Physics 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Physics 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes Physics 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes David L. Feder January 8, 2013 Contents 1 Boltzmann Statistics (aka The Canonical Ensemble) 3 1.1 Example: Harmonic Oscillator (1D) . 3 1.2 Example: Harmonic Oscillator (3D) . 4 1.3 Example: The rotor . 5 1.4 The Equipartition Theorem (reprise) . 6 1.4.1 Density of States . 8 1.5 The Maxwell Speed Distribution . 10 1.5.1 Interlude on Averages . 12 1.5.2 Molecular Beams . 12 2 Virial Theorem and the Grand Canonical Ensemble 14 2.1 Virial Theorem . 14 2.1.1 Example: ideal gas . 15 2.1.2 Example: Average temperature of the sun . 15 2.2 Chemical Potential . 16 2.2.1 Free energies revisited . 17 2.2.2 Example: Pauli Paramagnet . 18 2.3 Grand Partition Function . 19 2.3.1 Examples . 20 2.4 Grand Potential . 21 3 Quantum Counting 22 3.1 Gibbs' Paradox . 22 3.2 Chemical Potential Again . 24 3.3 Arranging Indistinguishable Particles . 25 3.3.1 Bosons . 25 3.3.2 Fermions . 26 3.3.3 Anyons! . 28 3.4 Emergence of Classical Statistics . 29 4 Quantum Statistics 32 4.1 Bose and Fermi Distributions . 32 4.1.1 Fermions . 33 4.1.2 Bosons . 35 4.1.3 Entropy . 37 4.2 Quantum-Classical Transition . 39 4.3 Entropy and Equations of State . 40 1 PHYS 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes 2 5 Fermions 43 5.1 3D Box at zero temperature . 43 5.2 3D Box at low temperature . 44 5.3 3D isotropic harmonic trap . 46 5.3.1 Density of States . 46 5.3.2 Low Temperatures . 47 5.3.3 Spatial Profile . 48 5.4 A Few Examples . 50 5.4.1 Electrons in Metals . 50 5.4.2 Electrons in the Sun . 50 5.4.3 Ultracold Fermionic Atoms in a Harmonic Trap . 51 6 Bosons 52 6.1 Quantum Oscillators . 52 6.2 Phonons . 53 6.3 Blackbody Radiation . 56 6.4 Bose-Einstein Condensation . 59 6.4.1 BEC in 3D . 59 6.4.2 BEC in Lower Dimensions . 60 6.4.3 BEC in Harmonic Traps . 62 Chapter 1 Boltzmann Statistics (aka The Canonical Ensemble) This chapter covers the material in Ch. 6 of the PHYS 449 course notes that we didn't get to last term. In particular, Sec. 1.1 here corresponds to Sec. 6.2.4 in the PHYS 449 course notes. 1.1 Example: Harmonic Oscillator (1D) Before we can obtain the partition for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator, we need to find the quantum energy levels. Because the system is known to exhibit periodic motion, we can again use Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization and avoid having to solve Schr¨odinger'sequation. The total energy is p2 kx2 p2 m!2x2 E = + = + ; 2m 2 2m 2 p where ! = pk=m is the classical oscillation frequency. Inverting this gives p = 2mE − m2!2x2. Insert this into the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization condition: I I p pdx = 2mE − m2!2x2dx = nh; where the integral is over one full period of oscillation. Let x = p2E=m!2 sin(θ) so that m2!2x2 = 2mE sin2(θ). Then I r Z 2π p 2E 2 2E 1 2πE pdx = 2 2mE cos (θ)dθ = 2π = = nh: m! 0 ! 2 ! So, again making the switch E ! n, we obtain h! = n = n¯h!: n 2π The full solution to Schr¨odinger'sequation (a lengthy process involving Hermite polynomials) gives 1 n = ¯h!(n + 2 ). Except for the constant factor, Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization has done a fine job of determining the energy states of the harmonic oscillator. 3 PHYS 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes 4 Armed with the energy states, we can now obtain the partition function: X X Z = exp(−n=kBT ) = exp(−βn) = 1 + exp(−β¯h!) + exp(−2β¯h!) + :::: n n But this is just a geometric series: if I make the substitution x ≡ exp(−β¯h!), then Z = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + :::. But I also know that xZ = x + x2 + x3 + :::. Since both Z and xZ have an infinite number of terms, I can subtract them and all terms cancel except the first: Z − xZ = 1, which immediately yields Z = 1=(1 − x), or 1 Z = : (1.1) 1 − exp(−β¯h!) Now I can calculate the mean energy: 2 2 @ ln(Z) NkBT @Z 2 [1 − exp(−β¯h!)] ¯h! U = NkBT = = NkBT 2 (−1) 2 (−1) exp(−β¯h!) @T Z @T [1 − exp(−β¯h!)] kBT exp(−β¯h!) N¯h! = N¯h! = : 1 − exp(−β¯h!) exp(β¯h!) − 1 1 = N¯h!hn(T )i; where hn(T )i ≡ is the occupation factor: exp(¯h!=kBT ) − 1 At very high temperatures T 1, exp(¯h!=kBT ) ≈ 1 + (¯h!=kBT ), so hn(T )i ! kBT=¯h! and U(T 0) ! NkBT and CV (T 0) ! NkB: Notice that these high-temperature values are exactly twice those found for the one-dimensional particle in a box, even though the energy states themselves are completely different from each other. 1.2 Example: Harmonic Oscillator (3D) By analogy to the three-dimensional box, the energy levels for the 3D harmonic oscillator are simply nx;ny ;nz = ¯h!(nx + ny + nz); nx; ny; nz = 0; 1; 2;:::: Again, because the energies for each dimension are simply additive, the 3D partition function can 3 be simply written as the product of three 1D partition functions, i.e. Z3D = (Z1D) . Because 3 almost all thermodynamic quantities are related to ln (Z3D) = ln (Z1D) = 3 ln (Z1D), almost all quantities will simply be mupltiplied by a factor of 3. For example, U3D = 3NkBT = 3U1D and CV (3D) = 3NkB = 3CV (1D). One can think of atoms in a crystal as N point masses connected to each other with springs. To a first approximation, we can think of the system as N harmonic oscillators in three dimensions. In fact, for most crystals, the specific heat is measured experimentally to be 2:76NkB at room temperature, accounting for 92% of this simple classical picture. It is interesting to consider the expression for the specific heat at low temperatures. At low temperature, the mean energy goes to U ! 3N¯h! exp(−¯h!=kBT ), so that the specific heat approaches 3N¯h! ¯h! ¯h! 2 ¯h! CV ! − 2 (−¯h!) exp − = 3NkB exp − : kBT kBT kBT kBT PHYS 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes 5 This expression was first derived by Einstein, and shows that the specific heat falls off exponentially at low temperature. It provided a tremendous boost to the field of statistical mechanics, because it was fully consistent with experimental observations of the day. Unfortunately, it turns out to be 3 wrong: better experiments revealed that CV / T at low temperatures, not exponentially. This is because the atoms are not independent oscillators, but rather coupled oscillators, and the low-lying 3 excitations are travelling lattice vibrations (now known at phonons). Actually, even CV / T is wrong at very low temperatures! The electrons that can travel around in crystals also contribute to the specific heat, so in fact CV (T ! 0) / T . 1.3 Example: The rotor Now let's consider the energies associated with rotation. In classical mechanics, the rotational kinetic energy is 1 T = ~! · I · ~!; 2 where I is the moment of inertia tensor and ~! is the angular velocity vector. In the inertial ellipsoid, this can be rewritten L2 L2 L2 T = x + y + z ; 2Ixx 2Iyy 2Izz where Lj is the angular momentum along direction ^and Ijj is the corresponding moment of inertia. Suppose that we have a spherical top, so that Ixx = Iyy = Izz = I: 1 L2 T = L2 + L2 + L2 = : 2I x y z 2I In the quantum version, the kinetic energy is almost identical, except now the angular momentum is an operator, denoted by a little hat: L^2 T = : 2I The eigenvalues of this operator are `(` + 1)¯h2=2I, where ` = −L; −L + 1; −L + 2;:::;L − 1;L so that ` can take one of 2L + 1 possible values. For a linear molecule (linear top), the partition function for the rotor can then be written as 1 L 1 X X `(` + 1)¯h2 X L(L + 1)¯h2 Z = exp − ≈ (2L + 1) exp − ; 2IkBT 2IkBT L=0 `=−L L=0 where the second term assumes that the contributions from the different ` values are more or less equal. This assumption should be pretty good at high temperatures where the argument of the exponential is small. In this case, there are simply 2L + 1 terms for each value of L. Again, because we are at high temperatures the discrete nature of the eigenvalues is not important, we can approximate the sum by an integral: Z 1 L(L + 1)¯h2 Z ≈ (2L + 1) exp − dL: 0 2IkBT PHYS 451 - Statistical Mechanics II - Course Notes 6 We can make the substitution x = L(L + 1) so that dx = (2L + 1)dL, which is just term already in the integrand. So the partition function becomes Z 1 2 ¯h x 2IkBT Z = exp − dx = 2 : 0 2IkBT ¯h Again, I can calculate the mean energy 2 2 2 @ ln(Z) NkBT @Z 2 ¯h 2IkB U = NkBT = = NkBT 2 = NkBT: @T Z @T 2IkBT ¯h This is exactly the contribution that we expected from the equipartition theorem: there are two ways the linear top can rotate, so there should be two factors of (1=2)NkBT contributing to the energy. For a spherical top, each of the energy levels is (2L + 1)-fold degenerate. The partition function for the rotor can then be written as 1 L 2 1 2 X X `(` + 1)¯h X 2 L(L + 1)¯h Z = (2L + 1) exp − ≈ (2L + 1) exp − ; 2IkBT 2IkBT L=0 `=−L L=0 where the second term assumes that the contributions from the different ` values are more or less equal.
Recommended publications
  • Canonical Ensemble
    ME346A Introduction to Statistical Mechanics { Wei Cai { Stanford University { Win 2011 Handout 8. Canonical Ensemble January 26, 2011 Contents Outline • In this chapter, we will establish the equilibrium statistical distribution for systems maintained at a constant temperature T , through thermal contact with a heat bath. • The resulting distribution is also called Boltzmann's distribution. • The canonical distribution also leads to definition of the partition function and an expression for Helmholtz free energy, analogous to Boltzmann's Entropy formula. • We will study energy fluctuation at constant temperature, and witness another fluctuation- dissipation theorem (FDT) and finally establish the equivalence of micro canonical ensemble and canonical ensemble in the thermodynamic limit. (We first met a mani- festation of FDT in diffusion as Einstein's relation.) Reading Assignment: Reif x6.1-6.7, x6.10 1 1 Temperature For an isolated system, with fixed N { number of particles, V { volume, E { total energy, it is most conveniently described by the microcanonical (NVE) ensemble, which is a uniform distribution between two constant energy surfaces. const E ≤ H(fq g; fp g) ≤ E + ∆E ρ (fq g; fp g) = i i (1) mc i i 0 otherwise Statistical mechanics also provides the expression for entropy S(N; V; E) = kB ln Ω. In thermodynamics, S(N; V; E) can be transformed to a more convenient form (by Legendre transform) of Helmholtz free energy A(N; V; T ), which correspond to a system with constant N; V and temperature T . Q: Does the transformation from N; V; E to N; V; T have a meaning in statistical mechanics? A: The ensemble of systems all at constant N; V; T is called the canonical NVT ensemble.
    [Show full text]
  • Bose-Einstein Condensation of Photons and Grand-Canonical Condensate fluctuations
    Bose-Einstein condensation of photons and grand-canonical condensate fluctuations Jan Klaers Institute for Applied Physics, University of Bonn, Germany Present address: Institute for Quantum Electronics, ETH Zürich, Switzerland Martin Weitz Institute for Applied Physics, University of Bonn, Germany Abstract We review recent experiments on the Bose-Einstein condensation of photons in a dye-filled optical microresonator. The most well-known example of a photon gas, pho- tons in blackbody radiation, does not show Bose-Einstein condensation. Instead of massively populating the cavity ground mode, photons vanish in the cavity walls when they are cooled down. The situation is different in an ultrashort optical cavity im- printing a low-frequency cutoff on the photon energy spectrum that is well above the thermal energy. The latter allows for a thermalization process in which both tempera- ture and photon number can be tuned independently of each other or, correspondingly, for a non-vanishing photon chemical potential. We here describe experiments demon- strating the fluorescence-induced thermalization and Bose-Einstein condensation of a two-dimensional photon gas in the dye microcavity. Moreover, recent measurements on the photon statistics of the condensate, showing Bose-Einstein condensation in the grandcanonical ensemble limit, will be reviewed. 1 Introduction Quantum statistical effects become relevant when a gas of particles is cooled, or its den- sity is increased, to the point where the associated de Broglie wavepackets spatially over- arXiv:1611.10286v1 [cond-mat.quant-gas] 30 Nov 2016 lap. For particles with integer spin (bosons), the phenomenon of Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) then leads to macroscopic occupation of a single quantum state at finite tempera- tures [1].
    [Show full text]
  • Statistical Physics– a Second Course
    Statistical Physics– a second course Finn Ravndal and Eirik Grude Flekkøy Department of Physics University of Oslo September 3, 2008 2 Contents 1 Summary of Thermodynamics 5 1.1 Equationsofstate .......................... 5 1.2 Lawsofthermodynamics. 7 1.3 Maxwell relations and thermodynamic derivatives . .... 9 1.4 Specificheatsandcompressibilities . 10 1.5 Thermodynamicpotentials . 12 1.6 Fluctuations and thermodynamic stability . .. 15 1.7 Phasetransitions ........................... 16 1.8 EntropyandGibbsParadox. 18 2 Non-Interacting Particles 23 1 2.1 Spin- 2 particlesinamagneticfield . 23 2.2 Maxwell-Boltzmannstatistics . 28 2.3 Idealgas................................ 32 2.4 Fermi-Diracstatistics. 35 2.5 Bose-Einsteinstatistics. 36 3 Statistical Ensembles 39 3.1 Ensemblesinphasespace . 39 3.2 Liouville’stheorem . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 42 3.3 Microcanonicalensembles . 45 3.4 Free particles and multi-dimensional spheres . .... 48 3.5 Canonicalensembles . 50 3.6 Grandcanonicalensembles . 54 3.7 Isobaricensembles .......................... 58 3.8 Informationtheory . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 62 4 Real Gases and Liquids 67 4.1 Correlationfunctions. 67 4.2 Thevirialtheorem .......................... 73 4.3 Mean field theory for the van der Waals equation . 76 4.4 Osmosis ................................ 80 3 4 CONTENTS 5 Quantum Gases and Liquids 83 5.1 Statisticsofidenticalparticles. .. 83 5.2 Blackbodyradiationandthephotongas . 88 5.3 Phonons and the Debye theory of specific heats . 96 5.4 Bosonsatnon-zerochemicalpotential .
    [Show full text]
  • Grand-Canonical Ensemble
    PHYS4006: Thermal and Statistical Physics Lecture Notes (Unit - IV) Open System: Grand-canonical Ensemble Dr. Neelabh Srivastava (Assistant Professor) Department of Physics Programme: M.Sc. Physics Mahatma Gandhi Central University Semester: 2nd Motihari-845401, Bihar E-mail: [email protected] • In microcanonical ensemble, each system contains same fixed energy as well as same number of particles. Hence, the system dealt within this ensemble is a closed isolated system. • With microcanonical ensemble, we can not deal with the systems that are kept in contact with a heat reservoir at a given temperature. 2 • In canonical ensemble, the condition of constant energy is relaxed and the system is allowed to exchange energy but not the particles with the system, i.e. those systems which are not isolated but are in contact with a heat reservoir. • This model could not be applied to those processes in which number of particle varies, i.e. chemical process, nuclear reactions (where particles are created and destroyed) and quantum process. 3 • So, for the method of ensemble to be applicable to such processes where number of particles as well as energy of the system changes, it is necessary to relax the condition of fixed number of particles. 4 • Such an ensemble where both the energy as well as number of particles can be exchanged with the heat reservoir is called Grand Canonical Ensemble. • In canonical ensemble, T, V and N are independent variables. Whereas, in grand canonical ensemble, the system is described by its temperature (T),volume (V) and chemical potential (μ). 5 • Since, the system is not isolated, its microstates are not equally probable.
    [Show full text]
  • 8.1. Spin & Statistics
    8.1. Spin & Statistics Ref: A.Khare,”Fractional Statistics & Quantum Theory”, 1997, Chap.2. Anyons = Particles obeying fractional statistics. Particle statistics is determined by the phase factor eiα picked up by the wave function under the interchange of the positions of any pair of (identical) particles in the system. Before the discovery of the anyons, this particle interchange (or exchange) was treated as the permutation of particle labels. Let P be the operator for this interchange. P2 =I → e2iα =1 ∴ eiα = ±1 i.e., α=0,π Thus, there’re only 2 kinds of statistics, α=0(π) for Bosons (Fermions) obeying Bose-Einstein (Fermi-Dirac) statistics. Pauli’s spin-statistics theorem then relates particle spin with statistics, namely, bosons (fermions) are particles with integer (half-integer) spin. To account for the anyons, particle exchange is re-defined as an observable adiabatic (constant energy) process of physically interchanging particles. ( This is in line with the quantum philosophy that only observables are physically relevant. ) As will be shown later, the new definition does not affect statistics in 3-D space. However, for particles in 2-D space, α can be any (real) value; hence anyons. The converse of the spin-statistic theorem then implies arbitrary spin for 2-D particles. Quantization of S in 3-D See M.Alonso, H.Valk, “Quantum Mechanics: Principles & Applications”, 1973, §6.2. In 3-D, the (spin) angular momentum S has 3 non-commuting components satisfying S i,S j =iℏε i j k Sk 2 & S ,S i=0 2 This means a state can be the simultaneous eigenstate of S & at most one Si.
    [Show full text]
  • The Grand Canonical Ensemble
    University of Central Arkansas The Grand Canonical Ensemble Stephen R. Addison Directory ² Table of Contents ² Begin Article Copyright °c 2001 [email protected] Last Revision Date: April 10, 2001 Version 0.1 Table of Contents 1. Systems with Variable Particle Numbers 2. Review of the Ensembles 2.1. Microcanonical Ensemble 2.2. Canonical Ensemble 2.3. Grand Canonical Ensemble 3. Average Values on the Grand Canonical Ensemble 3.1. Average Number of Particles in a System 4. The Grand Canonical Ensemble and Thermodynamics 5. Legendre Transforms 5.1. Legendre Transforms for two variables 5.2. Helmholtz Free Energy as a Legendre Transform 6. Legendre Transforms and the Grand Canonical Ensem- ble 7. Solving Problems on the Grand Canonical Ensemble Section 1: Systems with Variable Particle Numbers 3 1. Systems with Variable Particle Numbers We have developed an expression for the partition function of an ideal gas. Toc JJ II J I Back J Doc Doc I Section 2: Review of the Ensembles 4 2. Review of the Ensembles 2.1. Microcanonical Ensemble The system is isolated. This is the ¯rst bridge or route between mechanics and thermodynamics, it is called the adiabatic bridge. E; V; N are ¯xed S = k ln ­(E; V; N) Toc JJ II J I Back J Doc Doc I Section 2: Review of the Ensembles 5 2.2. Canonical Ensemble System in contact with a heat bath. This is the second bridge between mechanics and thermodynamics, it is called the isothermal bridge. This bridge is more elegant and more easily crossed. T; V; N ¯xed, E fluctuates.
    [Show full text]
  • Many Particle Orbits – Statistics and Second Quantization
    H. Kleinert, PATH INTEGRALS March 24, 2013 (/home/kleinert/kleinert/books/pathis/pthic7.tex) Mirum, quod divina natura dedit agros It’s wonderful that divine nature has given us fields Varro (116 BC–27BC) 7 Many Particle Orbits – Statistics and Second Quantization Realistic physical systems usually contain groups of identical particles such as spe- cific atoms or electrons. Focusing on a single group, we shall label their orbits by x(ν)(t) with ν =1, 2, 3, . , N. Their Hamiltonian is invariant under the group of all N! permutations of the orbital indices ν. Their Schr¨odinger wave functions can then be classified according to the irreducible representations of the permutation group. Not all possible representations occur in nature. In more than two space dimen- sions, there exists a superselection rule, whose origin is yet to be explained, which eliminates all complicated representations and allows only for the two simplest ones to be realized: those with complete symmetry and those with complete antisymme- try. Particles which appear always with symmetric wave functions are called bosons. They all carry an integer-valued spin. Particles with antisymmetric wave functions are called fermions1 and carry a spin whose value is half-integer. The symmetric and antisymmetric wave functions give rise to the characteristic statistical behavior of fermions and bosons. Electrons, for example, being spin-1/2 particles, appear only in antisymmetric wave functions. The antisymmetry is the origin of the famous Pauli exclusion principle, allowing only a single particle of a definite spin orientation in a quantum state, which is the principal reason for the existence of the periodic system of elements, and thus of matter in general.
    [Show full text]
  • The Conventionality of Parastatistics
    The Conventionality of Parastatistics David John Baker Hans Halvorson Noel Swanson∗ March 6, 2014 Abstract Nature seems to be such that we can describe it accurately with quantum theories of bosons and fermions alone, without resort to parastatistics. This has been seen as a deep mystery: paraparticles make perfect physical sense, so why don't we see them in nature? We consider one potential answer: every paraparticle theory is physically equivalent to some theory of bosons or fermions, making the absence of paraparticles in our theories a matter of convention rather than a mysterious empirical discovery. We argue that this equivalence thesis holds in all physically admissible quantum field theories falling under the domain of the rigorous Doplicher-Haag-Roberts approach to superselection rules. Inadmissible parastatistical theories are ruled out by a locality- inspired principle we call Charge Recombination. Contents 1 Introduction 2 2 Paraparticles in Quantum Theory 6 ∗This work is fully collaborative. Authors are listed in alphabetical order. 1 3 Theoretical Equivalence 11 3.1 Field systems in AQFT . 13 3.2 Equivalence of field systems . 17 4 A Brief History of the Equivalence Thesis 20 4.1 The Green Decomposition . 20 4.2 Klein Transformations . 21 4.3 The Argument of Dr¨uhl,Haag, and Roberts . 24 4.4 The Doplicher-Roberts Reconstruction Theorem . 26 5 Sharpening the Thesis 29 6 Discussion 36 6.1 Interpretations of QM . 44 6.2 Structuralism and Haecceities . 46 6.3 Paraquark Theories . 48 1 Introduction Our most fundamental theories of matter provide a highly accurate description of subatomic particles and their behavior.
    [Show full text]
  • Equipartition of Energy
    Equipartition of Energy The number of degrees of freedom can be defined as the minimum number of independent coordinates, which can specify the configuration of the system completely. (A degree of freedom of a system is a formal description of a parameter that contributes to the state of a physical system.) The position of a rigid body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom. The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the minimum number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. Applying this definition, we have: • For a single particle in a plane two coordinates define its location so it has two degrees of freedom; • A single particle in space requires three coordinates so it has three degrees of freedom; • Two particles in space have a combined six degrees of freedom; • If two particles in space are constrained to maintain a constant distance from each other, such as in the case of a diatomic molecule, then the six coordinates must satisfy a single constraint equation defined by the distance formula. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system to five, because the distance formula can be used to solve for the remaining coordinate once the other five are specified. The equipartition theorem relates the temperature of a system with its average energies. The original idea of equipartition was that, in thermal equilibrium, energy is shared equally among all of its various forms; for example, the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom in the translational motion of a molecule should equal that of its rotational motions.
    [Show full text]
  • Microcanonical, Canonical, and Grand Canonical Ensembles Masatsugu Sei Suzuki Department of Physics, SUNY at Binghamton (Date: September 30, 2016)
    The equivalence: microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical ensembles Masatsugu Sei Suzuki Department of Physics, SUNY at Binghamton (Date: September 30, 2016) Here we show the equivalence of three ensembles; micro canonical ensemble, canonical ensemble, and grand canonical ensemble. The neglect for the condition of constant energy in canonical ensemble and the neglect of the condition for constant energy and constant particle number can be possible by introducing the density of states multiplied by the weight factors [Boltzmann factor (canonical ensemble) and the Gibbs factor (grand canonical ensemble)]. The introduction of such factors make it much easier for one to calculate the thermodynamic properties. ((Microcanonical ensemble)) In the micro canonical ensemble, the macroscopic system can be specified by using variables N, E, and V. These are convenient variables which are closely related to the classical mechanics. The density of states (N E,, V ) plays a significant role in deriving the thermodynamic properties such as entropy and internal energy. It depends on N, E, and V. Note that there are two constraints. The macroscopic quantity N (the number of particles) should be kept constant. The total energy E should be also kept constant. Because of these constraints, in general it is difficult to evaluate the density of states. ((Canonical ensemble)) In order to avoid such a difficulty, the concept of the canonical ensemble is introduced. The calculation become simpler than that for the micro canonical ensemble since the condition for the constant energy is neglected. In the canonical ensemble, the system is specified by three variables ( N, T, V), instead of N, E, V in the micro canonical ensemble.
    [Show full text]
  • Fastest Frozen Temperature for a Thermodynamic System
    Fastest Frozen Temperature for a Thermodynamic System X. Y. Zhou, Z. Q. Yang, X. R. Tang, X. Wang1 and Q. H. Liu1, 2, ∗ 1School for Theoretical Physics, School of Physics and Electronics, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China 2Synergetic Innovation Center for Quantum Effects and Applications (SICQEA), Hunan Normal University,Changsha 410081, China For a thermodynamic system obeying both the equipartition theorem in high temperature and the third law in low temperature, the curve showing relationship between the specific heat and the temperature has two common behaviors: it terminates at zero when the temperature is zero Kelvin and converges to a constant value of specific heat as temperature is higher and higher. Since it is always possible to find the characteristic temperature TC to mark the excited temperature as the specific heat almost reaches the equipartition value, it is also reasonable to find a temperature in low temperature interval, complementary to TC . The present study reports a possibly universal existence of the such a temperature #, defined by that at which the specific heat falls fastest along with decrease of the temperature. For the Debye model of solids, below the temperature # the Debye's law manifest itself. PACS numbers: I. INTRODUCTION A thermodynamic system usually obeys two laws in opposite limits of temperature; in high temperature the equipar- tition theorem works and in low temperature the third law of thermodynamics holds. From the shape of a curve showing relationship between the specific heat and the temperature, the behaviors in these two limits are qualitatively clear: in high temperature it approaches to a constant whereas it goes over to zero during the temperature is lowering to the zero Kelvin.
    [Show full text]
  • Exercise 18.4 the Ideal Gas Law Derived
    9/13/2015 Ch 18 HW Ch 18 HW Due: 11:59pm on Monday, September 14, 2015 To understand how points are awarded, read the Grading Policy for this assignment. Exercise 18.4 ∘ A 3.00­L tank contains air at 3.00 atm and 20.0 C. The tank is sealed and cooled until the pressure is 1.00 atm. Part A What is the temperature then in degrees Celsius? Assume that the volume of the tank is constant. ANSWER: ∘ T = ­175 C Correct Part B If the temperature is kept at the value found in part A and the gas is compressed, what is the volume when the pressure again becomes 3.00 atm? ANSWER: V = 1.00 L Correct The Ideal Gas Law Derived The ideal gas law, discovered experimentally, is an equation of state that relates the observable state variables of the gas­­pressure, temperature, and density (or quantity per volume): pV = NkBT (or pV = nRT ), where N is the number of atoms, n is the number of moles, and R and kB are ideal gas constants such that R = NA kB, where NA is Avogadro's number. In this problem, you should use Boltzmann's constant instead of the gas constant R. Remarkably, the pressure does not depend on the mass of the gas particles. Why don't heavier gas particles generate more pressure? This puzzle was explained by making a key assumption about the connection between the microscopic world and the macroscopic temperature T . This assumption is called the Equipartition Theorem. The Equipartition Theorem states that the average energy associated with each degree of freedom in a system at T 1 k T k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K absolute temperature is 2 B , where B is Boltzmann's constant.
    [Show full text]