who offers workshops in the "UFO 1992), built on the northern part of coverup, the Secret Government, the the Tonopah Test Range, one wond­ Illuminati plan for a World Dictator­ ers if at least some of the "UFO" ship, ... etc.," explained that the story sightings may be of Stealths. Others, of "saucer aliens" is probably a myth reported as "lights in the sky," may promoted by the conspirators to be just stars, animated by scintillation create an "external threat" so well and enthusiasm. But I could be wrong, accept the imposition of a world so you might want to check this out dictatorship under the United for yourself. Nations. However, the saucer tech­ As for the conspiracy-ologists, they nology is real, he insists, derived from worried most about the Skull and saucers developed secretly by the Bones Society, which, while masquer­ Nazis and captured by the Allied ading as a prestigious fraternity at nations at the close of World War II. Yale University, is apparently plotting Within two years, Cooper insists, the to take over the entire planet. But Bill of Rights will be suspended, and Donald Ware, MUFON's Eastern U.S. national sovereignty will be lost Regional Director, saw the conspiracy to a sinister New World Order. So if unfolding differently. Approximately Cooper's apocalyptic prediction hasn't six million Americans have been come to pass by November 3, 1993, abducted aboard UFOs, says Ware, well know his alarms are groundless. whether they know it or not. The While waiting to see if the conspir­ government conspires to use movies acy really does take over, we can drive and television shows like "Star Trek" out to "Area 51," made famous by to prepare the public for the inevitable Cooper, John Lear, and, most recently, shock of learning about the aliens. the sensationalist Fox TV program of These creatures, who probably hail October 18, 1991, "Sightings: The from Zeta Reticuli are abducting and UFO Report," to watch saucers that sexually molesting humans to genet­ are supposedly routinely flown by ically engineer a hybrid species. government pilots. Cooper gave direc­ tions for those who want to check out Some notable departures: Whitley Area 51 for themselves: from Las Strieber, author of Communion, Trans­ Vegas, drive north on Route 93 to formation, The Wolfen, and other works Route 375 West, heading toward of imaginative fiction, announces he Tonopah (my map calls that Route 25). has closed down his Communion Letter Go over the Hancock Summit, then magazine, after about two years of take the first and only dirt road on publication. He states, by way of the left, which takes you in toward explanation, that "the so-called 'UFOl- the Nellis Air Force Base. According ogists' are probably the cruelest, nasti­ to Cooper, entire busloads of people est, and craziest people I have ever have gone there and have seen, and encountered." Betty Hill, whose photographed, saucers being flown by claimed 1961 "UFO abduction" created our government. Upon closer ques­ the precedent for the veritable on­ tioning, it seems that these saucers are slaught of alien molestations now generally seen only after dark. Since under way, announces that she too is Tonopah-area people used to go out retiring from the UFO field, because near this same area to try to catch a "too many people with flaky ideas, fantasies, and imaginations" are mak-

250 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 ing UFO reports. The MJ-12 Papers Moseley, editor of Saucer Smear news­ and Ed Walters's Gulf Breeze UFO letter, reports that he has been photos have now been branded as terminated by MUFON as State hoaxes by CUFOS's editor Jerome Section Director for Monroe County, Clark. (MUFON's establishment still Florida, because during his five-year stands strongly behind Walters.) tenure, there was "zero growth in Richard Gotlib, a Toronto psycho­ membership" (Moseley still remains therapist who specializes in counseling the only MUFON member in Monroe supposed UFO abductees, laments County) and "zero sighting reports." that business has fallen off sharply in Moseley has been informed that he recent months, "despite a significant is now Assistant State Section Direc­ play in the media locally." And James tor of a two-county area. •

Spring 1992 251 MARTIN GARDNER AND STEVE ALLEN CHAIR CSICOP/Center for Inquiry CAMPAIGN

Martin Gardner Steve Allen Science commentator Martin Gardner and author-humorist Steve Allen have been named co-chairs of the Center for Inquiry Capital Fund Drive. They will lead an expanding fund-raising effort, now under way. Its aim is not only to raise the funds required to complete Phase II of CSICOP's head­ quarters, but also to create an Endowment Fund whose income can be used in part to defray operating and maintenance costs of the new headquarters in perpetuity and to enrich all our programs. Martin Gardner, the author of numerous books, wrote the long-running "Mathematical Games" column in Scientific American for many years and is a longtime contributor to SI. Steve Allen is an author, humorist, musician, and television personality who created public television's Meeting of Minds series. His recent book Dumbth: And 81 Ways to Make Americans Smarter focused on America's crisis in critical thinking.

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• Please have campaign representative call me. SPECIAL REPORT The Maharishi Caper: JAMA Hoodwinked (But Just for a While) = ANDREW SKOLNICK

rom time to time, even the most prestigious science journals publish erroneous or Ffraudulent data, unjustified conclusions, and sometimes balderdash. Balderdash was the right word when the Journal of the American I 1 Medical Association (JAMA) published the article "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Modern Insights Into Ancient Medicine" in its May 22-29,1991, issue. JAMA published a Discovering that they had been deceived by the six-page expos4 article's authors, the editors published a correction in the August 14 issue, which was on the people followed on October 2 by a six-page expose on who had the people who had hoodwinked them. hoodwinked By reporting its mistake in this lengthy report and drawing the media's attention to it with them. a news release, JAMA made itself an easy target, even drawing some friendly fire from Physician's Weekly and Science. As the person who discovered JAMA's error and wrote the expose, I also think the journal deserves some praise. The Maharishi Ayur-Veda article was osten­ sibly about the traditional healing system of India known as Ayurveda. It was published in JAMA's international health theme issue as a "Letter from New Delhi" outside the journal's "main well" for scientific papers. The authors— Deepak Chopra, M.D., president of the Amer­ ican Association of Ayurvedic Medicine, Lan­ caster, Massachusetts; Hari M. Sharma, M.D., professor of pathology at Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus; and Brihaspati Dev Triguna, an Ayurvedic practitioner in New Delhi, India—represented themselves as disin-

254 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 terested authorities and had signed a cation date, when hundreds of thou­ statement that they were not affiliated sands of copies were already in the with any organization that could prof­ mail. At the time, I didn't know it by the publication of their article. anything about Maharishi's medical (JAMA's conflict-of-interest policy claims, but I was aware that the TM requires authors of accepted manus­ movement widely uses deception to cripts to declare all such connections.) promote its $3,000 courses in TM- Subsequent investigation showed Sidhi or "yogic flying." TM promoters they were intimately involved with the claim that, by mastering this tech­ complex network of organizations that nique, people can develop the ability promote and sell the products and to walk through walls, make them­ services about which they wrote. They selves invisible, develop the "strength misrepresented Maharishi Ayur-Veda of an elephant," reverse the aging as India's ancient system of healing, process, and fly through the air rather than what it is, a trademark line without the benefit of machines. of "alternative health" products and In addition, TM promoters claim services marketed since 1985 by the that by yogic flying in large groups Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the Hindu they can prevent bad weather, traffic swami who founded the Transcenden­ fatalities, and even war. Former tal Meditation (TM) movement. members of the movement say that Maharishi Mahesh Yogi began his the practice of TM-Sidhi involves rise to fame and great fortune in the repeating a series of Hindu mantras 1960s when the Beatles rock group during meditation followed by several briefly joined his following of wor­ minutes of hopping up and down in shipers. Today the guru rules an the cross-legged "lotus" position. empire estimated to be worth billions Adherents claim that they are not of dollars and has many thousands of hopping but levitating and that they devoted followers, some of whom are have hundreds of scientific studies to prominent in science, medicine, edu­ prove it. cation, and the news, information, and I called Stephen Barrett, M.D., and and entertainment media. The TM William Jarvis, Ph.D., of the National movement is considered a religious Council Against Health Fraud and cult by a number of authorities. asked what information they had According to longtime watchers of the about Maharishi Ayur-Veda. What movement, Maharishi Ayur-Veda is they told me made it clear that JAMA the latest of the Maharishi's schemes had been duped. After poring through to boost the declining numbers of the promotional TM materials they people taking TM courses through sent and talking with several former which he recruits new members. The TMers, I reported my findings to movement also stands to reap millions George Lundberg, M.D., editor of of dollars through the sale of its herbal JAMA, and suggested that we expose remedies, oils, teas, aromas, healing the authors and the movement they gems, Hindu horoscopes, books, tapes, represent in a JAMA Medical News and numerous services that carry the & Perspectives story. I was given the Maharishi's name. assignment, which took me almost three months to complete. The result­ Copies Already in the Mail ing article, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's Marketing Scheme Promises I first saw the Maharishi Ayur-Veda World Eternal 'Perfect Health,' " was article four days prior to the publi­ published on October 2.

Spring 1992 255 Unusually long for Medical News Maharishi Ayur-Veda and by provid­ & Perspectives, the expose on the ing Maharishi Ayur-Veda treatments. marketing of Maharishi Ayur-Veda (According to David Perlman's documents a widespread pattern of October 2 San Francisco Chonicle misinformation, deception, and ma­ article, Chopra claims he gives 50 nipulation of lay and scientific news percent to 70 percent of his fees to media. This campaign appears to be the movement.) He also did not report aimed at earning at least the look of that he had been the sole stockholder, scientific respectability for the TM president, treasurer, and clerk of movement, while boosting the sales Maharishi Ayur-Veda Products Inter­ of their extremely lucrative products national, Inc. (MAPI), the sole distrib­ and services. (One example is the utor of Maharishi Ayur-Veda prod­ herbal elixir known as Maharishi ucts. Although he no longer holds Amrish Kalash, which costs $1,000 for these titles, Chopra still has the same a year's supply.) office address and phone number as Chopra says everyone should take MAPI. the cure/prevent-all twice a day. Chopra claims the Ayur-Veda health Peer Review Not Foolproof care is far more cost-effective than conventional medicine. However, the JAMA's publication of the Maharishi annual cost of just this one Maharishi Ayur-Veda article brought a hail of Ayur-Veda product is equivalent to 40 angry letters from readers (also percent of the average per-capita published in the October 2 issue) along expenditure on all health care in the with some snickers from other pub­ United States in 1989. The other lications. In its November 11 issue, products and services he recommends Physician's Weekly published an just to maintain health would cost account of JAMA getting "flim- thousands of dollars more each year. flammed by a swami." The October However, this total pales compared 11 issue of Science knocked ]AMA for with the cost of Maharishi Ayur-Veda publishing "shoddy science" and treatments in case of actual illness, getting itself into an "Indian herbal which can exceed $10,000 for the jam." performance of a ceremony to appease Science writers know that the peer- the gods or for the purchase of Jyotish review system of scientific publica­ gems to restore one's health. tions is not foolproof. Drummond Upon discovering the deception, Rennie, M.D., deputy editor (West) of JAMA requested from the authors a JAMA, has written: "There seems to full account of their connections to be no study too fragmented, no TM organizations. The confusing hypothesis too trivial, no literature too statement they provided was pub­ biased or too egotistical, no design too lished as a financial disclosure correc­ warped, no methodology too bungled, tion on August 14 and represents only no presentation of results too inaccu­ what the authors admitted. While it rate, too obscure, and too contradic­ appears to hold the record in terms tory, no analysis too self-serving, no of length for a financial disclosure argument too circular, no conclusions correction in the journal, the account too trifling or too unjustified, and no is still incomplete. Among other grammar and syntax too offensive for things, Chopra did not acknowledge a paper to end up in print." Peer review that he collects hundreds of thousands determines where rather than of dollars from his seminars on whether a paper should be published,

256 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Rennie says. However, from time to and Natural Products Research at time, "shoddy science" ends up in the Ohio State University College of most prestigious of journals. Medicine. Others associated with It may be hard to understand how Chopra include Steele Belok, M.D., a system so effective in sifting out and Amy Silver, M.D., both clinical errors in experimental design, statis­ instructors at Harvard Medical tical analyses, and faulty conclusions School; Agnes Lattimer, M.D., med­ could fail to catch blatant deceit. ical director of Cook County Hospital However, errors are usually easier to in Chicago; Kelvin O. Lim, M.D., spot than outright deceit. Journals do assistant professor of psychiatry and not have the staff and resources to behavioral science, Stanford Univer­ investigate contributing authors and sity School of Medicine; Barry Mar- must rely in large part on trust. morstein, M.D., associate professor, Obviously, failure to disclose their University of Washington School of conflicts of interest is a serious Medicine; S. M. Siram, M.D., director betrayal of that trust. of the Surgical Intensive Care Unit The editors who handled the and Trauma at Howard University Maharishi Ayur-Veda manuscript did School of Medicine. not know about the history of decep­ With the help of such well-placed tion associated with the TM move­ physicians and academicians, the TM ment, but they did know that two of movement has been able to project a the three authors had excellent med­ respectable front in its scheme to ical and academic credentials. In market Maharishi Ayur-Veda. In June, addition, the authors were able to cite the American College of Preventive studies that were published in peer- Medicine accredited Maharishi Ayur- reviewed journals to support their Veda courses for continuing medical claims. (One study listed in their education for physicians, for the references was published in the Jour­ second time. The National Cancer nal of Conflict Resolution [December Institute is currently funding 11 1988], a prestigious Yale University studies testing the anticancer poten­ publication. This study purported to tial of the concoction of herbs and show that a group of yogic fliers in minerals called Maharishi Amrit Israel was able to reduce the level of Kalash—even though its exact com­ violence in war-torn Lebanon.) They position has not been revealed. The also could point to the National National Institutes of Health allows Cancer Institute research grants its facilities to be used for monthly awarded Sharma and others to study introductory seminars on Maharishi the herbal elixir, Maharishi Amrit Ayur-Veda. And for years, U.S. col­ Kalash. leges and universities have allowed their facilities to be used by the TM Few people are aware of how far movement to teach yogic flying. the TM movement has been able to penetrate the halls of medicine and academia. According to the letterhead JAMA's Goof Nor Unique for the American Association of Ayurvedic Medicine, its research The TM movement has an extremely council and advisory council include aggressive public-relations operation physicians at many prestigious med­ with a remarkable record in getting ical schools and institutions. Sharma favorable reports in newspapers, is professor of pathology and director magazines, and the broadcast media. of the Division of Cancer Prevention Like mushrooms after a spring rain,

Spring 1992 257 articles on Chopra, TM, and the ers were not informed that the author Maharishi's medicines keep popping practices yogic flying. Lambert wrote up in places like the Boston Globe, the JAMA a letter protesting my inves­ Wall Street Journal, the Washington tigation and accusing me of "sleazy" Post, and even American Medical News and "deceptive" behavior. This letter (also published by the American was one of many sent to protest my Medical Association). Favorable inquiries. Among them were repeated reviews of Chopra's books on Maha- requests from Chopra and his attor­ rishi Ayur-Veda have appeared in ney that they be allowed to preview many leading medical journals. Joanne my article before publication, along Silberner, medical reporter for U.S. with warnings that they may sue if News and World Report, says that Dean defamed. Draznin, former director of public In the February 1984 NASW News­ affairs for Maharishi Ayur-Veda, used letter, Patrick Young wrote: "Report­ to call her about twice a month with ing any story that might prove another angle to pitch. embarrassing to a publication is filled In August, Johns Hopkins Magazine with delightful irony. Editors, writers, published an uncritical profile on and others who believe in and argue Nancy Lonsdorf, M.D., medical direc­ the public's right to know suddenly tor of the Maharishi Ayur-Veda react as any good group of company Medical Center in Washington, D.C. executives, government bureaucrats, Lonsdorf is the physician who, in a or union officials would in a similar fund-raising letter distributed to situation. They draw up the wagons members of the TM community, is in a tight circle." described as having recommended an When I reported my findings to my $11,500 yagya for a patient with a editors, I feared that they too might serious health problem. The Mahari­ choose to circle the wagons. Instead, shi's yagyas are Hindu ceremonies to they asked me to recount how the appease the gods and beseech their journal had been deceived and backed help for ailing followers. me against a stream of protests and Despite the extraordinary costs of threats from Maharishi's followers these ceremonies, patients do not take and attorneys. part or even get to see them per­ formed. (Chopra and Lonsdorf both Postscript, January 1992 deny that they recommend yagyas. Chopra insists that yagyas are not part Since the publication of JAMA's of the Maharishi Ayur-Veda program. expose, life has been anything but Nevertheless, I have a copy of another blissful for the Maharishi. The patient's health analysis from Cho­ General Medical Council of Great pra's center in Lancaster, Massachu­ Britain found two TM physicians setts, that recommends the per­ guilty of serious professional miscon­ formance of not one but two different duct for promoting Maharishi Ayur- yagyas.) Veda remedies as a treatment for In its September/October 1989 AIDS and ordered that their names issue, Harvard Magazine published a be struck from Britain's registry of cover story on Chopra by associate physicians. (The physicians are appeal­ editor Craig Lambert that touted the ing the ruling.) Maharishi has Maharishi's wares. Reprints of this announced he is abandoning his article were widely circulated by the operations in Washington, D.C, and TM movement. The magazine's read­ has ordered his minions to retreat to

258 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Fairfield, Iowa. been planning to give one-fourth of Dozens of print and electronic the country's land to the TM move­ news media have carried stories about ment. He credits JAMA's expose, TM's deception and JAMA's coun­ which was widely distributed through­ terblast. That coverage continues out Zambia, for helping to discredit more than three months after pub­ and defeat the strongman in the lication of the expose. October 31 election. He also reports As a result of information uncov­ that Maharishi's emissaries quickly ered by JAMA's investigation, TM's fled the country following Kaunda's operations are being investigated by defeat. the U.S. Food and Drug Administra­ tion, the House of Representatives Subcommittee on Long-Term Health Andrew Skolnick is associate editor for Care, and the National Institutes of the Journal of the American Medical Health. The most surprising result, Association's Medical News & Perspec­ however, may be the end of Zambian tives Department. This article is reprinted President Kenneth Kaunda's 27-year by permission from the Fall 1991 rule. According to a member of the ScienceWriters, the newsletter of the anti-Kaunda coalition, the dictator had National Association of Science Writers.

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Spring 1992 259 The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion

ANTHONY R. PRATKANIS

magine that it is the late 1950s—a time just after the Korean War, when terms like I brainwashing and mind control were on the public's mind and films like the Manchurian Candidate depicted the irresistible influence of hypnotic trances. You and your friend are off to see Picnic, one of the more popular films of the day. However, the movie theater, located in Fort Lee, New Jersey, is unlike any you have been in before. Unbeknownst to you, the Despite the projectors have been equipped with a special continued device capable of flashing short phrases onto the movie screen at such a rapid speed that you enthrallment of are unaware that any messages have been the American presented. During the film, you lean over to your companion and whisper, "Gee, I'd love a public, more than tub of buttered popcorn and a Coke right now." a century of To which he replies, "You're always hungry and thirsty at movies, shhhhh." But after a few research has moments he says, "You know, some Coke and failed to find popcorn might not be a bad idea." evidence that A short time later you hear that you and your friend weren't the only ones desiring subliminal popcorn and Coke at the theater that day. commands According to reports in newspapers and magazines, James Vicary, an advertising expert, influence had secretly flashed, at a third of a millisecond, behavior. the words "Eat Popcorn" and "Drink Coke" onto the movie screen. His studies, lasting six weeks, involved thousands of moviegoing subjects who received a subliminal message every five seconds during the film. Vicary claimed an increase in Coke sales of 18 percent and a rise in popcorn sales of almost 58 percent. Upon reading their newspapers, most people were outraged and frightened by a technique so devilish that it

260 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Natale, J. A. 1988. Are you open to sugges­ Suslowa, M. 1863. Veranderungen der tion? Psychology Today, September, pp. hautgefule unter dem einflusse elec- 28-30. trischer reizung. Zeitschrift fur Rationelle "Phone now," said CBC subliminally—but Medicin, 18:155-160. nobody did. 1958. Advertising Age, Febru­ Synodinos, N. E. 1988. Subliminal stimula­ ary 10, p. 8. tion: What does the public think about Pratkanis, A. R., and E. Aronson. 1992. Age it? Current Issues & Research in Adver­ of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse tising, 11:157-187. of Persuasion. New York: W. H. Freeman. Titchener, E. B., and W. H. Pyle. 1907. The Pratkanis, A. R., and A. G. Greenwald. 1988. effect of imperceptible shadows on the Recent perspectives on unconscious judgment of distance. Proceedings of the processing: Still no marketing applica­ American Philosophical Society, 46:94-109. tions. Psychology & Marketing, 5:339-355. Vance and Belknap v. Judas Priest and CBS Pratkanis. A. R., J. Eskenazi, and A. G. Records. 86-5844/86-3939. Second Dis­ Greenwald. 1990. "What You Expect Is trict Court of Nevada. August 24, 1990. What You Believe (But Not Necessarily Weir, W. 1984. Another look at subliminal What You Get): On the Effectiveness of "facts." Advertising Age, October 15, p. Subliminal Self-help Audiotapes." Paper 46. presented at the meeting of the Western Zanot, E. J., J. D. Pincus, and E. J. Lamp. Psychological Association, Los Angeles, 1983. Public perceptions of subliminal Calif., April. advertising. Journal of Advertising, Russell, T. G., W. Rowe, and A. D. Smouse. 12:37-45. 1991. Subliminal self-help tapes and academic achievement: An evaluation. Journal of Counseling & Development, Anthony R. Pratkanis teaches psychology 69:359-362. at the University of California, Santa Subliminal ad is transmitted in test but scores Cruz. Address correspondence to Anthony no popcorn sales. 1958. Advertising Age, Pratkanis, Board of Psychology, Univer­ January 20. Subliminal has a test; can't see if it works. sity of California, Santa Cruz, CA 1958. Printer's Ink, January 17. 95064.

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

272 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 could bypass their conscious intellect and beam subliminal commands directly to their subconscious. (See "In a 1962 interview, James Moore, this issue, for a definition of Vicary announced that the 'Eat "subliminal.") In an article titled "Smudging the Popcorn/Drink Coke' study Subconscious," Norman Cousins was a fabrication intended to (1957) captured similar feelings as he pondered the true meaning of such a increase customers." device. As he put it, "If the device is successful for putting over popcorn, to such questions. why not politicians or anything else?" Three public-opinion polls indicate He wondered about the character of that the American public shares my people who would dream up a machine students' fascination with subliminal to "break into the deepest and most influence (Haber 1959; Synodinos private parts of the human mind and 1988; Zanot, Pincus, and Lamp 1983). leave all sorts of scratchmarks." By 1958, just nine months after the Cousins concluded that the best Vicary subliminal story first broke, 41 course of action would be "to take this percent of survey respondents had invention and everything connected heard of subliminal advertising. This to it and attach it to the center of the figure climbed to 81 percent in the next nuclear explosive scheduled for early 1980s, with more than 68 testing." percent of those aware of the term Cousins's warnings were taken to believing that it was effective in selling heart. The Federal Communications products. Most striking, the surveys Commission immediately investigated also revealed that many people learn the Vicary study and ruled that the about subliminal influence through use of subliminal messages could re­ the mass media and through courses sult in the loss of a broadcast license. in high school and college. The National Association of Broad­ But there is a seamier side to the casters prohibited the use of sublim­ "Eat Popcorn/Drink Coke" study— inal advertising by its members. one that is rarely brought to public Australia and Britain banned sublim­ attention. In a 1962 interview with inal advertising. A Nevada judge ruled Advertising Age, James Vicary that subliminal communications are announced that the original study was not protected as free speech. a fabrication intended to increase The Vicary study also left an customers for his failing marketing enduring smudge on Americans' con­ business. The circumstantial evidence sciousness—if not their subconscious. suggests that this time Vicary was As a teacher of social psychology and telling the truth. Let me explain by a persuasion researcher, one of the recounting the story of the "Eat questions I am most frequently asked Popcorn/Drink Coke" study as best I is, "Do you know about the 'Eat can, based on various accounts pub­ Popcorn/Drink Coke' study that they lished in academic journals and trade did?" At cocktail parties, I am often magazines (see Advertising Research pulled aside and, in hushed tones, told Foundation 1958; "ARF Checks" 1958; about the "Eat Popcorn/Drink Coke" Danzig 1962; McConnell, Cutler, and study. Indeed, my original interest in McNeil 1958; "Subliminal Ad" 1958; subliminal persuasion was motivated "Subliminal Has" 1958; Weir 1984). by an attempt to know how to respond Advertisers, the FCC, and research

Spring 1992 261 psychologists doubted Vicary's claims one contained the correct answer. from the beginning and demanded However, almost half of the respond­ proof. To meet these demands, Vicary ents claimed to be hungry or thirsty set up demonstrations of his machine. during the show. Apparently, they Sometimes there were technical dif­ guessed (incorrectly) that the message ficulties in getting the machine to was aimed at getting them to eat or work. When the machine did work, drink. the audience felt little compulsion to Finally, in 1962 James Vicary comply with subliminal commands, lamented that he had handled the prompting an FCC commissioner to subliminal affair poorly. As he stated, state, "I refuse to get excited about "Worse than the timing, though, was it—I don't think it works" ("Subliminal the fact that we hadn't done any Has" 1958). research, except what was needed for In 1958, the Advertising Research filing for a patent. I had only a minor Foundation pressed Vicary to release interest in the company and a small his data and a detailed description of amount of data—too small to be his procedures. They argued that it meaningful. And what we had had been more than a year since the shouldn't have been used promotion- results were made public and yet there ally" (Danzig 1962). This is not exactly had been no formal write-up of the an affirmation of a study that sup­ experiment, which was necessary to posedly ran for six weeks and involved evaluate the claims. To this day, there thousands of subjects. has been no primary published My point in presenting the details account of the study, and scientists of the Vicary study is twofold. First, interested in replicating the results the "Eat Popcorn/Drink Coke" affair must rely on accounts published in is not an isolated incident. The topic such magazines as the Senior Scholastic of subliminal persuasion has attracted ("Invisible Advertising" 1957), which, the interest of Americans on at least although intended for junior-high four separate occasions: at the turn students, presents one of the most of the century, in the 1950s, in the detailed accounts of the original study. 1970s, and now in the late 1980s and Pressures for a replication accu­ early 1990s. Each of these four flour- mulated. Henry Link, president of ishings of subliminal persuasion show Psychological Corporation, challenged a similar course of events. First, Vicary to a test under controlled someone claims to find an effect; next, conditions and supervised by an others attempt to replicate that effect independent research firm. No change and fail; the original finding is then occurred in the purchase of either criticized on methodological grounds; Coke or popcorn (Weir 1984). In one nevertheless the original claim is of the more interesting attempted publicized and gains acceptance in lay replications, the Canadian Broadcast audiences and the popular imagina­ Corporation, in 1958, subliminally tion. Today we have reached a point flashed the message "Phone Now" 352 where one false effect from a previous times during a popular Sunday-night era is used to validate a false claim television show called Close-up from another. For example, I recently ("Phone Now" 1958). Telephone had the occasion to ask a manufac­ usage did not go up during that period. turer of subliminal self-help audio­ Nobody called the station. When asked tapes for evidence of his claim that to guess the message, viewers sent his tapes had therapeutic value. His close to five hundred letters, but not reply: "You are a psychologist. Don't

262 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 you know about the study they did subject expectancy and experimenter where they flashed Eat Popcorn and bias effects, selective reporting of Drink Coke' on the movie screen?" positive over negative findings, lack During the past few years, I have of appropriate control treatments, been collecting published articles on internally inconsistent results, unre­ subliminal processes—research that liable dependent measures, presenta­ goes back over a hundred years tion of stimuli in a manner that is not (Suslowa 1863) and includes more truly subliminal, and multiple exper­ than a hundred articles from the mass imental confounds specific to each media and more than two hundred study. As Moore (51, this issue) points academic papers on the topic (Pratkan- out, there is considerable evidence for is and Greenwald 1988). In none of subliminal perception or the detection these papers is there clear evidence in of information outside of self-reports support of the proposition that sub­ of awareness. However, subliminal liminal messages influence behavior. perception should not be confused Many of the studies fail to find an with subliminal persuasion or influ­ effect, and those that do either cannot ence—motivating or changing behav­ be reproduced or are fatally flawed on ior—for which there is little good one or more methodological grounds, evidence (see McConnell, Cutler, and including: the failure to control for McNeil 1958; Moore 1982 and 1988).

"YOU KNOW A COKE. AND A B«CORN MIGHT NOT BE AB6P IP6A RIGHT MOW."

Spring 1992 263 My second reason for describing that subliminal influence was first the Vicary study in detail is that it investigated in America at the turn of seems to me that our fascination with the century. The goal of demonstrat­ subliminal persuasion is yet another ing the power of the subliminal mind example of what Richard Feynman became an important one for many (1985) called "cargo-cult science." For people at that time. It was a time of Feynman, a cargo-cult science is one great religious interest, as illustrated that has all the trappings of science— by academic books on the topic, the illusion of objectivity, the appear­ religious fervor among the populace, ance of careful study, and the motions and the further development of a of an experiment—but lacks one uniquely American phenomenon— important ingredient: skepticism, or a the spiritual self-help group. One such leaning over backward to see if one movement, popular in intellectual might be mistaken. The essence of circles, was called "New Thought," science is to doubt your own inter­ which counted William James among pretations and theories so that you its followers. The doctrine of New may improve upon them. This skep­ Thought stated that the mind pos­ ticism is often missing in the inter­ sesses an unlimited but hidden power pretation of studies claiming to find that could be tapped—if one knew subliminal influence. Our theories and how—to bring about a wonderful, wishes for what we would like to think happy life and to exact physical cures. the human mind is capable of doing Given the rise of industrialization and interferes with our ability to see what the anonymity of newly formed city it actually does. life, one can see how a doctrine of the hidden power of the individual in the The cargo-cult nature of subliminal face of realistic powerlessness would research can be seen in some of the be well received in some circles. first studies on the topic done at the turn of the century. In 1900, Dunlap The historian Robert Fuller (1982; reported a subliminal Muller-Lyer 1986) traces the origins of New illusion—a well-known illusion in Thought and similar movements to which a line is made to appear shorter early American interest in the teach­ or longer depending on the direction ings of Franz Anton Mesmer. Fuller's of angles placed at its ends. Dunlap point is that the powerful unconscious flashed an "imperceptible shadow" or became a replacement for religion's line to subliminally create this illusion. "soul." Mesmer's doctrines contended He claimed that his subjects' judgment that each person possessed a hidden, of length was influenced by the though strong, physical force, which imperceptible shadows. However, he termed animal magnetism. This Dunlap's results could not be imme­ force could be controlled by the careful diately replicated by either Titchener alignment of magnets to effect per­ and Pyle (1907) or by Manro and sonality changes and physical cures. Washburn (1908). Nevertheless, this On one level, mesmerism can be inconsistency of findings did not stop viewed as a secularization of the meta­ Hollingworth (1913) from discussing phor of spiritual humans that under­ the subliminal Muller-Lyer illusion in lies witchcraft. Animal magnetism his advertising textbook or from replaced the soul, and good and bad drawing the conclusion that sublim­ magnets replaced angels and devils inal influence is a powerful tool avail­ that could invade the body and affect able to the advertiser. their will. Mesmerism was introduced I contend that it was no accident to America at the beginning of the

264 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 nineteenth century and, characteristic of Yankee ingenuity, self-help move­ ments soon sprang up with the goal "Tape company representatives of improving on Mesmer's original are likely to present you with a magnet therapy; they did so by developing the techniques of hypnot­ rather lengthy list of 'studies' ism, seances, the healing practices of demonstrating their claims. Christian Science, positive thinking, and the speaking cure. Don't be fooled." With the distance of a century, we overlook the fact that many journals of the nineteenth century were guessing at what might be there. (See devoted to archiving the progress of also Holender 1986 and Cheesman mesmerism and with documenting the and Merikle's 1985 distinction influence of the unconscious on the between objective and subjective conscious. As Dunlap (1900) said in thresholds.) the introduction to his article on the Other manifestations of "sub­ subliminal Muller-Lyer illusion, "If liminal-mania" illustrate additional such an effect is produced, then we aspects of a cargo-cult science. In the have evidence for the belief that under early 1970s, during the third wave of certain conditions things of which we popular interest in subliminal persua­ are not and can not become conscious sion, the best-selling author Wilson have their immediate effects upon Bryan Key (1973; 1976; 1980; 1989) consciousness." In other words, we advanced the cargo-cult science of would have one of the first scientific subliminal seduction in two ways. (See demonstrations that the unconscious also Creed 1987.) First, Key argued can powerfully influence the con­ that subliminal techniques were not scious. A simple step perhaps, but just limited to television and movies. who knows what wonderful powers Cleverly hidden messages aimed at of the human mind wait to be un­ inducing sexual arousal are claimed to leashed. be embedded in the photographs of As a postscript to the subliminal print advertisements. Key found the miller-Iyer affair, I should point out word sex printed on everything from that 30 years later Joseph Bressler— Ritz crackers to the ice cubes in a a student of Hollingworth—was able Gilbey Gin ad. Second, Key was to reconcile the empirical differences successful in linking the concept of between Dunlap and his opponents. subliminal persuasion to the issues Bressler (1931) found that as the of his day. The 1970s were a period subliminal angles increased in inten­ of distrust by Americans of their sity—that is, as they approached the government, businesses, and institu­ threshold of awareness—the illusion tions. Key claimed that big advertisers was more likely to be seen. This and big government are in a conspir­ finding, along with many others, acy to control our minds using sublim­ served as the basis for concluding that inal implants. there is no absolute threshold of The legacy of Key's cargo-cult awareness—it can vary as a function science is yet with us. I often ask my of individual and situational factors— students at the University of Califor­ and led to the hypothesis that, on nia, Santa Cruz, if they have heard some trials, subjects could see enough of the term subliminal persuasion and, of the stimulus to improve their if so, where. Almost all have heard

Spring 1992 265 of the term and about half report crystals, and can be redirected with finding out about it in high school. subliminal commands. Many received an assignment from Accusations concerning the sinis­ their teachers to go to the library and ter use of subliminal persuasion look through magazine ads for sub­ continue as well. In the summer of liminal implants. 1990, the rock band Judas Priest was These teachers miss an opportu­ placed on trial for allegedly recording, nity to teach science instead of cargo- in one of their songs, the subliminal cult science. Key (1973) reports a implant "Do it." This message sup­ study where more than a thousand posedly caused the suicide deaths of subjects were shown the Gilbey Gin Ray Belknap and James Vance. ad that supposedly contained the word What is the evidence that sublim­ sex embedded in ice cubes. Sixty-two inal influence, despite not working in percent of the subjects reported the 1900s, 1950s, and 1970s, is now feeling "aroused," "romantic," "sensu­ effective in the 1990s? Tape company ous." Instead of assuming that Key representatives are likely to provide was right and sending students out you with a rather lengthy list of to find subliminals, a science educator "studies" demonstrating their claims. would encourage a student to ask, Don't be fooled. The studies on these "But where is the control group in the lists fall into two camps—those done Gilbey Gin ad study? Perhaps an even by the tape companies and for which higher percentage would report feel­ full write-ups are often not available, ing sexy if the subliminal "sex" was and those that have titles that sound removed—perhaps the same, perhaps as if they apply to subliminal influence, less. One just doesn't know. but really don't. For example, one Now in the late 1980s and early company lists many subliminal- 1990s, we see a fourth wave of perception studies to support its interest in subliminal influence. Entre­ claims. It is a leap of faith to see how preneurs have created a $50-million- a lexical priming study provides plus industry offering subliminal self- evidence that a subliminal self-help help audio- and video-tapes designed tape will cure insomnia or help over­ to improve everything from self- come the trauma of being raped. esteem to memory, to employee and Sadly, the trick of claiming that customer relations, to sexual respon­ something that has nothing to do with siveness, and—perhaps most contro­ subliminal influence really does prove versial—to overcoming the effects of the effectiveness of subliminal influ­ family and sexual abuse (Natale 1988). ence goes back to the turn of the The tapes work, according to one century. In the first footnote to their manufacturer, because "subliminal article describing a failure to replicate messages bypass the conscious mind, Dunlap's subliminal miller-Iyer and imprint directly on the subcon­ effect, Titchener and Pyle (1907) state: scious mind, where they create the "Dunlap finds a parallel to his own basis for the kind of life you want." results in the experiments of Pierce Part of the popularity of such tapes and Jastrow on small difference of no doubt springs from the tenets of sensations. There is, however, no New Age. Like its predecessor New resemblance whatever between the Thought, New Age also postulates a two investigations." In a cargo-cult powerful hidden force in the human science, any evidence—even irrelevant personality that can be controlled for facts—is of use and considered the good, not by magnets, but by valuable.

266 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 t*

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Recently, there have been a num­ supraliminal content—various pieces ber of studies that directly tested the of classical music. However, they effectiveness of subliminal self-help differed in their subliminal content. tapes. I conducted one such study in According to the manufacturer, the Santa Cruz with my colleagues Jay self-esteem tapes contained subliminal Eskenazi and Anthony Greenwald messages like "1 have high self-worth (Pratkanis, Eskenazi, and Greenwald and high self-esteem." The memory 1990). We used mass-marketed audio­ tape contained subliminal messages tapes with subliminal messages like "My ability to remember and recall designed to improve either self- is increasing daily." esteem or memory abilities. Both Using public posters and ads placed types of tapes contained the same in local newspapers, we recruited

Spring 1992 267 volunteers who appeared most inter­ the tape. We called this an illusory ested in the value and potential of placebo effect—placebo, because it subliminal self-help therapies (and was based on expectations; illusory, who were probably similar to those because it wasn't real. In sum, the likely to buy such tapes). On the first subliminal tapes did nothing to day of the study, we asked our improve self-esteem or memory abil­ volunteers to complete three different ities but, to some of our subjects, they self-esteem and three different appeared to have an effect. As we put memory measures. Next they ran­ it in the title of our report of this domly received their subliminal tape, study, "What you expect is what you but with an interesting twist. Half of believe, but not necessarily what you the tapes were mislabeled so that some get." of the subjects received a memory Our results are not a fluke. We tape, but thought it was intended to have since repeated our original study improve self-esteem, whereas others twice using different tapes and have received a self-esteem tape that had yet to find an effect of subliminal been mislabeled as memory improve­ messages upon behavior as claimed by ment. (Of course half the subjects the manufacturer (Greenwald, Span- received correctly labeled tapes.) genberg, Pratkanis, and Eskenazi The volunteers took their tapes 1991). By combining our data from all home and listened to them every day three studies, we gain the statistical for five weeks (the period suggested power to detect quite small effects. by the manufacturer for maximum Still, there is no evidence of a sub­ effectiveness). During the listening liminal effect consistent with the phase, we attempted to contact each manufacturers' claims. subject about once a week to encour­ Other researchers are also finding age their daily listening. Only a that subliminal self-help tapes are of handful of subjects were unable to no benefit to the user. In a series of complete the study, suggesting a high three experiments, Auday, Mellett, level of motivation and interest in and Williams (1991) tested the effec­ subliminal therapy. After five weeks tiveness of bogus and real subliminal of daily listening, they returned to the tapes designed either to improve laboratory and once again completed memory, reduce stress and anxiety, or self-esteem and memory tests and increase self-confidence. The sublim­ were also asked to indicate if they inal tapes proved ineffective on all believed the tapes to be effective. three fronts. Russell, Rowe, and The results: the subliminal tapes Smouse (1991) tested subliminal tapes produced no effect (improvement or designed to improve academic decrement) on either self-esteem or achievement and found the tapes memory. But our volunteers did not improved neither grade point average believe this to be the case. Subjects nor final examination scores. Lenz who thought they had listened to a (1989) had 270 Los Angeles police self-esteem tape (regardless of recruits listen for 24 weeks to music whether they actually did or not) were with and without subliminal implants more likely to be convinced that their designed to improve either knowledge self-esteem had improved, and those of the law or marksmanship. The who thought they had listened to a tapes did not improve either. In a memory tape were more likely to recent test, Merikle and Skanes (1991) believe that their memory had found that overweight subjects who improved as a result of listening to listened to subliminal weight-loss

268 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 tapes for five weeks showed no more In general, popular press articles fail weight loss than did control subjects. to rely on scientific evidence and In sum, independent researchers have method to critically evaluate sublim­ conducted 9 studies to evaluate the inal findings. Positive findings are effectiveness of subliminal self-help emphasized and null results rarely tapes. All 9 studies failed to find an reported. Problems with positive effect consistent with the manufac­ subliminal findings, such as lack of turers' claims. (See also Eich and control groups, expectancy effects, Hyman 1991.) setting subliminal thresholds, and so It appears that, despite the claims on, are rarely mentioned. If negative in books and newspapers and on the information is given, it is often backs of subliminal self-help tapes, presented at the end of the article, subliminal-influence tactics have not giving the reader the impression that, been demonstrated to be effective. Of at best, the claims for subliminal course, as with anything scientific, it effectiveness are somewhat contro­ may be that someday, somehow, versial. Recent coverage of subliminal someone will develop a subliminal self-help tapes, however, have been technique that may work, just as less supportive of subliminal claims— someday a chemist may find a way to but this may reflect more of an attack transmute lead to gold. I am personally on big business than an embrace of not purchasing lead futures on this science. hope however. Instead of the scientific method, The history of the subliminal those accused of subliminal persuasion controversy teaches us much about (mostly advertisers) are subjected to persuasion—but not the subliminal what can be termed the "witch test." kind. If there is so little scientific During the Middle Ages, one common evidence of the effectiveness of sub­ test of witchcraft was to tie and bind liminal influence, why then do so the accused and throw her into a pond. many Americans believe it works? In If she floats, she is a witch. If she a nutshell, I must conclude, with drowns, then her innocence is Feynman, that despite enjoying the affirmed. Protestations by the accused fruits of science, we are not a scientific were taken as further signs of guilt. culture, but one of ill-directed faith How do we know that subliminals as defined in Hebrews 11:1 (KJV): work and that advertisers use them? "Now faith is the substance of things As Key notes, advertisers spend a hoped for, the evidence of things not considerable amount of money on seen." communications that contain sublim­ We can see the workings of this inal messages. Why would they spend faulty faith, not science, in the more such vast sums if subliminal persua­ than a hundred popular press articles sion is ineffective? The fact that these on the topic of subliminal persuasion. subliminal messages cannot be readily Many of the articles (36 percent) deal identified or seen and that the adver­ with ethical and regulatory concerns tisers deny their use further demon­ of subliminal practices—assuming strates the craftiness of the advertiser. them to be effective. Only 18 percent After all, witches are a wiley lot, of the articles declare flatly that carefully covering their tracks. It subliminal influence is ineffective, appears that the only way that adver­ with the remaining either claiming tisers can prove their innocence, by that it works or suggesting a big the logic of the witch test, is to go "maybe" to prompt readers' concern. out of business at the bottom of the

Spring 1992 269 pond, thereby showing that they do selves, finding enjoyment in every­ not possess the arts of subliminal thing we do, working for the benefit sorcery. In contrast, just as the of humankind by tapping our own self motives of the Inquisition for power potentials. Perhaps our theories of and fortune went unquestioned, so what should be or what we would like too the motives of the proponents of to be have caused us to be a little less subliminal seduction, who frequently critical of the claims for the power of profit by the sale of more newspapers, subliminal influence. books, or audiotapes, are rarely (or But belief in subliminal persuasion have only recently been) questioned. is not without its cost. Perhaps the The proponents of subliminal saddest aspect of the subliminal affair persuasion make use of our most is that it distracts our attention from sacred expectations, hopes, and fears. more substantive issues. By looking Each manifestation of interest in for subliminal influences, we may subliminal influence has been linked ignore more powerful, blatant influ­ to the important philosophies and ence tactics employed by advertisers thinking of the day—New Thought in and sales agents. We may ignore the 1900s, brainwashing in the 1950s, other, more successful ways—such as the corruption of big governments in science—for reaching our human the 1970s, and New Age philosophy potentials. today. Consider the tragic suicide deaths But the belief in subliminal persua­ of teenagers Ray Belknap and James sion provides much more for the Vance that were brought to light in individual. We live in an age of the recent trial of Judas Priest. They propaganda; the average American lived troubled lives—lives of drug and will see approximately seven million alcohol abuse, run-ins with the law, advertisements in a lifetime. We learning disabilities, family violence, provide our citizens with very little and chronic unemployment. What education concerning the nature of issues did the trial and the subsequent these persuasive processes. The result mass-media coverage emphasize? is that many may feel confused and Certainly not the need for drug bewildered by basic social processes treatment centers; there was no (see Pratkanis and Aronson 1992). evaluation of the pros and cons of The negative side of subliminal per­ America's juvenile justice system, no suasion is presented as an irrational investigation of the schools, no force outside the control of the inquiry into how to prevent family message recipient. As such, it takes violence, no discussion of the effects on a supernatural "devil made me do of unemployment on a family. Instead, it" quality capable of justifying and our attention was mesmerized by an explaining why Americans are often attempt to count the number of persuaded and can seemingly engage subliminal demons that can dance on in irrational behavior. Why then did the end of a record needle. I buy this worthless product at such In this trial, Judge Jerry Carr a high price? Subliminal sorcery. On Whitehead (Vance & Belknap v. Judas the positive side, a belief in subliminal Priest & CBS Records 1990) ruled in persuasion imbues the human spirit favor of Judas Priest, stating: "The at least with the possibility of over­ scientific research presented does not coming the limitations of being human establish that subliminal stimuli, even and of living a mundane existence. We if perceived, may precipitate conduct can be like the gods—healing our­ of this magnitude. There exist other

270 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 factors which explain the conduct of Eich, E., and R. Hyman. 1991. "Subliminal the deceased independent of the Self-help." In In the Mind's Eye: Enhancing subliminal stimuli." Perhaps now is Human Performance, ed. by D. Druckman and R. A. Bjork, 107-119. Washington, the time to lay the myth of subliminal D.C.: National Academy Press. sorcery to rest and direct our attention Feynman, R. P. 1985. Surely You're joking, to other, more scientifically docu­ Mr. Feynman! New York: Bantam Books. mented ways of understanding the Fuller, R. C. 1982. Mesmerism and the causes of human behavior and American Cure of Souls. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. improving our condition. . 1986. Americans and the Unconscious. New York: Oxford Press. Greenwald, A. C, E. R. Spangenberg, A. R. Acknowledgments Pratkanis, and J. Eskenazi. 1991. Double- blind tests of subliminal self-help audio­ I thank Elliot Aronson, Timothy E. Moore, tapes. Psychological Science, 2:119-122. Marlene E. Turner, and Rick Stoltz for Haber, R. N. 1959. Public attitudes regarding helpful comments. Portions of this paper subliminal advertising. Public Opinion were presented at the American Psycho­ Quarterly, 23:291-293. logical Association meetings on August 12, Holender, D. 1986. Semantic activation 1990, in Boston, Massachusetts, and the without conscious identification in CSICOP Conference on May 3, 1991, in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and Berkeley/Oakland, California. visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavior and Brain Sciences, 9:1-66. Hollingworth, H. L. 1913. Advertising and References Selling. New York: D. Appleton Invisible Advertising. 1957. Senior Scholastic, Advertising Research Foundation. 1958. The October 4. Application of Subliminal Perception in Key, W. B. 1973. Subliminal Seduction. Advertising. New York, N.Y. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Signet. ARF checks data on subliminal ads; verdict: . 1976. Media Sexploitation. Englewood "Insufficient." 1958. Advertising Age, Cliffs, N.J.: Signet. September 15. . 1980. The Clam-plate Orgy. Engle­ Auday, B. C, J. L. Mellett, and P. M. Williams. wood Cliffs, N.J.: Signet. 1991. Self-improvement Using Sublimi­ . 1989. The Age of Manipulation. New nal Self-help Audiotapes: Consumer York: Holt. Benefit or Consumer Fraud?" Paper Lenz, S. 1989. "The Effect of Subliminal presented at the meeting of the Western Auditory Stimuli on Academic Learning Psychological Association, San Francisco, and Motor Skills Performance Among Calif., April. Police Recruits." Unpublished doctoral Bressler, J. 1931. Illusion in the case of dissertation, California School of Profes­ subliminal visual stimulation, journal of sional Psychology, Los Angeles, Calif. General Psychology, 5:244-251. Manro, H. M., and M. F. Washburn. 1908. Cheesman, J., and P. M. Merikle. 1985. Word The effect of imperceptible line on the recognition and consciousness. In Reading judgment of distance. American Journal Research Advances in Theory and Practice, of Psychology, 19:242. vol. 5, ed. by D. Besner, T. G. Waller, McConnell, ]. V., R. I. Cutler, and E. B. and G. E. MacKinnon, 311-352. New McNeil. 1958. Subliminal stimulation: An York: Academic Press. overview. American Psychologist, 13:229- Cousins, N. 1957. Smudging the subcon­ 242. scious. Saturday Review, October 5, p. 20. Merikle, P., and H. E. Skanes. 1991. "Sub­ Creed, T. T. 1987. Subliminal deception: liminal Self-help Audiotapes: A Search Pseudoscience on the college lecture for Placebo Effects." Unpublished manu­ circuit. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 11:358-366. script, University of Waterloo, London, Danzig, F. 1962. Subliminal advertising- Ontario. Today it's just historic flashback for Moore. T. E. 1982. Subliminal advertising: researcher Vicary. Advertising Age, Sep­ What you see is what you get. Journal tember 17. of Marketing, 46:38-47. Dunlap, K. 1900. The effect of imperceptible . 1988. The case against subliminal shadows on the judgment of distance. manipulation. Psychology & Marketing, Psychological Review, 7:435-453. 5:297-316.

Spring 1992 271 Subliminal Perception: Facts and Fallaciesi

TIMOTHY E. MOORE

an the meaning of a stimulus affect the behavior of observers in some way in Cthe absence of their awareness of the stimulus? In a word, yes. While there is some controversy, there is also respectable scientific evidence that observers' responses can be shown to be affected by stimuli they claim not to have seen. To a cognitive psychologist this is not Recent research in particularly earthshaking, but the media and the public have often responded to the notion of subliminal subliminal perception with trepidation. perception has What is subliminal perception? Should we be provided very little worried (or perhaps enthused) about covert manipulation of thoughts, attitudes, and evidence that behaviors? My reviews (Moore 1982; 1988) have stimuli below dealt primarily with the validity of the more observers' dramatic claims made on behalf of subliminal techniques and devices. Such an appraisal subjective requires a working definition of "subliminal thresholds perception." Then we need to determine influence motives, whether the conditions under which it occurs and the means by which it is achieved are attitudes, beliefs, or reflected in the products on the market. choices. How should "awareness" be defined? One way is simply to ask observers whether or not they are "aware" of a stimulus. If the observer denies any awareness, then the stimulus, is, by definition, below an awareness threshold. Using this approach, unconscious perception consists of demonstrating that observers can be affected by stimuli whose presence they do not report. Another way to define "awareness" involves requiring observers to distinguish between two or more stimuli that are presented successively. With fast exposure durations, observers may be

Spring 1992 unable to distinguish between stimuli, disavowals from participants by for­ or between a stimulus's presence or cing them to guess. Respondents may absence. This method was advocated object that they have no basis for by Eriksen (i960) and defines con­ making a decision, but by using a sciousness as the observer's ability to forced-choice task we can see that discriminate between two or more their guesses are more accurate than alternative stimuli in a forced-choice they would be if they were guessing task. In this context, unconscious at random. Clearly, some information perception consists of a demonstration is being utilized. that observers are affected by stimuli When respondents' guesses are at whose presence they cannot detect. The ap­ chance in a detection task, there is no proaches are different and involve well-established evidence for percep­ different sorts of evidence. In the tion. Thus, subliminal perception is former case the stimuli are not not perception in the absence of a reported; in the latter instance the detectable signal. Rather, it occurs stimuli cannot be detected. under conditions where subjects can These two methods of defining detect a signal on at least some consciousness have been referred to proportion of trials. Subjects may as "subjective" and "objective," respec­ claim to be guessing without realizing tively, by Merikle and his coworkers that their guesses are better than (Cheesman and Merikle 1986; Merikle chance. According to Merikle, the and Cheesman 1986). Higher levels of dissociation between these two indi­ visibility are typically associated with cators of perception (signal detection subjective thresholds. The disadvan­ vs. introspective reports) defines the tage of a subjective definition is that necessary empirical conditions for a failure to report a stimulus's pres­ demonstrating subliminal perception. ence may result from response bias There is an inconsistency between (i.e., the observer is ambivalent about what observers know and what "they the stimulus's presence and elects to know they know." report its absence). As Merikle (1984) Recent reviews of research find­ has argued, the use of subjective ings in subliminal perception have thresholds implies that each partici­ provided very little evidence that pant provides his or her own idiosyn­ stimuli below observers' subjective cratic definition of "awareness." Con­ thresholds influence motives, atti­ sequently, awareness thresholds could tudes, beliefs, or choices (Moore 1988; (and would) vary greatly from subject 1991b; Pratkanis and Greenwald to subject. 1988; Greenwald, in press). In most Some recent studies (e.g., Chees­ studies, the stimuli do not consist of man and Merikle 1986) have looked directives, commands, or imperatives, at performance when both subjective and there is no reliable evidence that and objective thresholds have been subliminal stimuli have any pragmatic assessed. Such studies indicate that impact or effects on intentions. subliminal perception is most appro­ Studies that do purport to find such priately viewed as perception in the effects are either unreplicated or absence of concurrent phenomenal methodologically flawed in one or experience. We sometimes receive more ways (Pratkanis, this issue). information when subjectively we feel There is very little evidence for any that nothing useful has been "seen." perceptual processing at all (let alone Investigators can establish that per­ any pragmatic consequences) when ception has occurred in the face of perceptual awareness is equated with

274 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 an objective threshold. How do the dramatic claims regard­ ing undetectable stimuli stack up "Subliminal advertising and against the preceding review? What psychotherapeutic effects from are these claims and what is their status? I shall confine my comments subliminal tapes are ideas to claims involving advertising appli­ whose scientific status appears cations and self-help auditory tapes. to be on a par with wearing Advertising copper bracelets to cure arthritis." Many people believe that most adver­ tisements contain hidden sexual images or words that affect our are cloaked in scientific jargon, and if susceptibility to the ads. This belief propositions are asserted to be scien­ is widespread even though there is no tifically valid, people can be fooled. evidence for such practices, let alone Key knows this and uses it to his evidence for such effects. "Embedded" advantage. His intent is to persuade; stimuli are difficult to characterize in and if he can do so by misrepresenting terms of signal-detection theory or scientific data and findings, he is threshold-determination procedures apparently prepared to do so. because most of them remain uniden­ Key provided pretrial testimony at tifiable even when focal attention is the Judas Priest trial in Reno, Nevada, directed to them. Nevertheless, the in the summer of 1990. Two teenagers use of the term subliminal is a fait had committed suicide. Their parents accompli, and belief in such an influ­ sued Judas Priest and CBS Records ence is primarily the consequence of Inc., alleging that subliminal messages the writings and lectures of just one in Judas Priest's music contributed to person—Wilson Bryan Key (1973; the suicides. Key was testifying on 1976; 1980; 1990). Key offers no behalf of the plaintiffs, and at the trial scientific evidence to support the he responded to a question about existence of subliminal images; nor scientific methodology by saying: does he provide any empirical docu­ "Science is pretty much what you can mentation of their imputed effects get away [with] at any particular point (Creed 1987; see also Vokey and Read in history and you can get away with 1985). a great deal" (Vance/Roberson v. CBS/ In a review of Key's most recent Judas Priest, 1990: 60). This unabashed book, John O'Toole, president of the disdain for anything approaching American Association of Advertising scientific integrity has not endeared Agencies wondered: "Why is there a him to the scientific community. market for yet another re-run of this Attempting to apply scientific troubled man's paranoid nightmares?" criteria to propositions for which (Boole 1989: 26). Part of the reason there is no pretense at scientific that Key's books sell so well may be foundation is a relatively futile exer­ that they are not what they appear cise. Key's only interest in science to be. The information is not pre­ seems to be in the persuasive power sented as the subjective fantasies of of adopting a scientific posture or one person. Instead, it is presented as style. The use of scientific jargon does scientific, empirical fact. Science is not necessarily reflect scientific atti­ respectable. Consequently, if claims tudes or methods. Under these cir-

Spring 1992 275 cumstances, even to apply the term induce dramatic improvements in pseudoscience seems unwarranted. mental and psychological health. Extravagant claims notwithstand­ These devices are ostensibly capable ing, advertising may affect us in subtle of producing many desirable effects, and indirect ways. While there is no including weight loss, breast enlarge­ scientific evidence for the existence of ment, improvement of sexual func­ "embedded" figures or words, let alone tion, and relief from constipation. effects from them, the images and Subliminal tapes represent a themes contained in advertisements change in modality from visual to may well influence viewers' attitudes auditory, and now subliminal stimu­ and values without their awareness. lation is supposedly being harnessed In other words, the viewer may be well for a more noble purpose—psycho­ aware of the stimulus, but not neces­ therapy, clearly a less crass objective sarily aware of the connection than that of covert advertising. How­ between the stimulus and responses ever, the scientific grounds for sub­ or reactions to it. For example, there stantiating the utility of today's self- was a television commercial a few help tapes is as poor as was the years ago for skin cream in which a documentation for advertising effects mother and daughter were portrayed. 30 years ago. Proponents seem to have The viewer was challenged to distin­ assumed that for obtaining subliminal guish mother from daughter. Accord­ effects one modality is as good as ing to Postman (1988), the unstated another. Claims about the utility of message is that in our culture it is subliminal tapes are essentially claims desirable that a mother not look older about the subliminal perception of than her daughter. A number of social speech—a phenomenon for which scientists believe that advertising may there is very little evidence (Moore play a role in the development of 1988). The basic problem is that the personal identity and social values few studies that purport to have (Leiss, Klein, and Jhally 1986; Schud- demonstrated effects of subliminal son 1984; Wachtel 1983). It is difficult, speech used such crude methods for however, to isolate advertising's role defining subliminality that the find­ from the many other social forces at ings are quite uninteresting (e.g., work. Moreover, most research on Henley 1975; Borgeat et al. 1985). advertising effects consists of content It is not obvious what the analogue analyses of the ads themselves. Such to visual masking is for a speech signal. studies leave many unanswered ques­ Masking, in the visual domain, is tions about the impact of that content procedurally defined with relative on the viewing public. precision. The mask does not mutilate or change the target stimulus—it Subliminal Auditory Self-help Tapes simply limits the time available for perceiving the preceding target. In the When claims about covert advertising absence of the mask, the target is were raised in September 1957, the easily perceived. In the auditory New Yorker lamented that "minds had domain, the target signal is reduced been broken and entered" (Moore in volume and further attenuated by 1982). More than three decades later, the superimposition of other supra­ claims of covert subliminal manipula­ liminal material. Often the subliminal tion persist. Television commercials, "message" is accelerated or com­ magazine ads, and bookstores pro­ pressed to such a degree that the mote subliminal tapes that promise to message is unintelligible, even when

276 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Neither Theoretical Foundation Nor Experimental Evidence"

he committee's review of the products are effective, even in the available research literature absence of any actual improve­ Tleads to our conclusion that, at ments in emotion, appearance, this time, there is neither theoret­ attitude, or any other physical or ical foundation nor experimental psychological quality. evidence to support claims that subliminal self-help tapes enhance —In the Mind's Eye, human performance. . . . Committee on Techniques Several sociopsychological phe­ -for the' Enhancement of nomena, including effort justifica­ Human Performance, tion and expectancy or placebo National Research Council effects, may contribute to an (National Academy Press, erroneous judgment that self-help Washington? 1991, pp. 15-16).

supraliminal. It is an extraordinary There are subliminally embedded claim that an undetectable speech messages at work. You won't be able signal engages our nervous system to hear them consciously. But your and is perceived—consciously or not. subconscious will. And it will obey. Signal detection is an implicit sine qua [Zygon] non of most theories of speech per­ To gain control, it is necessary to ception (Massaro (1987). To assert speak to the subconscious mind in that "subliminal speech" is uncon­ a language that it comprehends— sciously perceived appears to call into we have to speak to it subliminally. question some very fundamental [Mind Communications Inc.] principles of sensory physiology. What is the nature of the signal that arrives Is there a pipeline to the id? Can at the basilar membrane? If the critical we sneak directives into the uncon­ signal is washed out or drowned out scious through the back door? There by other sounds, then on what basis may be a fundamental misconception are we to suppose that the weaker of at work here, consisting of equating the two signals becomes disentangled, unconscious perceptual processes and comprehensible? with the psychodynamic unconscious The tapes also have a dubious (Eagle 1987; Marcel 1988). Cognitive conceptual rationale in their assumed psychologists use the term unconscious therapeutic impact. Even if the mes­ to refer to perceptual processes and sage could achieve semantic represen­ effects of which we have no phenom­ tation, how or why should it affect enal awareness. Induced movement is motivation? Answering the question an example of an unconscious percep­ "How?" is important, because it tual process. Tacit knowledge of and provides the theoretical justification conformity to grammatical rules is for the practice. another example of unconscious pro-

Spring 1992 277 cessing. No one would want to argue, substantiated. however, that either of these domains The burden of proof of the viability of activity have anything to do with of these materials is on those who are the psychodynamic unconscious. Psy- promoting their use. There is no such chodynamic theorists use the term proof, and therefore the possibility of unconscious as a noun with a capital U, health fraud could be raised. These to refer to, for lack of a better term, tapes sometimes sell for as much as the id—"a cauldron full of seething $400 a set. Of even greater concern excitations," as Freud expressed it. is the fact that legitimate forms of Because semantic activation without therapy may go untried in the quest conscious awareness can be demon­ for a fast, cheap "cure." strated, some observers have jumped According to William Jarvis, pres­ to the conclusion that subliminal ident of the National Coalition stimulation provides relatively direct Against Health Fraud, a quack is access to the id. This assumption has "anyone who promotes, for financial neither theoretical nor empirical gain, a remedy known to be false, support. unsafe, or unproven" (Jarvis 1989: 4). While tape distributors often claim Fraud, on the other hand, implies that their products have been scien­ intentional deception. Consequently, tifically validated, there is no evidence not all quackery is fraud, nor is fraud of therapeutic effectiveness (e.g., synonymous with quackery. As Jarvis Auday et al. 1991; Greenwald et al. has pointed out, in some ways quacks 1991; Merikle and Skanes, in press; may be worse than frauds. "The most Russell et al. 1991). In addition, both dangerous quacks are the zealots who Merikle (1988) and Moore (1991a) will take the poison themselves in have conducted studies that showed their enthusiasm for their nostrums. that many tapes do not appear to Sincerity may make quacks more contain the sort of signal that could, socially tolerable, but it goes far in in principle, allow subliminal percep­ enhancing their danger to the public" tion to occur. (Jarvis 1989: 4). Quite apart from the lack of empir­ ical support, there is little or no Scientists, the Media, and the theoretical motivation for expecting Popularization of Science therapeutic effects from such stimuli. The "explanation" consists of attribut­ The popularity and interest in the ing to the systemic unconscious topic of subliminal influences—both whatever mechanisms or processes inside and outside academic circles— would be logically necessary in order can be attributed, in part, to media for the effects to occur. Because there coverage (c.f., Pratkanis, this issue). is no independent evidence for such Conspiracy theories make good copy, "unconscious" perceptual processes, it and in subliminal advertising we have is not surprising that there is no a large-scale technological conspiracy evidence for the imputed effects (see to control people's minds with invis­ Eich and Hyman 1991; Moore 1991b). ible stimuli. With subliminal tapes you Furthermore, Greenwald (in press) can allegedly change your behavior has recently queried the conven­ and your personality in profound and tional psychoanalytic conception of important ways—effortlessly and a sophisticated unconscious proces­ painlessly. The quick fix of psycho­ sor, arguing that it is neither theo­ therapy is an intriguing notion. It is retically necessary nor empirically therefore small wonder that it con-

278 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 tinues to be a popular topic for writers. Carl Sagan (1987) has suggested that pseudoscience flourishes because "Quite apart from the lack of the scientific community does a poor empirical substantiation, there job of communicating its findings. To propose that we can be influenced in is little or no theoretical dramatic ways by undetectable stimuli motivation for expecting is a remarkable claim with little scientific support, but blaming jour­ therapeutic effects nalists for promulgating the claim from such stimuli." absolves the scientific community from any responsibility in the educa­ tional process. Relations between is not always laughable. Consider the scientists and the press could be self-help tape for survivors of sexual improved if scientists communicated abuse; the user is informed that lasting more clearly. Researchers take such relief from the trauma of abuse is great pains to avoid making absolute contingent upon the victim's acknowl­ pronouncements that they often err edgment of their own role in causing in the opposite direction. We some­ the abuse in the first place (Moore times speak with a tentativeness that 1991b). belies the facts, understating our confidence that some propositions are Conclusion true and that others are false (Roth- man 1989). When we talk to the press, Subliminal advertising and psycho­ we need to speak plainly. For example, therapeutic effects from subliminal Phil Merikle recently observed that tapes are ideas whose scientific status "there's unanimous opinion that appears to be on a par with wearing subliminal tapes are a complete sham copper bracelets to cure arthritis. Not and a fraud" (Rae 1991). Merikle is even the most liberal speculations correct, but such candor is relatively regarding the use of subliminal tech­ rare. Who will distinguish science niques for "practical" purposes impute from pseudoscience if not the any potential utility to these practices scientists? (Bornstein 1989). The interesting Paradoxically, while negative scien­ question to ask is not "Do subliminal tific evidence continues to accumulate, advertising techniques or subliminal the subliminal-tape industry—fueled auditory tapes work?" but, rather, by aggressive advertising cam­ "How did these implausible ideas ever paigns—thrives. As Burnham (1987) acquire such an undeserved mantle of has noted, advertising's authority scientific respectability?" The answer often derives from the use of scientific involves a complex interplay of public regalia. Advertising's purpose is, attitudes toward science, how social however, antithetical to that of science is popularized in the mass science: "Advertisers [are] engaged in media, and how the scientific com­ remystifying the world, not demysti­ munity communicates to those out­ fying it" (Burnham 1987: 247). side the scientific community. Carl Extraordinary claims, if they are Sagan may be right—pseudoscience repeated often enough, can perpetu­ will flourish if scientists don't take ate extraordinary beliefs. When non­ more responsibility for the accurate sense masquerades as science and dissemination of scientific informa­ magic is diguised as therapy, the result tion.

Spring 1992 279 According to Burnham (1987), responses to masked auditory stimuli. superstition has triumphed over Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 30:22-27. rationalism and skepticism partly Bornstein, R. F. 1989. Subliminal techniques as propaganda tools: Review and critique. because scientists no longer engage in Journal of Mind and Behavior, 10:231-262. the popularization of science—sum­ Burnham, J. C. 1987. How Superstition Won marizing, simplifying, and translating and Science Lost: Popularizing Science and scientific findings for lay audiences. Health in the United States. New Bruns­ The function of popularizing science wick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. Cheesman, J., and P. M. Merikle. 1986. and health is now carried out by Distinguishing conscious from uncon­ journalists and educators. Conse­ scious perceptual processes. Canadian quently, many topics, including this journal of Psychology, 40:343-367. one, receive coverage that is, at best, Creed, T. L. 1987. Subliminal deception: deficient in background information Pseudoscience on the college lecture circuit. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 11:358-366. and meaningful context, and at worst, Eagle, M. 1987. "The Psychoanalytic and the fragmented and misleading. Further Cognitive Unconscious." In Theories of the confusion is caused by the tendency Unconscious and Theories of the Self, edited among journalists to manufacture by R. Stern. Hillsdale, N.J.: Analytic Press. controversies where none exists by Eich, E., and R. Hyman. 1991. Subliminal self-help. In In the Mind's Eye: Enhancing juxtaposing the pronouncements of Human Performance, edited by D. Druck- "authorities" who contradict one man and R. Bjork. Washington, D.C.: another. If all authorities (including National Academy Press. those with financial stakes in their Eriksen, C. W. 1960. Discrimination and positions) are equally admissible, learning without awareness: A methodo­ logical survey and evaluation. Psycholog­ controversies abound. ical Review, 67:279-300. Greenwald, A. G. In press. New look 3: A paradigm shift reclaims the unconscious. Note American Psychologist. Greenwald, A. G., E. R. Spangenberg, and I am grateful to Phil Merikle and Anthony J. Eskenazi. 1991. Double-blind tests of Pratkanis for comments on an earlier draft subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psycho­ of this paper, portions of which were logical Science, 2:119-122. presented to the American Speech and Henley, S. 1975. Cross-modal effects of Hearing Association's annual convention in subliminal verbal stimuli. Scandinavian St. Louis, November 18, 1989, to the Journal of Psychology, 16:30-36. American Psychological Association's annual Jarvis, W. 1989. What constitutes quackery? convention in Boston, August 12, 1990, and NCAHF Newsletter, 12(4):4-5. to the annual convention of the Committee Key, W. B. 1973. Subliminal Seduction. for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Signet. the Paranormal, Berkeley, Calif., May 2, . 1976. Media Sexploitation. Englewood 1991. Inquiries should be directed to Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Timothy E. Moore, Department of Psychol­ . 1980. The Clam-Plate Orgy. Engle­ ogy, Glendon College, York University, 2275 wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Bayview Ave., Toronto, Ont. M4N 3M6. . 1990. The Age of Manipulation: The E-mail: GL2500020@YUVENUS. Con in Confidence, the Sin in Sincere. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. References Leiss, W., S. Kline, and S. Jhally. 1986. Social Communication in Advertising. Toronto: Auday, B. C, J. L. Mellett, and P. M. Williams. Methuen. 1991. "Self-improvement Using Sublim­ Marcel, A. J. 1988. "Electrophysiology and inal Self-help Audiotapes: Consumer Meaning in Cognitive Science and Benefit or Consumer Fraud?" Paper Dynamic Psychology—Comments on presented at the meeting of the Western 'Unconscious Conflict: A Convergent Psychological Association, San Francisco, Psychodyamic and Electrophysical April. Approach.' " In Psychodynamics ana Cog­ Borgeat, F., R. Elie, L. Chaloult, and R. nition, edited by M. J. Horowitz. Chicago: Chabot. 1985. Psychophysiological University of Chicago Press.

280 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Subliminal Tapes: How to Get the Message Across i

BRADY J. PHELPS and MARY E. EXUM

seudoscience is alive and well. One reason for this is that members of the scientific Pcommunity do a poor job of communicat­ ing their arguments and findings (Sagan 1987). In publicizing criticisms of pseudoscience, scientists may actually cause those sympathetic to pseudoscience to stop listening (Kurtz 1988). Furthermore, members of the scientific com­ munity and adherents of pseudoscience do not Scientists should share much common ground. They do not use adopt the role of the same methods or have the same understand­ ing of the importance of rigorous scientific consumer procedures. They do not share a similar scientific watchdogs and language (or at least the same referents to the words used), and they do not use the same consumer journals to communicate their findings. Most educators about important, scientists and pseudoscientists have vastly different backgrounds, different reasons subliminal tapes and motivations for conducting and publicizing and other their respective findings, and very different pseudosciences. audiences. One who identifies as a scientist and conducts scientific research regularly is usually associated with an institution of higher learning or a research center devoted to specific types of issues. Such a person may hold a doctorate or master's degree from a university whose goal, in part, has been to teach how to conduct sound, replicable research with clearly defined inde­ pendent and dependent variables and with minimal interference from confounding extraneous variables. A graduate from a research program presumably has learned to value the scientific process. Association with a reputable institution helps to ensure that

282 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 SUBLIMINAL MULTI-PROGRAMS Twice The Power At Half

The "Subliminal Tapes" ad appeared in New Age magazine (January/February 1992); the other two were in Omn/(November 1991). researchers conduct and publish work prestigious-sounding organizational that meets the scientific standards of name to which benefactors can make that institution. Scientists usually do donations. Those who mislead people not make money from their research by labeling unscientific research findings. They may earn prestige findings as scientific tend to incite among other scientists and may scientists to call them "pseudoscient­ receive benefits for writing successful ists" and to call those they deceive grants. A scientist typically does not "gullible believers in nonsense." have the time, knowledge, or motiva­ The name-calling and arguments tion to engage in the marketing of a typically take the form of attack and finished product for mass consump­ ridicule. But what is the forum for tion. these interchanges? Given that scient­ "Pseudoscientists" usually do not ists and pseudoscientists travel in assign this label to themselves. Rarely different circles, the scientific view­ does one say "Hello, I'm a pseudo- point needs to be presented in the scientist from Brand X Institute [or, arena where pseudoscience finds its I am just freelancing]. Please make believers, that is, in everyday forms that distinction. I'm a pseudoscientist, of information dissemination. A letter not a scientist." The problem arises to the editor may not be published, when a person promotes unscientific or if published it may not be read. findings as scientific and attempts to Asking a newspaper to cover the get others to behave in accord with scientific position of a sensationalized the findings as though they had been pseudoscientific finding may be help­ obtained in a scientific manner. To ful if reports of both positions are lend credence to their findings, some published at the same time, which pseudoscientists may establish a assumes you have advance notice of

Spring 1992 283 ^

such stories. Countering paid adver­ proponents. tising by pseudoscientists with paid As is well known, subliminal tapes advertisements for the validity and typically have an audible side, on superiority of the scientific method is which the message is clearly present. possible, but not probable, since On the opposite side, however, all one pseudoscientists run advertisements typically hears is subdued music to make money and scientists would intended to "lull the listener into be paying for an ad to keep people relaxation wherein the subliminal from wasting money. However, a messages can work." Of course one common means of communicating can't hear the message, only the information is through day-to-day music. It is at this point that a scientist conversation. Personal testimonials may suggest that it is impossible for are a powerful form of persuasion. a weak stimulus to compete success­ But why would believers in com­ fully against more powerful stimuli mercial pseudoscientific products (Dixon 1971) for either selective want to hear what we have to say? attention or control of behavior. They wouldn't, unless we as scientists Unfortunately, while this logic may be can offer something of more value and perfectly obvious to us, many sublim­ utility than the pseudoscientists do. inal subscribers would now stop We suggest that if scientists were to listening to the scientist. adopt the role of consumer watchdogs How to continue the conversation and consumer educators, more people at this point depends upon your time would be likely to listen. and patience as well as your motiva­ Among the most widely marketed tion to educate or irritate. You may pseudoscience products today are decide to assume the message is there "subliminal" tapes. These tapes, which and ask the proponent or salesperson their manufacturers claim will provide why we can't hear it. Predictably, the quick, effortless solutions for many answer will be that the message only personal problems, can be found interacts with the unconscious mind virtually anywhere. They are even without our awareness. Now you advertised in publications devoted to counter that whether the message promoting science, such as Discover works with the unconscious or the magazine. Although such tapes are conscious mind, such a message still ubiquitous, there is a lack of empirical needs to impinge on the nervous evidence for any effectiveness beyond system through auditory receptors. that of a "placebo" effect (Glover 1979; So why can't our ears hear the Dutto and Galli 1982; Treimer and message? Simonson 1986). Psychology, the Most often, the proponent will say scientific discipline supposedly either that the message has been devoted to the explanation of human increased to such a high frequency behavior, has had little success in that it is beyond our range of percep­ disputing the viability of such prod­ tion or that it is at too low a frequency ucts (Anastasi 1964; Dudley 1987; or volume, but that it certainly is Goldiamond 1966; Moore 1982,1985; there. Such a reply acknowledges that Saegert 1987; Schulman 1981). Part the message is beyond the range of of psychology's lack of success in human auditory perception! If you countering the claims for these prod­ then raise that point, ironically the ucts may be attributed to points made subliminal proponent will agree. You earlier concerning communication might now ask if a dog or a bat could problems and the motivation of the hear the message. We have, in fact,

284 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 received affirmative answers to this mystify the operation of such tapes. question from clerks intent on sales. In addition, it may be helpful to point Our next question has been, of course: out that 30 testimonials from 30 Can these tapes help my dog lose people would be vastly different from weight, or help my bat to develop a 30 testimonials from among 500 more positive self-esteem? At this people. In other words, how many point, we have been asked to leave the negative or neutral outcomes were store, had the phone suddenly discon­ there? nected, or found fellow customers You may also question the high cost laughing as the ludicrous nature of of the tapes and explain that paying subliminal tapes became apparent. But a lot for a product makes one more such an approach does little to teach likely to persist in believing that there people to engage in scientific thinking are qualities for success residing in the or to become discriminating, thought­ product's use. You may question the ful shoppers. bottom-line motivation and qualifica­ Actually, the messages on sublim­ tions of the seller and the product inal tapes can't be heard because they researcher. You may inquire about the are in fact not there. Merikle (1988) consumer's knowledge of the scientific conducted a spectrographic analysis of method and offer to fill in missing several subliminal audiotapes and facts. You should use commonly found no evidence for the presence of understood examples of consumer any identifiable speech sounds. If you safety and the rigorous testing most were to present this data to the products must pass depending upon subliminal subscribers, they would the category of the product. For stop listening, because they prefer to example, why must a tire for a car believe individual testimonials. They meet higher testing standards than a choose to believe something, any­ pressurized tire for a toy? If a product thing, that will offer them even the can be marketed without passing hope of relief from their problems. rigorous tests, how effective can it be, Instead of a direct confrontation, and what kind of product can it be? one might ask them if they can think There is a big difference between of alternative hypotheses to account testing that proves a product does not for any beneficial effects of such tapes. cause harm and testing that proves Remember, the intended message is that a product actually has a beneficial audible on one side. Presumably effect. people will listen to the audible side In addition to all of the above, at least once so they will know what depending on your ability to be per­ it is they are supposed to hear on the sonable and patient, you need to be subliminal side. After hearing the able to offer people alternatives for message, when they subsequently solving their problems other than listen to the inaudible side they may buying subliminal tapes, resorting to rehearse to themselves what they are drugs, or joining the latest New Age supposed to be hearing. Even if they fringe group. What do you have to do not listen to the audible side, the offer them in the way of incorporating label on the tape will prompt them to scientific thinking and principles into think about what it is they want their lives to help better solve their changed and how they might achieve problems? First, one might try to those changes. Your providing plaus­ convince them that there are no quick ible reasons for the positive results and painless solutions for maladaptive from the testimonials may help de­ behaviors or thought patterns that

Spring 1992 285 have developed over many years. Part Dixon, N. F. 1971. Subliminal Perception: The of this involves warning them about Nature of a Controversy. London: charlatans who in order to make a McGraw-Hill. Dudley, S. 1987. Subliminal advertising: quick profit encourage the belief that What is the controversy about? Akron there are quick cures. Effective and Business and Economic Review, 18:6-18. lasting behavior-changing of any kind Dutto, F. N., and N. Galli. 1982. The effects actually involves concentrated effort, of noxious subliminal suggestion upon also called work, and adherence to smoking atttitudes and behavior. EDRS, Document #ED 217 359. certain data-based prescriptive guide­ Glover, E. D. 1979. Decreasing smoking lines. Second, people need reassurance behavior through subliminal stimulation that they can solve their problems by treatments. Journal of Drug Education, resorting to the use of professional, 9:273-283. legitimate, and scientifically supported Goldiamond, I. 1966. "Statement on Sublim­ inal Advertising." In Control of Human materials and personal commitment. Behavior, vol. 1, edited by R. Ulrich, T. Low-cost self-help groups based on Stachnik, and J. Mabry. Glenview, 111.: scientific principles are always a viable Scott Foresman. option. Third, you need to try to Kurtz, P. 1988. Skeptic's burnout: Hard convince them that learning some weeks on the astrology battle line. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 13:4-6. basic, logical, scientific principles, and Merikle, D. M. 1988. Subliminal auditory how to define problems objectively, messages: An evaluation. Psychology & will help them solve future problems Marketing, 5:355-372. or avoid them altogether. Moore, T. E. 1982. Subliminal advertising: What you see is what you get. journal Finally, as a result of these actions, of Marketing, 46:38-47. you will demonstrate that scientists . 1985. Subliminal delusion. Psychology are concerned about their fellow Today, May, pp. 9-10. human beings and that they want to Sagan, C. 1987. The burden of skepticism. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 12:38-46. share scientific knowledge where the Saegert, J. 1987. Why marketing should quit impact is greatest. If a scientist only giving subliminal advertising the benefit applies the scientific method in his or of the doubt. Psychology & Marketing, her research and is not able or willing 4:107-120. Schulman, M. 1981. The great conspiracy. to share the applicability of this [Review of "The Clam Plate Orgy."] method for solving everyday human Journal of Communication, 31:209. problems, then there is little ground Treimer, M., and M. R. Simonson. 1986. "Old to argue with the pseudoscientists, Wine in New Bottles: Subliminal Mes­ who are more than happy to fill the sages in Instructional Media." Paper presented at the Annual Convention of void. the Association for Educational Com­ munications Technology, Las Vegas, Nev. References

Anastasi, A. 1964. "Subliminal Perception." Brady Phelps and Mary Exum are in In Fields of Applied Psychology, edited by the Department of Psychology, Utah State A. Anastasi. New York: McGraw-Hill. University, Logan, Utah 84322.

286 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 The Avro VZ-9 Flying Saucer'

WILLIAM B. BLAKE

he claims that the U.S. government recov­ ered "crashed flying saucers" in 1947, to­ Tgether with the many "UFO" sightings since that date, raise an interesting question. Did the United States ever attempt to build and fly a manned flying saucer? The answer is yes. In the 1950s the U.S. funded Avro Aircraft Limited of Canada to build a saucer-shaped craft. What follows is a summary of that effort from L" historical records, including once "secret" pho­ tos of an experimental Avro saucer and other £. Did the US. ever concepts for saucer-shaped craft. Because of serious, intrinsic stability problems, the U.S. Air attempt to build Force/Army flying-saucer effort ended in failure and fly a manned a quarter-century ago. In 1952, Avro Aircraft Ltd., located near flying saucer? The Toronto, began a design study for a supersonic answer is yes. fighter-bomber airplane with a circular wing. The study was funded by a $400,000 contract from the Canadian government. The vehicle was intended to take off and land vertically, like a helicopter. The idea was to duct the jet exhaust to form a peripheral curtain of air underneath the vehicle. This would create a cushion of air on which the vehicle could "float." To transition from hover to high-speed flight, the jet exhaust would slowly be directed aft. Lift would be provided by the circular wing. After the initial contract, the Canadian government abandoned the project as being too costly. Enough progress had been made, however, to interest the U.S. government. In July 1954, the first of two Air Force contracts totaling $1.9 million was awarded to Avro for further study. Avro added $2.5 million of com­ pany funds to the effort and completed a series of design studies and small-scale tests on a vehicle designated the P.V. 704 (U.S. designa­ tion, System 606A). The 606A design was

Spring 1992 Artist's conception, formerly "secret," of Project 1794. an early Avro design for saucer-shaped manned flying disks. almost 30 ft. in diameter with a demonstrate the design features of maximum weight of 27,000 lbs. and the 606A concept in a shorter time design speed over 1,000 mph. with much lower costs. The resulting The Army became interested in the craft was named Avrocar and given circular-wing concept and convinced the Army designation VZ-9AV (ninth the Air Force to redirect its effort in in a series of vertical take-off research 1958. The Army felt that the circular aircraft). Most of the VZ-series air­ wing could fit in with its plans to craft looked like props from a James develop a "flying jeep" for improved Bond movie. battlefield survivability. The Air Force The Avrocar was a saucer-shaped agreed because it felt a small, subsonic disk 18 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. thick. research vehicle could be used to It was designed to go 300 mph and

288 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 OBSERVER'S CAB

7

UPPER ANNULAR J 6919 TURBOJETS OPERATORS CAB CONTROL NOZZLE LOWER ANNULAR CONTROL NOZZLE Cutaway drawing of the Avrocar vehicle, a saucer-shaped disk 18 feet in diameter, showing separate cockpits for two crew members.

>•».

Photograph, formerly classified "secret," of the Avrocar Test vehicle. Its first untethered flight, November 12, 1959, revealed serious instability problems that were never solved.

Spring 1992 289 A design for a circular-wing fighter-bomber that was never built. fly to an altitude of 10,000 ft. It at Avro for flight testing. weighed 5,650 lbs. and had separate The first flight occurred on Sep­ cockpits for two crew members. tember 29,1959. The Avrocar was tied Power was provided by a centrally to the ground for safety purposes. located fan with a diameter of 5 feet. This flight lasted only 12 seconds, This was driven by the exhaust from while the machine wobbled like a giant three Continental J-69 turbojet tiddlywink. The first untethered flight engines. The flow from the fan was occurred on November 12, 1959. ducted to the periphery of the plan- These initial flights revealed a second form. An adjustable ring along the major problem. At a height of 3 feet periphery was used to control the above the ground, uncontrollable direction of the thrust. Two full-scale pitching and rolling motions were vehicles were built and were rolled out encountered. The motion was termed of the factory in May and August of hubcapping. The problem resulted 1959. from an erosion of the ground cushion Ground tests of the full-scale as height was increased. Flight above propulsion system revealed there was this height was impossible. not enough thrust available for hover Two formal Air Force flight eval­ out of the presence of the ground uations were conducted at Avro, in cushion. This was the first major April 1960 and June 1961. During problem with the program. The these tests, the vehicle reached a primary causes were large losses due maximum speed of 35 mph. All at­ to the complicated ducting of the flow tempts to control the "hubcapping" and high internal temperatures that were unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the degraded the performance of the J- Ames wind-tunnel tests had shown 69s. All that could be done was to that the VZ-9 had insufficient control study the usefulness of the Avrocar for high-speed flight and was aerody- as a ground-effect machine. At this namically unstable. The addition of a point, the first Avrocar was sent to conventional horizontal tail did not NASA Ames, Moffett Field, Califor­ improve the situation. Thus, even if nia, for wind-tunnel testing. Only it could escape the ground cushion, the here could its potential for forward Avrocar would be unable to sustain flight (away from the ground) be high-speed flight. assessed. The second vehicle remained Because the technical problems

290 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 were insurmountable, the program Development Program—VTOL Supersonic was terminated in December 1961. A Aircraft. total of $10 million had been spent. Technical aspects: One VZ-9 was scrapped; the other was given to the Smithsonian Insti­ Avro Aircraft Limited, 1959 (declassified tution. It now resides at the Smith­ 1971). The Avrocar Design. sonian Air & Space Museum Annex Greif, R. K., and W. H. Tolhurst, Jr. 1963. Large Scale Wind-Tunnel Tests of a Circular in Silver Hill, Maryland. Plan-Form Aircraft with a Peripheral Jet for The VZ-9 was the most ambitious Lift, Thrust, and Control. NASA Technical flying-saucer research program, but Note D-1432. not the only one. Many ground- Lindenbaum, B. L. 1990. Historical Notes U9— Avrocar. Revolutions, vol. 1, no. 6, pub­ cushion vehicle designs of the 1960s lished by the Archimedes Rotorcraft and were saucer-shaped. The Convair V/STOL Museum, Brookville, Ohio. Division of General Dynamics Murray, D. C. 1990. The AVRO VZ-9 designed a 459-ft.-diameter vehicle Experimental Aircraft—Lessons Learned. with a gross weight of 4 million lbs. Presented at the AIAA Design, Systems, and Operations Meeting, September This monster was intended to span the 1990, Dayton, Ohio. oceans for naval operations. A nuclear reactor would provide the 150,000 hp Demise of the program: necessary for operation. Obviously, it Deckert, Lt. W. H., and Maj. W. J. Hodgson. was never built. The remnants of 1962. Avrocar Flight Evaluation. Air Force these early efforts can be seen crossing Flight Test Center Report FTC-TDR-61- the English channel today. Modern 56, January. hovercraft use the same ground- cushion effect that gave early impetus Although it contains minor errors, the best generally available technical summary of the to the flying-saucer research projects. VZ-9 effort is given in:

Rogers, M. 1989. VTOL Military Research Source Material Aircraft. New York: Orion Books. William Blake is an aerospace engineer Genesis of the program: at the Wright Laboratory, Wright- Avro Aircraft Limited, 1959 (declassified Patterson Air Force Base (mailing address 1971). Pre-phase 1 Part 1 and Part 2 WL/F1GC, WPAFB, OH 45433).

A REMINDER ...

All subscription correspondence (new subscriptions, renewals, back-issue orders, billing problems) should be addressed to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, BOX 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703 All editorial correspondence (manuscripts, letters to the editor, books for review, authors' queries) should be addressed to the Editor's office in Albuquerque: Kendrick Frazier, Editor, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto Dr. N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111 Inquiries concerning CSICOP programs or policies should be addressed to: Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703

Spring 1992 291 Two 19th-century Skeptics Augustus De Morgan and John Fiske i MILTON A. ROTHMAN

here were skeptics before CSICOP, and enthusiastic debunkers of pseudoscience Texisted even before Martin Gardner and L. Sprague de Camp began their honorable careers. In this article I would like to focus on two prominent nineteenth-century scholars who wrote extensively on the side of reality and reason but who are now somewhat forgotten. Reading their inquiries and exposures provides some valuable perspectives on the crank literature of today. Two skeptical inquirers into the Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) paradoxers, Augustus De Morgan was an English mathe­ cranks, crotchets, matician, educated at Cambridge and superior in mathematical ability to any of his class. He and eccentric was a voracious reader and dabbled in philo­ literature of their sophy and religion, but he refused to become a member of any particular church, calling time show us that himself a "christian unattached." After finding not very much the study of law too unpalatable, he was elected the first professor of mathematics at the newly has changed. formed University of London. He was a popular lecturer and is described as having "a quaint humour, and a thorough contempt for sham knowledge and low aims in study."1 De Morgan wrote extensively in mathemat­ ics and logic, but is perhaps best remembered for his book A Budget of Paradoxes, a delightful and sometimes hilarious account of his dealings with sundry characters he called "paradoxers."2 To understand the title of the book we must take into account certain changes in the English language that have taken place since 1872. A glance into the Oxford English Dictionary informs

292 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 us that the word "budget" has as its after getting a laugh out of them. De first meaning a "pouch, bag, or wallet, Morgan, on the other hand, saved usually of leather." In the third hundreds of letters and incorporated meaning given, the word has evolved them into his book, adding his own to "the contents of the pouch." Then humorous and sometimes caustic we find that "Budget" is often used comments. as the title for a journal, such as The There were three major crotchets Pall Mall Budget. This seems to be the that obsessed De Morgan's paradox­ meaning we are looking for. A budget ers. These were the classical mathe­ of paradoxes is a journal or collection matical problems called "squaring the of paradoxes. We need only to make circle," "trisecting the angle," and sense of "paradoxes." In the present "duplicating the cube." In brief, the era we are used to thinking of a problems are as follows: paradox as a set of contradictions. 1. Squaring the circle means find­ However, the first definition in the ing a circle whose area is exactly equal OED is closer to the meaning that to that of a given square. applies here: A paradox is a marvelous 2. Trisecting the angle means or incredible belief which is at odds with dividing any given angle into three established truth. Indeed, it is the exactly equal parts. opposite of "orthodox," mak­ ing it almost identical to what we would call "paranormal." A paradoxer, then, is a person with beliefs so unor­ thodox that he or she could be called a crank or crackpot if we wanted to be unkind. It might be worthwhile to resurrect the term, for there is no other word in the lan­ guage that carries the same meaning without being libe- lously pejorative. Another archaic term used by De Morgan and also worth resurrecting is the word "crotchet," which refers to an obsessive belief or preoccupa­ tion carried about by a paradoxer. The crotchets that inter­ ested De Morgan were mathematical. Since he was a well-known mathematician, he frequently received letters from paradoxers touting their pet theories. Most scientists receive occasional letters of this nature and toss them into the round file

Spring 1992 293 3. Duplicating the cube means lies not merely in De Morgan's tilting constructing a cube whose volume is at mathematical cranks, but in his exactly double that of a given cube. detailed history of crankery of all All of these problems are to be types, his diversions into numerology, solved geometrically, using only a the history of and sundry curiosities straightedge and compass. relating to n, and his mathematical When these problems originated in discussions of the reasons for consid­ Greece, two millennia ago, there was ering circle-squaring and so on to be no reason to believe that major paradoxes. obstacles stood in the way of their The flavor of his style can be seen solution. It was not until late in the in the opening paragraph of the book's nineteenth century that modern introduction: mathematics proved rigorously that no solutions to the three problems If I had before me a fly and an elephant, having never seen more exist. It is not just that the solutions than one such magnitude of either are too complex or difficult. The fact kind; and if the fly were to endeavor is that the three operations described to persuade me that he was larger are mathematically impossible. The than the elephant, I might by first problem is related to the task of possibility be placed in a difficulty. finding an exact value for the number The apparently little creature might 7i (3.14159 ), which as we now know use such arguments about the effect is a transcendental number, a number of distance, and might appeal to such laws of sight and hearing as with decimals that go on without end. I, if unlearned in those things, might The third problem involves finding be unable wholly to reject. But if the cube root of 2, which cannot be there were a thousand flies, all done geometrically with ruler and buzzing, to appearance, about the compass. (For more details see Kasner great creature; and, to a fly, declar­ and Newman.3) ing, each one for himself, that he Of course, whenever you say that was bigger than the quadruped; and something is impossible, it is like all giving different and frequently waving a red flag in front of a bull. contradictory reasons; and each one despising and opposing the reasons To the dedicated paradoxer nothing of others—I should feel quite at my is impossible. The consequence is that ease. I should certainly say, My little the lives of men with little real friends, the case of each one of you knowledge of mathematics are spent is destroyed by the rest. I intend to writing papers and letters and pam­ show flies in the swarm, with a few phlets, filling them with their illusory larger animals, for reasons to be "proofs" that the circle really can be given. squared and the angle trisected. The number TC and its associated problems Later on he admits to a certain has caused more crankiness than any combativeness, for reasons given by other entity in mathematics. (In 1887 a certain Colonel Quagg (who might the Indiana legislature was almost be identified by a reader more expert persuaded to define the value of it by in English literature than I am), as law. The bill was actually passed by follows: "I licks ye because I kin, and the House, but fortunately a proper because I like, and because ye's critters mathematician came along and in the that licks is good for!" In today's nick of time persuaded the Senate to litigious atmosphere we skeptics feel 4 defeat it. ) constrained to be more polite toward The value of A Budget of Paradoxes our adversaries.

294 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 John Fiske (1842-1901) physics? Why were crazy interpreta­ tions of the Book of Daniel grouped John Fiske was the American coun­ along with works of solid biblical terpart of Augustus De Morgan. scholarship? Clearly reform was Although he is almost totally forgot­ necessary. Fiske proposed to group ten now, he was a very popular these crank publications under lecturer on history, philosophy, and "Insane Literature." However, it was science in his day. Fiske was born in called to his attention that this appel­ Hartford, Connecticut, and at the age lation might hurt the feelings of of eight wrote that he had then read certain living authors, so he decided about two hundred volumes, mostly to change the classification to "Eccen­ on philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, tric Literature." grammar, mathematics, and "miscel­ During the course of this reclas­ 5 laneous things." By the age of 20 he sification project, Fiske became famil­ could read in at least 12 languages. iar with much of the eccentric At Harvard, he aligned himself with literature of the day. In his case the most advanced thinkers of the day familiarity bred contempt. A feeling in support of evolution—and this in for his style and attitude can be 1862, when Origin of Species had just gleaned from the following paragraph: appeared in print. Whereupon the Harvard authorities threatened him Just where the line should be drawn with expulsion. In spite of this setback between sanity and crankery is not he managed to graduate in 1863. After always easy to determine, and must a brief fling at the practice of law, he usually be left to soundness of was hired by Harvard in 1869 to give judgment in each particular case, as with so many other questions of all a course of lectures on "The Positive grades, from the supreme court Philosophy." Harvard's change of down to the kitchen. One of the heart was occasioned by the election most frequent traits of your crank of Charles W. Eliot to president of the is his megalomania, or self- college. In 1872 Fiske was appointed magnification. His intellectual assistant librarian of the college, a equipment is so slender that he position he held for seven years. Soon cannot see wherein he is inferior to after becoming librarian he published Descartes or Newton. Without his first important book, Myths and enough knowledge to place him in Myth-Makers (now out of print), and the sixth form of a grammar school, he will assail the conclusions of the was launched upon a busy career as greatest minds the world has seen. a writer and lecturer. His mood is belligerent; since people One of Fiske's final publications will not take him at his own valua­ tion, he is apt to regard society as was A Century of Science, a collection engaged in a conspiracy to ignore of essays, one of which is titled "Some 6 and belittle him. Of humour he is Cranks and their Crotchets." In this pretty sure to be destitute; an essay he relates that, when he was abounding sense of the ludicrous is librarian at Harvard and trying to one of the best safeguards of mental straighten out the card catalogue, he health, and even a slight endow­ came across many books that seemed ment will usually nip and stunt the to be listed under the wrong catego­ fungus growth of crankery. ries. Why should a pamphlet on circle- squaring be listed under mathematics? Fiske then proceeds to survey the Why should a tract describing a cranks and crotchets of the nineteenth perpetual-motion machine be under century, beginning with De Morgan's

Spring 1992 295 collection of circle-squarers and angle- by the Mongols receives some notice. trisecters. In 1833, a Captain Forman The widespread presence of mastodon of the Royal Navy wrote against the fossils was taken by many as evidence law of gravitation and got no notice that the Mongol hordes had arrived whatsoever. Perpetual motion and the in our hemisphere on the backs of infamous Keely motor are mentioned, elephants. as is a Captain Roblin of Normandy, A fair amount of lunacy connected who in 1861 ascertained the sites of with religion comes under Fiske's lens. sundry gold mines through his study Edwin Johnson published a book in of the zodiac and set forth a proposal 1890 called The Rise of Christendom, for a stock company to dig and be rich. according to which the rise of Chris­ It is not mentioned how rich he be­ tendom began in the twelfth century, came. preceded by two centuries of Hebrew Quite a number of characters, religion, which started in Moslem unsatisfied with the conventional Spain. Johnson asserted that what we shape of the earth as determined by believe to be the history of Israel as astronomers, proposed their own well as of the first eleven Christian variations. Herr Johannes von Gum- centuries is a gigantic lie, concocted pach published in 1861 a pamphlet in the thirteenth century by the titled A Million's Worth of Property and monks of St. Basil and St. Benedict. Five Hundred Lives Annually Lost at Sea There is also mention of the Bacon- by the Theory of Gravitation, A Letter Shakespeare lunacy, to which Fiske on the True Figure of the Earth, Addressed devotes an entire chapter titled "The to the Astronomer Royal. Gumpach Bacon-Shakespeare Folly." While thought the earth was elongated many authors have tried to attribute rather than flattened at the poles. Shakespeare's work to others, Fiske Others thought the earth was flat, and lays the beginning of the fad to Delia others thought that it was spherical Bacon, a member of the distinguished but hollow, with large openings at the Connecticut family. In The Philosophy poles leading to the interior world. of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded (1857), Captain John Cleves Symmes, a she attempted to show that the plays retired army officer living in St. Louis, of Shakespeare were actually written achieved some fame between 1818 and by Francis Bacon. The reasoning was 1829 by writing and lecturing on his that the plays show evidence of great hollow-earth theory. (Why are so erudition and scholarship, which the many retired captains among the uneducated William Shakespeare nineteenth-century paradoxers?) A could not have picked up on his own. Captain Wiggins was supposed to Therefore someone else must have have visited the interior world, finding done it. The controversy over this it inhabited by tall people with Roman matter has never died out, although noses who spoke Hebrew. (The inner Delia Bacon was unfortunate enough world was a favorite destination for to die two years after the publication the Lost Tribes of Israel.) of her book, in a Hartford insane Fiske then comments that "a asylum. favourite occupation of cranks is the Fiske dedicates several pages to a discovery of hidden meanings in religious community in Petersham, things," after which he proceeds to Massachusetts, whose members skewer sundry pyramidologists and believed that they were going to live numerologists. The presumed con­ forever because of their correct quest of Mexico and South America thinking and living, and also because

296 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 their leader, Father Howland, was the sends up every persuasion of para- incarnation of the third member of the doxer from Egypt to contemporary Trinity. This community was founded computerized numerologists. This in the 1860s and carried on for a few book is Foucault's Pendulum, by decades. Its faith was unshaken by the Umberto Eco (reviewed in SI, Fall first few deaths in the group, but 1991). In this brilliant work Eco lays when Father Howland himself died in waste every occult cult in history, with a horse-and-buggy accident, "then a particular attention paid to the Tem­ note of consternation mingled with plars and the Rosicrucians, and with the genuine mourning of the little side sallies in the direction of the community. It was a perplexing prov­ astrologers, the pyramidologists, and idence." However, faith prevailed, and the numerologists. the immortality myth began to be replaced by a resurrection myth. Fiske, Notes from his own observations based on several visits, concluded that the 1. The Dictionary of of National Biography, vol. 5, ed. by L. Stephen and S. Lee (London: members of this group "seemed polite Oxford University Press, 1921, 1967). and gentle in manner; their simple- 2. A. De Morgan, A Budget of Paradoxes, mindedness was noticeable, and their 2nd ed. (Chicago: Open Court, 1915; 1st ed., 1872). According to Books in Print, this book ignorance was abysmal In the facial is now available in two volumes, as an Ayer expression of every one I thought I Publishing Co. reprint, but at a price of $55. could see something that betrayed 3. E. Kasner and J. R. Newman, Mathe­ more or less of a lapse from complete matics and the Imagination (New York: Simon sanity." The group did not survive into & Schuster, 1940; 2nd paperback ed., 1965). 4. P. Beckmann, A History of n (pi) (New the final decade of the nineteenth York: St. Martin's Press, 1971). century. 5. Dictionary of American Biography, vol. We, now faced with the final throes 3, ed. by A. Johnson and D. Malone (New of the twentieth century, are not York: Scribner's, 1930, 1959). 6. J. Fiske, A Century of Science and Other unacquainted with the symptoms of Essays (Boston and New York: Houghton, mass hysteria and insanity. The more Mifflin, 1989). technology we inherit, the more technological becomes our crankery. Milton A. Rothman, a retired physicist, Otherwise things remain pretty much is author of A Physicist's Guide to Skep­ the same. To savor the ripe tone of ticism and The Science Gap: Dispelling modern lunacy, let me recommend a the Myths and Understanding the modern bit of fiction that hilariously Reality of Science (forthcoming).

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Archaeological Frauds and Wild Theories The Davenport Conspiracy Revisited. By Marshall McKusick, Iowa State University Press, Ames, la., 1991. 189 pp. Cloth, $22.95.

Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory. By Stephen Williams. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1991.407 pp. Cloth, $28.95; paper, $14.95.

J JOHN WHITTAKER

rchaeological frauds and wild caution; in fact, the majority of theories about prehistory in scholars in the budding profession of AL America began early, reached anthropology were skeptical. How­ a peak around the turn of the century, ever, there were enough supporters and remain popular today. Two new both locally and nationally to make the books describe some outstanding Davenport finds a source of bitter con­ examples and illuminate their histor­ tention in the scientific circles of the ical contexts. Both are nicely produced day. As McKusick, associate professor with clear illustrations, and are not too of anthropology at the University of expensive. Iowa, unfolds a tale at once depressing Marshall McKusick's Davenport and amusing, we come to know both Conspiracy Revisited is the best case- the participants and the evidence with study of an archaeological fraud I the immediacy of a good murder know. In 1877 the Reverend Jacob mystery. Gass was a member of the Gass began a series of dramatic finds Davenport Academy of Science, a local in mounds in eastern Iowa. Tablets amateur society typical of many. His with inscriptions and stone pipes in initial archaeological work was not bad the form of elephants purported to for its day, and his successes made him solve some of the major archaeological enemies. The evidence suggests that problems of the day: Where did the several fellow-members had created native inhabitants of America come and planted his unusual finds, and from? Were the "mound builders" others, apparently not in on the fraud, Indians? Were prehistoric humans in then supported it. In the process, the America associated with extinct Academy was torn apart, as members fauna? on both sides voted friends in and out Any find that fits preconceptions of office, threatened lawsuits, and so pleasingly should be examined with accused their neighbors and colleagues

Spring 1992 299 of fraud, perjury, and scientific incom­ Williams is especially good at pro­ petence. viding the necessary background of The disgraceful doings at the more orthodox thought on American Academy were all over a really pitifully prehistory and of the religious and transparent fraud. As McKusick psychic connections of many of the shows, the contextual evidence and crackpots, putting them in the histor­ the artifacts themselves pointed quite ical context so necessary for under­ unambiguously to a cheat even in standing them. A final chapter gives 1877, and he describes as well the a readable outline of American pre­ results of modern analyses, which history, which helps those with less even reveal the probable source of the prior knowledge understand why roofing slate used for the tablets. some of the fantastic archaeology is The present volume is an update so wrong. The solid background and of McKusick's 1970 Davenport Conspi­ wide coverage are two of the book's racy, which he has rewritten for a strengths, but also make it rather long; wider audience. In part he was it will therefore probably not be as inspired to do so because pseudo- attractive to the casual reader as linguist Barry Fell used the Davenport Robert Waushope's short and delight­ material in his America B.C.: Ancient ful Lost Tribes and Sunken Continents Settlers in the New World. Fell provides (University of Chicago Press, 1962). a translation of the childish fake script Even those who are not interested on the tablets, claiming that it includes in archaeology per se will find both texts in Egyptian and Phoenician and books illuminating on the nature of not even citing McKusick's demon­ frauds in general. So many of the cases stration that the tablets are a fraud. have the same outline: An idea or (He also ignores the earlier voices of object is produced that "solves" a reason.) controversy or fits someone's precon­ Some of the same themes of the ceptions. Most scholars reject it, Davenport case are discussed in a usually because it is absurd, unsup­ larger history of "the wild side of ported, or an obvious fraud. A single American archaeology." Fantastic strong supporter, often not the orig­ Archaeology, by Stephen Williams, inator, works tirelessly to force it into Peabody Professor of American the limelight. After contention, it is Archaeology and Ethnology at Har­ rejected except by the supporters, who vard, is an overview of irrational ideas, almost always refuse to stop believing. eccentric characters, and deceptive All too often, believers are intelligent practices in American archaeology, people with good credentials in some from the first speculations in the other field or previous good work to colonial days up to the current nuttery their credit. No matter how obvious of the Fells and von Danikens. the fraud and how thorough the Williams covers most of the major debunking, many fantasies are revived examples, such as the Davenport by a new set of believers after a period frauds, the Cardiff Giant, and the of dormancy and copied, used, and Kensington Runestone, and many perpetuated by other fringe thinkers. that are less familiar. The cases and We need more books like Davenport personalities are analyzed accurately Conspiracy Revisited and Fantastic and in detail, and Williams has inves­ Archaeology. They show how frauds tigated some himself and brings new work, how science opposes them, and ideas into play. He has a gentle humor how they are produced by the social that makes good reading. and intellectual context of their time.

300 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Seeing the patterns helps us recognize John Whittaker is in the Department of and understand the new cases that Anthropology, Grinnell College, Grin- appear every year. nell, Iowa 50112.

Seeking 'Resurrection7 for Cold Fusion

Fire from Ice: Searching for the Truth Behind the Cold Fusion Furor. By Eugene F. Mallove. John Wiley, New York, 1991.

STEVEN N. SHORE

he cold-fusion controversy began Close, Too Hot to Handle, reviewed by with a press conference called on Terence Hines in the Winter 1992 TMarch 23, 1989, by B. Stanley SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, that serves as Pons and Martin Fleischmann to the obituary. announce the discovery of a new Well, not quite. John Wiley & Sons, energy source unlike any previously an important scientific publisher, has observed in the laboratory. They seen fit to bring out the first of what claimed to have discovered room- will likely be many "resurrection" temperature nuclear fusion. Their books: Fire from Ice by Eugene F. evidence was the production of excess Mallove. This book comes on the heat from palladium rods immersed in heels of Close's book, to which it a deuterated electrolyte, in this case refers, and also follows a series of water. They also claimed to have biting exposes of the whole affair in observed accompanying emission several journals, notably Nature and neutrons whose presence was sig­ Science. It is useful as a catalog of the naled by emission of the 2.2 MeV literature on the phenomenon, gamma ray from neutron capture in although it is incomplete in its listing the deuterated solution. of refutations. It contains a good The press conference, unconven­ guide to the names and dates for tional though it was, grabbed the anyone wanting some reconstruction attention of the scientific world. The of the chronology of the whole Wall Street Journal carried several controversy. It is, however, a work stories, and the confirmation race was of neither science nor sociology. It on. The story becomes rapidly dizzy­ belongs to the realm of spectacular ing. Georgia Tech chemists reported wishful thinking. positive results for neutrons but Mallove retells the story that has quickly withdrew their claims when been told many, many times. He flaws in their detector were found. spends much space in invective Groups at Texas A&M, Moscow, and against Gary Taubs, a science writer Bulgaria reported positive results. who wrote a series of journalistic Several studies, at Yale, Caltech, exposes on cold fusion at Texas A&M and Utah, have since nailed the coffin for Science during the early months lid shut on this affair (Gai et al. 1989). of the affair. And there is a definitive book by Frank Mallove's main point is that there

Spring 1992 301 is a mound of literature—published, one at Case Western Reserve Univer­ unpublished, presented at conferen­ sity). Only nineteen are from refereed ces, and residing in suppressed papers, journals; six are only newspaper that attest to the veracity of the accounts. original Pons and Fleischmann claims. The subgroups are intriguing. He maintains that there is also a solid There are 6 reports of neutrons plus theoretical edifice that can be con­ heat, 34 of only heat, 56 of only structed to explain all of the observed neutrons, 5 of gamma-rays, and only phenomena. 2 of gamma-rays and heat (but one Interest in hydrogen deposition in of these is a newspaper account). In palladium dates back the mid-1960s, addition, 4 groups report detecting when its special permeability was first helium-3 (one reported finding recognized. From time to time, work helium-4) and 36 report detecting has focused on the ability of Pd tritium. Only in reports of detection membranes and rods to absorb large of nuclear daughter products is there quantities of hydrogen. In fact, the any substantial overlap with any of idea that cold fusion might be possible the other phenomena connected with in palladium goes back to the work cold fusion. There is no indication of of a Soviet group headed by B. V. what the production rates are, how Derjaguin, whose fame rests largely the detection was performed, or how on his abortive work on polywater. the rates were calculated. There is no The parallels between cold fusion and clear indication of whether the groups the polywater episode have been reporting only a limited aspect of cold drawn innumerable times, even by fusion were not able to detect any of Close and Mallove and by Rothman the others, or were uninterested in in the pages of SI, but this direct them. Groups are listed with incom­ connection is almost a case of deja vu plete bibliographic references, so it (Cohen and Davies 1989). It has been isn't possible to follow up this table said that the function of a scientific with library searches. paper is to hide the process of discov­ Unreported are the truly immense ery. This is especially true in these two number of failed experiments. Col­ affairs, and it is the point that links leagues have told me of many places them. Short-term successes are not where cold-fusion experiments were followed up with reports about long- begun for extended periods of time, term failures. none of which produced either pos­ The thrust of the book appears to itive results or publications. While it be the chapter titled "Whither Cold would be useful to counterbalance the Fusion?" Here, Mallove compiles the table in Mallove's book (pp. 246-248) statistics, conference reports, and with a list of all the departments and anecdotes about detections. He lists a labs worldwide that tried and failed total of 92 groups from ten countries to replicate the Utah experiments, it that have reported positive detections likely would have little effect on the of some manifestation of cold fusion final judgment of this author. For in Pons-Fleischmann style experi­ Mallove seems to believe that any ments by the end of 1990. He counts positive result, no matter how incom­ as a "group" any papers that differ in pletely characterized or poorly match­ the first author. Actually, nearly one- ing the original claims, is worthy of fifth of all of his reports come from both report and inclusion with equal just four groups (two in India, one at weight in the final tally of supporting Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and evidence. In fact, he reports only

302 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 experiments in which positive results water episode to point to. It is not have been obtained. enough to have books that examine Mallove also devotes considerable and debunk the extraordinary claims space to discussion of some of the made by the many participants in this theories proposed to explain the cold­ tragi-comedy. We need to hear their fusion phenomena, although which own voices, and these Mallove pro­ one(s) is (are) being explained is never vides. If you want to see the other quite clear. He cites J. Schwinger, a side of this issue, and to have a very theorist of supreme skill and insight clear look at the way that science can in quantum field theory, and others be distorted in its presentation, then as providing the body of work neces­ Mallove's book is essential reading. sary to substantiate the claims made by the Utah group. Having read the published papers (Schwinger 1990), I References can only conclude that they are good examples of what happens when Cohen, J. S., and J. D. Davies. 1989. Is cold partial information is used as the basis fusion hot? Nature, 342:487. of theoretical work (see also Garwin Gai, M., et al. 1989. Upper limits on neutron and gamma-ray emission from cold 1989 and Leggett and Baym 1989 for fusion. Nature, 340:29. discussion). Darwin observed in the Garwin, R. 1989. Consensus on cold fusion Origin of Species that there is nothing still elusive. Nature, 338:616. as dangerous as a "wrong fact" and Leggett, A. J., and G. Baym. 1989. Can solid- that one needs to fear such things far state effects enhance the cold fusion rate? Nature, 340:45. more than the more transient wrong Schwinger, J. 1990. Nuclear energy in an theories. And even the choice of atomic lattice. Zeit. Phys.-D, 15:221. (See theories and theorists is enlarging also J. Schwinger, 1990, Cold fusion: A with time (Suplee 1991). hypothesis, Zeit. Naturforsch, 45a:756.) Suplee, C. 1991. Two new theories on cold Rather than dwell more on the fusion swiftly produce heat among details, let me add that this book scientists. Washington Post, April 26, p. should be read, and read carefully, by All. anyone interested in the cold-fusion affair. It is not an important book from Stephen N. Shore is a physicist with the the scientific point of view. But we NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, have no similar record of the poly- Greenbelt, Maryland.

Belief and Practice of Ritual Magic Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England. By T. M. Luhrmann. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1989. 382 pp. Cloth, $25.00. Paper, $12.95.

U ROBERT E. McGRATH

ersuasions of the Witch's Craft is magicians. Following the traditional an ethnography of a subculture anthropological method of participant P.of contemporary England— observation, T. M. Luhrmann joined

Spring 1992 303 several groups practicing "real" ritual affects matter, and that in special magic in England in the 1980s. The circumstances, like ritual, the trained observations collected over some 14 imagination can alter the physical months led to a doctoral dissertation world" (p. 7). Besides ritual, the for the Department of Social Anthro­ magicians also share a core technol­ pology at the University of Cam­ ogy: meditation, training in visualiza­ bridge, and to this book. The result tion, and the development and skilled is a thoughtful, questioning, skeptical, manipulation of complex symbol and unusually well-informed exami­ systems. Magicians also seem to share nation of one contemporary group of similar experiences with and feelings believers in the "irrational." toward the practice of ritual magic. The magical beliefs in question are One of Luhrmann's important themselves difficult to rationally findings is the actual effectiveness of define. The groups studied can be magical technology. As part of the characterized as following various investigation, the author studied flavors of "neopaganism" or "witch­ correspondence courses and partici­ craft." The common thread among the pated in other forms of training disparate individuals and groups is the commonly given to recruits for these actual practice and belief in ritual groups. Luhrmann describes the magic. For this reason, Luhrmann exercises in meditation, guided visu­ refers to them collectively as "magi­ alization, "path working" (a structured cians" (specifically not meaning "con­ exercise in visualization, often done jurers" like James Randi). in groups), and training in various Luhrmann's main theme is "Why occult symbologies as well as in how do people find magic persuasive?" (p. to "perceive" relations between sym­ 8). He does not "believe" in magic and bols and between events and symbols. argues that most of the magicians Through the use of the magician's studied did not "believe" in magic at training practices the author not only first. But through time they became learned a lot of jargon and theory but convinced of the effectiveness and actually experienced some very real validity of magic. This is all the more psychological effects. Luhrmann des­ remarkable because: cribes experiencing some rather unus­ ual subjective states, including very Magicians are ordinary, well- real visual hallucinations. He also educated, usually middle-class peo­ developed a facility for vivid, con­ ple. They are not psychotically trolled visual imagery, for seeing deluded, and they are not driven to "connections" between events, and for practise by socioeconomic despera­ highly symbol-laden dreams. These tion. By some process, when they get involved with magic—whatever experiences are widely reported and the reasons that sparked their are often considered by the subject to interest—they learn to find it emi­ be mystical or spiritual. Naturally, nently sensible, (p. 7) when these subjective experiences occur, magicians tend to take them as What are these ordinary folks doing, evidence of the "reality" and power and how did they come to believe in of magic. It is interesting to read, magic? though, of the deliberate use of these Magicians practice a wide variety apparently effective techniques for of rituals using an extremely eclectic increasing the frequency and intensity set of ideas and symbols. However, all of such experiences. share the core concepts "that mind A second key finding is that, for

304 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 these magicians, belief follows action There seem to be four primary rather than producing action. Magi­ rationalizations of magical claims cians begin to study and participate themselves, four different ways of in magic for many reasons, usually not intellectualizing the idea that rituals because they believe it "works." As produce results. I call these approaches realist, two worlds, they become more involved, they relativist, and metaphorical. The begin to develop facility with the realist position says that the magi­ jargon and symbol sets, and the cian's claims are of the same status practice becomes important to them. as those of "science"; the two worlds Eventually, many become convinced position says that they are true, but that magic is "real" and "really works." cannot be evaluated by rational Luhrmann calls this "interpretive means; the relativist position says drift" and relates it to the process by that it is impossible even to ask which a person becomes a specialist questions about their "objective" in a particular field: status; and the metaphorical posi­ tion asserts that the claims them­ selves are objectively false but valid Modern magicians are interesting as myth. (pp. 283-284) because they are a flamboyant ex­ ample of a very common process: These arguments are probably famil­ that when people get involved in an activity they develop ways of inter­ iar to readers of the SKEPTICAL preting which make that activity INQUIRER, but Luhrmann's careful meaningful even though it may dissection of them might be useful seem foolish to the uninvolved. reading for other skeptics. (p. 7) An important point to note, how­ ever, is that these arguments are It is, Luhrmann says, "what happens more in the nature of rationalizations as an undergraduate turns into a than real reasons for the activity. lawyer" (p. 7). Luhrmann says that, although magi­ The reasons for this shift to belief cians practice magic for many and are not clear. The experience of one varied reasons, they believe in magic or more unusual, subjective, "mysti­ because they practice it. This idea is cal" events can be very convincing. put in perspective in a scholarly The practice of ritual magic may also discussion of the nature of belief, have some very real therapeutic or commitment, and irrationality. Some psychological value to some partici­ of the argument here is probably pants. And one should not forget the accessible only to a professional social sheer fascination of manipulating theorist, which I am not. complex symbol systems, and the Besides the admittedly academic feeling of control that this may give. content, this book contains a wealth That, after all, is one of the fun things of detail about contemporary magical about becoming a scientist! For what­ practice in England. Among other ever reasons, as the practice of ritual information, Luhrmann gives the becomes important to the magician, reader descriptions of rituals and the "belief" grows. their "meaning," a "Who's Who" of When questioned by a skeptical magicians in the London area, a outsider, the convinced magician may description of some aspects of the deploy many arguments in defense of social organization of magicians, and the belief. In the section entitled a bibliography of "what witches read." "Justifying to the Sceptics," Luhrmann Most important, I think, this book describes these arguments: provides a shining example of rational

Spring 1992 305 mation of various paranormal phe­ nomena, Talbot claims that in his boyhood he was constantly plagued by attacks from a poltergeist. Strangely, there is no mention of a poltergeist in his new book. Your Past Lives is a guide to dis­ covering memories from one's pre­ vious incarnations. It starts with a survey of evidence for reincarnation, largely ignoring other explanations for the phenomena that he cites as evidence. Talbot contends that we have all lived before many times, that we have memories of these existences in our subconscious, and that through the various techniques that he outlines, such as meditation and hypnosis, we can summon up these hidden memor­ ies. To do so is beneficial for at least two reasons, he claims. One is that traumatic memories from previous lives can interfere with the mental and emotional health of your present subconscious mind, and I should treat incarnation; the second is that it is them as such. They can teach me many possible to summon up abilities and things about myself and allow me to aptitudes from previous incarnations heal many of the psychic traumas that that will help you in the current one. may plague me, enabling me to be a Skills like public speaking and horse­ healthier, better human being more back-riding can be learned more in touch with my true self. This quickly if you were an expert in a interesting claim is backed up by no previous existence, he claims. evidence whatsoever, except for the What if these claims aren't true? testimonials of people who have Well, no problem. Talbot says if you helped themselves through these use his techniques you will summon methods. up images and stories that appear to I am sure that many people have be past existences. Okay. I can, if I'm made themselves feel better with so inclined, create life stories for many these methods, but then again the individuals in the past. I am after all same could be said of voodoo, witch­ a historian with a well-developed craft, and Ouija boards; and I confess imagination. My contention remains that I have a cousin, a wonderful though that there is no evidence person, who finds her life more offered that the images I create are meaningful through an interest in anything more than just my astrology, and a sister-in-law who imagination. feels she has avoided great but unspe­ Well, states Talbot, never fear. cified calamity in her life by following Whether these are true memories of the advice of a Chinese fortune-teller previous incarnations or not they are and never touching beef. still powerful messages from my This does not mean that the claim

Spring 1992 307 inquiry: a well-informed, skeptical, no amount of argument, no demo­ and yet gently sympathetic examina­ lition of the rationalizations offered tion of a very human behavior. will change the practitioner's personal Despite the unrelenting critical eval­ commitment to magic. This, perhaps, uation, you will not find a harsh word explains some of the frustration a about magicians anywhere in this skeptic may feel when attempting to book. debunk some kinds of deeply held, but Skeptics might note the reality and not clearly justified beliefs. power of the technology used by If, indeed, belief follows practice, magicians. There appear to be real and there is a lesson for teachers of powerful psychological forces at play scientific and critical thinking: get that are little understood and little people to do it, and to enjoy doing it, studied. If, as Luhrmann suggests, the and they will come to value and believe frequency and intensity of these in it. Watching science on television interesting (and compelling) subjec­ or reading about it in a magazine will tive experiences can be increased by never persuade as well as actually training, this claim deserves serious doing science and having fun doing it. psychological investigation. Critical thinking cannot be a spectator If Luhrmann is correct in the sport; everyone has to play it them­ description of "interpretive drift," and selves. Make skepticism fun, and it will that belief follows practice, then it is flourish. clear that rational argument is not likely to sway the believer in this type of irrationality. If the real rationale for Robert McGrath is a computer pro­ magical practice is the practice itself, grammer in Urbana, Illinois.

How to Explore Your Past Lives, or Pretend To Your Past Lives, A Reincarnation Handbook. By Michael Talbot. Fawcett Crest, New York. 177 pp. Paper, $3.95.

J PETER HUSTON

ichael Talbot believes in rein­ Dad until he was five years old, carnation. He knows that it because he was fully aware of memo­ MM is true. After all, when he was ries of other mothers and fathers and a small boy he had memories of a could not quite reconcile the existence previous life as a Buddhist monk in of this mother and father with the Asia. These memories were so strong memories of the previous ones. that he found himself making con­ I think it is worth pointing out that stant references to Buddhist teachings in one of his previous books, Beyond in the presence of his friends and the Quantum (reviewed in SI, Winter relatives while in preschool and he 1987-88), in which he deals with the refused to call his parents Mom and new physics and its supposed confir-

306 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 has any scientific validity, and the to confront them without the aid of subconscious is most likely the single a "certified and qualified past-life most controversial concept in the therapist." This sounds so much like realm of- modern-day psychology. the legitimate self-help and how-to Stating that you are receiving mes­ books that clutter up my shelves that sages from your subconscious doesn't I couldn't help giggling whenever I make your statement scientific, and stumbled across these warnings. this is where Talbot's book fails. The book does contain the Now let me try to be more positive. addresses of some peculiar-sounding Although the book fails as the scien­ organizations that can find you "cer­ tific document that it portends to be, tified psychics," "spirit channelers," or I confess that I enjoyed it. It was very other such people who, Talbot says, interesting and a great deal of fun. can help you find past-life informa­ Talbot explains many methods of tion. As a matter of fact, it seems that "summoning up past-life memories." almost everything in the New Age All of them hinge on the premise that arsenal, from crystals to pendulums, these memories are buried away in a can be of help in finding your past barely accessible portion of the brain. lives. Talbot claims that by using these This book is pseudoscientific gob- methods he has summoned up bledygook of the worst sort, since it memories of 20 previous lives. It's one is based on an unproved premise. of his stated qualifications for writing Nevertheless, it is well-written gob- the book. bledygook and provides an interesting Some of these methods include insight into a cultural phenomenon. meditation in various forms, dream­ I enjoyed it. I'm sure that such ing (including lucid dreaming), self- information could do harm in the hypnosis, and his own self-developed hands of the wrong people, but I have resonance method, which essentially to give this book a peculiar and consists of finding things like artifacts backhanded recommendation just and photographs and maps of differ­ because I found it so amusing. It does ent places and times and seeing provide an interesting survey of what whether it "feels" as if you've lived passes for "past-life exploration." there before. As for the last one, he Either you believe in reincarnation states, keep at it and in time you'll or you don't, or like me you just sort learn if you've really lived there before of keep an open mind. For the scien­ or if you're just fooling yourself. tifically inclined and critical thinkers, Talbot also covers past-life- Talbot's book won't sway you one bit exploration methods for couples and in any direction. for people wanting "professional guidance and help in their past-life Peter Huston is a teacher of English as explorations." a second language and writer who cur­ The most peculiar thing about this rently lives in Taiwan. He has a degree book is the author's constant warning in Asian studies and his interests include to beware of certain hazards, such as Asian history and religion, as well as traumatic past-life memories, and not science, paranormal claims, and much else.

308 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 I Kitsch-Culture: A Look Inside the New Age

The New Believers. Video. Produced and directed by Tom Corboy, 1990. Monticello Productions, 1822 Easterly Terrace, Los Angeles, CA 90026.

J JEFF WALKER

irector Tom Corboy's half- us though give Neville Rowe the last hour video "The New Believ­ word here: "You cannot be a victim Ders" is a natural kitsch-culture unless you so choose. ... So what sequel to his "Mondo Elvis." Corboy is wrong with incest? . . . Every act befriends four casualties/exploiters of is growth." future shock on the Whole Life Expo Then there's "Master" Ho, whose circuit, then gets them to talk about name was a little more ho-hum prior their troubled childhoods and how to consulting the spirit-guide of his their New Age beliefs and special friend Dee-Dee. The guide, "Thomas," powers evolved. apparently insisted that Ho set up Hi- One is Neville Rowe, a New Zea- Dee-Ho Enterprises, purveyor of lander who channels dolphins and "metaphysical supplies." Later we see does a dolphin impersonation that Ho reading some junky paperback on Rich Little might envy—onstage UFOs, then reinterpreting the ascen­ before a packed auditorium. His head sion of Jesus for us: It is likely He was tilts back into the howling wolf beamed up to the same spaceship position, but it's a nasal honking that (from another dimension) that had comes out, indicating either authentic once been mistaken for a star over dolphin channeling or a casual perusal Bethlehem. Modestly, Ho admits to of "Flipper" reruns. But did you ever only one encounter with Christ, hear Flipper announce: "We are dol­ wordless but for the "Blessed art thou phin form. You are human form. among many." He cryptically heaves There is no difference between us; my Ho before vanishing. Sex therapy is friends, we are one in spirit"? Ho's specialty, and for a fee hell wave That's Neville's good side. His less a crystal around privates that need appealing side emerges in a Karmic reanimating. Says the rotund, bearded apologetic for Hitler and genocide. "It Ho, "My reality is most other people's takes a great master to choose a life insanity." No doubt. At one point Ho of such seeming negativity," he says of hints at possible revelations about his the former. Of the latter he observes, own alien origins: "Thomas will on "Many who chose to leave the earth plane occasion pass through information. . during the holocaust had been pre­ . . I can't go any further with that; viously involved in genocide them­ they won't let me. I'm sorry, I tried. selves. . . . Many had been Visigoths . . . They cut me right off." who swept down through Europe." Britisher Margaret Rogers is an all- Obviously the New Age has a hard purpose healer/channeler. Shunned as time with monstrous evil, but merely an oddball in adolescence, she found makes it that much more likely to comfort in direct communication with recur in refusing to recognize it. Let Jesus. She is apparently among the

Spring 1992 309 very few channelers who can summon oldies such as "Dream," "I'm Always both the great grandpa of monothe­ Chasing Rainbows," "Jesus Wash ism—Zoroaster—and the American Away My Troubles," and "Pennies Indian, Chief Red Cloud. We see a from Heaven" was anachronistic in 1950s photo of an 11-year-old Rogers this New Age context. But presum­ dressed up as a fairy queen. If she'd ably Corboy was making a point with flitted through time to a booth at a it: Styles of wishful thinking change, 1991 psychics and seers fair, no one but the song remains the same. would have looked at her askance. "The New Believers" is certainly As for perky blonde, Shawn Shel- worth a viewing for those who have ton, suffice it to say that those crystals yet to O.D. on New Age eccentricity. she sold you to dump in your bathtub My only real complaint is as a skeptic owe some of their stress-reducing who's also a veggie (yes, there's one vibes to her invocation of "the light in every crowd). Why does the color of the Christ within" during the photo on the video case have to packaging process. In fact, it's amazing highlight the two seconds of footage how much New Age packaging in­ of a Whole Life Expo model wearing volves repackaging age-old religion. a giant tofu box? I plan to don an Director Corboy does a good job identical unit to the next CSICOP tying the New Age personalities of conference just to work off the stigma. these four to early experience with rejection and with religion. I thought Jeff Walker is editor of the newsletter of at first that the soundtrack of golden the Ontario Skeptics.

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310 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 New Books c

Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use science as a process of inquiry, to teach and Abuse of Persuasion. Anthony critical thinking, and to confront and Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson. W. H. provide skeptical examination of Freeman and Co., New York, 1992, extraordinary claims, as well as to help 299 pp., $22.95, cloth. Significant new students "feel a sense of wonder work by two distinguished psycholo­ . . . and . . . convey the inquisitive, gists on the social psychology of compassionate, and sometimes playful persuasion. The authors delve into the spirit in which psychology can be persuasion techniques used by polit­ approached." ical campaigners, salesmen, car dealers, advertisers, televangelists, Wonder-Workers! How They Per­ and others. Offers practical insights form the Impossible. Joe Nickell. into how to guard against the tactics Prometheus Books, Buffalo, N.Y., and devices used (e.g., fear and guilt) 1991, 94 pp., $11,95, paper. For ages without falling into abject cynicism. 9 to 14, provides brief biographies of Provides readable analyses of pat­ ten famous "wonder-workers" terns, motives, and effects of mass (including Robert-Houdin, Houdini, persuasion efforts. Daniel Home, Joseph Dunninger, Edgar Cayce, and Peter Hurkos), Ambrose Bierce Is Missing and Other analyzing and explaining the tricks Historical Mysteries. Joe Nickell. and techniques they use "to make the University of Kentucky Press, Lexing­ impossible appear to be possible." With ton, Ky., 1991, 180 pp., $22.00, cloth. illustrations by the author, who is a Experienced investigator demon­ former stage magician. strates the use of varied techniques in solving perplexing historical mys­ —Kendrick Frazier teries—ancient riddles, biographical enigmas, hidden identities, "fakelore," questioned artifacts, suspected docu­ ments, lost texts, obscured sources, and scientific challenges. Each is then illustrated by a complete case (e.g., the Nazca lines, the Shroud of Turin, Swift's lost silver mine, Lincoln's Bixby letter).

Psychology, 3rd ed. David G. Myers. Worth Publishers, New York, 1992, 636 pp. + glossary, references, indexes, $47.95, cloth. New edition of textbook that was favorably reviewed in our An illustration from Joe Nickell's wonder-workers. Spring 1991 issue. The author makes showing Robert-Houdin performing "ethereal special efforts throughout to show suspension."

Spring 1992 311 Articles Of Note

Allen, Robin. "A New Age Dawns for report that found a "full moon effect" Science." New Scientist, December 14, on women in a developmental center. 1991, p. 52. A tongue-in-cheek prop­ Shows the findings are undermined osal that scientists adopt dowsing, ley by weekday, holiday, season, and lines, astrologers, clairvoyants, bio- expectancy effects. rhythms, and the like, to help with experiments in their labs. Frymer, Murry. "Having Their Doubts: Scholarly Journal Provides a Bartholomew, Robert E. "The Quest Home for Skeptics." San ]ose (Calif.) (or Transcendence: An Ethnography Mercury News, November 24, 1991. of UFOs in America." Anthropology of Feature article about the SKEPTICAL Consciousness (American Anthropolog­ INQUIRER, later published in at least ical Association), March-June 1991, eight other newspapers, including the pp. 1-12. Anthropological/ethno­ Chicago Tribune and the Miami Herald, graphic approach to UFO waves via Knight-Ridder service. emphasizes the social construction of reality and the translation of unfamil­ Garlaschelli, Luigi, Franco Ramaccini, iar symbol systems. Urges social scien­ and Sergio Delia Sala. "Working tists to study UFO waves as social Bloody Miracles." Nature, October 10, phenomena of the Western world in 1991, p. 507. See News and Comment, the same way they chronicle "the this issue. marvelous diversity of human cus­ toms and realities" in other societies. Garwin, Richard L. "Fusion: The Evi­ dence Reviewed." Science, November Bower, Bruce. "Contagious 29, 1991, pp. 1394-1395. Excellent Thoughts." Science News, August 31, critical examination by a noted phys­ 1991, pp. 138-139. A look at "the icist of the cold-fusion controversy in magical law of contagion," a tradi­ the form of an essay/review of Eugene tional belief noted in many cultures Mallove»'s Fire from Ice. Concludes that by anthropologists. It hinges on the cold fusion is more likely than not an conviction that all sorts of sources example of what Irving Langmuir (friends, enemies, food, blood, hair) defined as "pathological science." "contain some sort of contagious entity or 'essence' that transfers Grossman, Wendy. "Ask a Mars physical, psychological, or moral Question, Get a Mars Answer." New qualities to others." Scientist, October 19, 1991, pp. 53-54. Lively report on the 1991 EuroSkep- Flynn, Mark. "Critical Comment on tics conference in Amsterdam. Hicks-Caskey and Potter, 'Effect of the Moon on a Sample of Develop- "Homeopaths' Cushion." Nature, mentally Delayed, Institutionalized October 10, 1991, p. 484. Editorial Women.' " Perceptual and Motor Skills, criticizing the situation in which the 73:963-967, 1991. Examines a 1991 European Commission (the executive

312 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 arm of the European Communities) researcher: "When are we going to appeared to be caving in to pressure institutionalize the lessons we've from the European Parliament to learned four times already?" exempt homeopathic medicines from the strict rules applied to conventional Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. "Credibility medicines. "The danger is that under in Science and the Press." Science, the policies of the EC, homeopathic November 1,1991, p. 629. See Forum, medicines will spread throughout this issue. Europe and Britain to the detriment of an innocent public." Krech, Shepard, III. "Extraordinary. Archaeology" Nature, August 1,1991, Humphrey, Nicholas, and Daniel C. pp. 389-390. Review of Marshall Dennett. "Speaking for Ourselves: McKusick's The Davenport Conspiracy An Assessment of Multiple Person­ Revisited. ality Disorder." Raritan, A Quarterly Review, Summer 1989, pp. 68-98. A Maldonado, George. "Variation in personal inquiry into, and assessment Suicide Occurrence by Time of Day, of, MPD by a psychologist and a Day of the Week, Month, and Lunar philosopher. Their intent is to break Phase." Suicide and Life-Threatening down the polarities that make MPD Behavior, Summer 1991, pp. 174-185. seem fraudulent if you're a skeptic, or Examination of suicide data among paranormal if you're a believer. residents of Sacramento County, Among their conclusions is that the California, from 1925 to 1983 (4,190 possibility of developing multiple cases). The finding of relevance here: selves is inherent in all of us, but that Contrary to popular belief, suicide the diagnosis of MPD has become, occurrences did not vary by lunar within certain elements of psychiatry, phase. "a diagnostic fad" (200 cases reported by 1980; 4,000 now). "Although the Marshall, Eliot. "A Is for Apple, Alar, existence of the clinical syndrome is and . . . Alarmist?" Science, October now beyond dispute, there is as yet 4, 1991, pp. 20-22. Excellent exami­ no certainty as to how much of the nation of the Alar controversy, in multiplicity currently being reported which the National Resources has existed prior to therapeutic Defense Council and CBS's "60 Min­ intervention." utes" almost did in the apple market over claims about a toxic chemical that Kerr, Richard A. "The Lessons of Dr. is now considered to be far less risky Browning." Science, August 9, 1991, than had been thought. pp. 623-633. Good review of the case of Iben Browning's earthquake predic­ "A Question of Mind Over Matter." tion concludes that bona fide earth Physics Today, October 1991, pp. 13- scientists were too slow in countering 15,146. Interesting exchange between the claim, leaving the field open to the Robert G. Jahn and Nobel laureate public spectacle and pseudoscience Philip W. Anderson, both of Princeton that ensued. Also points out that the University, over Anderson's earlier "same lessons about how pseudoscien- column (Physics Today, December tific quake predictions, if left un­ 1990; see SI, Summer 1991, p. 385) checked, can run wild" had been criticizing such claims as those pre­ learned three times before (twice in sented from Jahn's laboratory. Jahn 1975, once in 1981.) Quotes one maintains his results indicating evi-

Spring 1992 313 dence of micropsychokinesis are cred­ to a holiday. Contrary to expectations, ible; Anderson disagrees. "Measure­ the full moon was associated with a ments such as Jahn does must be significant (but very slight) decrease in tested with more rigor and more absenteeism. The authors discuss suspicion. . . ." Anderson also says reasons for persistent beliefs in the Bayesian estimation is the more effects of the full moon. appropriate statistical method for judging such experiments. Small, Gary W., M.D., Michael W. Propper, M.D., Eugenia T. Randolph, Sandbek, Terence J. "Hungry People M.D., and Spencer Eth, M.D. "Mass Who Buy Imaginary Food with Real Hysteria Among Student Performers: Money: Psychology, Mysticism, Social Relationship as a Symptom Superstition and the Paranormal." Predictor." American Journal of Psychi­ Paper presented at 99th Annual Con­ atry, 148(9): 1200-1205. Case study of vention of the American Psychological an outbreak of illness suddenly afflict­ Association, San Francisco, August 17, ing student performers in Santa 1991. Calls for psychologists to help Monica, California, Civic Auditorium the public find the real nourishment: on April 13,1989. Two hundred forty- psychology instead of parapsychology, seven students became ill (dizziness, astronomy instead of astrology, biol­ weakness, nausea, fainting), resulting ogy instead of biorhythms, physics in one of the largest emergency rather than psychics, etc. evacuations in Santa Monica history. Characteristic features of mass hys­ Sands, Joanne M., and Lynn E. Miller. teria described in similar epidemics "Effects of Moon Phase and Other were identified. The results confirm Temporal Variables on Absenteeism." that multiple psychological and phys­ Psychological Reports, 69:959-962, ical factors contribute to such out­ 1991. Study examined correlation breaks, particularly social trans­ between full moon and daily absen­ mission. The best predictor of the teeism rates in a large organization development of symptoms was while correcting for autocorrelation observing a friend with symptoms. and controlling for the effects of the day of the week, month, and proximity —Kendrick Frazier

314 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Forum

curate. Pressure is increasing to create Credibility in Science an overarching authority in science and the Press that could prevent the occasional mountebank or misguided institution J DANIEL E. KOSHLAND, JR. from having a brief moment of notor­ iety. Freedom of the press and free­ dom of scientific inquiry are similar recent lead story in Time in the sense that an overarching entitled "Crisis in the Labs" directorate would kill the enterprise, A.characterizes the American but each profession is accountable in researcher as under siege because of the establishment of procedures that recent cases of fraud, misconduct, and responsible journalists and responsi­ error by scientists. While accepting ble scientists are expected to maintain. responsibility for such aberrations, Once the similarity of accountabil­ the scientific community has a right ity in the two professions is recog­ to ask whether recent examples of nized, they can help each other to be plagiarism, fabrication, and unethical of greater service to society. There are conduct in the press demand an many examples these days of im­ analogous article entitled "Crisis in proper conduct, of which the recent Journalism." The parallelism between coverage of the chemical Alar, used the problems and responsibilities of to slow the ripening of apples, is a each community suggests that a set dramatic example. In that case, a of procedures in both science and clearly dubious report about possible journalism could benefit the credibility carcinogenicity by a special-interest and accountability of both professions. group was hyped by a news organ­ A community that depends for its ization without the most simple success on the responsibility of many checks on its reliability or documen­ individuals has difficulty in being tation. This caused panic among collectively accountable for the mis­ consumers and losses of millions of deeds of some of its members. No one dollars by apple growers. Confronted suggests that Time or the New York with the inadequacy of the data, a Times should be ashamed of them­ spokesman for the public-interest selves because of stories published in group recently suggested that it was the National Enquirer or because excusable because people are eating pornographic magazines are available more apples than ever before. That in every hamlet in America. Individ­ is like an embezzler justifying embez­ uals and institutions are made accoun­ zlement by saying the banking indus­ table in journalism and in science by try continues to survive. Worse, the taking seriously those who are con­ public's disdain for repeated scares sistently accurate and reliable and indicates that an individual publica­ ignoring or decrying those who are tion's (or broadcast group's) willing­ consistently sensationalized and inac­ ness to cry "wolf" uncritically may be

Spring 1992 315 destroying the press's own credibility that are quoted. In a democracy the and its ability to provide legitimacy to right of an industry to state that its responsible environmentalists. The compound is safe and the right of a Time article acknowledges this by public-interest group to cry out with pointing out that the press has been alarm cannot and should not be too willing to publicize Jeremy Rifkin's suppressed, but a press that equates cries of alarm, which so far have been a peer-reviewed experiment with a consistently wrong. public-relations document should The press cannot be expected to expect the public to equate Time with have in-house scientists for every the National Enquirer. So a policy of occasion, but can be expected to routinely revealing sources and establish procedures to improve its records would improve the credibility own credibility. "Scientific" reports of the press and expose those scient­ vary from articles in refereed journals ists who fail to maintain standards of to statements released at dataless objectivity. press conferences. The credibility of The scientific community, like the scientists varies from those with press, must be willing to develop rules records of objectivity to others who and procedures to maximize accoun­ only travel from press conference to tability, an example of which would press conference and law court to law be a mutual agreement that press court saying what their clients want conferences without peer-reviewed to hear. The ultimate decider in all data should be greeted with heavy controversial matters must be the data skepticism. In that way both the press in a well-run experiment, but the and science can be credible without press and science can catalyze a stifling either the freedom of the press mutual accountability if the press or the freedom of scientific inquiry. would routinely reveal the journal in which the information is to be or was published and disclose the track record Daniel Koshland, jr., is the editor of of the scientists or the groups of scien­ Science. This editorial is reprinted from tists (for example, the National Science (254:629, Nov. 1, 1991) by Academy of Sciences, Exxon, or the permission. ©American Association for Natural Resources Defense Council) the Advancement of Science.

reprinted, for the zillionth time, a list Our Spooky of chilling parallels between the assassinations of Abraham Lincoln Presidential and John F. Kennedy. In the same Coincidences Contest spirit of skepticism that led Crash Davis, in the film Bull Durham, to JOHN LEAVY wonder why every believer in rein­ carnation was always someone famous in a past life, we wondered his offering is an idea that springs aloud why no one ever talks about the from a bull session among us chilling similarities between William Tcomputer programmers at the McKinley and James Garfield. Sure University of Texas Data Processing enough, those of us who know Amer­ Department. Ann Landers had just ican history were able to find a dozen

316 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 similarities between McKinley and Garfield. Well, the joke took on a life of its own. Before long, we thought of common themes in the lives of Zachary Taylor and William Henry Harrison. In fact, Thomas Jefferson and Richard Nixon seemed to have as much in common as Lincoln had with Kennedy. This proved to be so easy and so much fun that I decided to write down all the spooky coincidences we've come up with and present them to the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. I propose that the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER hold a Spooky Presidential Coincidences contest, with a nominal prize (see President Carter-Nixon below). Everybody has heard about the Oswald was hiding in a movie theater. supposedly eerie similarities between But I suggest that the spoilsport hold the lives and deaths of Abraham his tongue; the eerie parallels between Lincoln and John F. Kennedy. Lincoln and Kennedy may well be part 1. Lincoln was elected president in of a much larger and more chilling 1860; Kennedy was elected in 1960. pattern. 2. Lincoln and Kennedy were both concerned with civil rights. Coincidence? You Decide . . . 3. "Lincoln" and "Kennedy" have seven letters each. 1. William McKinley and James 4. Lincoln had a secretary named Garfield were both Republicans. Kennedy, and Kennedy had a secre­ 2. McKinley and Garfield were tary named Lincoln. both born and raised in Ohio. 5. Both were succeeded by Sou­ 3. McKinley and Garfield were therners named Johnson. both Civil War veterans. 6. Both were assassinated by men with three names (John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald. 7. Booth and Oswald both espoused unpopular political ideas. 8. Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and hid in a warehouse; Oswald shot Kennedy from a warehouse and hid in a theater. Oh sure, a spoilsport could point out that Spooky Coincidence no. 2 is ridiculously vague. Or that Johnson is the second most common last name in America. Or that John Wilkes Booth's ideas (support for slavery and the Confederacy) were far from unpopular in 1865. Or even that President Bush-Lincoln Lincoln was shot in a playhouse, while Spring 1992 317 4. McKinley and Garfield both Democrats. served in the House of Representa­ 3. Polk and Carter were both dark tives. horse candidates for the presidency. 5. McKinley and Garfield both 4. Polk and Carter both served supported the gold standard and only one term as president. tariffs for protection of American 5. Polk and Carter each had a industry. middle name with only four letters 6. "McKinley" and "Garfield" (Knox and Earl, respectively). both have eight letters. 6. Polk and Carter both defeated 7. McKinley and Garfield were men named Henry en route to the both replaced by vice-presidents from White House (Polk defeated Henry New York City (Theodore Roosevelt Clay, Carter defeated Henry Jackson). and Chester Alan Arthur). * * * 8. Both of their vice-presidents wore mustaches. 1. Abraham Lincoln and Andrew 9. McKinley and Garfield were Jackson were both lawyers. both shot in September, in the first 2. Lincoln and Jackson both have year of their current terms. state capitals named after them. 10. "Chester Alan Arthur" and 3. Both had first names that began "Theodore Roosevelt" have seventeen with "A," and last names with seven letters each. letters. 11. Both of their assassins, Charles 4. Both were rugged frontiersmen. Guiteau and Leon Czolgosz, had 5. Both supported a strong federal foreign-sounding names. government, against advocates of 12. Garfield had a cat named "states' rights." McKinley; McKinley had a cat named 6. Each had a falling out with his Garfield. (Okay, okay, so I made this original vice-presidents and subse­ one up.) quently replaced him. 7. Both were succeeded by their second vice-presidents, each of whom 1. William Henry Harrison and was a highly unpopular president. Zachary Taylor were both Whigs. * * * 2. Both were born and raised in Virginia. 1. Richard Nixon and Thomas 3. Both came to prominence as Jefferson both had vice-presidents victorious generals in the U.S. Army. who left office under a cloud of scandal 4. Both died in their first terms, (Aaron Burr and Spiro Agnew). shortly after taking office. 2. Both had served as vice- 5. Both had nicknames that began president before becoming president. with the word "Old" ("Old Tippeca­ 3. Both had lost a presidential noe," and "Old Rough and Ready"). election to a Harvard graduate named 6. Both were replaced by their John from a wealthy, prominent vice-presidents, each of whom was Massachusetts family, before finally nicknamed "His Accidency." (John winning the presidency. Tyler and Millard Fillmore). 4. Both were elected to their first * * * terms by narrow margins, and to their second terms by wide margins. 1. Polk and Carter were both 5. The next president elected after named James. each was a Southerner named James. 2. Polk and Carter were both 6. "Nixon and "Jefferson" both

318 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 ended with "on." attended Princeton University. * * * 4. Both were highly regarded as intellectuals. 1. George Washington and 5. Both were strongly influenced Dwight Eisenhower both came to by their wives. prominence as victorious generals. 6. Both led the United States 2. Both served two full terms as president. 3. Both gave famous farewell speeches warning the United States against foolish military policies. 4. Both were replaced as president by Harvard graduates named John, from wealthy, prominent Massachu­ setts families. 5. "Eisenhower" and "Washing­ ton" have ten letters each. 6. "Dwight" and "George" have six letters each. 7. Neither belonged to a political party before seeking the presidency. * * * 1. Ulysses S. Grant was elected in 1868, and re-elected in 1872; Richard Nixon was elected in 1968, and re­ elected in 1972. 2. Nixon and Grant both suc­ ceeded unpopular Southern Demo­ crats named Johnson. 3. Nixon and Grant were both Republicans. 4. Both their administrations were infamous for corruption. 5. Both Nixon and Grant wrote best-selling memoirs after leaving office. 6. Both were succeeded by Repub­ licans from the Midwest.

President Kennedy-Johnson 1. James Madison was elected into war with the most powerful president in 1812; Woodrow Wilson nation in Europe, after years of was elected in 1912. (Yeah, I know, struggling to maintain neutrality, Madison was actually elected in 1808 because of attacks on American ships and re-elected in 1812, but don't be in the Atlantic. picky!) 7. "Madison" and "Wilson" both 2. Madison and Wilson were both end with "son." born in Virginia. 3. Madison and Wilson both

Spring 1992 319 1. Woodrow Wilson and Dwight of five or six eerie similarities between Eisenhower were both leaders of any two presidents. So pick any two American war efforts against presidents, and let your imagination Germany. run wild. Harry Truman and John 2. Both had been presidents of Ivy Quincy Adams! Millard Fillmore and League universities before seeking the Calvin Coolidge! Warren Harding and presidency of the United States. Franklin Pierce! Ronald Reagan and 3. Both were incapacitated by Rutherford B. Hayes! George illness during large parts of their Washington and Grover Cleveland! terms in office. George Bush and William Howard 4. Both were born in the South, Taft! Find as many coincidences as you but neither was perceived as a can: if possible, accentuate the yin and Southerner. yang aspects of their lives (President 5. Both served two full terms as A had a son named Irving, President president. B had a father named Irving; President 6. Both were replaced by men who A was born in Dubuque and died in died in their first terms. Peoria, President B was born in Peoria and died in Dubuque). The eeriest parallels will be printed 1. Martin Van Buren was presi­ in a future issue of the SKEPTICAL dent from 1837-1841. Franklin Roose­ INQUIRER. The reader who submits the velt was president from 1937-1941. most inspired list of eerie presidential 2. Van Buren and Roosevelt were parallels will receive his choice of: («) both of Dutch ancestry. a brand new copper Abraham Lincoln 3. Van Buren and Roosevelt were medallion, (b) a portable, shiny, bas both born and raised in New York. relief depiction of Thomas Jefferson, 4. Both served as governor of New (c) a silver-plated engraving of Frank­ York before becoming president. lin Roosevelt, (d) a copy of the just- 5. Both served as president during published new collection of SKEPTICAL a time of economic crisis, and wide­ INQUIRER articles, The Hundredth Monkey spread panic in the banking industry. and Other Paradigms of the Paranormal. 6. Both were replaced by men with the letters "HARR" in their names (Editor's Note: This sounds like fun (William Henry HARRison and and well offer a copy of The Hun­ HARRy Truman). dredth Monkey as a prize. Send your * * * entries to us at Editor, The Skeptical Inquirer, 3025 Palo Alto Dr. NE, You get the idea. Finding Spooky Albuquerque, NM 87111, but we're Parallels is easy. So why should I have going to ask John Leavy and his all the fun? I figure that with minimal colleagues to do the judging. They effort, anyone should be able to think started this!—K.F.)

320 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Fill in the gaps in your SKEPTICAL INQUIRER collection 15% discount on orders of $100 or more ($6.25 for each copy. To order, use reply card insert.)

WINTER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 2): On being sued: The chilliing Thinking critically and creatively. Wade and Tavris. Police of freedom of expression, Kurtz. The crop-circle pheno­ pursuit of Satanic crime, Part 2, Hicks. Order out of chaos menon, Nickell and Fischer. Update on the 'Mars effect,' in survival research, Berger. Piltdown, paradigms, and the ertel. A dissenting note on Ertel's 'Update,' Kurtz. Magic paranormal, Feder. Auras: Searching for the light, Loftin. Melanin: Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities. Biorhythms and the timing of death. Lister. Relativism Part 2, de Montellano.Adventure s in science and cyclosophy, in science, Gardner. de Jager. Searching for security in the mystical, Grimmer. SPRING 1990 (vol. 14, no. 3): Why we need to understand Probability paradoxes, Gardner. science, Sagan. The crisis in pre-college science and math FALL 1991 (vol. 16, no. 1): Near-death experiences, education, Seaborg. Police pursuit of satanic crime, Part Blackmore. Multicultural pseudoscience: Spreading scien­ 1, Hicks. The spread of satanic-cult rumors, Victor. Lying tific illiteracy, Part 1, De Montellano. Science and about polygraph tests, Shneour. Worldwide disasters and commonsense skepticism, Aach. Spook Hill, Wilder. Lucian moon phase, Kelly, Saklofske, and Culver. St. George and and Alexander, Rowe. 1991 CSICOP conference, Shore and the dragon of creationism, Gardner. Frazier. Reeder feedback from Urantia to Titanic, Gardner. WINTER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 2): The new catastrophism, SUMMER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 4): Lucid dreams, Blackmore. Morrison and Chapman. A field guide to critical thinking, Nature faking in the humanities, Gallo. Carrying the war Lett. Cold fusion: A case history in 'wishful science'? into the never-never land of psi: Part 2, Gill. Coincidences, Rothman. The airship hysteria of 1896-97, Bartholomew. Paulos. Locating invisible buildings, Plummer. True Newspaper editors and the creation-evolution controv­ believers, Bower. Cal Thomas, the big bang, and Forrest ersy, Zimmerman. Special report: New evidence of MJ-12 Mims, Gardner. hoax, Klass. The great Urantia mystery, Gardner. SPRING 1991 (vol. 15, no. 3): Special report: Hi-fi FALL 1989 (vol. 14, no. 1): Myths about science, Rothman. pseudoscience, Davis. Searching for extraterrestrial The relativity of wrong, Asimov. Richard Feynman on intelligence: An interview with Thomas R. McDonough. fringe science. Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest, Getting smart about getting smarts, Faulkes. Carrying the Muller. The two cultures, Jones. The 'top-secret UFO war into the never-never land of psi: Part 1, Gill. Satanic papers' NSA won't release, Klass. The metaphysics of cult 'survivor' stories, Victor. 'Old-solved mysteries': The Murphy's Law, Price. The Unicorn at large, Gardner. Kecksburg incident, Young. Penn & Teller, the magical SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 4): The New Age—An iconoclasts, Gordon. Magic, medicine, and metaphysics in Examination: The New Age in perspective, Kurtz. A New Nigeria, Roder. What's wrong with science education? Age reflection in the magic mirror of science, O'Hara. Look at the family. Eve. Three curious research projects, The New Age: The need for myth in an age of science, Gardner. Schultz. Channeling, Alcock. The psychology of channeling. WINTER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 2): Special report / Gallup Reed, 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield, Thomason. poll: Belief in paranormal phenomena, Gallup and Newport. Crystals, Lawrence. Consumer culture and the New Age, Science and self-government, Piel. West Bank collective Rosen. The Shirley MacLaine phenomenon, Gordon. Special hysteria episode, Stewart. Acceptance of personality test report: California court jails psychic surgeon, Brenneman. results, Thiriart. Belief in astrology: A test of the Barnum SPRING 1989 (vol. 13, no. 3): High school biology effect, French, Fowler, McCarthy, and Peers. A test of teachers and pseudoscientific belief, Eve and Dunn. Evidence clairvoyance using signal-detection, McKelvie and Gagne. for Bigfoot? Dennett. Alleged pore structure in Sasquatch Intercessory prayer as medical treatment? Wittmer and footprints, Freeland and Rowe. The lore of levitation. Stein. Zimmerman. Tipler's Omega Point theory, Martin Gardner. Levitation 'miracles' in India, Premanand. Science, FALL 1990 (vol. 15, no. 1): Neural Organization pseudoscience, and the cloth of Turin, Nickell. Rather than Technique: Treatment or torture, Worrall. The spooks just debunking, encourage people to think, Seckel. MJ-12 of quantum mechanics, Stenger. Science and Sir William papers 'authenticated'? Klass. A patently false patent myth, Crookes, Hoffmaster. The 'N' machine, Cumming. Biological Sass. cycles and rhythms vs. biorhythms, Wheeler. The WINTER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 2): Special report: The mysterious finger-lift levitation, Gardner. 1990 CSICOP 'remembering water' controversy, Gardner and Randi; Conference. Bibliographic guide to the 'dilution controversy.' SUMMER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 4): Ghosts make news: How Pathologies of science, precognition, and modern four newspapers report psychic phenomena, Klare. psychophysics, Jensen. A reaction-time test of ESP and (continued on next page) precognition, Mines and Dennison. Chinese psychic's pill- challenges, and an expanded view, Frazier. Exposing the bottle demonstration, Wu Xiaoping. The Kirlian technique, faith-healers, Steiner. Was Antarctica mapped by the Watkins and Bickel. Certainty and proof in creationist ancients? jolly. Folk remedies and human belief-systems, thought, Leferriere. Reuter. Dentistry and pseudoscience, Dodes. Atmospheric FALL 1988 {vol. 13, no. 1): Special report: Astrology and electricity, ions, and pseudoscience, Dolezalek. Noah's ark the presidency, Kurtz and Bob. Improving Human and ancient astronauts, Harrold and Eve. The Woodbridge Performance: What about parapsychology? Frazier. The UFO incident, Ridpath. How to bust a ghost. Baker. The China syndrome: Further reflections on the paranormal unorthodox conjectures of Tommy Gold, Gardner. in China, Kurtz. Backward masking, McIver. The validity SUMMER 1986 (vol. 10, no. 4): Occam's razor, Shneour. of graphological analysis, Furnham. The intellectual revolt Clever Hans redivivus, Sebeok. Parapsychology miracles, against science, Grove. Reich the rainmaker, Gardner. and repeatability, Flew. The Condon UFO study, Klass. SUMMER 1988 (vol. 12, no. 4): Testing psi claims Four decades of fringe literature, Dutch. Some remote- in China, Kurtz, Alcock, Frazier, Karr, Klass, and Randi. The viewing recollections, Weinberg. Science, mysteries, and appeal of the occult: Some thoughts on history, religion, the quest for evidence, Gardner. and science, Stevens. Hypnosis and reincarnation, Venn. SPRING 1986 (vol. 10, no. 3): The perennial fringe, Pitfalls of perception, Wheeler. Wegener and pseudos­ Asimov. The uses of credulity, de Camp. Night walkers and cience: Some misconceptions, Edelman. An investigation mystery mongers, Sagan. CSICOP after ten years, Kurtz. of psychic crime-busting, Emery. High-flying health quackery, Crash of the crashed-saucers claim, Klass. A study of the Mines. The bar-code beast, Keith. Occam's Razor and the Kirlian effect, Watkins and Bickel. Ancient tales and space- nutshell earth, Gardner. age myths of creationist evangelism, McIver. Creationism's SPRING 1988 (vol. 12, no. 3): Neuropathology and the debt to George McCready Price, Gardner. legacy of spiritual possession, Beyerstein. Varieties of alien WINTER 1985-86 (vol. 10, no. 2): The moon was full experience, Ellis. Alien-abduction claims and standards of and nothing happened, Kelly, Rotton, and Culver. Psychic inquiry (excerpts from Milton Rosenberg's radio talk- studies: The Soviet dilemma, Ebon. The psychopathology show with guests Charles Gruder, Martin Orne, and of fringe medicine, Sabbagh. Computers and rational Budd Hopkins). The MJ-12 Papers: Part 2, Klass. Dooms­ thought, Spangenburg and Moser. Psi researchers' inatten­ day: The May 2000 prediction, Meeus. My visit to the tion to conjuring, Gardner. Nevada Clinic, Barrett. Morphic resonance in silicon chips, FALL 1985 (vol. 10, no. 1): Investigations of firewalking, Varela and Letelier. Abigail's anomalous apparition, Durm. Leikind and McCarthy. Firewalking: reality or illusion, The riddle of the Colorado ghost lights, Bunch and White. Dennett. Myth of alpha consciousness, Beyerstein. Spirit- The obligation to disclose fraud, Gardner. rapping unmasked, V. Bullough. The Saguaro incident, WINTER 1987-88 (vol. 12, no. 2): The MJ-12 papers: Part Taylor and Dennett. The great stone face, Gardner. I, Philip J. Klass. The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression SUMMER 1985 (vol. 9, no. 4): Guardian astrology study. revisited, Baker. The brain and consciousness: Implications Dean, Kelly, Rotton, and Saklofske. Astrology and the commod­ for psi, Beyerstein. Past-life hypnotic regression, Spanos. ity market, Rotton. The hundredth monkey phenomenon, Fantasizing under hypnosis, Reveen. The verdict on Amundson. Responsibilities of the media, Kurtz. 'Lucy' out creationism, Gould. Irving Kristol and the facts of life, of context, Albert. The debunking club, Gardner. Gardner. SPRING 1985 (vol. 9, no. 3): Columbus poltergeist: I, FALL 1987 (vol. 12, no. 1): The burden of skepticism, Randi. Moon and murder in Cleveland, Sanduleak. Image Sagan. Is there intelligent life on Earth? Kurtz. Medical of Guadalupe, Nickell and Fischer. Radar UFOs, Klass. Phren­ Controversies: Chiropractic, Jarvis; Homeopathy, Barrett, ology, McCoy. Deception by patients, Pankratz. Commun­ M.D.; Alternative therapies, ]ones; Quackery, Pepper. ication in nature, Orstan. Relevance of belief systems, Catching Geller in the act, Emery. The third eye, Gardner. Gardner. Special Report: CSICOP's 1987 conference. WINTER 1984-85 (vol. 9, no. 2): The muddled 'Mind Race,' SUMMER 1987 (vol. 11, no. 4): Incredible cremations: Myman. Searches for the Loch Ness monster, Razdan and Investigating combustion deaths, Nickell and Fischer. Kielar. Final interview with Milbourne Christopher, Subliminal deception. Creed. Past tongues remembered? Dennett. Retest of astrologer John McCall, Ianna and Tol- Thomason. Is the universe improbable? Shotwell. Psychics, bert. 'Mind Race,' Gardner. computers, and psychic computers, Easton. Pseudoscience FALL 1984 (vol. 9, no. 1): Quantum theory and the and children's fantasies, Evans. Thoughts on science and paranormal, Shore. What is pseudoscience? Bunge. The new superstrings, Gardner. Special Reports: JAL pilot's UFO philosophy of science and the 'paranormal,' Toulmin. An report, Klass; Unmasking psychic Jason Michaels, Busch. eye-opening double encounter, Martin. Similarities SPRING 1987 (vol. 11, no. 3): The elusive open mind: between identical twins and between unrelated people, Ten years of negative research in parapsychology, Wyatt el al. Effectiveness of a reading program on Blackmore. Does astrology need to be true? Part 2: The paranormal belief. Woods, Pseudoscientific beliefs of 6th- answer is no, Dean. Magic, science, and metascience: Some graders, A. S. and S. }. Adelman. Koestler money down notes on perception, D. Sagan. Velikovsky's interpretation the psi-drain, Gardner. of the evidence offered by China, Lo. Anomalies of Chip SUMMER 1984 (vol. 8, no. 4): Parapsychology's past eight Arp, Gardner. years, Alcock. The evidence for ESP, C. E. M. Mansel. WINTER 1986-87 (vol. 11, no. 2): Case study of West $110,000 dowsing challenge, Randi. Sir Oliver Lodge and Pittston 'haunted' house, Kurtz. Science, creationism and the spiritualists, Hoffmaster. Misperception, folk belief, and the Supreme Court, Seckel, with statements by Ayala, the occult, Connor. Psychology and UFOs, Simon. Freud Gould, and Gell-Mann. The great East Coast UFO of August and Fliess, Gardner. 1986, Oberg. Does astrology need to be true? Part 1, Dean. SPRING 1984 (vol. 8, no. 3): Belief in the paranormal Homing abilities of bees, cats, and people, Randi. The EPR worldwide: Mexico, Mendez-Acosta; Netherlands, Hoebens; paradox and Rupert Sheldrake, Gardner. Followups: On U.K., Hutchinson; Australia, Smith; Canada, Gordon; France, fringe literature, Bauer; on Martin Gardner and Daniel Rouze. Debunking, neutrality, and skepticism in science, Home, Beloff. Kurtz. University course reduces paranormal belief, Gray. FALL 1986 (vol. 11, no. 1): The path ahead: Opportunities, The Gribbin effect, Roder. Proving negatives, Pasquarello. acLaine, McTaggart, and McPherson, Gardner. INTER 1983-84 (vol. 8, no. 2): Sense and nonsense parapsychology, Hoebens. Magicians, scientists, and psy- lcs, Ganoe and Kirwan. New dowsing experiment, Martin. he effect of TM on weather, Trumpy. The haunting of e Ivan Vassilli, Sheaffer. Venus and Velikovsky, Forrest. agicians in the psi lab, Gardner. ALL 1983 (vol. 8, no. 1): Creationist pseudoscience, hadetoald. Project Alpha: Part 2, Randi. Forecasting radio lality by the planets, Dean. Reduction in paranormal lief in college course, Tobacyk. Humanistic astrology, lly and Krutzen. JMMER1983 (vol. 7, no. 4): Project Alpha: Part 1, Randi. oodman's 'American Genesis,' Feder. Battling on the air- aves, Slavsky. Rhode Island UFO film, Emery. Landmark C hoax, Gardner. 'RING 1983 (vol. 7, no. 3): Iridology, Worrall. The Nazca awings revisited, Nickell. People's Almanac predictions, mnelly. Test of numerology, Dlhopolsky. Pseudoscience the name of the university, Lederer and Singer. SUMMER 1980 (vol. 4, no. 4): Superstitions, Bainbridge INTER 1982-83 (vol. 7, no. 2): Palmistry, Park. The and Stark. Psychic archaeology, Feder. Voice stress analysis, eat SRI die mystery, Gardner. The 'monster' tree-trunk Klass. Follow-up on the 'Mars effect,' Evolution vs. Loch Ness, Campbell. UFOs and the not-so-friendly creationism, and the Cottrell tests. les, Klass. In defense of skepticism, Reber. SPRING 1980 (vol. 4, no. 3): Belief in ESP, Morris. UFO VLL 1982 (vol. 7, no. 1): The prophecies of Nostradamus, hoax, Simpson. Don Juan vs. Piltdown man, de Mille. zeau. Prophet of all seasons, James Randi. Revival of Tiptoeing beyond Darwin, Greenwell. Conjurors and the ostradamitis, Hoebens. Unsolved mysteries and extra- psi scene, Randi. Follow-up on the Cottrell tests. dinary phenomena, Gill. Clearing the air about psi, WINTER 1979-80 (vol. 4, no. 2): The 'Mars effect' — ndi. A skotography scam, Randi. articles by Kurtz, Zelen, and Abell; Rawlins; Michel and Franchise SUMMER 1982 (vol. 6, no. 4): Remote-viewing, Marks. Gauquelin. How I was debunked, Hoebens. The metal idio disturbances and planetary positions, Meeus. Divin- bending of Professor Taylor, Gardner. Science, intuition, g in Australia, Smith. "Great Lakes Triangle," Cena. and ESP, Bauslaugh. *epticism, closed-mindedness, and science fiction, Beyer- FALL 1979 (vol. 4, no. 1): A test of dowsing, Randi. Science m. Followup on ESP logic, Hardin and Morris and Gendin. and evolution, Godfrey. Television pseudodocumentaries, 'RING 1982 (vol. 6, no. 3): The Shroud of Turin, Mueller. Bainbridge. New disciples of the paranormal, Kurtz. UFO iroud image, McCrone. Science, the public, and the or UAA, Standen. The lost panda, van Kampen. Edgar Cayce, iroud, Schafersman. Zodiac and personality, Gauquelin. Randi. llowup on quantum PK, Hansel. SUMMER 1979 (vol. 3, no. 4): The moon and the INTER 1981-82 (vol. 6, no. 2): On coincidences, Ruma birthrate, Abell and Greenspan. Biorhythms, Hines. 'Cold Ik. Croiset: Part 2, Hoebens. Scientific creationism, Schade- reading,' Randi. Teacher, student, and the paranormal, Id. Follow-up on 'Mars effect,' Rawlins, responses by Krai. Encounter with a sorcerer, Sack. SJCOP Council and Abell and Kurtz. SPRING 1979 (vol. 3, no. 3): Near-death experiences, VLL 1981 (vol. 6, no. 1): Gerard Croiset: Part 1, Hoebens. Alcock. Television tests of Musuaki Kiyota, Scott and Hutchin­ ;st of perceived horoscope accuracy, lackey. Planetary son. The conversion of J. Allen Hynek, Klass. Asimov's sitions and radio propagation, lanna and Margolin. corollary, Asimov. 'rmuda Triangle, 1981, Dennett. Observation of a psychic, WINTER 1978-79 (vol. 3, no. 2): Is parapsychology a clntyre. science? Kurtz. Chariots of the gullible, Bainbridge. The SUMMER 1981 (vol. 5, no. 4): Investigation of 'psychics,' Tunguska event, Oberg. Space travel in Bronze Age China, ndi. ESP: A conceptual analysis, Gendin. The extrover- Keightley. :>n-introversion astrological effect, Kelly and Saklofske.Art , FALL 1978 (vol. 3, no. 1): An empirical test of astrol­ ence, and paranormalism, Habercom. Profitable night- ogy, Bastedo. Astronauts and UFOs, Oberg. Sleight of are. Wells. A Maltese cross in the Aegean? Loftin. tongue, Schwartz. The Sirius "mystery," Ridpath. 'RING 1981 (vol. 5, no. 3): Hypnosis and UFO SPRING/SUMMER 1978 (vol. 2, no. 2): Tests of three Auctions, Klass. Hypnosis not a truth serum, Hilgard. psychics, Randi. Biorhythms, Bainbridge. Plant perception, Schmidt's PK experiments. Hansel. Further comments Kmetz. Anthropology beyond the fringe, Cole. NASA and Schmidt's experiments, Hyman. Atlantean road, Randi. UFOs, Klass. A second Einstein ESP letter, Gardner. ^ciphering ancient America, McKusick. A sense of the FALL/WINTER 1977 (vol. 2, no. 1): Von Daniken, Story, liculous. Lord. The Bermuda Triangle, Kusche. Pseudoscience at Science INTER 1980-81 (vol. 5, no. 2): Fooling some people Digest, Oberg and Sheaffer. Einstein and ESP, Gardner. N- the time, Singer and Benassi. Recent perpetual motion rays and UFOs, Klass. Secrets of the psychics, Rawlins. velopments, Schadewald. National Enquirer astrology SPRING/SUMMER 1977 (vol. 1, no. 2): Uri Geller, Marks udy, Mechler, McDaniel, and Mulloy. Science and the and Kammann. Cold reading, Hyman. Transcendental Medi­ mountain peak, Asimov. tation, Woodrum. A statistical test of astrology, McGervey. VLL 1980 (vol. 5, no. 1): The Velikovsky affair — articles Cattle mutilations, Stewart. Oberg, Bauer, Frazier. Academia and the occult, Green- FALL/WINTER 1976 (vol. 1, no. 1): Dianetics, Wallis. II. Belief in ESP among psychologists, Padgett, Benassi, Psychics and clairvoyance. Fine. "Objections to Astrology," d Singer. Bigfoot on the loose, Kurtz. Parental expec- Westrum. Astronomers and astrophysicists as astrology tions of miracles, Steiner. Downfall of a would-be psychic, critics, Kurtz and Nisbet. Biorhythms and sports, Fir. Von cBumey and Greenberg. Parapsychology research, Mishlove. Daniken's chariots, Omohundro. Letters to the Editor ••';*<.

Commonsense skepticism "Hister" and there being a "Hitler." Skeptics can talk all they want about Congratulations to John Aach on his how the Hister was the lower Danube. excellent article "Science and Common- Or how about the fortune-teller who sense Skepticism" (SI, Fall 1991)! It is predicted a friend of mine would be all too easy to forget that careful living in a highrise apartment within debunking of the paranormal will not three years? And she was. Common impress people who believe that the sense finds that also too much of a scientific method cannot be applied to coincidence. Of course there is no telling these phenomena. Unless skeptics can the true probability, or improbability, in convince the public that these claims can either case. and should be investigated scientifically, pseudoscientific rubbish is bound to Richard A. Dengrove proliferate. I hope that your readers will Alexandria, Va. take Aach's suggestions to heart and put them into practice as often as possible. Beauty of an illusion Jeremy C. Henty Cambridge, England In the article "Spook Hill: Angular Illusion" (SI, Fall 1991), Guss Wilder described the phenomenon as "just an John Aach's article made me a little illusion, nothing more." This is more uneasy. While common sense can be than "just an illusion," it's a real beauty! used for debunking, it is also what The effect can be clearly seen even in supports the occult, which uses common the small black-and-white photograph sense's many fallacies against science that accompanied the article. [See photo and reason. I keep running across on following page.] examples of this. For one thing, common What is it about this scene that lets sense believes the first explanation that it "fool the eye" so well? As Wilder comes to mind. Foucault's Pendulum, suggests, some elements in the scene which you reviewed in the same issue, provide visual cues that are misinter­ showed this in spades. There, a mys­ preted by the viewer's normal, uncon­ terious retired colonel provides a list scious visual information processing. that, he claims, reveals a vast Templar The brain is somehow misled into plot. Most of the book's characters are "leaping to a wrong conclusion" about convinced—and I was too. The list the slope of the road. Interested readers contained many blanks, and a Templar might try covering up parts of the plot could fill them in. On the other photograph to see if they can identify hand, the protagonist's girlfriend points particular parts that, when removed, out that a Medieval laundry list could decrease the illusion. fill them in too. I have no definite theory to offer to In addition, ignorant of probability explain how the illusion "works." I theory, common sense grasps at "im­ would point out that since the effect is probabilities" that may be bound to seen in the photograph no matter how happen. It finds too much of a coinci­ you hold your head, the vestibular dence in Nostradamus's using the word system of the inner ear (the "sense of

324 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 balance") probably plays a negligible role Not far from Moncton, New Brunswick, in this illusion. I think the Spook Hill Canada, is a tourist attraction dubbed illusion is a good example of how "Magnetic Hill." It behaves exactly like psychologists find visual illusions valu­ Spook Hill. I visited it quite a few years able not so much because they are so ago, but I presume it is still there. well understood as because they may be However, the proprietors of an adjacent so revealing of the complexities of souvenir sign provide anyone interested human perception. with the opportunity to figure out One of the few books that discuss exactly what is going on. If I recall the type of visual illusion illustrated by correctly, they had a surveyor's level set Spook Hill as well as many other up so you could see what the slopes perceptual illusions that might be really are. They also invited you to watch encountered "outdoors" is Behavior and water in the ditch apparently flowing Perception in Strange Environments, by merrily uphill and to drive to the top Helen E. Ross (New York: Basic Books, of the hill, where it was easy to see that 1975). Ross notes that the Spook Hill what looks like this type illusion may also be experienced on B a golf course where a green is situated on a fairly steep slope. The eye may be so completely fooled that the golfer is tricked into believing that uphill is really down, leading to a disastrous miscue! from point A, really looks like this Personally, I am a little surprised that this trick has not been used by landscape architects to create the sensational effect of a "stream that flows uphill." Maybe the illusion is difficult to achieve with water.

Robert E. McGrath Urbana, 111. from point B.

Rom this approach, the eye is led to believe the road goes slightly downhill (Photo by Guss Wilder)

Spring 1992 325 The basis of the illusion is that the that Lucian borrowed from Hippolytus, whole countryside slopes toward the sea for Hippolytus's Refutation was not several miles away. written until 30 or 40 years after When I was there, at least, the Lucian's probable death date. proprietors of the souvenir stand were doing fine just publicizing the phe­ Everett F. Bleiler nomenon as the amusing and spectac­ Interlaken, N.Y. ular optical illusion it is, or they would give you the magnetic gobbledygook if you preferred. The Kreskin controversy

Robert F. Acker In 1966, when I was 11, I saw Kreskin Salem, S.C. on a talk show pimping a game based on the "science" of extrasensory percep­ tion. (See "1991 CSICOP Conference," Afrocentric pseudoscience SI, Fall 1991, p. 4.) He did some card- trick "experiments," and I was astounded There is a far more sinister aspect of (hey, I was 11). This appearance prob­ the African-American Baseline Essay than ably included a half-assed disclaimer, his any discussed in Bernard Ortiz de usual letter-not-the-spirit "truth" that Montellano's splendid article "Multicul­ kinda says it's not really extrasensory, tural Pseudoscience" (SI, Fall 1991); but I didn't know he was doing tricks. perhaps he has deliberately left this He deliberately misled me. rather obvious final deduction for the I cringe at the memory of begging readers to make, but it bears saying my parents to buy me the overpriced straight out, even so. "Advanced Fine Edition" of "Kreskin If this "baseline" is allowed to remain ESP." For their hard-earned money, I got and spread to other school systems, a a pendulum (with cards marked great many black students of a scientific "Finance," "Travel," "Career," and bent will be siphoned into this Egyptian "Love"—this is science?), a board, some mysticism. When they grow up, they ESP cards, and a pamphlet—all junk. The may form an organized body of this kind pendulum moved (this has been covered of "scientist," who will look upon attacks in SI) and the other stuff just didn't against their pseudoscience as the work. My parents sat with me many ravings of racial bigots, rather than the evenings and we tried to get some proper reproof of informed scientists, results. We were wasting our time. and persuade society at large to do the After several weeks of disappointing same. "experiments," I stumbled across a book Suspicious indeed is the fact that on "mentalism" (I think it was by Hunter Haviland Adams has chosen the Dunninger) and realized Kreskin had most racially sensitive subculture to do duped me. I felt humiliated and betrayed. this to. It wasn't until I was 18 that Teller, James Randi, and Martin Gardner restored my Griff Ruby love of science. Since then, a good part Lompoc, Calif. of my career has been dedicated to making sure others are not bilked by the likes of Kreskin. Lucian and Hippolytus Don't say that Kreskin brought me to skepticism. There are others who Walter F. Rowe's "Lucian and Alex­ deserve that credit. Kreskin just stole ander" (SI, Fall 1991) is beautifully money from my parents, and time and written and fascinating. It shows what passion from me. I owe him no thanks. can be done with material that is I don't care if Kreskin was invited to otherwise buried among the philolo­ speak at the CSICOP meetings as an gists. But Rowe is in error in suggesting "expert" on hypnotism or because of his

326 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 "charisma." If Kreskin does not answer Depersonalization and OBEs for his "mentalism," I will find another outlet for my skepticism. In the Fall 1991 SI, Eugene Emery I made a promise to an 11-year-old reports on recent findings on transcen­ boy. dental meditation and depersonaliza­ tion. However, he begins with a Penn Jillette completely false definition of deperson­ Penn & Teller alization. It is not "the well-known New York, N.Y. psychological phenomenon that makes people feel they are observing them­ selves" (p. 22). If there is such a NDE physiology phenomenon then it is either an "out- of-body experience" (if the person seems Thanks for your article on near- to be observing his or her body from death experiences and related neuro­ outside), or "autocopy" (if they seem to physiology by Susan Blackmore (SI, Fall be observing a replica of themselves but 1991). It seems to me that as "mys­ from their normal position). terious" experiences are shared they Out-of-body experiences (OBEs) become grounded in common experi­ usually seem extremely real to the ence, which then stimulates critical person, and there is often a sense of inquiry. I would like to share a related enhanced clarity of perception, thinking, phenomenon that may result from a and experience of self. OBEs can form neurological mechanism called postural part of a near-death experience and atonia. NDEs are also usually described as It usually occurs (for me) toward the extremely real and vivid. By contrast, end of a daytime nap and consists of a personalization involves feelings of period during which I feel reasonably unreality. To quote the Oxford Compan­ aware of my acoustical and visual ion to the Mind (Gregory 1987), de­ surroundings, but cannot lift my head, personalization is "a complaint made by arms or shoulders despite great effort. a patient that he feels himself to be The episode seems to last about a minute changed, that the world appears differ­ and and only occurs if I'm lying on my ent or unreal because he is different. If back. the world is seen as if in a dream, vague As the experience has become more or unreal or, though familiar, as having familiar, I recognize it after the initial no reference or significance to him, the attempt to lift. A usual scenario follows state is called derealization." that involves "playing" with the effect Although such states can occasionally by attempting to lift head, limb, or be accompanied by OBEs or autoscopy shoulder. Then, growing weary or and can occur during NDEs, they are anxious, I seriously attempt to roll over not equivalent to them. It is important or get up. The episode eventually ends to keep these definitions clear in trying with an abrupt lurch and a fully awake to understand just what changes med­ stake. itation does bring about. Many people to whom I relate the phenomenon are familiar with it. I S. J. Blackmore have read that postural atonia is the Bristol, England neurological mechanism responsible for inhibiting gross skeletal movement in (Dr. Blackmore wrote the article on NDEs cats during REM sleep. It seems possible in our Fall 1991 issue.—ED.) that the effect arises when postural atonia remains active after REM sleep Eugene Emery responds: ends. For what it's worth, the Diagnostic and David Birch Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Vienna, Va. (DSM-III-R), published by the American

Spring 1992 327 Psychiatric Association, says deperson­ groups are scheduled to meet every 120 alization disorder is manifested in some years, not 16 as stated; it is not Lia who cases "by a feeling of detachment from takes part in an occult rite in Brazil, but and being an outside oberver of one's one of Causabon's earlier girlfriends— mental processes or body." The DSM Amparo; the character referred to in the index makes no reference to out-of-body review as the "Comte St. Germaine's" experiences or autoscopy. is actually called Aglie, and it is only intimated (never openly stated) that he is an incarnation of the reputedly Foucault's Pendulum immortal Comte.

Thank goodness I had already read Jonathan Ainsworth Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum Lancaster, England before I read Erik Strommen's review of it in the Fall 1991 SI. In fact, this wasn't a review of the book at all—it was Stamp of pseudoscience a synopsis. And what's worse, it gave away the twists of the plot, and the I appreciated the articles in your Fall ending. Foucault's Pendulum is a superb 1991 issue, especially Robert Sheaffer's book, and I'm glad that Strommen Psychic Vibrations, "The Stamp of enjoyed it, but I'm afraid that he will Pseudoscience, the Army of Saucerers." have spoiled many of its surprises for The fact that a West African nation, first-time readers. Sierra Leone, issues a stamp illustrating the "face" on Mars does not automat­ Toby Howard ically make them practitioners of pseu­ Manchester, England doscience. While the stamp may be worth $135 to me as one of the original authors of discovery of the "face" I am heartened by your inclusion, at long {Unusual Martian Surface Features, 1980), last, of an excellent review of Umberto it probably would not be a wise Eco's astonishing Foucault's Pendulum. It investment. had seemed to me the best antidote for I think it would make a great follow- the epidemic of pseudoscience afflicting up article to print the "philatelic code us. of ethics" it allegedly violates. The face Congratulations to Erik Strommen on Mars is there, just as is Olympus for his succinct but comprehensive Mons. To commemorate the Viking analysis of the work. Orbiter's image of the "face" is no more The tragedy is that the people who pseudoscience than any other satellite need to read and understand the work photograph. are just the ones who won't touch it with If Feinstein Associates claimed the a 10-foot pole. stamp (or the face) was proof of a Your magazine does much good civilized habitation of Mars, or that service in the cause of reason and sanity there were little green men running in a world much troubled by muddled around the surface, perhaps that would thinking. be pseudoscience. Personally, I like the stamp. I think Charles R. Ayer it promotes science. If one has no proof Framingham, Mass. of its representing more than a geolog­ ical feature, that is fine with me. If someone offers a logical hypothesis of Although I agreed with much of Eric its being created by a civilization, I would Strommen's assessment of Umberto listen to their scientific evidence. Eco's book, the review was spoiled to some degree by the presence of several Greg Molenaar factual errors: the different Templar Willmar, Minn.

328 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 Robert Sheaffer replies: so, Wendell rejected the statistical methods used by Jahn, which were True, one's putting the "face" on Mars on rooted in the traditional frequentist a stamp does not automatically make one school of statistical theory, for those of a "practitioner" of pseudoscience. But if does the Bayesian school. Unfortunately, he make one a "promoter" of same: it's a subtle has done justice to neither. distinction. 1 am not versed in the philatelic To summarize the problem, a success "code of ethics," but any professional stamp rate of 0.5002 was observed in 78 million dealer should be able to explain how the trials with a purportedly equally likely "face on Mars" stamp ran afoul of it. dichotomous outcome. Hence 39 million Actually, Greg Molenaar may no longer successes would be expected. The be on the leading edge of discovering central question is: How unusual a result "unusual Martian surface features." is the observed number of successes, Cryptozoologist ]on Eric Beckjord has 39,015,600, and what does this say about discovered a number of additional faces there, the evidence for MPK? including those of Ted Kennedy and, most Wendell rejects Jahn's report that recently, Saddam Hussein. Discovering "the statistical likelihood of this occur­ images in more or less random patterns of ring by chance is 2 x 10-4" for two rocks isn't terribly difficult. What's difficult reasons. The first is that a two-sided test is keeping one's imagination in check. should have been used instead of a one­ sided test, which would double the probability to 4 x 10-4. While this is The Ha! test perhaps correct, the p-value remains small. The second reason, that "it is By the time the latest Roswell rumor simply not true that the p-value is a (Psychic Vibrations, SI, Fall 1991) got measure of evidence against the null to us in the hinterlands, it included a hypothesis," is itself simply not true. I curious piece of pseudo-history: that the suspect that Wendell is confused by the Rockefellers and the Rothschilds were difference between the terms evidence responsible for the coverup to hide the and probability. While it is true that p- knowledge of how to save the world, values cannot be directly interpreted as which they had received from the aliens, the probability of a hypothesis, even the from the rest of the world. I applied to most devout followers of the Bayesian this a version of your commonsense test paradigm would agree that a very small (same issue), which I have long called p-value usually gives at least some the Ha! test: Upon initial reflection evidence against the null hypothesis. concerning claims of the paranormal, Further, Wendell compares his posterior how big a belly laugh does it generate? probability, 0.052, to the 0.0002 p-value, I'm sorry, this kind of stuff really isn't and concludes that they differ "by an funny, but every once in a while, the order of at least two magnitudes." Since absurdity demands a Ha! p-values and posterior probabilities have different interpretations, it does not David M. Shoe make sense to compare them in this way. Denver, Colo. The subsequent calculations, while true to the form of a Bayesian analysis, are not fully in the spirit of the paradigm. John's statistics again In fact, many Bayesians would outright reject the idea of testing a point-null John P. Wendell's recent Follow-up hypothesis in the first place (see, for article ("More on Jahn's Statistics," SI, example, James O. Berger, Statistical Fall 1991: 89-90) attempted to adjust the Decision Theory and Bayesian Analysis, statistical probability associated with a 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1985, p. 20). controlled micropsychokinesis (MPK) The main objection here is that point- experiment, as given by Jahn in his letter null hypotheses are almost never exactly to SI in the Spring 1989 issue. In doing correct. For example, a supposedly "fair"

Spring 1992 329 coin may have true probability of heads values) of a point null and not to Bayesian of 0.500001, so that a large enough tests of a point null as Joseph implies. If number of trials would be certain to Joseph had read on to page 21, he would reject the hypothesis that Pr[Heads] = 1/2 have noticed that Berger says, "There are exactly. One must, in any given experi­ certain situations in which it is reasonable ment, decide in advance upon a criterion to formulate the problem as a test of a point for a meaningful difference, and test for null. ..." Later (p. 149), Berger indicates the presence of such a difference. that the hypothesis that there is no ESP is In the present case, a more thought­ one of those situations. Certainly MPK is ful analysis would first require agree­ not different from ESP in this regard. ment on what constitutes a large enough Joseph's assertion that a thoughtful analysis deviance, say d, from 1/2 to be a mean­ of MPK data must begin with agreement ingful MPK effect (it could be very on what constitutes a meaningful MPK effect small), and then test the composite null misses the point. No level of MPK can be hypothesis that the true value is in the considered meaningless because the existence range (1/2 - d, 1/2 + d.) Of course one of any level of MPK, by definition, cannot must also ensure, as Wendell suggests, be explained by any known physical that this deviance is sufficiently larger mechanisms; therefore, we cannot and never than the error induced by deficiencies will, as Joseph proposes, agree on a minimum present in any real-world experimental level that a real MPK effect must reach design, or the entire exercise becomes to be considered meaningful. pointless. As Jahn's experiment appar­ ently failed in this respect, the results are inconclusive at best. Steiner's other activities

Lawrence Joseph Interesting that two items about Rudolf Montreal, Quebec Steiner's followers appeared in the Fall Canada 1991 SI News and Comment. The column about the biodynamic possum repellent didn't mention that Biody­ John P. Wendell replies: namic Agriculture is, like Waldorf schools, one of the activities of Steiner's Lawrence Joseph questions my statement that Anthroposophy. p-values are not a measure of evidence For the record, Steiner's "spiritual against the null hypothesis with an science" establishment includes: unsupported assertion about the beliefs of "devout" Bayesians. His argument does Anthroposophical Medicine nothing to counter my assertion that Jahn's The Anthroposophical Society p-value cannot be considered a measure of Biodynamic Agriculture evidence against the null hypothesis because Camphill Schools (Villages, it is the sum of 38,984,400 probabilities, Communities) 38,983,999 of which have nothing to do The Christian Community with the observed experimental result. If Waldorf Schools Joseph thinks the probabilities of unobserved events constitute evidence, it is he, and not Dan Dugan 1, who is confused about the difference San Francisco, Calif. between evidence and probability. If it is unfair of me to compare my posterior probability of 0.052 with Jahn's p-value Joke, but on whom of 0.0002,1 remind Joseph that it was Jahn who invited the comparison by claiming that Hard to believe, but I guess being his p-value is a measure of statistical skeptical doesn't necessarily mean likelihood. On page 20 of Statistical having good sense. The chain letter that Theory and Bayesian Analysis, Berger "weighs heavily on top journalists" objects to classical significance tests (p- (News and Comment, SI, Fall 1991) was

330 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 a put-on circulating at such a respected are in conflict with Rutman on this issue level of the profession that anyone who of moral values does not mean that they received it was flattered to be included are stupid, ignorant, or mystical. in the group. Why do you think every­ body left on everybody else's comments? Peter Kimball C. Eugene Emery, Jr., evidently missed American College of Healthcare the joke, and taking him seriously Executives doesn't say much for 51. Chicago, 111.

William J. Helmer Chicago, 111. Robert Rutman's arguments show little application of the rigorous intellectual practices he claims to uphold. Wild Gene Emery replies: assertions are put forward without evidence. Animal-rights supporters 1 lack the clairvoyance needed to contend that think scientists are "creatures of the my colleagues never took the chain letter devil"? Animal rights people would allow seriously. But when someone makes a good- mankind to be attacked by "plagues, natured admission that they are supersti­ epidemics, and famines beyond control"? tious, 1 see no reason to doubt such a These comments are not just emotional; confession. they are silly. 1 view writing a note as a polite, civilized, Moreover, Rutman misses the key and entertaining way of passing on a chain point. He would like us to think that letter, not evidence that everyone thought it animal rights is a pseudoscience, but was a joke. animal rights is primarily a moral Actually, even in cases where people said argument. It is based on the ethical they were simply sending the letter along conclusion that sentient nonhuman as a lark, I have to wonder if some were animals have the right to be treated with motivated, at least in part, by an unwill­ respect. This is no more a claim of the ingness to court bad luck. 1 was given packets paranormal than is the concept of by several colleagues. I got them because they human rights. weren't superstitious enough to perpetuate the chain. But some couldn't bring them­ Larry Kaiser selves to trash their packets either. Dexter, Mich. Will my failure to pass on all these chain letters make me explode with accumulated bad luck? Of course not (knock on wood)! As a concerned animal rightist, I was disturbed by Robert Rutman's letter. I feel it is necessary to bring up several Animal rights movement points. First, there are many different kinds I am not a member of the animal-rights of animal rightists, with differing views movement in any meaningful sense, but concerning animal experimentation. I am irritated with Robert Rutman's The behavior and beliefs of animal dismissal of it as the product of mere rightists as a group should not be judged illogic (Letters, Fall 1991). The animal- by the behavior and beliefs of a handful rights movement is making a moral of extremists. challenge to experimentation on ani­ Second, what the animal rights mals, eating the flesh of animals, and movement used to be has little or so on. They say these things are bad nothing to do with what it is now. What to do. Rutman apparently believes they is important is not its past history, but are all right to do. But this type of its present performance. conflict cannot be resolved by "rigorous Third, even those animal rightists intellectual practices," as Rutman says, who wish to eliminate all animal exper­ and the fact that animal-rights advocates imentation are not necessarily against

Spring 1992 331 all science. the "absolute trinity." Fourth, most animal rightists, while 6. I mispelled Gonod, Grandfada, and not Rutherfords or Mendels, are reason­ agondonters. ably well informed concerning science 7. Although Adam and Eve dis­ and its methodology. obeyed God, according to the UB it was Fifth, it is perfectly possible to not by eating a forbidden fruit. The UB maintain animal experimentation while considers this a Genesis myth. eliminating unnecessary pain and suffering 8. I said Lucifer was imprisoned "on" for the animals concerned. This is the goal Satania, when I should have said "in." of most animal rightists today. And when I said Adam and Eve are now "in" Jerusem, I should have said "on." Lorrill Buyens I am now writing a book about the Phoenix, Ariz. Urantia movement, and would wel­ come hearing from anyone formerly (We received numerous other letters associated with this new revelation who making these same points.—ED.) may have information about the UB's origin. I would also be pleased to hear from anyone personally acquainted Gardner on Urantia with the Chicago psychiatrist Dr. William S. Sadler, who published the I wish to apologize for many careless UB and was the movement's leading errors in my column about the Urantia promoter. movement (SI, Winter 1990), most of them called to my attention by Philip Martin Gardner Calabrese, a San Diego mathematician, 110 Glenbrook Dr. and by Julio Edwards, of Denver. I Hendersonville, N.C. 28739 have learned a great deal about the Urantia Book (UB) since I wrote that column. High fidelity consumption 1. I said the UB purports to be the work of extraterrestrials. Actually, the If you have room for one more comment UB says that some of its papers were on "Hi-Fi Audio Pseudoscience," by Fred written by superhumans living on earth E. Davis (SI, Spring 1991, and Follow- but invisible. up, Fall 1991), I believe I have an amusing 2. I said human souls were created contribution. A friend of mine was a at birth. The UB says that the soul helicopter pilot in Vietnam. In case begins to develop, on an average, at anyone doesn't know, this is an about age 6. extremely noisy environment. Some 3. I said Jesus did not turn water into time after he returned to the United wine. Although true, the water did turn States, he underwent a standard phys­ to wine, but it was done by higher ical, including a hearing test. As he powers who "abrogated" time and reviewed the results of the exam with caused the change by natural laws. the doctor, my friend was startled by 4. I called Michael an archangel, as the doctor's question, "How much did he is called in the Bible. In the UB he you pay for your stereo system?" My is a Creator Son who was incarnated friend responded, "About $800. Why?" on earth as Jesus. I assumed that Lucifer The doctor replied, "Well you're hearing was a fallen angel, as depicted in the about $400 worth." I have often won­ Bible, but in the UB he is the deposed dered since whether the more expensive sovereign of a star system known as audio equipment is more the exercise of Satania. Satan was his first lieutenant. conspicuous consumption than the Satan, Beelzebub, and Caligastia are also pursuit of high fidelity. not angels in the UB. 5. I said Jesus (Michael) was part of Robert Wivagg the "ultimate trinity." I should have said Bethany, Conn.

332 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 16 A CSICOP SEMINAR The Skeptic's Toolbox University of Oregon at Eugene Thursday-Monday, August 20-24 The workshop will begin with dinner and an introduction on Thursday night, August 20, and will adjourn at noon on Monday. Our goal is to sharpen the ability of skeptics to deal with various situations. Some of the topics to be covered by the five lecturers are: The Brain and Psychic Experience Pitfalls in Psychical Research How Our Minds Can Deceive Us How to Deal with the Media How Children Succeed in Fooling and Confrontational Adults Challenges The Statistics of Coincidences How to Convince Strangers You The Dowsing Rod and the Ouija Are Psychic Board How to Distinguish Good How to Avoid Legal Pitfalls from Corrupt Information Ray Hyman, the workshop coordinator, is a professor of psychology at the University of Oregon and a member of the CSICOP Executive Council. He has written extensively on the critical evaluation of paranormal claims. With a background in professional magic, he specializes in the psychology of human error and deception. Barry Beyerstein, professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, B.C., and a member of the CSICOP Executive Council, specializes in how the brain determines behavior. He has researched how apparently psychic experiences can be due to malfunctions in the brain. Loren Pankratz, a clinical psychologist with the Veterans Administration in Portland, Oregon, is the world's foremost authority on the Munchausen Syndrome, which refers to patients who repeatedly and successfully fake serious illnesses. He has studied quackery in all its guises, and is a magician who writes on the psychology of conjuring. Jeff Mayhew, whose degree is in physics, has pioneered in applying computer graphics and the latest audiovisual tools to foster skepticism. He will demonstrate how to target audiences and how to deliver your message most effectively. Jerry Andrus, magician, inventor, and iconoclast, has lectured at Harvard, MIT, the University of Oregon, and elsewhere on how people reach the wrong conclusions for the "right" reasons. He has created many optical illusions and is a consultant to major science museums. Take advantage of this exciting opportunity to sharpen your skeptical skills, and join us on the Sunday fleldtrip to the "Oregon Vortex," one of Oregon's major "paranormal" geographical sites. For registration information, contact Barry Karr, CSICOP, P.O Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703, or call him at 716-636-1425. Local, Regional, and National Organizations The organizations listed below have aims MN 55416. St. Kloud ESP Teaching similar to those of CSICOP but are indepen­ Investigation Committee (SKEPTIC), dent and autonomous. They are not affiliated Jerry Mertens, Coordinator, Psychology with CSICOP, and representatives of these Dept., St. Cloud State Univ., St. Cloud, organizations cannot speak on behalf of MN 56301. CSICOP. MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Verle Muhrer, Chair­ UNITED STATES man, 2658 East 7th, Kansas City, MO ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics, Emory Kim- 64124. Gateway Skeptics, Chairperson, brough, 3550 Watermelon Road, Apt. Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave., Univer­ 29A, Northport, AL 35476 (205-759- sity City, MO 63130. 2624). ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptical Society NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & (TUSKS), James McGaha, Chairman, Reason, John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 2509 N. Campbell Ave., Suite #16, Montclaire SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108; Tucson, AZ 85719. Phoenix Skeptics, John Smallwood, 320 Artist Road, Santa Michael Stackpole, Chairman, P.O. Box Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-2800). 60333, Phoenix, AZ 85028. NEW YORK. Finger Lakes Association for CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics, Wilma Critical Thought, Ken McCarthy, 107 Russell, Secretary, 17723 Buti Park Court, Williams St., Groton, NY 13073. New Castro Valley, CA 94546. East Bay York Area Skeptics (NYASk), William Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay, Presi­ Wade, contact person, 97 Fort Hill Road, dent, P.O. Box 20989, Oakland, CA 94620 Huntington, NY 11743-2205. Western (415-420-0702). Sacramento Skeptics New York Skeptics, Tim Madigan, Chair­ Society, Terry Sandbek, 3838 Watt Ave., man, 3159 Bailey Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215. Suite C303, Sacramento, CA 95821-2664 NORTH CAROLINA. N.C. Skeptics, Michael (916-488-3772). J. Marshall, Pres., 3318 Colony Dr., COLORADO and WYOMING. Rocky Mountain Jamestown, NC 27282. Skeptics, Bela Scheiber, President, P.O. OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens, Box 7277, Boulder, CO 80306. 6006 Fir Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44102 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, DELAWARE, MARY­ (216-631-5987). Association for Rational LAND, and VIRGINIA. National Capital Thinking (Cincinnati area), Joseph F. Area Skeptics, c/o D. W. "Chip" Denman, Gastright, Contact, 111 Wallace Ave., 8006 Valley Street, Silver Spring, MD Covington, KY 41014, (513) 369-4872 or 20910. (606) 581-7315. FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics, Gary Posner, PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating 6219 Palma Blvd., #210, St. Petersburg, Committee of Pittsburgh (PICP), Richard FL 33715 (813-867-3533). Busch, Chairman, 5841 Morrowfield GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Anson Ken­ Ave., #302, Pittsburgh, PA 15217 (412- nedy, Secretary, P.O. Box 654, Norcross, 521-2334). Delaware Valley Skeptics, GA 30091. Brian Siano, Secretary, Apt. 1-F, 4406 ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee for Rational Walnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19104. Inquiry, Lawrence Kitsch, President, P.O. SOUTH CAROLINA. South Carolina Commit­ Box 2792, Des Plaines, IL 60017-2792. tee to Investigate Paranormal Claims, INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics, Robert Craig, John Safko, 3010 Amherst Ave., Colum­ Chairperson, 5401 Hedgerow Drive, bia, SC 29205. Indianapolis, IN 46226. TEXAS. Austin Society to Oppose Pseudo- KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science science (ASTOP), Lawrence Cranberg, Educators and Skeptics (KASES), Chair­ President, P.O. Box 3446, Austin, TX man, Prof. Robert A. Baker, 3495 Cas- 78764. Houston Association for Scientific tleton Way North, Lexington, KY 40502. Thinking (HAST), Darrell Kachilla, P.O. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Box 541314, Houston, TX 77254. North Rational Inquiry and Scientific Methods Texas Skeptics, John Blanton, President, (BR-PRISM), Henry Murry, Chairman, P.O. Box 111794, Carrollton, TX 75011- P.O. Box 15594, Baton Rouge, LA 70895. 1794. West Texas Society to Advance MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol Rational Thought, Co-Chairmen: George Lynn, contact, 1264 Bedford Rd., Grosse Robertson, 6500 Eastridge Rd., #73, Pointe Park, MI 84230-1116. Odessa, TX 79762-5219 (915-367-3519); MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics, Robert W. Don Naylor, 404 N. Washington, Odessa, McCoy, 549 Turnpike Rd., Golden Valley, TX 79761. WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible (continued on next page) The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman Scientific and Technical Consultants George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University. William Sims Bainbridge, professor of sociology, Illinois State University. Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and academic education and professor of chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Washington, D.C. Barry L. Beyerstein, professor of psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Martin Bridgstock, lecturer, School of Science, Griffith Observatory, Brisbane, Australia. Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, SUNY College at Buffalo. Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. Shawn Carlson, physicist, Berkeley, Calif. Charles J. Cazeau, geologist, Tempe, Ariz. Ronald J. Crowley, professor of physics, California State University, Fullerton. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Univ. J. Dath, professor of engineering, Ecole Royale Militaire, Brussels, Belgium. Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer science, University of Basque, San Sebastian, Spain. Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa. J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Observatory, Brussels, Belgium. Natham J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple University. Barbara Eisenstadt, educator, Clifton Park, N.Y. Frederic A. Friedel, philosopher, Hamburg, West Germany. Robert E. Funk, anthropologist, New York State Museum & Science Service. Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy. Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist. University of Massachusetts. Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president. Interstellar Media. Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology, SUNY, Buffalo. Philip A. Ianna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia. William Jarvis, chairman, Public Health Service, Loma Linda University, California. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology, University of Saskatchewan. Richard H. Lange, chief of nuclear medicine, Ellis Hospital, Schenectady, New York. Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history and archaeology, University of So. California. Bernard I. Leikind, staff scientist, GA Technologies Inc., San Diego. William M. London, assistant professor of health education, Kent State University. Jeff Mayhew, computer consultant, Aloha, Oregon. Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engineering, Caltech, and SET! Coordinator of the Planetary Society. James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot. Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psychiatry, Calabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles. Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology, School of Medicine, University of California. John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and engineering, Iowa State University. Steven Pinker, assistant professor of psychology, MIT. James Pomerantz, professor of psy­ chology. Rice University; Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo. Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Amherst College. Milton A. Rothman, physicist, Philadelphia, Pa. Karl Sabbagh, journalist, Richmond, Surrey, England. Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and medicine, University of Wisconsin- Madison. Steven D. Schafersman, geologist, Houston. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England. Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of anthropology, SUNY, Buffalo. Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo. Elie A. Shneour, biochemist; director, Biosystems Research Institute, La Jolla, California. Steven N. Shore, astronomer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Md. Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon. Mark Slovak, astronomer. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Douglas Stalker, associate professor of philosophy. University of Delaware. Gordon Stein, physiologist, author; editor of the American Rationalist. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics, Uni­ versity of Pittsburgh, editor of Language.

Subcommittees Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, I. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational Psychology, University of Saskat­ chewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada. College and University Lecture Series Subcommittee: Chairman, Paul Kurtz; Lecture Coordinator, Ranjit Sandhu, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Education Subcommittee: Chairman, Steven Hoffmaster, Physics Dept., Gonzaga Univ., Spokane, WA 99258-0001; Secretary, Wayne Rowe, Education Dept., Univ. of Oklahoma, 820 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019. Electronics Communications Subcommittee: Chairman, Page Stevens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, OH 44102. Paranormal Health Claims Subcommittee: Co-chairmen, William Jarvis, Professor of Health Education, Dept. of Preventive Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D., P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA 18105. Parapsychology Subcommittee: Chairman, Ray Hyman, Psychology Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97402. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024. Explanations, Philip Haldeman/Michael INDIA. B. Premanand, Chairman, 10, Chet- Dennett, T.L.P.O. Box 8234, Kirkland, tipalayam Rd., Podanur 641-023 Coimba- WA 98034. tore Tamil nadu. For other Indian organ­ WISCONSIN. Wisconsin Committee for izations contact B. Premanand for Rational Inquiry, Mary Beth Emmericks, details. Convenor, 8465 N. 51st St., Brown Deer, IRELAND. Irish Skeptics, Peter O'Hara, WI 53223. Contact, St. Joseph's Hospital, Limerick. ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Controllo ARGENTINA. CAIRP, Director, Ladislao delle Affermazioni sul Paranormale, Enrique Marquez, Jose Marti, 35 dep C, Lorenzo Montali, Secretary, Via Ozanam 1406 Buenos Aires. 3, 20129 Milano, Italy. AUSTRALIA. National: Australian Skeptics, JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Chair­ P.O. Box E324 St. James, NSW 2000. person, 1-31-8-527 Takadanobaba, Regional: Australian Capital Territory, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 169. P.O. Box 555, Civic Square, 2608. New­ MALTA. Contact: Vanni Pule', "Kabbalah," castle Skeptics, Chairperson, Colin Keay, 48 Sirti St., The Village, St. Julian's. Physics Dept., Newcastle University, MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical NSW 2308. Queensland, P.O. Box 2180, Research (SOMIE), Mario Mendez- Brisbane, 4001. South Australia, P.O. Acosta, Chairman, Apartado Postal 19- Box 91, Magill, 5072. Victoria, P.O. Box 546, Mexico 03900, D.F. 1555P, Melbourne, 3001. Western Aus­ NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob tralia, 25 Headingly Road, Kalamunda Nanninga, Secretary, Westerkade 20, 6076. 9718 AS Groningen. BELGIUM. Committee Para, J. Dommanget, NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptics, Chairman, Observatoire Royal de Bel- Warwick Don, Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of gique, Avenue Circulaire 3, B-1180 Otago, Dunedin, NZ. Brussels. SKEPP, W. Betz, Secretary, NORWAY. NIVFO, K. Stenodegard, Boks 9, Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussels (FAX: N-7082, Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Ember- 32-2-4774301). land, Contact, P. B. 2943 Toyen 0608, CANADA. National: Chairman, James E. Oslo 6. Alcock, Glendon College, York Univ., RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian, Ulya- 2275 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, Ontario. novskaya 43, Kor 4, 109004, Moscow. Regional: Alberta Skeptics, Elizabeth SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational Anderson, P.O. Box 5571, Station A, Investigation of the Paranormal (ARIP), Calgary, Alberta T2H 1X9. British Marian Laserson, Secretary, 4 Wales St., Columbia Skeptics, Barry Beyerstein, Sandringham 2192. Chairman, Box 86103, Main PO, North SPAIN. Alternativa Racional a las Pseudo- Vancouver, BC, V7L 4J5. Manitoba sciencias (ARP), Luis Miguel Ortega, Ex­ Skeptics, Bill Henry, President, Box 92, ecutive Director, P.O. Box 6.112, Bilbao. St. Vital, Winnipeg, Man. R2M 4A5. SWEDEN. Vetenskap & Folkbildning Ontario Skeptics, Henry Gordon, Chair­ (Science and People's Education), Sven man, 343 Clark Ave West, Suite 1009, Ove Hansson, Secretary, Box 185, 101 22 Thornhill, Ontario L4J 7K5. Sceptiques du Stockholm. Quebec: Jean Ouellette, C.P. 202, Succ. SWITZERLAND. Conradin M. Beeli, Con­ Beaubien, Montreal H2G 3C9. venor, Rietgrabenstr. 46 CH-8152 CZECHOSLOVAKIA. Contact Milos Opfikon. Chvojka, Inst, of Physics, Czech Academy UKRAINE. Perspectiva, Oleg G. Bakhtiarov, of Sciences, Na Slovance 2, 1 80 40 Director, 36 Lenin Blvd., Kiev 252001. Prague 8. UNITED KINGDOM. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets, Hori- Representative, Michael J. Hutchinson, 10 sont Magazine, Narva mnt. 5, Tallinn, Crescent View, Loughton, Essex IG10 200102. 4PZ. The Skeptic magazine. Editors, Toby FINLAND. Skepsis, Lauri Grohn, Secretary, Howard and Steve Donnelly, P.O. Box Ojahaanpolku 8 B17, SF-01600 Vantaa. 475, Manchester M60 2TH. London FRANCE. Comite Francais pour I'Etude des Student Skeptics, Michael Howgate, Phenomenes Paranormaux, Claude President, 71 Hoppers Rd., Winchmore Benski, Secretary-General, Merlin Gerin, Hill, London N21 3LP. Manchester Skep­ RGE/A2 38050 Grenoble Cedex. tics, David Love, P.O. Box 475, Manches­ GERMANY. Society for the Scientific ter M60 2TH. Wessex Skeptics, Robin Investigation of Para-Science (GWUP), Allen, Dept. of Physics, Southampton Amardeo Sarma, Convenor, Postfach University, Highfield, Southampton 1222, D-6101 Rossdorf. S09 5NH. INSTITUTE FOR INQUIRY Summer Session 1992 — Sat.-Wed., June 13-17 at the State University of New York at Buffalo The Institute for Inquiry is jointly supported by CSICOP and CODESH, two scientific and educational nonprofit organizations. The Institute offers courses and curricula to develop knowledge and appreciation of skepticism, rationalism, free thought, and scientific modes of inquiry. The Summer Session will offer three courses: Health Controversies (CSICOP), Critical Thinking (CSICOP and CODESH), and Bioethics (CODESH). Participants can register for one course ($125), two courses ($225), or three courses ($300). Accommodations, meals, and textbooks are not included.

Saturday. June 13 7:00-10:00 P.M.: Reception Hosted by Vern Bullough, Dean of the Institute for Inquiry, and Distinguished Professor, State University of New York

Sunday, June 14 9:00 A.M.-12:00 NOON: Bioethics Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, State University of New York College at Fredonia 12 NOON-1:00 P.M.: Luncheon Break 1:00-4:00 P.M.: Critical Thinking Lee Nisbet, professor of philosophy, Medaille College Tad S. Clements, professor emeritus of philosophy, SUNY College at Brockport 4:30-7:30 P.M.: Health Controversies Stephen Barrett, M.D., editor of Nutrition Forum newsletter

7:30-10:00 P.M.: Dinner and Open Forum Monday, June 15 Courses continue; repeat of Sunday schedule. Tuesday, June 16 Courses continue; repeat of Sunday schedule.

Wednesday, June 17 9:00A.M.-2 P.M.: Trip to Niagara Falls (optional) 3:00-4:30 P.M.: Bioethics 4:30-6:00 P.M.: Critical Thinking 6:00-7:30 P.M.: Health Controversies 7:30-10:00 P.M.: Farewell Dinner and entertainment For registration form and accommodations information, contact Barry Karr, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703, 716-636-1425. 11 - t*l.«. II II Mil.-.- Il,«, a |l I .^ •?..»• > I I' II ,* jJIU^-iL! £ 2LL! AJL AL A •!• llbv All Jla 1.'- J'- I AJll: The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal attempts to encourage the critical investigation of paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, scientific point of view and to disseminate factual information about the results of such inquiries to the scientific community and the public. It also encourages critical thinking, an appreciation of science, and the use of reason in examining important issues. To carry out these objectives the Committee: • Maintains a network of people interested in critically examining paranormal, fringe- science, and other claims, and in contributing to consumer education. • Prepares bibliographies of published materials that carefully examine such claims. • Encourages and commissions research by objective and impartial inquiry in areas where it is needed. • Convenes conferences and meetings. • Publishes articles, monographs, and books that examine claims of the paranormal. •• Does not reject claims on a priori grounds, antecedent to inquiry, but rather ..examines them, objectively and carefully. - : :'

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