Review of the Air Force Academy The Scientific Informative Review, No 1(16)/2010
Braşov
SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS
Cmdr Prof Gabriel-Florin MOISESCU, PhD – “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Brigadier General Prof Miroslav KELEMEN, PhD – Armed Forces Academy, Liptovky Mikulas, Slovakia Lt Col Prof Ioan DEAC, PhD – “Carol I” Defense National University, Bucharest, Romania Prof Ion DINESCU, PhD – “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Prof Nicolae JULA, PhD – Military Technical Academy, Bucharest, Romania Prof Victor MANOLE, PhD – Academia de Studii Economice, Bucharest, Romania Prof Vasile MACOVICIUC, PhD – Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania Prof Ştefan NEDELCU, PhD – “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Prof Stelian PÂNZARU, PhD – “Spiru Haret” University, Brasov, Romania Prof Dominica RĂDULESCU, PhD – Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Virginia, USA Cmdr Prof Constantin ROTARU, PhD – Military Technical Academy, Bucharest, Romania Prof Gheorghe SAMOILESCU, PhD – “Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy, Constanţa, Romania Prof Florentin SMARANDACHE, PhD – University of New Mexico, Gallup Campus, USA Prof Milan SOPOCI, PhD – Armed Forces Academy, Liptovky Mikulas, Slovakia Associate Prof Margareta BOACĂ, PhD – “Carol I” Defense National University, Bucharest, Romania Associate Prof Pavel BUCKA, PhD – Armed Forces Academy, Liptovky Mikulas, Slovakia Associate Prof Ella CIUPERCĂ, PhD – National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania Associate Prof Lavinia GAVRILĂ, PhD – “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Lt Col Associate Prof Jaromir MARES, PhD – University of Defense, Brno, Czech Republic Lt Col Associate Prof Robert SZABOLCSI, PhD – “Zrinyi Miklos” National Defense University, Budapest, Hungary Associate Prof Alexandru ŞTEFAN, PhD – Bloomfield College, Bloomfield, New Jersey, USA Associate Prof Ioan Gheorghe RAŢIU, PhD – “George Baritiu” University, Brasov, Romania Associate Prof Horia TÂRZIU, PhD – “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor – in-chief: Lt Col Associate Prof Marian PEARSICĂ, PhD
Editorial assistant: Capt Assistant Prof Adrian LESENCIUC
Editors: Capt Cmdr Prof Mircea BOŞCOIANU, PhD Associate Prof Doru LUCULESCU, PhD Associate Prof Diana ILIŞOI, PhD Assistant Prof Liliana MIRON, PhD Assistant Daniela NAGY
Designers: Math Carmen URSOIU
Printing operations: Eng Daniela OBREJA
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The editorial board claims no responsibility concerning the scientific contents of the published papers in this issue. The authors take full responsibility for the contents. No part of this publication may be reproduced, partially or totally, without the prior written permission of the publishing board.
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0269 – 05/2010
ISSN 1842 – 9238 Review of the Air Force Academy
C O N T E N T S
TECHNICAL SCIENCES AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Pavel NEČAS, Ionică CÎRCIU, Constantin ROTARU, Mircea BOŞCOIANU An Analysis of the Stability and Performances of Rotary Wing Micro Aerial Vehicles...... 05
Haibin WANG, Florentin SMARANDACHE, Yanqing ZHANG, Rajshekhar SUNDERRAMAN Single Valued Neutrosophic Sets...... 10
Alex STEFAN Mobile Health Care System. e-Learning Security System Design...... 15
Ioan Gheorghe RATIU, Ioan Daniel RATIU, Mihail Gabriel RATIU Considerations About Fighting Against Cybercrime………………...... 20
Beazit ALI, Gheorghe SAMOILESCU About Aerodynamic Calculus Of Impellers Using The Numerical Methods….. 29
Gheorghe ANTON, Gheorghe RADU Oscillatory Solutions for the Systems Of Difference Equations with Variable Coefficients...... 33
Horia TARZIU, Anamaria COMES The Study of Theoretical Problems Related to the Military Equipement and Technologies with the Help of Computer Assisted Graphics...... 39
Ognyan STOYKOV The Use of Pilot Transmission Function for Airplane Control During the Process of Aiming...... 43
Cezar VASILESCU Applying Decision Theory Techniques to Information Security Related Decisions...... 47
Emilia SCHEIBNER Dimensioning Of Heating Networks Pipes...... 51
MANAGEMENT AND SOCIO-HUMANITIES
Aurel Ion CLINCIU, Ruxandra Maria CLINCIU Percent Errors in Standard Muller-Lyer and Right-Angled Illusions...... 56
Lubomír BELAN, Lenka KURHAJCOVÁ System Of Project Manage In Phase Of Realization...... 62
Oana-Andreea PÎRNUŢĂ, Alina-Adriana ARSENI Common Law and Civil Law: The Major Traditions of the Western Legal Culture ……………………………………………………………………... 68 3 Contents
Cătălin CIOACĂ The Economical Security Concept in the Context of the Global Economic Crisis …………………………………………………………………... 74
Daniela BELU Good Resistance to Manipulation and the Competence of Applying Ethics in Management...... 80
Elena-Simona INDREICA, Camelia TRUŢA Membership in Organizations and Self-Esteem in the Context of Biological Involution in Adult Female...... 86
Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC, Anca ANDRONIC Romanian Non-Governmental Organizations’ Evolution...... 90
Kinga KOLUMBÁN
Female Authorship Revisited in Margaret Atwood’s The Blind Assassin……... 94
Aura CODREANU Organisational Communication Patterns Underlying the Concept of Organisational Behaviour...... 98
MILITARY SCIENCES
Pavel BUČKA, Pavel NEČAS Basic Operation Capabilities of the Slovak Air Force...... 104
Adrian LESENCIUC The Professional Profile Of The Romanian Military...... 109
Daniela NAGY Miscommunication: Failing to Understand Those Gi’s ?……………………..... 114
Livia Ecaterina TĂTAR The Role of Marketing-Based Approaches in Increasing the Military Education’s Performance ………………………………………………………… 118
Carmen POSTELNICU The External Information Flow of the Strategic and National Security Information………………………………………………………………………... 122
Cornel ARAMĂ, Ioan BĂLOS, Ovidiu MOŞOIU Eco-Drive – The Safe, Fluent and Environment Friendly Driving Style ……… 126
Notes for Authors…………………………………...... 132
4 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
AN ANALYSIS OF THE STABILITY AND PERFORMANCES OF ROTARY WING MICRO AERIAL VEHICLES
Pavel NEČAS*, Ionică CÎRCIU**, Constantin ROTARU***, Mircea BOŞCOIANU**
*Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia **“Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania, ***Military Technical Academy, Romania
Abstract: Micro aerial vehicles are small objects dedicated to a new set of D3 missions (dull, dirty, dangerous missions) not capable for the classic UAV solutions. First we present the benefits of rotating wing micro aerial vehicles (RW-MAVs) and a classification of the mission scenarios. According to the new missions we define the basic requirements that RW-MAV that should be satisfied in order to successfully complete urban and indoor missions. We define the new 4RW-MAV architecture and we propose a comparative analysis with the characteristics and performances of different classic configurations. Based on a better maneuverability, portability and agility, the 4RW-MAV architecture is promising but depending on the geometry there are some differences regarding the performances, stability and the payload capacity. In urban or indoor missions the maneuverability is crucial and thus the new architecture should provide better movement capabilities. The 4RW-MAV configuration is effective in indoor narrow space with a capability to maneuver in a very fast and effective way, impossible for other configurations. The net effect relevant for control during autorotation landing is analyzed by adding a vertical offset relative to the vertical position predicted in the absence of ground effect. This vertical offset is estimated from flight data and taken into account accordingly.
Keywords: micro aerial vehicle (MAV), rotary wing MAV (RW-MAV), flight dynamics.
1. INTRODUCTION Based on the new technologies and the downsizing of the payload and sensors, the Autonomous RW-MAV flight represents a effective envelope of civil applications for challenging control problem with high UAV systems (UAS) is extended and the dimensional, asymmetric, nonlinear dynamics. research is focus on the ways to find new RW- MAVs are widely regarded to be architectures, new solutions for reducing the significantly harder to control than fixed-wing costs of missions. According to their special micro air vehicles. At the same time, RW- capability to hover, there are different types of MAVs provide unique capabilities, such as in missions for RW- UAVs: urban law place hover and low-speed flight, important enforcement, special operations and for many applications. Recently, there has information gathering; coastal patrol, on-shore been considerable progress in autonomous border patrol and maritime surveillance; civil RW-MAV flight. Examples range from basic security (search & rescue and avalanche upright hovering and forward flight to inverted survivor search); fire brigade; civil security hovering, and even to extreme aerobatic and police (contamination measurement and maneuvers. All of this prior work pertains to natural disaster monitoring); environmental helicopters operating with normal engine (crop monitoring and local science mission); power. flight services (training, terrain mapping, The starting point for this kind of research photography and monument inspection). The is based on a new definition, a new aim of the analysis of scenarios and the classification of scenarios and missions capability to respond to different possible proposed for the smallest category of UAVs. profiles of the mission is to obtain new 5 An Analysis of the Stability and Performances of Rotary Wing Micro Aerial Vehicles solutions, more robust and more effective. Range: it represents the maximum The main obstacles in the development of distance from the starting point that the small size rotary wing vehicles are related to vehicle can reach considering that it must the following aspects: it is very difficult to come back and land. This parameter could develop control laws in an environment in change depending on the mission. In fact if it which the flow induced by rotors in the is not required the RW-UAV to come back, vicinity of walls generates strong nonlinear the maximum range could be theoretically aerodynamic ground effects; the problem of double. obstacle avoidance is difficult for small size Ceiling: due to the changing of the air objects; the autonomous navigation in a GPS- characteristics with the altitude with respect to denied environment is not very accurate for the sea level, the RW-UAV can reach a small systems; the design of an airframe that maximum height depending on its can protect the vehicle against collision is characteristics (power, efficiency, etc.). possible only for dedicated configurations (ISAE concept). There are made of course new 2. INNOVATIVE RW-MAV steps in video compression and real time PLATFORMS, DIFFERENT FROM THE monitoring, in navigation and control of micro CONVENTIONAL ONES vehicles. It is also necessary to reduce the weight, size and power consumption of The basic requirements to satisfy in order payload (analyzing sensors technology, optics, to successfully complete an urban mission are: housing and cabling and connectors), to adopt Safety: is for sure the most relevant innovative sense and avoid systems, to test topic when any kind of vehicle, especially if it some new platform configurations that allow is a flying vehicle, has to operate near to an extended envelope of operation for such human beings. In case of accident, due to an miniaturized systems. external factor (system failure, too strong The basic performance parameters are wind, etc.) or a mistake during the mission presented in the following list: (wrong manual maneuver, bad mission Maximum Take Off Weight: it definition to the autopilot, etc.), the contact represents the overall value of the vehicle between any rotating part of the vehicle and mass. It is calculated considering the whole people in the surrounding has to be prevented RW-MAV with every kind of device or and avoided. instrument installed on it at the moment of the Agility: in urban environments it is start of the mission (take off). common to find buildings very close one to Payload: for this parameter different each other, with different height, trees, electric definitions can be found. In our case, cables, poles and a huge number of other fix or considering the modular conception of the moving obstacles. For this reason, once took platforms that will be designed, the payload for granted that any “urban-UAV” must have can be seen as the maximum weight of the its own collision avoidance system, the vehicle module applied to the vehicle. The difference needs a great agility in terms of rapidity in between maximum take off weight and changing speed, direction or altitude. The payload represents just the weight of the controllability must be improved as the speed vehicle with the only devices strictly needed to of the platform increases as at high speed there make it fly. is less time for decision and command of Maximum speed: this is the highest escape maneuvers. This characteristic would value of speed that the RW-MAV can reach be probably more relevant than other, like the during the fly. maximum speed value, because in narrow Endurance: it represents the time that spaces it can become strictly necessary. Form the air vehicle can spend flying before a new this point of view the best platform would be landing is required (for changing batteries, the smallest and lightest one (for instance a refueling, recharging, downloading collected small 4 rotors) or in general the one with the data). higher power/mass ratio. 6 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
Autonomy: in order to satisfy this AirRobot AR family is a concept based on particular requirement, the general platform quadro-rotor solution and has a compact size layout or shape is not so relevant. More of only 700 mm in diameter and utilizes a new relevance has to be given to all the vision (patented) propulsion system. sensors (cameras, IR, thermal or sonar sensors, Fancopter (Fig. 3) is a close range aerial etc) and the flight control software (autopilot, reconnaissance micro- system. The compact collision avoidance, etc.). So during the design dimensions and collision avoidance system phase of an UAV for urban applications, all enable this RW- MAV to be used even inside these devices must be taken into account and buildings. must be developed very carefully.
Fig. 3 Fancopter
Fig. 1 Concept from ISAE The Small Quad-rotor 4RW-MAV (Fig. a)Vision concept from ISAE (Fig. 1) is a 4a) is suited for very small payloads and can new tilt body bi-rotor concept based on two eventually fly inside buildings. Due to the propellers facing each other and surrounded by small size of the platform part of the structure a series of circular carbon rods. Each propeller or internal components can be shared with is driven by a simple out runner brushless model aircraft industry, this allows the motor which has the advantage to avoid the widespread utilization of COTS for the design complexity of a hollow shaft system. Speed and development of such systems. Quad-rotors control of both motors is carried out through a can be up scaled to higher maximum take off pair of speed controllers electrically connected weight mass and payload mass to fulfill through the carbon rods.The ultimate goal of payload requirements for other missions, such the Vision is to be used as a hand-launch as those coupled with the small shrouded rotor projectile which could be thrown through a platform (Fig. 4b). window, roll on the floor and take-off to SIERRA Cargo Plus allows the utilization complete its indoor spying mission. of bigger sensors for missions inside buildings. b) AirRobot (Fig. 2) is a micro UAV with It results a capability to perform some autonomous flight and navigation capabilities missions that involve surveillance thanks to and modular payloads for use in the availability of professional camera and reconnaissance, surveillance, search and video camera in the new payload range. rescue, documentation, inspection and also other scenario.
a) b)
Fig. 4a - SIERRA Concept , b - Classic and 4RW Fig. 2 AirRobot Cargo Plus 7 An Analysis of the Stability and Performances of Rotary Wing Micro Aerial Vehicles
3. AN ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMICS 4, so that counteracting aerodynamic torques OF A CONVENTIONAL 4RW-MAV can be used independently for yaw control. Horizontal velocity results in a moment on the 4RW-MAVs are well-known to have rotors, Ri, about −ev, and a drag force, Di, in complex dynamics. For instance, to the direction, −ev. The body drag force is completely capture the state of the “4RW- defined as DB, vehicle mass is m, acceleration MAV system” one would have to include the due to gravity is g, and the inertia matrix is state of the air around the 4RW-MAV into the 3x3 I ∈ R . A free body diagram is depicted in dynamics model. However, various prior work Fig. 2. The total force, F, and moment, M, can done on a conventional RW-MAV has shown be summed as, it is possible to build a sufficiently accurate 4 model for control by treating the 4RW-MAV mgeeDF DvB ∑ ()−−++−= eDzT viBi as a rigid-body, possibly including the blade- =1i (2) flapping dynamics and the main rotor speed. 4 = ∑ ()()(×+×−− zrTerDeRzQM BiiviiviBi ) Let {e,e,e DEN } the inertial axes and =1i The full nonlinear dynamics can be {z,y,x BBB } the body axes. Euler angles of described as, the body axes are {,, ψθϕ } with respect to the m ⋅ r&& = F e , e and e axes (roll, pitch, yaw). Let r the (3) N E D I =ω×ω+ω MI position vector from the inertial origin to the & BBB where the total angular momentum of the vehicle center of gravity and ωB the angular velocity. The current velocity direction is rotors is assumed to be near zero, because they are counter-rotating. Near hover conditions, referred to as ev in inertial coordinates. the contributions by rolling moment and drag can be neglected in Equations (1) and (2). 4 Define the total thrust as T= ∑Ti . The =1i translational motion is defined by,
&& = = − ⋅ ⋅ ϕθψ B + mgeTzRRRFrm D (4) where Rφ, Rθ, and Rψ are the rotation matrices for roll, pitch, and yaw, respectively. Applying the small angle approximation to the rotation matrices,
⎡r&&x ⎤ ⎡1 θψ ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ Fig. 5 Diagram of a quad-rotor aircraft ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (5) m⎢r&&y ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ϕψ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ The rotors, numbered 1−4, are mounted ⎣⎢r&&z ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ϕ−θ 1⎦⎥⎣⎢− T⎦⎥ ⎣⎢mg⎦⎥ outboard on the xB , yB , −xB and −yB axes, Finally, assuming total thrust respectively, with position vectors ri with respect to the CG. Each rotor produces an approximately counteracts gravity, aerodynamic torque, Qi, and thrust, Ti, both =≅ mgTT , except in the eD axis, parallel to the rotor’s axis of rotation, and both ⎡r&&x ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤⎡− 0T0 ⎤ ⎡ϕ⎤ used for vehicle control. Here, ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ m r&&y = 0 00T + θ (6) kt ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ≈ uT ii (1) ⎢ ⎥ + s1.01 ⎣⎢r&&z ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢mg⎦⎥⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢T100 ⎦⎥ where ui is the voltage applied to the motors, For small angular velocities, the Euler as determined from a load cell test. In flight, Ti angle accelerations are determined from can vary greatly from this approximation. The Equation (3) by dropping the second order torques, Qi, are proportional to the rotor thrust, term, ω× Iω, and expanding the thrust into its and are given by i = rTkQ i . Rotors 1 and 3 four constituents. The angular equations rotate in the opposite direction as rotors 2 and become, 8 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
⎡T1 ⎤ of movement. The 4RW-MAV architecture is ⎡Ixϕ&& ⎤ ⎡ − l0l0 ⎤⎢ ⎥ able to maneuver in a very fast and effective ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢T2 ⎥ (7) ⎢Iyθ&& ⎥ = ⎢ − 0l0l ⎥ way, moving in a way not possible for the ⎢T3 ⎥ ⎢Izψ&& ⎥ ⎢ − − KKKK rrrr ⎥⎢ ⎥ other configurations. The portability can fulfill ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ T ⎣ 4 ⎦ the needs of a typical mission, in which the The 4RW-MAV control is based on a 4- rotorcraft should be carried on by a single dimensional action space: the cyclic pitch person and should become operational in a controls ilon, ilat, which cause the 4RW-MAV very short time. The weaknesses of the 4RW- to pitch forward/backward or sideways; the MAV configuration are the low speed, low tail rotor (rudder) control irud, which affects endurance and short range. We found that the tail rotor thrust, and can be used to yaw (turn) net effect relevant for control during a quad the 4RW-MAV; the main rotors collective rotor autorotation landing was sufficiently pitch control icol, which changes the main well captured by adding a vertical offset rotors thrust by changing the pitch of the rotor relative to the vertical position predicted in the blades. The interest is to use a dynamics absence of ground effect. This vertical offset model with a relatively small number of was easily estimated from flight data and parameters to be estimated from flight data. In taken into account accordingly. this case we first subtracted the effects of inertia and gravity, and then learn a model REFERENCES from data to predict accelerations in a coordinate frame attached to the 4RW-MAV. 1. Bagnell, J., Schneider, J. Autonomous We integrate the accelerations over time to helicopter control using reinforcement obtain position, velocity, orientation, angular learning policy search methods, rate and main rotor speed. The simplified International Conference on Robotics and dynamics uses the following parameterization: Automation, IEEE, 2001; & uu ⋅+−⋅−⋅= []u'Cgqwrvu (8) 2. La Civita, M., Papageorgiou, G., Messner, W.C., Design and flight testing of a high- & vv ⋅+−⋅−⋅= []v'Cgrupwv (9) bandwidth H1 loop shaping controller for & −⋅−⋅= gpvquw w + (10) a robotic helicopter, Journal of Guidance, ⎡ +Ω⋅⋅ vu;i;w;1'C 22 ⎤ Control, and Dynamics, 29(2):485–494, w ⎢ col ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ March-April 2006, 10,5; & ⎡ Ω⋅=Ω 22 ()2 ++ ii;vu;w;i;;1'C 2 ⎤ (11) 3. Ng, A.Y., Coates, A., Diel, M., Ganapathi, Ω ⎣⎢ col lat lon ⎦⎥ V., Autonomous inverted helicopter flight The velocities (u, v, w) and angular rates via reinforcement learning, In ISER, 2004; (p, q, r) are expressed in the 4RW-MAV’s 4. Seddon, J., Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics, reference frame. Here g , g , g refer to the u v w AIAA Education Series, America Institute components of gravity in the 4RW-MAV’s of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1990; reference frame; is the main-rotor speed. 5. Boşcoianu, M., Pahonie R., Some Aspects
Regarding the Cooperative control 4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK problem for flying wing micro aerial The 4RW-MAV architecture has similar vehicles, 10th WSEAS Int. Conf. on Math. characteristics to the traditional shrouded Methods and Computational Techniques in configuration. The main differences are in the Electrical Engineering, Sofia, May 2008; payload entity, the maneuverability and the 6. Pahonie, R, Cîrciu, I., Boşcoianu, M., An portability. The payload, instead of being from Analysis of Different Rotary Wing Micro 3 to 20 kilograms, is less than one kilogram. In Air Vehicles Solutions, Metalurgia this way it is the best choice for scenarios Internaţional vol XIV, no.7 Special ISSUE; whose payload is an optical camera or a 7. Roberts, J.M., Corke, P.I., Buskey, G., simple IR camera. In this case the Low-cost flight control system for a small maneuverability is crucial and thus the autonomous helicopter, In IEEE Int’l Conf. configuration must provide a very high level on Robotics and Automation, 2003.
9 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
SINGLE VALUED NEUTROSOPHIC SETS
Haibin WANG*, Florentin SMARANDACHE**, Yanqing ZHANG*, Rajshekhar SUNDERRAMAN*
*Computer Science Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA ** Mathematical Department, University of New Mexico, Gallup, NM
Abstract: Neutrosophic set is a part of neutrosophy which studies the origin, nature, and scope of neutralities, as well as their interactions with different ideational spectra. Neutrosophic set is a powerful general formal framework that has been recently proposed. However, neutrosophic set needs to be specified from a technical point of view. To this effect, we define the set-theoretic operators on an instance of neutrosophic set, we call it single valued neutrosophic set (SVNS). We provide various properties of SVNS, which are connected to the operations and relations over SVNS.
Keywords: neutrosophic set, single valued neutrosophic set, set-theoretic operator.
1. INTRODUCTION membership fA(x), with tA(x), fA(x)∈[0,1] and 0 ≤ tA(x) + fA(x) ≤ 1. Intuitionistic fuzzy sets The concept of fuzzy sets was introduced can only handle incomplete information not by Zadeh in 1965 [1]. Since then fuzzy sets the indeterminate information and inconsistent and fuzzy logic have been applied in many information which exists commonly in real applications to handle uncertainty. The belief system. In intuitionistic fuzzy sets, traditional fuzzy set uses one real value indeterminacy is 1 − tA(x) − fA(x) by default. μA(x)∈[0,1] to represent the grade of For example, when we ask the opinion of an membership of fuzzy set A defined on expert about certain statement, he or she may universe X. Sometimes μA(x) itself is that the possibility that the statement is true is uncertain and hard to be defined by a crisp 0.5 and the statement is false is 0.6 and the value. So the concept of interval valued fuzzy degree that he or she is not sure is 0.2. sets was proposed [2] to capture the In neutrosophic set, indeterminacy is uncertainty of grade of membership. Interval quantified explicitly and truth-membership, valued fuzzy set uses an interval value indeterminacy-membership and falsity- L U L U [μA (x), μA (x)] with 0 ≤ μA (x) ≤ μA (x) ≤ 1 membership are independent. This assumption to represent the grade of membership of fuzzy is very important in a lot of situations such as set A. In some applications such as expert information fusion when we try to combine system, belief system and information fusion, the data from different sensors. Neutrosophy we should consider not only the truth- was introduced by Smarandache in 1995. “It is membership supported by the evident but also a branch of philosophy which studies the the falsity-membership against by the evident. origin, nature and scope of neutralities, as well That is beyond the scope of fuzzy sets and as their interactions with different ideational interval valued fuzzy sets. In 1986, Atanassov spectra” [4]. Neutrosophic set is a power introduced the intuitionistic fuzzy sets [3] general formal framework which generalizes which is a generalization of fuzzy sets and the concept of the classic set, fuzzy set [1], provably equivalent to interval valued fuzzy interval valued fuzzy set [2], intuitionistic sets. The intuitionistic fuzzy sets consider fuzzy set [3] etc. A neutrosophic set A defined both truth-membership tA(x) and falsity- on universe U. x = x(T, I, F) ∈ A with T, I and 10 Single Valued Neutrosophic Sets
F being the real standard or non-standard + c(A) (x)I { }−= A (x)I1 (5) subsets of ]0−,1+[. T is the degree of truth- (x)F1 (x)F + −= (x)F1 (6) membership function in the set A, I is the c(A) { } A indeterminacy-membership function in the set for all x in X.
A and F is the falsity-membership function in Definition 3 (Containment). A the set A. neutrosophic set A is contained in the other The neutrosophic set generalizes the above neutrosophic set B, A ⊆ B, if and only if mentioned sets from philosophical point of ≤ (x),infT(x)infT ≤ (x)supT(x)supT (7) view. From scientific or engineering point of A B A B ≥ (x),infF(x)infF ≥ (x)supF(x)supF view, the neutrosophic set and set-theoretic A B A B (8)
operators need to be specified. Otherwise, it Definition 4 (Union). The union of two will be difficult to apply in the real neutrosophic sets A and B is a neutrosophic applications. In this paper, we define the set C, written as C = A ∪ B, whose truth- settheoretic operators on an instance of membership, indeterminacy-membership and neutrosophic set called single valued falsity-membership functions are related to neutrosophic set (svns). those of A and B by (x)T = (x)T + (x)T - × (x)T(x)T (9) 2. NEUTROSOPHIC SET C A B A B (x)I(x)I - (x)I (x)I (x)I = (x)I + (x)I - × (x)I(x)I (10) C A B A B This section gives a brief overview of C (x)F = A (x)F + B (x)F - A × B (x)F(x)F (11) concepts of neutrosophic set defined in [2]. for all x in X.
Here, we use different notations to express the Definition 5 (Intersection). The same meaning. Let S1 and S2 be two real intersection of two neutrosophic sets A and B standard or non-standard subsets, then S1 + S2 + is a neutrosophic set C, written as C = A ∩ B, = {x|x = s1 + s2, s1 ∈ S1 and s2 ∈ S2}, {1 } + S2 + whose truth-membership, indeterminacy- = {x|x = 1 + s2, s2 ∈ S2}. S1 – S2 = {x|x = s1 – + + membership and falsity-membership functions s , s ∈ S and s ∈ S }, {1 } – S = {x|x = 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 are related to those of A and B by – s2, s2 ∈ S2 }. S1 × S2 = {x|x = s1 × s2, s1 ∈ S1 C (x)T = A × B (x)T(x)T (12) and s2 ∈ S2}. C (x)I = A × B (x)I(x)I (13) Definition 1 (Neutrosophic Set). Let X be C (x)F = A × B (x)F(x)F (14) a space of points (objects), with a generic for all x in X. element in X denoted by x. A neutrosophic set A in X is characterized by a truth-membership 3. SINGLE VALUED NEUTROSOPHIC function TA, an indeterminacy-membership SET function IA and a falsity-membership function FA. TA(x), IA(x) and FA(x) are real standard or - + In this section, we present the notion of non-standard subsets of ]0 ,1 [. That is single valued neutrosophic set (SVNS). SVNS - + A X:T → [1,]0 (1) is an instance of neutrosophic set which can be - + used in real scientific and engineering A X:I → [1,]0 (2) - + applications. A X:F → [1,]0 (3) There is no restriction on the sum of TA(x), Definition 6 (Single Valued - IA(x) and FA(x), so 0 ≤ sup TA(x) + sup IA(x) Neutrosophic Set). Let X be a space of points + + supFA(x) ≤ 3 . (objects), with a generic element in X denoted by x. A single valued neutrosophic set (SVNS) Definition 2. The complement of a A in X is characterized by truth-membership neutrosophic set A is denoted by c(A) and is function TA, indeterminacy-membership defined by function IA and falsity-membership function + c(A) (x)T { }−= A (x)T1 (4) FA. For each point x in X, TA(x), IA(x), FA(x) ∈ [0,1]. 11 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
When X is continuous, a SVNS A can be the other single valued neutrosophic set B, written as A ⊆ B, if and only if
= ∫ T(x),A I(x), x/x,F(x) ∈ X (15) A ≤ B (x)T(x)T (20) X (x)I ≤ (x)I (21) When X is discrete, a SVNS A can be A B written as A ≥ B x)(F(x)F (22) n for all x in X. X xixi,/F(xi) I(xi), T(xi), A = ∑ T(xi), I(xi), xixi,/F(xi) ∈ X (16) =1i Note that by the definition of containment, Consider parameters such as capability, X is partial order not linear order. For trustworthiness and price of semantic Web example, let A and B be the single valued services. These parameters are commonly used neutrosophic sets defined in Example 1. Then, to define quality of service of semantic Web A is not contained in B and B is not contained in A. services. In this section, we will use the evaluation of quality of service of semantic Definition 9. Two single valued Web services [8] as running example to neutrosophic sets A and B are equal, written as illustrate every set-theoretic operation on A = B, if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. single valued neutrosophic sets. Theorem 3. ⊆ ↔ ⊆ c(A)c(B)BA Example 1. Assume that X = [x1, x2, x3]. Proof: ,TTBA ≤≤≤⇔⊆ FF,II x1 is capability, x2 is trustworthiness and x3 is ABBABA price. The values of x1, x2 and x3 are in [0,1]. B ≤ ,I-1I-1 ≥ ABA ⇔ ⊆ c(A)c(B)TT They are obtained from the questionnaire of Definition 10 (Union). The union of two some domain experts, their option could be a single valued neutrosophic sets A and B is a degree of “good service”, a degree of single valued neutrosophic set C, written indeterminacy and a degree of “poor service”. as C = A ∪ B, whose truthmembership, A is a single valued neutrosophic set of X indeterminacy-membership and falsity- defined by membership functions are related to those of A x/0.2,0.3 0.5,x/0.4,0.5 0.3, A = 0.3, + 0.5,x/0.4,0.5 x/0.2,0.3 + 1 2 and B by x/0.2,0.2 0.7, x/0.2,0.2 3 C (x)T = A (x),max(T B (x))T (23)
B is a single valued neutrosophic set of X C (x)I = A (x),max(I B (x))I (24) defined by C (x)F = A (x),max(F B (x))F (25) x/0.2,0.6 0.3,x/0.1,0.2 0.6, B = 0.6, 1 + 0.3,x/0.1,0.2 x/0.2,0.6 2 + for all x in X.
x/0.1,0.5 0.4, x/0.1,0.5 3 Example 3. Let A and B be the single valued neutrosophic sets defined in Example Definition 7 (Complement). The 1. Then, complement of a single valued neutrosophic x/0.2,0.3 0.5,x/0.4,0.2 0.6, BA =∪ 0.6, + 0.5,x/0.4,0.2 x/0.2,0.3 + set A is denoted by c(A) and is defined by 1 2
c(A) = A (x)F(x)T (17) 0.7, x/0.2,0.2 3
c(A) (x)I = A (x)I-1 (18) Theorem 2. A ∪ B is the smallest single
A (x)F = A (x)T (19) valued neutrosophic set containing both A and for all x in X. B. Proof: It is straightforward from the Example 2. Let A be the single valued definition of the union operator. neutrosophic set defined in Example 1. Then,
x/0.8,0.5 0.3,x/0.6,0.3 0.5, c(A) = 0.5, 1 + 0.3,x/0.6,0.3 x/0.8,0.5 2 + Definition 11 (Intersection). The intersection of two single valued neutrosophic x/0.8,0.7 0.2, x/0.8,0.7 3 sets A and B is a single valued neutrosophic Definition 8 (Containment). A single set C, written as C = A ∩ B, whose truth- valued neutrosophic set A is contained in membership, indeterminacy-membership and
12 Single Valued Neutrosophic Sets
falsity-membership functions are related to B (x)I = 0 (33) those of A and B by B (x)F = A (x)F (34) C (x)T = A (x),min(T B (x))T (26) for all x in X. (x))I (x),min(I (x)I = (x),min(I (x))I (27) C BA Example 6. Let A be the single valued C (x)F = A (x),min(F B (x))F (28) neutrosophic set defined in Example 1. Then, for all x in X. A =Δ 0.7, + 0.7,x/0,0.5 x/0,0.3 + 1 2 Example 4. Let A and B be the single x/0,0.2 0.9, x/0,0.2 3 valued neutrosophic sets defined in Example 1. Then, Definition 14 (Falsity-favorite). The falsity-favorite of a single valued neutrosophic x/0.2,0.6 0.3,x/0.4,0.5 0.3, BA =∩ 0.3, 1 + 0.3,x/0.4,0.5 x/0.2,0.6 2 + set B, written as B = ∇ A, whose truth- x/0.1,0.5 0.4, x/0.1,0.5 3 membership and falsity-membership functions
Theorem 3. A ∩ B is the largest single are related to those of A by valued neutrosophic set contained in both A B (x)T = A (x)T (35) and B. B (x)I = 0 (36)
Proof: It is direct from the definition of B (x)F = A + A (x),I(x)min(F 1) (37) intersection operator. for all x in X.
Definition 12 (Difference). The difference Example 8. Let A be the single valued of two single valued neutrosophic set C, neutrosophic set defined in Example 1. Then written as C = A \ B, whose truth-membership, x/0,0.5 0.5,x/0,0.9 0.3, A =∇ 0.3, 1 + 0.5,x/0,0.9 x/0,0.5 2 + indeterminacy-membership and falsity- x/0,0.4 0.7, x/0,0.4 membership functions are related to those of A 3 and B by
C (x)T = A (x),min(T B (x))F (29) 4. PROPERTIES OF SET- THEORETIC (x))I-1 (x),min(I (x)I = (x),min(I (x))I-1 (30) OPERATORS C A B (x))T (x),min(F (x)F = (x),min(F (x))T (31) C A B In this section, we will give some for all x in X. properties of set-theoretic operators defined on Example 5. Let A and B be the single single valued neutrosophic sets as in Section 3.
valued neutrosophic sets defined in Example Property 1 (Commutativity). A ∪ B = B 1. Then, ∪A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A × B = B × A. x/0.2,0.3 0.5,x/0.4,0.6 0.2, A/B = 0.2, + 0.5,x/0.4,0.6 x/0.2,0.3 + 1 2 Property 2 (Associativity). A ∪ (B ∪C) x/0.2,0.4 0.5, x/0.2,0.4 3 = (A ∪ B) ∪C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A × (B × C) = (A × B) × C.
Now we will define two operators: truth- Property 3 (Distributivity). A ∪ (B ∩ C) favorite ( Δ ) and falsity-favorite (∇ ) to = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A remove the indeterminacy in the single valued ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). neutrosophic sets and transform it into intuitionistic fuzzy sets or paraconsistent sets. Property 4 (Idempotency). A ∪ A = A, A ∪ A = A, ΔΔ A = Δ A, ∇∇ A = ∇ A. These two operators are unique on single valued neutrosophic sets. Property 5. A ∩ φ = φ , A ∪ X = X,
Definition 13 (Truth-favorite). The truth- where Tφ = I φ = 0, F φ = 1 and TX = IX = 1, favorite of a single valued neutrosophic set A FX = 0.
is a single valued neutrosophic set B, written Property 6. A ∪ φ = A, A ∩ X = A, where as B = Δ A, whose truthmembership and T φ = I φ = 0, F φ = 1 and TX = IX = 1, FX = 0. falsity-membership functions are related to those of A by Property 7 (Absorption). A ∪ (A ∩ B) =
B (x)T = A + A (x),I(x)min(T 1) (32) A, A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.
13 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
Property 8 (De Morgan’s Laws). c(A ∩ sets and apply the theory to solve practical B) = c(A) ∩ c(B), c(A ∩ B) = c(A) ∪ c(B). applications in areas such as expert system,
Property 9 (Involution). c(c(A)) = A. information fusion system, question-answering system, bioinformatics and medical Here, we notice that by the definition of informatics, etc. complement, union and intersection of single valued neutrosophic sets, single valued REEFERENCES neutrosophic sets satisfy the most properties of classic set, fuzzy set and intuitionistic fuzzy 1. Zadeh, L., Fuzzy sets, Inform and Control, set. Same as fuzzy set and intuitionistic fuzzy 8, 1965, pp.338-353; set, it does not satisfy the principle of middle 2. Turksen, I., Interval valued fuzzy sets exclude. based on normal forms, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 20, 1986, pp.191-210; 5. CONCLUSIONS 3. Atanassov, K., Intuitionistic fuzzy sets, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 20, 1986, pp.87- In this paper, we have presented an 96; instance of neutrosophic set called single 4. Smarandache, F., A Unifying Field in valued neutrosophic set (SVNS). The single Logics, Neutrosophy: Neutrosophic valued neutrosophic set is a generalization of Probability, Set and Logic, Rehoboth: classic set, fuzzy set, interval valued fuzzy set, American Research Press, 1999; intuitionistic fuzzy set and paraconsistent set. 5. Wang, H., Zhang, Y., Sunderraman, R., The notion of inclusion, complement, union, Soft semantic web services agent, The intersection, have been defined on single Proceedings of NAFIPS, 2004, pp.126- valued neutrosophic sets. Various properties of 129. set-theoretic operators have been provided. In the future, we will create the logic inference system based on single valued neutrosophic
14 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
MOBILE HEALTH CARE SYSTEM E-LEARNING SECURITY SYSTEM DESIGN
Alex STEFAN
Bloomfield College, Bloomfield, New Jersey, USA
Abstract: The Mobile Health Care ( MCHC ) System has an e-learning component, to train IT managers in understanding the IT security policies and strategies, applied on real organizations, like for-profit provider of primary, acute and emergency care to a rural population in a 50 mile radius. The MCHC e- learning system can be also assumed as a remote control system, used for testing security algorithms in the designing system process.
Keywords: e-learning, security systems, security algorithms.
1. INTRODUCTION Scheduling Procedures, tests and results Our task is to move our patient care system Test and implant device communications into the 21st century so that we continue to - Health Care Provider treatment plans provide outstanding care, while maximizing and payment for treatments. revenue, to the following customers: - Insurance providers - Clinic, acute and emergency patients at Payment authorization (billing is not our central location directly handled by this system) - Satellite clinics in the surrounding Treatment plan and outcome database.
community Users will access the system through the - Outpatients and chronic care patients following methods:
being treated at home - Patients - Emergency patients in transit by Remote locations ambulance • Personal computers This requires secure information transfer • Future generation m smart phones, between multiple user groups, accessing capable of operating via wifi and VOIP. multiple applications via both wired and Within the MCHC complex mobile devices, connected within the MCHC complex and remotely over the Internet. • Terminals in patient rooms connected client-server over the LAN. The Mobile Health Care was design fist like an e-learning system to provide a better - CHC personnel idea for the next step, implementation with the Client-server over the LAN cooperation of the IT and security managers. Client-server over the Internet for outsourced billing coding. Concept of Operation The patient data systems consist of the - Satellite Healthcare providers following: Within the MCHC complex - Patient identification • workstations in the treatment and testing - MCHC Patient Healthcare departmental areas data will be assumed also as RCHC data • Future generation smart phones, capable (remote control health care) of operating over WIFI and VOIP Treatment history Remotely 15 Mobile Health Care System. e-Learning Security System Design
• Personal computers The information covered in these • Smart phones guidelines includes, but is not limited to, - Insurance providers information that is either stored or shared Remotely over the Internet via any means. This includes: electronic - Surgically implanted appliances and information, information on paper, and portable medical test devices information shared orally or visually (such as Remotely over the Internet telephone and video conferencing). Client-server over the LAN within MCHC All employees should familiarize complex. themselves with the information labeling and handling guidelines that follow this 2. e-LEARNING SYSTEM SECURITY & introduction. SENSITIVITY RISK PROPOSAL It should be noted that the sensitivity level definitions were created as guidelines and to The e-Learning Security & Sensitivity emphasize common sense steps that you Policy is intended to help MCHC employees can take to protect MCHC Confidential to determine what information can be information. disclosed to non-employees, as well as the All MCHC information is categorized into relative sensitivity of information that should two main classifications: not be disclosed outside of MCHC without • MCHC Public proper authorization. • MCHC Confidential
Table 1 MCHC Descriptive Security Policies Design for e-Learning System (extract)
Threat IT ASSET Security Requirements SECURITY POLICY agents AT RISK
MCHC Patients SR1: protect patients database - Information Sensitivity Policy Employee Info from being seen by - Employee Internet Use outsiders/unauthorized Monitoring and Filtering Policy insiders - Network Support Policy SR2: protect the encrypted - Remote Access Policy backup database from being - Acceptable Use Policy seen by outsiders/ - Password Policy unauthorized insiders - Acceptable Encryptions / Mobile Device Encryptions Policy - Email Use ( retention, forwarded, instant messenger) Policy - Database Password Policy
WIRELESS Wireless SR1: protect patients database • Information Sensitivity Policy Employee Internal from being seen by • Wireless Device Policy Access outsiders/unauthorized • Employee Internet Use Monitoring and insiders /wireless WPA/no Filtering Policy broadcast • Network Support Policy SR2: protect the encrypted • Remote Access Policy backup database from being • Acceptable Use Policy seen by outsiders/ • Password Policy unauthorized insiders • Acceptable Encryptions / Mobile Device Encryptions Policy • Email Use ( retention, forwarded, instant messenger) Policy • Database Password Policy
16 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
HACKER Wireless SR1: protect patients database Information Sensitivity Policy Sensitive from being seen by Wireless Device Policy Data outsiders/unauthorized Employee Internet Use Monitoring and insiders /wireless WPA/no Filtering Policy broadcast Network Support Policy SR2: protect the encrypted Remote Access Policy backup database from being Acceptable Use Policy seen by outsiders/ Password Policy unauthorized insiders Acceptable Encryptions / Mobile Device SR2d: wireless monitoring Encryptions Policy MCHC MCHC (covered SR15, SR16) Personal Communication Devices and MEDICAL Medical (covered by SR19, SR17) Voicemail Policy ERRORS Practice Acceptable Use Policy System Power (covered SR15, SR16) Acceptable Use Policy Admin Server Loss (covered by SR19, SR17)
Table 2 MCHC – e-Learning System Risk Management & Security Policies (extract)
Threat IT ASSET RISK MANAGEMENT SECURITY POLICY agents AT RISK
MCHC Patients - Encryption stored Information Sensitivity Policy EMPLOYEE Info MCHC P, HCPT Employee Internet Use Monitoring - Daily backup MCHC P, and Filtering Policy HCPT, PTS, HCPT Network Support Policy - OS patch Remote Access Policy - Firewall installed and Acceptable Use Policy maintain Password Policy - Antispyware installed Acceptable Encryptions / Mobile and maintain Device Encryptions Policy Email Use ( retention, forwarded, instant messenger) Policy Database Password Policy Health Antispyware update Virtual Private Network Policy HACKER care Employee contract of Ethics Policy provider confidentiality Personal Communication Devices and info Background check for Voicemail Policy System Administrator Acceptable Use Policy MCHC MCHC Employee contract of Personal Communication Devices and MEDICAL Medical confidentiality Voicemail Policy ERRORS Practice Logging updates and Acceptable Use Policy monitoring Logging layers with monitoring access Backup and encrypt sensitive data System Power Antispyware update Acceptable Use Policy Admin Server Employee contract of Loss confidentiality Background check for System Administrator Logging update and monitoring access
17 Mobile Health Care System. e-Learning Security System Design
3. e-LEARNING SYSTEM SECURITY If the response is “NO” then the risk RISK PROPOSAL ALGORITHM score is determined by the Risk level as (EXTRACT) follows: If risk is “Very High” than the score is 4; The risk analyses was made by using a risk If risk is ”High” then the score is 3; score calculation (proposal algorithm) over the If the risk is “Medium” then the score is 2; MCHC Security Policy, an audit algorithm If the risk is “Low” then the risk is 1. after the Security Policies were implemented. If the response is “Yes” then the risk score The following steps have to be followed is determined by both the risk level and the for risk score calculations: “Yes Details” as follows: - Decide the risk level of each item. The If risk is “Very High” than the score is 4* risk level of the item indicates its relative (“Yes Details” weight); importance. If risk is ”High” then the score is 3* (“Yes - Numerical value assign for the risk Details” weight); level: If the risk is “Medium” then the score is 2 • Very High: 4; * (“Yes Details” weight); • High: 3; If the risk is “Low” then the risk is 1* • Medium: 2; (“Yes Details” weight); • Low: 1. Where “Yes Details” weights are the - If the response to the item is “Yes”, followings: give the “Yes Details. This could take up any “Planned/Just started”: weight 0.5 of the given three values: “Planned/Just “Partially completed”: weight 0.25 started”, “partially completed” and “Fully “Fully implemented”: weight 0. implemented”. “Risk Upper Limit” is the maximum risk - The final risk score for an item is posed by an item, is used to calculate the calculated as follows: “Percentage Risk Abated (%RA)”.
ORGANIZATION: “YES” RESPONSE RISK RISK SCORE MCHC DETAILS
SECURITY POLICY YES - Planned/Just VERY Results RISK NO started HIGH UPPER N/A - Partially HIGH LIMIT completed MEDIUM - Fully LOW implemented Have the Information Yes Planned/Just VERY 2 4 Security Policies been issued started HIGH to all employees, including third party personnel and contractors? Have all employees formally Yes Partially VERY 1 4 acknowledge adherence to the completed HIGH Information Security policies? Are all users required to sign NO VERY 4 4 an Internet usage and HIGH responsibility agreement that acknowledge compliance with Internet policy TOTAL 19 77
%RA= 1 - ∑ (Risk Score) / ∑ (Risk Upper Limit) = 0.23 18 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics
4. CONCLUSIONS The e-Learning system will implement the low risk architecture in order to train mobile After MCHC/RCHC Security analyses system employee. The security analysis were low risk, the security architecture was generates the password policies (SP5) and ready for implementation. audit vulnerability scan Policy (SP8), also.
MCHC ARCHITECTURE: E-Learning with Security Policies
Health PATIENTS Care Provide FIREWALL / IDS/Wireless
SP1, SP2, SP4, RCHCP SP1, SP3, SP5
SP4 RCHCA Database SR5 HCPF
SP5 RCHC Sys. Admin. Backup RCHC HCP
SP8 SP7, SP8 PTS ICP
SP3 Firewall SP4 SP5
REFERENCES 5681,00.html>; 5. Boatright, J.R., Ethics and the Conduct of 1. Implementing Network Security Systems- Business, Fifth Edition, Pearson Prentice Lab Source Files, Cisco Press, 2009; Hall, 2007; 2. Jeong, P., Stefan, A., Implementing 6. Bush, V., Venable, B., Bush, A., Ethics Network Security Systems, Packet Tracer and Marketing on the Internet: Manual, BC 2008, 2009; Practitioners’ perceptions of societal, 3. BankInfoSecurity, 14 September 2005, industry and company concerns, Journal of Reports Shows Internal IT Attacks Rising. Business Ethics 23(3), pp. 237-248, 2000; Retrieved on February 17, 2009; 7. Castells, M., Information Technology and 4. Behar, R., World Bank under siege in Global Capitalism, in Giddens, A. and ‘Unprecedented Crisis’, FoxNews.com, Hutton, W. (eds) On the Edge; International News, 10 October 2008, 8. Living with Global Capitalism, Vintage, Retrieved on 22 February, 2009, London, pp. 52-74, 2000. 19 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT FIGHTING AGAINST CYBERCRIME Ioan Gheorghe RATIU*, Ioan Daniel RATIU**, Mihail Gabriel RATIU*** *“George Baritiu” University, Brasov, Romania, **ORIX Corporation, Tokyo, Japan ***Blom Bank France-Romania Abstract: This paper presents some fundamental considerations to fight against cybercrime and highlights several legal aspects that contribute to building a trusted information society. It also introduces basic principles in computer forensic and deals with the notions of crime scene and digital traces. It presents a methodology to conduce effective investigation in a digital environment. Keywords: computer, cybercrime, cyber-attack, cybercriminal, fight, forensic, law. 1. INTRODUCTION crime. Large-scale police operations conducted in several countries show that the The evolution of the society generates authorities are reacting and adapting to the changes in the way to commit crimes new criminal context. The arrest and (technologies as a tool to perform criminal conviction of several virus authors and activities) and also modifies the target of spammers testify to the determination to deal crime (information, computers and with these new types of nuisance. However, telecommunication infrastructures become the the number of convictions remains very low object of illegal actions). It is our given the sheer volume of spam and viruses responsibility to support such changes by circulating on a daily basis. The rate of defining effective law and regulation unreported cybercrime is difficult to estimate. procedures, by organizing juridical and law It is possible that the legal authorities, the enforcement systems in a way to satisfy needs police and the general public are aware of no of the information society and by realizing more than 12% of cybercrime [2]. adequate private-public partnerships. To prevent, deter and fight cybercrime, cyber 2. THE IMPORTANCE OF SECURITY threats and cyber attacks should be well ENFORCEMENT FOR FIGHTING understood. To pursue cybercriminals, AGAINST CYBERCRIME knowing cybercriminal motivation and their modus operandi is not sufficient if the society In a global protection strategy, fighting is not able to supervise and recognize illicit cybercrime effectively involves: activities and discover criminals. For that, - increasing the level of effort the criminal trained persons, tools and procedures for has to make to perpetrate a crime; cybercrime pattern recognition, tacking charge - increasing the level of perceived risks; of digital evidence and performing computer - decreasing expected profits. investigations should be operational and In order to reach these strategic protection effective. goals, information and communication The number of security incidents reported security solutions have to be put in place. For to CERT [1], has been growing steadily since example, with regard to the level of effort the start of the current century, as has the needed to carry out an attack, potential number of attacks reported to the legal targeted resources can be less vulnerable if authorities, contributing to a better there is access control, integrity control, understanding and accountability of computer authentication control or monitoring 20 Considerations About Fighting Against Cybercrime mechanisms. Enforcing network security degree of negative impact. In any case, the architecture through the use of firewalls is also computer hacker exploits the weaknesses of a technical measure that makes an attack more the target system. Even security systems are difficult to effect. In a complementary both vulnerable and fallible. Some systems are approach, legislative and regulatory measures easy to attack; others are much less so. In help to raise the level of risk perceived by a order to correctly react to an attack, it is criminal. Today, there are different phases of a important to identify the visible objective of cyber attack. The object of the first phase is to the attack and the means used for it. The more gather information and explore potential an incident is documented, the better the vulnerabilities in the target system, in order to security policy will be able to adapt to the new gain a maximum of information for future “post-crisis” context. In the same vein, it is exploitation. This involves studying the also necessary to monitor the company’s mechanisms and levels of security used for information system daily, particularly the identification, authentication, access control, network, to identify attacks as soon as possible encryption and surveillance, and identifying so that they can be countered efficiently. This technical, organizational and human is dependent on an attack prevention strategy. weaknesses in the environment. The attacker often attempts to coax naive or credulous users into revealing information that can be used to design an attack (this is called social engineering). Social engineering is related to techniques, procedures, and measures used by malicious people, who usually take advantage of the users’ credulity to, inter alia, obtain their passwords and connection parameters Fig. 1 Target systems and levels of cyber attack and usurp their digital identity, in order to trick and breach the system by pretending to be Several attack recognition software authorized visitors. Hackers can also look for programs (Intrusion Detection Systems - IDS) and exploit known – but not yet repaired are available to address this last issue. They (patched) – security vulnerabilities, using the function in a very similar way to anti-virus available means (attack libraries, attack software. They identify attacks according to a toolkits) to infiltrate the system. The retreat certain signature (attack pattern). The phase is intended to cover up the traces of the development of new types of attacks implies attack, or to ensure that the traces that are left that it is vital to constantly upgrade intrusion do not allow the hacker to be identified. detection systems. Hackers increase their anonymity by using Some of them follow attack recognition aliases, usurping legitimate users’ identities, or methods based on predictable user behavior covering their tracks by means of multiple (derivation of normal procedure). Their intermediate (relay) systems. If the attacker efficacy depends especially on their capacity does not know the target well (phase 1 of the to correctly discriminate the normal activities attack is insufficient), the risk of being tracked from those which lead to intrusions. Intrusion down increases. detection systems can be located in points of An attack can target a security system control such as networks, routers, or firewalls. (firewall, authentication server, etc.), a Once a suspicious event is detected, systems security-related system to (router, DNS, etc.) should be capable of recording the event, or a system which has no link to security generating a report, alarming the users (e.g. measures, services or functions, such as sending electronic messages or alerts by pager workstations or web servers, Fig. 1. According to operators), to activate security mechanisms to the type of system targeted, the attack will or to end connections in progress. be more or less difficult to carry out, more or Human resources management adapted to less rapidly detected and have a varying security needs, in particular at the time of 21 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics departure of computer specialists or users, is nature of the Internet, vulnerabilities and also important to prevent internal risks. At the weaknesses could compromise the security of same time, the security administrator should others all around the globe. The absence of have an idea of the level of attraction that the applicable and enforceable laws in a country system he has to protect represents for a leads to the creation of digital paradises used potential criminal. to develop harmful activities. The The identification of an attack must allow consequences of a digital paradise are for a fast reaction in order to limit the harmful prejudicial for all concerned. Each country has extent and consequences of it. Mastering a to set appropriate technical measurements and cyber attack should in addition help to identify adopt an enforceable legal framework. That the perpetrator for the purposes of potential means that criminal laws must exist and police prosecution. A reaction strategy involves five have the capacity to investigate and pursue types of action: Identification of the attack; computer-related crime. Evaluation of the goal of the attack To prevent, deter and fight cybercrime, (vandalism, diversion, etc.); Alert, report and cyber threats and cyber attacks should be notification (legal service, etc.); Blocking of well understood. To pursue cybercriminals, the attack; Recovery and return to the normal knowing cybercriminal motivation and their situation as fast as possible. modus operandi is not sufficient if the society To prevent threats, in-depth knowledge of is not able to supervise and recognize illicit the environment to be protected as well as in- activities and discover criminals. For that, depth knowledge of the values to be preserved trained persons, tools and procedures for is mandatory. An elementary rule consisting in cybercrime pattern recognition, tacking charge avoiding the attribution of excessive privileges of digital evidence and performing computer to users is to be respected when systems are investigations should be operational and configured, even if it means increasing their effective. Understanding a cybercriminal’s rights gradually according to need and this, for motivation and level of technical skills can a limited duration. help to assess how serious an attack is, and assist in devising a counter-strategy. It could 3. PURSUING CYBERCRIMINALS also be useful when trying to identify him during a police investigation. Fighting against cybercrime means that Understanding cybercriminal profiles and security technical barriers must be effective to motivation could be a great help to protect increase the level of difficulty to attack a information technologies and pursue system. The perpetration of a malevolent act cybercriminals. At the present time there are becomes more complex and the chances of two main groups of cybercriminals: the performing it are reduced. But it is not enough professionals who make money from their if the criminal always feels that he or she work, and the amateurs, who tend to be could act with impunity. So really to increase persons with a pronounced need for the level of risk taken by the criminal, he must recognition. understand that he is carrying out a malicious Computer-related crime is sophisticated, act. Laws must, therefore, exist to criminalize and is usually committed across national illicit behavior and members of the justice borders, frequently with a time delay. The system and police forces should have the traces it leaves in the systems are intangible means to identify criminals and bring them to and difficult to gather and save. justice in order to receive an appropriate They take the form of digital information sentence. stored on all sorts of media: working memory, A nation’s ability to deter, detect, storage peripherals, hard discs, external discs investigate and prosecute cybercriminals’ and USB sticks, electronic components, etc. activities is one of the most important The problem is how to capture the wide components for affording secure information variety of evidence turned up in a digital infrastructures. Because of the international search. 22 Considerations About Fighting Against Cybercrime Digital evidence is even more difficult to and present facts that contribute to establishing obtain when it is scattered across systems the truth. located in different countries. In such cases, Any computer systems’ information success depends entirely on the effectiveness and communication device (electronic of international cooperation between legal components, memory devices, hard discs, USB authorities and the speed with which action is sticks, etc.) or information it contains is taken. Effective use of such evidence to potential targets or instruments of crime. Any identify individuals depends on the speed with devices are sources of digital evidence. Each which requests are treated: if treatment is slow, software or data execution or transaction identification is next to impossible. leaves digital traces in various components. In most countries there is a significant Criminals take advantage of the territorial mismatch between the skills of the criminals nature of the Internet and the lack, in some who commit high-technology crimes and the countries, of legislation outlawing computer- resources available to the law-enforcement and related crime, as well as the multitude of justice authorities to prosecute them. The use jurisdictions covering the Internet. In a similar of computer technologies by those authorities, manner to monetary tax havens, digital safe whether at the national or international level, havens allow criminals to host servers, remains weak and varies greatly from one distribute illegal content or perform illegal country to another. actions without fear of being brought to In a global protection strategy, fighting justice. Installing such servers on the territory cybercrime effectively involves: of weak countries creates a haven for cross- - Increasing the level of effort the criminal border operations. The lack of international has to make to perpetrate a crime; regulations and control, and the ineffective - Increasing the level of perceived risks; nature of international cooperation in legal - Decreasing expected profits. investigations and prosecutions allow In order to reach these strategic protection cybercriminals to be very effective. goals information and communication security Digital evidence is even more difficult to solutions have to be put in place. Enforcing obtain when it is scattered across systems network security architecture through the use located in different countries. In such cases, of firewalls is also a technical measure that success depends entirely on the effectiveness makes an attack more difficult to take effect. of international cooperation among legal authorities and the speed with which action is 4. COMPUTER FORENSIC AND taken. CYBERCRIME LEGAL ISSUES Effective use of such evidence to identify individuals depends on the speed with which Any criminal investigation follows requests are treated: if treatment is slow, procedures developed in a specific appropriate identification is next to impossible. One of the framework. Some variations could exist from most important features is the duration during country to another but the following steps which Internet Service Providers keep could be largely found: research of indicators information concerning user subscriptions and and clue, criminal identification and activities (IP addresses, connection data, etc.). localization, court evidence presentation. The retention period, during which data is When law enforcement agents are notified available in order to retrieve someone’s that a computer-related crime has been identity from his IP address, varies from one committed, police should gather evidence of country to another, and can be decided by the illicit action. As with any other criminal national law. Legal systems must give law case, a search warrant may be executed; enforcement agencies the appropriate authority investigations, interviews or interrogations to access traffic data. may be conducted in order to identify suspects The legal constraint of recording and, if necessary, bring them before the courts. connection data for a certain amount of time The purpose of any investigation is to discover (six months is a minimum, given the speed of 23 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics international legal assistance procedures) or IP addresses. In fact, criminals can also be obliges ISPs to provide adequate facilities to identified through undercover investigation store and retrieve information when ordered. when investigators join instant messaging (IM) For Instant messaging services and Peer-to- services, peer-to-peer networks (P2P), Internet peer or Internet relay chat facilities, logs and relay chat (IRC), newsgroups, etc. to lure historical content of communication are kept criminals. for only a few days, when indeed they are In the same way criminals have developed kept. In fact, there is no guarantee that logs or attack methodologies and patterns that can user records exist or are conserved. Traces are help them to be efficient, investigators should volatile and rapidly removed from servers, and learn to optimize computer crime investigation anyone can run an Internet relay chat server, by transferring practical knowledge into for example. rigorous search strategy methodology and Once the IP address of a system involved standard operating procedures. in a criminal activity has been identified, the Whereas the IT security manager tries to next step is to answer the question “Who was recover its systems in the shortest time, to using the computer?” It is always very difficult ensure the continuity of the production, the to establish the identity of a person on the investigator is subjected to the formal basis of an IP address, email or web addresses constraints of the penal procedure which or a digital trace. An IP address identifies a requires on him to obtain as much traces as computer, not a person and criminals use false possible, and to preserve them in accordance or stolen identities. with very precise legal standards. Investigators with a solid understanding of The problem of identification of the author information technologies and the Internet, who is for him secondary towards the preservation use cybercrime investigation methodology in of the activity of the organization. The conjunction with effective international recovery of the system represents so for him cooperation, should be able to uncover the the end of the incident while it is often situated criminal’s identity. In most cases at present, at the beginning of the investigator’s the police and legal authorities rely on intervention (temporal gap). The procedures of conventional investigation methods used for reboot of Information System are often ordinary crime in order to identify, arrest and contradictory with the conservation of traces prosecute cybercriminals. A trace is a mark, which would allow proving the reality of the object or sign not always visible to the naked attack, to select a group of suspects, and to eye, or a vestige of a presence or an action at obtain possible legally valid evidences. the place of the latter [3]. However, when an incident has occurred, it Within the context of cybercrime, digital can be useful to have additional information traces may be seen as outwardly immaterial; which could accelerate the work of the nevertheless digital traces reside on a material investigator. First of all, it is about the reality – a particular state of memory (CD- complete inventory of the human, software ROM, etc.). Therefore, a digital trace is very and hardware resources which make up the similar to a traditional material one. Any trace information system of the organization. In is fragile and susceptible to deterioration; particular, the configuration and location of some may even be invisible or inaccessible. the computer systems and the networks should Some IT computer forensic tools and be available, as well as a logical map of the procedures exist. They should be used by information system. Secondly, it is convenient trained and competent experts. to operate specific tools of collection, On the other hand, criminals could be memorization, and analysis of electronic tracked by active communication monitoring traces, which respect the constraints in which and live surveillance. Telephone, e-Mail or is subdued the procedure of investigation. It instant messaging eavesdropping is possible to concerns the operational management tools of collect information related to communication the network, the analysis means of the traffic, content or non-content such as e-Mail headers the audit methods, the intrusion detection 24 Considerations About Fighting Against Cybercrime systems, the firewalls, and the log files. The of the trace to be collected in a distributed common use of rigorous procedures of systems environment as the Internet. The trace authentication of the data produced by all can be a "traditional" one, like a fingerprint, these means, in particular through the integrity but it can also consist in information control and the time stamping of the characterizing for example, some action that corresponding files, should strengthen the the targeted system is not supposed to perform. value of the electronic traces which they can And when a network is used, traces are supply. Eventually, an additional guarantee is distributed all over interconnected systems. brought by the regular conservation of the This introduces a new level of complexity in most important data (logs of logins and errors) the daily work of an investigator who had to on supports such as CD-ROM and DVD- determine quickly which traces have to be ROM. It is necessary to underline that these privileged and where to collect them. A first various means will see their "judicial" value question is to know what to look for. increasing by the yardstick of the regularity The nature of the trace depends also on with which they are operated. new criteria generated by the use of computer One cannot keep any more, today, to a systems. In information technologies security policy based essentially on prevention environment, a trace is not necessarily the and detection. Such a point of view would information by itself, but rather its digitalized mean that criminals, in this domain, are not as representation. Depending on how it is good as their homologues of the "real" world. collected, a computer related trace will be It is mandatory to include, as soon as the considered as physical or not. For instance, if a conception phase of a security strategy, the log file is mirrored from the suspect’s hard elements needed by an effective collaboration drive, it is a pure “non-physical” trace. And if between IT security managers, and the hard-drive is seized in order to use the log investigators in charge of tracking possible file as evidence, it is partly physical, since the traces after the commission of an offence. It is support has to be treated as part of the trace. first of all necessary to create the conditions of Then, there is often a risk to base the a real dialogue between representatives of two choice of which traces to look for in professional worlds who misunderstand each emergency and crisis situation, on the first other. It is then unavoidable to alter the elements reported by the Information System methods of conception of Information Manager, who is usually the priority Systems, in order to allow, as soon as they are interlocutor of the investigator. She/he has a used in production processes, the protection of constraint of business continuity that is not the information generated by the management really compatible with the needs of an of the system, in order to use it during the investigation. In fact, she/he can also possibly judicial proceedings of possible delinquents. be part of the malevolent act and have Since a growing number of business modified some traces to lead the investigator activities are computer assisted, and more and on a wrong trail. more computers are interconnected through The “human” dimension must absolutely Internet technologies, computer-related crime be taken into account, since it could jam the becomes often “cybercrime” which could be communication between both parties. An defined as a computer related crime committed investigator could be influenced by the in the cyberspace [4]. traditional forensic way of exploring the scene An attacked computer, (mainframe, of crime. At the same time, a computer personal computer, or even a personal digital scientist or an information systems manager assistant-PDA, etc.) is scrutinized in order to have a totally different approach of the collect traces of an offence. In the same time, a computer system and its environment. cybercrime scene should be seen as any other The relative value of the existing traces scene of crime, with one further dimension, must also be evaluated according to the life rather than a fully different space of cycle of digital data. Finally, one must investigation. The very problem is the nature evaluate the interest of discovered traces 25 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics through their possible value in a court, • In other hand, the IAP of the attacking compared with the technical difficulty system gives information about o the time of generated by their collection and conservation. internet access (when done through ISDN or When dealing with cybercrime, the dial-up). investigator has to locate the place and time of In the cyberspace, evidence can be very creation of the traces that could become “volatile”. Depending on the physical support, potential evidences. This is particularly and on the nature of the processes that created difficult since many actors can be involved, at them, digital traces can be more or less different moment of the criminal process, and resilient. Four factors are determinant: geographically dispersed. • The easiness of creation: this factor qualifies Time location depends on various system the technical difficulty encountered to create management policies. Each policy has to be the trace during the normal operations of the understood by the investigator when he wants system; to find if a trace could still be collected • The durability of the trace on the support: somewhere in the system. this criterion helps to define on which kind of For the space location of relevant traces, support the first investigations have to be led; the position of the author is not sufficient to • The speed of deletion by the existing tools of limit the area of investigation. An information the system: usually, the deletion of a file is system connected through the Internet can be easily performed by the operating system; distributed between many locations. For • The ability to be fully erased: some physical instance, when server’s management is supports are very difficult to clean. outsourced, the data are often stored on a The apparition of new and complex server situated in a remote facility. To reach financial tools, at the same time of the markets this location, even from inside the enterprise, a globalization, led to a growth of sophisticated criminal should certainly use the infrastructure financial crime. A considerable effort was of an Internet Access Provider. The physical conducted to teach judges and police officers support of the access could be different and how to investigate such affairs. Once seen as each one of them will have its own policy for very “exotic”, financial crime is now fully connections logs creation and conservation. integrated in judicial mechanisms, and even if Several space locations to look for digital its investigations needs expertise, time, and traces could exist when dealing with: means, it is not seen as exceptional. • A usual computer investigation: traces are To accelerate this evolution, methods localized in a system; should be develop to better qualify the • A local area network (LAN) investigation: incidents, and to help the investigator to some network management tools can have engage enough resources when needed. stored information about the transactions or Investigating a cybercrime can be time actions that occurred during the incident as for consuming, and focusing on the right source of example; traces can become the only way to lead a case • Internet environment investigation to its achievement. Another enhancement particularities: some of the “global carriers” could reside in the collaboration between the (like backbone operators) log a lot of investigator and the people in charge of IT management information (in order to better infrastructures and security concerned by the manage their quality of service). This also can offence. This can be improved notably by a provide clues about the real attacker, or his/her perception of the investigator as “computer true motivation; literate” or technically competent, by in place • Internet Access Provider (IAP): Network system administrators. Two ways lead to such management tools of the victim’s IAP can be a professional recognition: formation and invaluable to find the origin of the attack (the formalization. Formation is a question of “attacking system”) and the possible human resources management. Formalization destination of some of the stolen assets is the consequence of applied research. By (specific data or financial transactions); comparing best practices, existing guidelines, 26 Considerations About Fighting Against Cybercrime with what is really needed in the field by the the Internet. From natural disasters, to officer, researchers should be able to develop a malevolence acts, passing by errors or lake of common method of cyber scene of crime control and management, a wide range of investigation that could improve investigator's incidents can occurs that has a negative impact efficiency, and the acceptance by the on Internet activities. Fig. 2 summarizes some professionals. weakness points of an Internet infrastructure A relevant international reference on and Fig. 3 identifies some problems due to cybercrime legal issues could be finding in the technology misuse or lack of sufficient Convention on Cybercrime of the Council of security measures. Europe. The convention identifies cybercrimes Most of communication protocols of the that should e prosecuted and gives direction to Internet can be misused to serve cyber attacks investigate such crimes. The problem of purposes and potentially any systems international cooperation is also addressed. connected thought the Internet can be the The Council of Europe, on November 8, 2001 target of attacks [5]. adopted the Convention on cybercrime (ETS nr. 185) [6] and its Explanatory Report [7], which were proposed for signature on November 21 in Budapest on the issue of the International Conference on Cybercrime. Today this convention constitutes a worldwide recognized reference document. The criminalization of xenophobic acts committed through computer systems is treated by the additional protocol to the convention on cybercrime (EST 189). Additional offences related to attempting to commit or aiding and abetting offences, as defined in the Convention, is also punishable Fig. 2 Some weak points of an Internet and the question of indirect liability is raised. infrastructure The section “jurisdiction” mentions that each party is required to punish the commission of crimes established in the convention, committed in its territory. Existing police cooperation and mutual assistance modalities need a point of contact available in each country 24 hours per day, 7 days per week in order to ensure immediate assistance in investigation. For indication, a non exhaustive list of law domains is proposed [8, 9, 10]: Penal; Civil; Commercial; Telecommunication; Privacy and data protection; Copyright; Unfair competition; Banking and professional Fig. 3 Security breaches and impacts secrecy; Right of disclosure/access; Statuary obligations for storage/disclosure; Accounting. A comprehensive, multilateral, international response is required, as mentioned by the 5. VULNERABILITY OF THE Cybercrime Convention of the Council of INTERNET ACTIVITIES Europe. Several different points of view, needs, and actors should be taken into Many vulnerabilities and threats exist consideration to strike an acceptable putting in danger any activities realized over compromise between “freedom” and 27 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics “security”. The global information society and • International cooperation to fight against knowledge economy are constrained by the cybercrime and enforce ICT infrastructures development and overall acceptance of an security. international cyber security framework. The It points out urgent requirements present at validity of such a framework or model requires international, regional and national levels, to a challenging multidimensional and multi resolve the capacity building problem in order stakeholder’s approach for everyone – from to obtain confidence and security in the use of individuals to organizations and states. ICTs, as identified by the World Summit on Cybercrime is not restricted to the Information Society [11] (Geneva 2003, geographical or national boundaries. A Tunis 2005) and by the Global Cyber security criminal can be located in a country different Agenda ITU’s initiative launched on World from the one in which the crime produces its Telecommunication and Information Society effects. Domestic laws are confined to a day 2007 by Dr Hamadoun Touré Secretary- specific territory but electronic exchanges or General of ITU [12]. data flows do not know any geographical boundaries. REFERENCES 6. CONCLUSION 1. CERT Coordination Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Increasing awareness among all http://www.cert.org/certcc.html; information society actors and stakeholders is 2. Gobulev, V., Computer crime typology, fundamental but not sufficient to fight against Computer Crime Research Center, 2004 cybercrime. Usual security policy prevention www.crime- measures consist on raising the overall level of research.org/articles/Golubev1203; risk taken by criminals and by deceasing 3. Ghernaouti-Hélie, S. & al., Pursuing profitable expectations. That implies capacities Computer Crime within an Organization: to detect criminals’ activities over the Internet, a Matter of Collaboration between the IT to localize, to identify and pursue criminals. Security Manager and the Investigator, To achieve it, complementary legal, Second European Academy of Forensic organizational and technical measures and Science Conf., Cracovie, September 2000; resources should exit and be efficient at local 4. Ghernaouti-Hélie, S. & al., Evidence for and international levels. As criminals exploits cybercrime investigation, 13th Int. Forensic Internet vulnerabilities, less weaknesses Science Symposium, Lyon, October 2001; should contribute to decrease criminal 5. Ghernaouti-Hélie, S., Cyber security opportunities. That means that is necessary to guide for developing countries, ITU-D improve and enforce information technologies publication, http://www.itu.int/ITU- robustness and information security technical, D/cyb/publications/2007/cgdc-2007-e.pdf; procedural and organizational measures. 6. www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treati Doing that, the level of difficulty of an attacks es/Html/185.htm; is augmented and the related cost in terms of 7. www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Report efforts, means and know how needed to s/Html/185.htm; perpetrate an illicit action is increased. All in 8. www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Report all, a global, comprehensive and integrative s/Html/185.htm; information security approach will contribute 9. www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Report to reduce information society threats and risks. s/Html/185.htm(p.27); Today, a relative deficiency still exists of: 10. www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Report • A global and well understanding culture of s/Html/185.htm (p.30); cyber security for all the actors of the 11. http://www.itu.int/wsis/c5/index.html; information society; 12. http://www.itu.int/osg/csd/cybersecurity/gc • Adequate legal, organizational, technical a/docs/Brochure%20English.pdf. measures; 28 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics ABOUT AERODYNAMIC CALCULUS OF IMPELLERS USING THE NUMERICAL METHODS Beazit ALI*, Gheorghe SAMOILESCU* *“Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy, Constanţa, Romania Abstract: An algorithm for aerodynamic calculus of impeller using numerical methods (Computational Fluid Dynamics) is presented. The geometry of the impeller was analytically determined and the main objective is to compare the analytical solutions of lift with the numerical solutions. Keywords: impeller, numerical solution, analytical solution, propeller. 1. INTRODUCTION 2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION A Hovercraft is also sometime called an The problem consists in the flow through a Air Cushion Vehicle or ACV. This is a vehicle hovercraft fan with 6 blades. Due to cyclic that can drive on land like a car but will periodicity only one blade will be modeled. traverse ditches and small gullies like it is flat For geometric model was used GAMBIT terrain. The Hovercraft is a unique method of software. For each aerodynamic profile were transportation. introduced 33 points (10 sections). The Modern Hovercraft are used for many geometry of the impeller’s propeller is the one applications where people or equipment need determined in the analytical calculus. Figure 1 to travel at speed over water but be able to present the geometry of the fan and the load and unload on land. boundary conditions. The hovercraft engine provides the power to drive fans that blow air under the craft. The air is retained by a rubber ‘skirt’ that enables the craft to travel over a wide range of terrain. The skirt simply gives way when an obstacle is encountered. The engine also supplies power to a thrust propeller that pushes the craft forward on its ‘bubble' of air. Rudders, like on an airplane, steer the direction of the craft. The propeller used to impeller for to drive the hovercraft along is usually an aircraft type with fixed or variable pitch blades. For the analytical solution of thrust many hypotheses are made. Aerodynamic calculus of impeller’s propeller using numerical methods (Computational Fluid Dynamics - CFD) can Fig. 1 Geometry and boundary conditions give us more accurate solutions for thrust. Also the distribution for the parameters of As shown in figure 1, domain’s extremities aerodynamic field is determined. were chosen far enough from the fan. 29 About Aerodynamic Calculus of Impellers Using the Numerical Methods For the lateral faces of the domain cyclic The lateral faces of the domain were link- periodicity condition was applied. meshed for mesh correspondence in cyclic The domain is rotating at the periodicity. corresponding speed (fan speed – different The working fluid is air with standard values for each case considered) and because proprieties. of this the ring wall has only the no-slip The solutions were determined using the condition (implicit for turbulent flows) and the segregated solver, implicit formulation. The speed of the blade wall was set to 0 m/s. implicit formulation has a faster convergence For operating conditions the pressure was but needs more computational resources. The set to 101325 Pa. segregated method solves Navier-Stokes In consequence, the boundary conditions equations separated using the algorithm are: presented in figure 3. - “wall” for blade – Stationary Wall; - “wall” for ring – Moving Wall – Relative to adjacent cell zone – Speed 0 rot/sec – Rotational – Direction (1,0,0) (x axis); - “fluid”– Moving reference frame - Speed n rot/sec – Rotational – Direction (1,0,0) (x axis) - “pressure outlet” – Gauge pressure 0 Pa – Backflow turbulence intensity 0,05% - Backflow turbulence viscosity ratio 1; - “pressure inlet” – Gauge pressure 0 Pa – Turbulence intensity 0,05% - Turbulence viscosity ratio 1; - “periodic” – rotational. 3. NUMERICAL SOLUTION The discretisation of the domain was made Fig. 3 Segregated method considering a finer mesh around the blade and the ring, where the gradients are bigger and a The turbulence model is k-ε standard coarse mesh at extremities. The final mesh model and for each solution (rotational speed with 524 000 tetrahedral cells is presented in of the fan) were made 1000 - 1500 iterations figure 2. until convergence. The numerical solution was calculated for: Z = 6 – number of rotor blades; D = 1,15 m – diameter of rotor; P = 20 kW; 30 kW; 40 kW; 50 kW; 60 kW – engine power; n = 2000 rot/min; 2500 rot/min; 3000 rot/min; 3500 rot/min; 4000 rot/min – rotational speed of rotor. In figure 4 is presented the distribution of static pressure for P = 60 kW, n = 3500 rot/min. As was mentioned before, the reference pressure is 101 325 Pa. Fig. 2 Unstructured grid – 524 000 In figure 5 is presented the distribution of tetrahedral cells velocity for P = 60 kW, n = 3500 rot/min. 30 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The blade geometrical parameters listed in table 1 and 2 were determined in the analytical calculus. In tables 3 and 4 are listed the analytical and numerical values calculated for thrust. There are also calculated the relative errors between analytical and numerical solutions. Relative error = (numerical value – analytical value)/analytical value. Fig. 4 Distribution of static pressure Table 1 Distribution of chord length (c) and airfoil width (b) along R Type I r b c b/c 30% 46,1 87,41 40% 18,99 109,1 50% 14,84 121,55 60% 13,02 128,58 70% 11,82 128,49 80% 10,22 117,55 90% 7,39 87,91 100% 3,73 45,16 Fig. 5 Distribution of velocity Table 2 Reference angle at r = 0,75 (D/2) [ ° ] n(rot/min) P(W) 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 20000 16.06 10.17 6.62 4.20 2.41 30000 20.86 13.49 9.17 6.29 4.22 40000 25.09 16.31 11.29 8.01 5.68 50000 29.00 18.84 13.16 9.50 6.93 60000 32.74 21.18 14.86 10.85 8.04 Table 3 Relative errors between analytical and numerical solutions. Thrust [N] P\n 2000 rpm 2500 rpm 3000 rpm Analytic Numeric Relative Analytic Numeric Relative Analytic Numeric Relative error error error 20000 837.3 874.26 + 4.4 % 803.2 851.3 + 5.9 % 721.4 789.2 + 9.4 % 30000 1096.2 1250.2 + 14 % 1088.5 1245.6 + 14.4 % 1034.5 1215.2 + 17.5 % 40000 1316.5 1489.1 + 13.1 % 1329.5 1426.1 + 7.2 % 1295.3 1425.6 + 10 % 50000 1510.6 1725.3 + 14.2 % 1543.5 1759.5 + 13.9 % 1526 1746.1 + 14.4 % 60000 1686.7 1856.8 + 10 % 1739.4 1902.7 + 9.3 % 1735.5 1923.1 + 10.8 % 31 About Aerodynamic Calculus of Impellers Using the Numerical Methods Table 4 Relative errors between analytical and numerical solutions. Thrust [N] P\n 3500 rpm 4000 rpm Analytic Numeric Relative error Analytic Numeric Relative error 20000 578 642.8 + 11 % 358.7 425.6 + 18.7 % 30000 925.5 1098.4 +18.7 % 758.4 889.4 + 17.2 % 40000 1213.3 1459.3 + 20.2 % 1078.2 1215.3 + 12.7 % 50000 1462.2 1614.1 + 10.3 % 1350.2 1498.7 + 10.9 % 60000 1690.1 1923.2 + 13.8 % 1591 1775.2 + 11.5 % 5. CONCLUSIONS There are experimentally determined coefficients witch multiplies the thrust of free The model was generated using the propeller. In some references the increasing in coordinates determined from analytical thrust is maximum 30%, depending of the solution and respects exactly the aerodynamic shape of the rings. surface. The accuracy of aerodynamic surfaces is mandatory for CFD analyses. REFERENCES Parametrical definition of geometry allows us to change very easy the problem. 1. Dumitrescu, H., Calculul elicei, Editura The numerical values are bigger than the Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1990; analytical values because in calculus of the 2. *** Fluent – Documentation; numerical solution the flow is turbulent and 3. *** Gambit – Documentation; the propeller is placed inside the ring. 4. *** Visual Basic for Applications – The thrust of tubed propellers can’t be Documentation. calculated exactly with analytical algorithms. 32 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics OSCILLATORY SOLUTIONS FOR THE SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS WITH VARIABLE COEFFICIENTS Gheorghe ANTON*, Gheorghe RADU** *Trades and Services High School, Buzău, **“Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania Abstract: In this paper we give some sufficient conditions for the oscillation of all solutions of the following system of neutral difference equations with variable coefficients r i +Δ cunu i n-aλ + ∑ α jij n-kun = 0)()())()(( ; =1,2,..., ri j=1 + where α ij n)( are real sequences with = ,...,2,1, rji ; λ, ∈Zk , a = ±1 and c ∞−∈ ),1[ . Mathematics Subject Classifications: 39A10 Keywords: systems of difference equations, oscillatory solutions, variable coefficients. 1. INTRODUCTION AND signum. PRELIMINARIES Although the problem oscillation solutions for the difference equations has attracted many In this paper, we shall look at the researchers, in recent years there has been oscillatory properties of all the solutions of the much research activity concerning the system of neutral difference equations with oscillation of solutions of delay difference variable coefficients equations. For these oscillatory results, we r refer to the [1,2,3,4,5,6] and the references +Δ ii (cu)n(u( λ))n-a + ∑α jij = 0)n-k(u)n( therein. =1j In [2] Agarwal and Grace established = r1,2,...,i (1) oscillation criteria for the higher order systems of difference equations with constant where α )n( are real sequences with ij coefficients. Further, in [3] Chuanxi, Kuruklis = r,...,2,1j,i and = ±1a , λ k, are positive and Ladas studied oscillatory behaviour of integers, c ∞−∈ ),1[ and ∆ is the first order systems of difference equations with variable forward difference operator, i.e, coefficients. In this paper, we obtain sufficient −+=Δ )n(u)1n(u)n(u . conditions for the oscillations of all the Definition 1. We say that a solution solutions of (1). To establish the main results t = 21 r )]n(u),...,n(u),n(u[)n(u of equation (1) we need a result on the oscillation of solutions is oscillating if for some ∈ }r,...,2,1{i and for of an Eq. with regressive differences [5]. every integer 0 > 0n , there exists > nn 0 such Lemma 1. Let k be a positive integer and that ii <+ 0)1n(u)n(u . let αn}{ be a sequence of non-negative real Definition 2. We say that a solution numbers such that t k = 1 r )]n(u),...,n(u[)n(u is nonoscillatory if it is ∑ + jn >α 0 (2) not eventually the trivial solution and if each =0j component i )n(u has eventually constant for all large n . 33 Oscillatory Solutions for the Systems of Difference Equations with Variable Coefficients −1n Assume that n}v{ is a solution of the 1 ∑α≤β<α i (9) following difference inequalities k −= kni + nnn1n −k =≤α+− ,...2,1,0n,0vvv (3) Thus, in view of (7), such that −1n 1 ⎛ u ⎞ ≤β ∑ ⎜1− +1n ⎟ (10) n > 0v for −≥ kn , k ⎜ u ⎟ −= kni ⎝ n ⎠ Then the difference equation for all large n. + nnn1n −k ==α+− ,...2,1,0n,0uuu (4) By using (10) and the well-known inequality between the arithmetic and has a solution n}u{ such that ≤< vu0 nn for geometric means we find that for n sufficiently −≥ kn and large, n = 0ulim (5) −1n −1n n ∞→ 1 ⎛ u +1i ⎞ 1 u +1i ≤β ∑ ⎜1− ⎟ 1−= ∑ ≤ Lemma 2. Suppose that αn}{ is a positive k −= kni ⎝ ui ⎠ k −= kni ui sequence of real numbers and let k be a k1 k1 ⎛ −1n u ⎞ ⎛ u ⎞ positive integer. For every solution of equation ⎜ +1i ⎟ n 1−≤ ⎜ ∏ ⎟ 1−= ⎜ ⎟ (4) to be oscillatory is sufficient to have the ⎝ −= kni ui ⎠ ⎝ u −kn ⎠ relationship that is, −1n k ⎡1 ⎤ k k1 inflim ⎢ ∑αi ⎥ > (6) ⎛ un ⎞ n ∞→ k + )1k( +1k ⎜ ⎟ 1 β−≤ ⎣ −= kni ⎦ ⎜ u ⎟ Proof. Assume, for the sake of ⎝ −kn ⎠ (11) contradiction, that equation (4) has a nonoscillatory solution n}u{ . As the opposite for all large n. of a solution of Eq. (4) is also a solution, we In particular, this implies that < β < 10 . may (and do) assume that }u{ is eventually Now observe that n positive. Then eventually k1 k k1 )1(max =λλ− α= [ ] k1 + α−=− nnn1n −k ≤ 0uuu ≤λ≤ 10 + )1k( and so n}u{ is an eventually decreasing where α is the positive constant defined by sequence of positive numbers. It follows from (8). equation (4) that eventually Therefore − k1k1 + nnn1n −k ≤α+− 0uuu 1 λα≤λ− for ≤λ< 10 or and (11) yields u 1−≤α +1n β n ≤ uu −knn (12) un α and so eventually, for all large n. −1n −1n By using (12) in Eq. (4) and then by 1 1 ⎛ u +1n ⎞ i ≤α ∑∑ ⎜1− ⎟ (7) repeating the above arguments we find that k k ⎜ u ⎟ −= kni −= kni ⎝ n ⎠ 2 ⎛ β ⎞ Set ⎜ ⎟ ≤ uu −knn for all large n ⎝ α ⎠ kk =α (8) and, by induction, for every = ,...2,1m there +1k + )1k( exists an integer N such that for Nn m ≥ m then, from (6), it is clear that we can choose a constant β such that, for n sufficiently large, 34 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics m 2 ⎛ β ⎞ ⎛ β ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ≤ uu −knn (13) ~ ≤ uu ~ ⎝ α ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ −kn n ⎝ 2 ⎠ Next observe that because of (9), for n which in view of (13) yields sufficiently large, m 2 n −1n ⎛ β ⎞ u~ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ −kn ≤≤ ⎜ ⎟ i ∑∑ i kβ≥α≥α ⎝ α ⎠ u~n ⎝ M ⎠ kni −=−= kni Hence, for n sufficiently large, This contradicts (14) and so the proof of n the theorem is complete. ∑ i β≥α (14) −= kni 2. MAIN RESULTS Where kB β= . Choose m such that m 2 In this section, we shall establish a few ⎛ β ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ > ⎜ ⎟ (15) sufficient conditions for the oscillations of all ⎝ α ⎠ ⎝ B ⎠ the solutions of equations (1). This is possible because from (9), β > α . i. First, we analyze the behavior of the solutions oscillating system with variable Then for n sufficiently large, say for ≥ nn , 0 coefficients (1) for a while = 0c . (13) is satisfied for the specific m which was r chosen in (15), also (9) and (14) hold, and i i )n(u)1n(u +−+ ∑α jji = 0)n-k(u)n( (18) n}u{ is decreasing for > nn 0 . Now in view =1j of (14) and for 0 +≥ knn , there exists an where {α ji )}n( are real sequences with integer ~n with − kn ≤ ~ ≤ nn such that + ~ = r,...,2,1j,i and k ∈ Z . In this sense we can n β n β ∑ i ≥α and ∑ i ≤α state the following Theorem. −= kni 2 i=~n 2 Theorem 1. Suppose that c = 0 . Let From equation (4) and the decreasing {α ji )}n( be real sequences with = r,...,2,1j,i nature of n}u{ , we have and let K be a positive integer. If every ~n ~n solution of the equation ~ −− kn1n =− ∑ + − i1i )uu(uu ∑α−= u −kii + − + α =− 0)kn(v)n()n(v)1n(v (19) −= kni −= kni ~ ⎛ n ⎞ β oscillates, where ⎜ ⎟ ~ ~ ⎜ ∑ α−≤ i ⎟u −kn −≤ u −kn ⎝ −= kni ⎠ 2 ⎪⎧ r ⎪⎫ =α min)n( ⎨α ii -)n( ∑ α ij ⎬ > 0)n( (20) hence, ≤≤ ri1 ⎪ ≠= ij1,j ⎪ ⎩ ⎭ β ~ ≤ uu (16) then every solution of (18) oscillates. 2 −− knkn Proof. Assume that equation (18) has a Similarly, nonoscillatory and eventually positive solution t n n = 21 r )]n(u),...,n(u),n(u[)n(u . Then, there uα−=−=− u)uu(u + n1n ∑ + i1i ∑ −kii exists an integer 0 > 0n such that i > 0)n(u i=~n i=~n for ≥ nn , = r,...,2,1i . If we let ⎛ n ⎞ β 0 ⎜ ∑α−≤ i ⎟u −kn −≤ u −kn r ⎜ ~ ⎟ ⎝ i=n ⎠ 2 = ∑ j )n(u)n(w =1j and so then β r −kn ≤ uu ~n (17) 2 w∑α−=−+ iii )kn(u)n()n(w)1n( −− From (16) and (17) we find =1i 35 Oscillatory Solutions for the Systems of Difference Equations with Variable Coefficients r r r − c1 )kn(u)n( ≤−α− ∑α− iii )kn(u)n( +− + =λ−−α 0))k(n(v)n( (23) ∑∑ jji c2 =≠1i = ij,1j =1i r r is oscillatory, then every solution of equation ∑∑α+ jji − )kn(u)n( (1) is oscillating. =≠1i = ij,1j c. If c = 1, = −1a and every solution of the equation Therefore, from the above inequality we find the following 1 )n(v)1n(v =−α+−+ 0)kn(v)n( (24) 2 )n(w)1n(w +−+ r ⎡ r ⎤ is oscillatory, then every solution of equation ⎢ )n( α−α+ ⎥ ≤− 0)kn(u)n( (1) is oscillating. ∑∑ii ij i =≠1i ⎣⎢ = ij,1j ⎦⎥ d. If − ≤ < 0c1 , −= 1a and every or solution of the equation ≤−α+−+ )0)kn(w)n()n(w)1n(w (21) + − + α =− 0)kn(v)n()n(v)1n(v (25) ≥≥ nnn 01 is oscillatory, then every solution of equation By the eventual positivity of 1 )n(u , 2 )n(u , (1) is oscillating. t …, r )n(u we conclude that w(n) is eventually Proof. Suppose that = 1 r )]n(u),...,n(u[)n(u positive. Then by Lemma 1, we see that is a nonoscillatory and eventually positive =−α+−+ 0)kn(v)n()n(v)1n(v solution of (1), = ±1a . Then, there exists an integer 0 ≥ 0n such that i > 0)n(u for has a positive solution )}n(v{ for ≥ nn , 1 ≥ nn , = r1,2,...,i . which contradicts our hypothesis and 0 We let completes the proof. Thus, we have the following corollary that is immediate. r r Corollary 1. Let α )n( be as in (20) and k v i ∑∑ i λ−+= )an(uc)n(u)n( (26) =1i =1i be a positive integer. If then,we have ⎡1 −1n ⎤ kk inflim α )i( > r ⎢ ∑ ⎥ +1k ))an(cu)n(u()n(v)1n(v =λ−+Δ=−+ n ∞→ ⎣k −= kni ⎦ + )1k( ∑ i i =1i holds, then all the solutions of the equation (1) r r oscillate. ∑∑α−= ji j − )kn(u)n( Proof. It follows immediately if one takes ==1i 1j into account the Lemma 2 and Theorem 1. or Suppose now that ∈ ∞∪− ),0()0,1[c , we r r can state the following Theorem. )n(v)1n(v ∑∑α+−+ ji j − )kn(u)n( ==1i 1j Theorem 2. Let {α ji )}n( be real sequences with = ,...,2,1, rji ; λ, k k > λ)( are positive So, as in Theorem 1, we have for ≥≥ nnn 01 integers and α n)( is defined in (20). + − + α ≤− 0)kn(w)n()n(v)1n(v (27) a. If << 1c0 , −= 1a and every where solution of the equation r =−α−+−+ 0)kn(v)n()c1()n(v)1n(v w= ∑ i )n(u)n( (22) =1i It is clear that )}n(v{ and )}n(w{ are is oscillatory, then every solution of equation (1) is oscillating. positive sequences. We see from (26) that if = −1a and < <1c0 , then eventually b. If >1c , a =1 and every solution of the equation = + + λ)n(cw)n(w)n(v , )n(v)1n(v +−+ and we get eventually, 36 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics )n(cw)n(v)n(w ≥λ+−= b. If > 1c , and =1a , then, by (27) and −≥λ+−≥ )n(v)c1()n(cv)n(v (29), we obtain eventually, − c1 therefore, we get eventually, )n(v)1n(v +−+ ≤λ−−α 0))k(n(v)n( −−≥− )kn(v)c1()kn(w (28) c2 If >1c and =1a , then, c. If =1c , and −= 1a , then, by (27) and (30), we obtain eventually, 1 1 )n(w ))n(w)n(v( =λ+−λ+= )n(v)1n(v ≤−α+−+ 0)kn(v)n( c 2 1 1 )n(v ))2n(w)2n(v( ≥λ+−λ+−λ+= d. If − ≤ < 0c1 and −= 1a , then, by (27) 2 c c and (31), we obtain eventually, 1 1 )n(v )n(v =λ+−λ+≥ + − + α ≤− 0)kn(v)n()n(v)1n(v c c2 Using the same reasoning as in Theorem 1 −1c = λ+ )n(v we arrive at a contradiction in each of the c2 above situations and the theorem is completely therefore, by using above inequlity, we get proven. eventually, The following corollaries are immediate, if one takes into account Lemma 2 and Theorem −1c )kn(w ≥− λ−− ))k(n(v (29) 2. c2 Corollary 2. Let {α ji )}n( be real sequences Now, we take the = 1c and = −1a . Then, with = r,...,2,1j,i ; λ, k λ> )k( be positive by (26) eventually, integers and α )n( is defined in (20). += + λ)n(w)n(w)n(v a. Suppose that << 1c0 , −= 1a , if so eventually, −= + λ)n(w)n(v)n(w −≥ )n(w)n(v ⎡1 −1n ⎤ 1 λλ inflim α )i( > ⎢ ∑ ⎥ +λ 1 and we have eventually, n ∞→ ⎣λ ni λ−= ⎦ − c1 +λ )1( 1 then every solution of (1) is oscillating. )n(w ≥ )n(v (30) 2 b. Suppose that >1c , =1a , if Now, we take the <≤− 0c1 and = −1a . ⎡1 −1n ⎤ c2 λ− )k( λ Then, by (26) eventually, inflim α )i( > ⎢ ∑ ⎥ +λ− 1k λ++= )n(cw)n(w)n(v n ∞→ ⎣λ ni λ−= ⎦ −1c +λ− )1k( then every solution of (1) is oscillating. and we have eventually, c. Suppose that c =1, −= 1a , if λ+−= )n(cw)n(v)n(w ⎡ 1 −1n ⎤ λλ and so eventually, inflim α > 2)i( ⎢ ∑ ⎥ +λ 1 n ∞→ ⎣λ ni λ−= ⎦ +λ )1( ≥ )n(v)n(w then every solution of (1) is oscillating. and we have eventually, d. Suppose that − <≤ 0c1 , −= 1a , if −≥− )kn(v)kn(w (31) Next, from the above we have the ⎡1 −1n ⎤ λλ inflim α )i( > following: ⎢ ∑ ⎥ +λ 1 n ∞→ ⎣λ ni λ−= ⎦ +λ )1( a. If << 1c0 , and −= 1a , by (31) and (28), we obtain eventually, then every solution of (1) is oscillating. +−+ − −α ≤ 0)kn(v)n()c1()n(v)1n(v 4. CONCLUSIONS 37 Oscillatory Solutions for the Systems of Difference Equations with Variable Coefficients The results of this work may constitute the β = βii > 0)n(inflim . starting point for other generalizations. In n ∞→ reference [6], under some appropriate conditions over the real sequences {α } , and REFERENCES n β n}{ , the behavior of all the solutions of the 1. Anton, Gh., Radu, Gh., Ecuaţii cu oscillating difference equation with variable diferenţe şi scheme de calcul, Editura coefficients is studied. Albastră, Cluj-Napoca, 2010 (in press); r 2. R. P. Agarwal, R.P., Grace, S.R., The + -uu n1n + ∑ α u − + β − mnnknni = 0u oscillation of systems of difference =1i equations, Appl. Math. Lett., 13, 2000; Where 3. Qian, C.X., Kuruklis, S.A., Ladas, G., −−∈ }0,1,2{...,m , i ∈ Nk and i −∈ − ,}2,3{...k Oscillations of systems of difference = r1,2,...,i , respectively. equations with variable coefficients, J. It is therefore, interesting to analyze the Math. Phy. Sci., 25(1), 1991; oscillating behavior of the system of the 4. Ladas, G., Explicit conditions for the difference equations with variable coefficients oscillation of difference equations, J. Math. corresponding to Anal. Applied, 153, 1990, pp. 276-287; 5. Ladas, G., Philos, Ch.G., Sficas, Y.G., r Sharp Conditions for the oscillation of i i )n(u)1n(u +−+ ∑α jjij )n-k(u)n( + =1j delay difference equations, Journal of Applied Mathematics and Simulation, 2(2), + β ii =− 0)mn(u)n( , = r1,2,...,i 1989; under certain conditions imposed on 6. Ocalan, O, Oscillation of difference coefficients α ji )n( and βi )n( , eg equations with variable coefficients, Portugaliae Mathematica, Vol. 63, Fasc. 4, )n(inflim α=α jiji n ∞→ 2006. and 38 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics THE STUDY OF THEORETICAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE MILITARY EQUIPEMENT AND TECHNOLOGIES WITH THE HELP OF COMPUTER ASSISTED GRAPHICS Horia TARZIU*, Anamaria COMES* *The Air Force Academy “Henri Coandă”, Brasov, Romania Abstract: The article exemplifies some of the applications of the CAD concept in the study of the fundamental technical subjects, which precedes the study of the specialty subjects in military aviation equipment and technologies: double orthogonal projection and solid modeling, revolution bodies, mass properties, animated representation techniques, graphical methods for the cinematic study of the link rod mechanisms. Keywords: orthogonal projection, animated representation, flanges, bushes, sleeves, shafts, lids. 1. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FIRST AND certain operation and a particular element. For THIRD ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC example, an extrusion, by comparison with the PROJECTION technological process that bears the same name, could be the very process through The normal positioning of projections can which a sketch is transformed into a solid. be easily and evocatively acquired by using Also, the same extrusion can be the basic the solid modeling of polyhedrons. Fig. 1 characteristic of a complex solid. Finally, illustrates a realistic image of a prism with a extrusion can be considered a tool as well, i.e. series of chamfers, channels and orifices. a solidification tool. Fig. 1 The analyzed theoretic model Fig. 2 Principle of angle orthographic The terms specific to solid modeling technique were imposed by the emergence of In other words, according to the English the specialized programs for this purpose. terminology of solid modeling, the instrument, Therefore, they do not always have an the process and the modeled element are analogous term in Romanian. For instance, the sometimes referred to by using the same term. widely used term feature is translated as The terms first and third angle correspond characteristic even though it also denotes a to the notation used in mathematics for the 39 The Study of Theoretical Problems Related to the Military Equipement and Technologies... quadrants of a circle. In Fig. 2, the body perpendicularity, etc.), or objectsnap represented in Fig. 1 is considered as placed (smartdimension, intelisketch, objectsnap, inside an imaginary cube, projected onto the etc.). cube’s interior faces, after which the latter are displayed in one of the two possible modes. 2. ANIMATED REPRESENTATION Thus, the two possible modes of the TECHNIQUES projections’ normal positioning are obtained, also known as method A and method E. The landing gear mechanisms that are Perhaps the most significant common studied as part of the specialty discipline are denominator of all the solid modeling built in a large variety of types, motions, programs is the “active plane” or work plane cinematic couples, etc. that will not be covered (WP). Any sketch necessary to its subsequent in the present article. We will only refer to solidification by means of a particular process, their way of representation, and the analysis is a plane sketch, i.e. it belongs to a plane. It is and animation of the representation. composed of a series of elementary geometrical elements, interconnected in a specific sequence (to a line, point, arc or to another plane, curve, polygon, etc.), which can only be performed in a plane. And this plane is called an active plane, which is specifically selected at the beginning of the sketching, unless the program itself prompts for the plane to be defined. An active plane can be any of the three rectangular planes (two by two in a perpendicular position) of the universal Cartesian system, called horizontal, vertical, Fig. 3 Cinematic scheme of the landing gear and lateral, or any other plane defined in mechanism relation to other characteristic elements of the model. It can be defined by means of three One way to create the animated points, a line (possibly an edge of the model) representation of the mechanism’s functioning and a point, by moving with an appropriate is to obtain individually one position at a time distance one of the three planes of the by choosing a motion parameter, for example trihedral, by slanting an existent plane; the distance of the hydraulic cylinder piston of practically, there are numerous ways of the leading element, followed by the conveniently defining a current WP. The introduction of the successive positions in a easiness and rapidness of building the model suitable graphic environment, such as depend on appropriately choosing this plane. Macromedia Flash. In order to correctly obtain As far as the modeling is concerned, this is the successive positions (and to accurately somewhat similar, for instance, to choosing keep the distances and angles), the AutoLISP the UCS coordinate system from AutoCAD. application was built, here called “aatren” and Once this active plane is selected, in some presented bellow. programs, either a window is opened, (DEFUN C:aatren ( ) “materializing” this active plane in which it is (SETQ d (GETREAL "Valoarea cursei d:") carried out the sketching precisely in the plane o1 (list 300 500) in which the drawer works, i.e. the plane of the o2 (list 1000 500) screen; or the representation plane becomes an o3 (list 1000 250) r 200 active plane in a direct manner. Once the r1 300 active plane established, all the instruments r2 300 and means of plane representation become d1 (distance o1 o2) accessible, including the intelligent methods of a (/ (- (+ (expt d1 2) (expt d 2)) (expt r 2)) (* 2 d1 notation, geometrical restrictions (parallelism, d )) 40 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics b (sqrt (- 1 (expt a 2))) as well, only the instruments for assigning the c (/ b a) variable’s values that are of interest in the u (atan c) animated representation of the cinematic p1 (polar o2 (+ pi u) d) sketch. u1 (angle o1 p1) p2 (polar o1 u1 400) 3. GRAPHICAL METHODS WITH CAD p3 (polar o1 u1 600) p4 (polar p1 u 1000) INSTRUMENTS c1 (polar p4 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 30) u) 40);pistonulc1c2c3c4 Let there be the cinematic sketch of the c2 (polar p4 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 150) u) 40) known mechanism in figure 1. The vectors c3 (polar p4 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 210) u) 40) corresponding to the speeds of the points p1 c4 (polar p4 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 330) u) 40) and p3, marked as such to better observe the i1 (polar o2 (+ (/ pi 2) u) 40);cilindruli1i2i3i4 presence of the coordinates of these points i2 (polar o2 (- u (/ pi 2)) 40) within the application that will be further i3 (polar i1 u 500) presented, have been attached to the current i4 (polar i2 u 500) position. d11 (distance p2 o3) a11 (/ (- (+ (expt d11 2) (expt r2 2)) (expt r1 2)) (* 2 d11 r2 ));elem3si4 b11 (sqrt (- 1 (expt a11 2))) c11 (/ b11 a11) u11 (atan c11) u12 (angle p2 o3) u13 (+ u11 u12) p11 (polar o3 (+ pi u13) r2) ) In this example, for the constructive elements of the cinematic chain, the following Fig 5 Cinematic sketch of the mechanism and values were selected: a 200-unit ray r (from O1 the attached plane of the speeds to the first articulation of the chain), the rays r1 and r2 of the rod systems each of 300 units, a In figure 5, the plane of the speeds was 1000-unit long hydraulic engine piston’s rod represented for the current position first with (p4 (polar p1 u 1000)), and a 600-unit distance the pole to the plane in point p2 of the from O1 to the second articulation (p3 (polar mechanism, and then, for clarity reasons, with o1 u1 600)). All these can be easily modified, the pole in point P. For any position of the depending on a particular situation. elements, the speeds’ polygon follows the vector relation: Vp3 = Vp1 + Vp3p1 (1) The next application, called “biela”, illustrates the automatic representation of the edges of the speeds’ polygon and returns the value of the distance between p1 and p6, which is precisely the instantaneous speed of the driven element. It requires to manually insert (using the keyboard) the current angle u, the Fig. 4 The succession of the mechanism elements’ ray r, the revolution n, and the length of the positions, with a 10-unit distance of the piston’s rod l. movement, from d = 500 to d = 550, as obtained (DEFUN C:biela ( ) with the use of the “aatren” application (SETQ u (GETANGLE "Valoarea unghiului u:") r (GETDIST "Valoarea razei r:") The above illustrated application does not n (GETREAL "Valoarea turatiei:") include the AutoCAD commands for drawing p1 (polar o u r) 41 The Study of Theoretical Problems Related to the Military Equipement and Technologies... l (GETDIST "Lungimea bielei l:") Figure 6 illustrates a few successive p2 (polar p1 (+(/ pi 2) u) (/(* pi 2 r n) 1000)) positions of the elements of a sway bar link a (* (sin( / (* u pi) 180)) r) mechanism as obtained with AutoCAD, and b (sqrt (- (expt l 2) (expt a 2))) with the help of the AutoLISP application, p3 (polar o 0 (+ b (* r (cos ( / (* u pi) 180))))) which preserves the construction values of the u1 (- (angle p1 p3) (/ pi 2)) mechanism’s elements and requires the p4 (polar p2 u1 100) p5 (polar p1 0 200) repetitive insertion of the current value of the p6 (inters p1 p5 p2 p4 nil)) leading element’s angle u, selected as a (Command "Point" p1) movement parameter. Next, this application (Command "Point" p2) (called “aaculisa”) is presented. (Command "Point" p6) (DEFUN C:aaculisa ( ) (Command "Pline" p1 p6 "c") (SETQ o1 (list 1000 600) !(distance p1 p6) o2 (list 1000 200) ) o3 (list 200 1000) For instance, for an angle of 60 degrees, a o4 (list 800 1000) ray of 200, a revolution of 800 rotations / r 200 minute, and a length of 300, the program u (GETANGLE "Valoarea unghiului u:")) returns: (SETQ p1 (polar o1 u r) p2 (inters o2 p1 o3 o4 nil) Command: biela l1 (polar p2 0 800) Valoarea unghiului u:60 l2 (polar p2 pi 800) Valoarea razei r:200 u1 (angle o2 p1)) Valoarea turatiei:800 (SETQ p3 (polar p1 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 30) u1) 40) Lungimea bielei l:300 p4 (polar p1 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 150) u1) 40) 1088.31. p5 (polar p1 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 210) u1) 40) Similarly, a cinematic study can be p6 (polar p1 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 330) u1) 40) carried out, as well as and an animation of its p7 (polar o2 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 30) u1) 40) functioning for the mechanism with sway bar p8 (polar o2 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 150) u1) 40) link, another well known mechanism. The p9 (polar o2 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 210) u1) 40) previously mentioned method, for the rod p10 (polar o2 (+ (*(/ pi 180) 330) u1) 40) mechanism, can be generalized for any other p11 (polar p2 (+ pi u1) 1000) type of mechanism with joint bars, plane- To conclude, these possibilities to perform parallel moving parts, or even such specific the above presented animated representations mechanisms as the landing gear. are but a few of the more elaborated multiple techniques. REFERENCES 1. Tarziu, H., Examples of Using the CAD concept and CAE concept in the Study of Basic Technical Subjects, Review of the Air Force Academy, Brasov, no. 2, 2007; 2. Manolea, D., Programarea în AutoLISP sub AutoCAD, Ed. Albastră, Cluj-Napoca, 1996; 3. *** Autodesk, Inc. Fundamentals of AutoLISP, 1994; 4. Târziu, H., Medode grafice cu mijloace CAD, Conf. Naţională de Comunicări Şt. al Fig. 6 Successive positions of the a Academiei Forţelor Aeriene, Braşov, mai sway bar link mechanism’s elements 2007. 42 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics THE USE OF PILOT TRANSMISSION FUNCTION FOR AIRPLANE CONTROL DURING THE PROCESS OF AIMING Ognyan STOYKOV Aviation Faculty of National Military University “Vassil Levski”, Dolna Mitropolia, Bulgaria Abstract: This paper articulates the utilization of pilot transmission function for airplane control during the process of aiming. It identifies the amplification coefficients of transmission function using criteria of minimum time for discordance signals elimination. Keywords: aiming, airplane control, transmission function, discordance. 1. INTRODUCTION - to receive and interpret the information, provided by the instruments and the The aiming head-up display receives a environment; signal, which forms the required angular - to process the information and decide on coordinates of target β1 and ε1. The required the corresponding managing action to control coordinates of the target are compared with the aircraft; the observed coordinates of the target β1т and - to apply the managing action to the ε1т. control surfaces of the aircraft. The pilot registers the difference β1 – β1т, The mechanism of the aircraft control with ε1 – ε1т and tries to eliminate it, using the the participation of the pilot functions on the control surfaces of the aircraft. The aircraft, principles of “tracking with pursuit “or responding to the deflection of the control “tracking with compensation” [1]. surfaces changes the parameters of its attitude In the pilot-aircraft system based on the in relation to the target. When the discordance principle of “tracking with pursuit”, the pilot absolute value becomes lower than the observes the value of the input and output accepted permissive deviation, the pilot signals of the system and his task are to maintains the deviation differences within the minimize the discordance between the target admissible limits. position and the blip following it. In order to In order to get a model of the above - get an adequate description of the pilot’s described process, the response of the pilot to work, his transmitting function or other the discordance has to be modelled, i.e. to get mathematical description should reflect the the calculated values of the aircraft control main characteristics as a component of the surfaces deflection depending on the angles of control system. The most important of these discordance. are: - temporary delay of the pilot’s response виви ()ε−εδ=δ 11 т (1) to the input signal; еиеи ()β−βδ=δ 11 т - ability to adjust to the dynamic Where δви, δеи are the calculated values of characteristics of the controlled object and the the rudder and aileron deflection (δн = 0). nature of the input influence; The task of the pilot as a managing - ability to respond to the parameter component of the closed pilot-aircraft system deflection of the assigned value, its derivative consists of the following stages: and the parameter deflection integral; 43 The Use of Pilot Transmission Function for Airplane Control During the Process of Aiming - ability to increase the value of the - τ is the time characterizing the delay of control impact; the input signal; - non-linear characteristics of the pilot; - К0 – coefficient of pilot increase; - acting as a multi-channel device in the - Т1 – constant coefficient characterizing control system (the information which he the ability of the pilot to differentiate and react receives can be processed separately or to the speed of input signal change; integrally); - Т2 – constant coefficient of inertia - dependence of the quality of the pilot’s section of the pilot; control on his psychodynamic characteristics - Т3 – constant coefficient identifying the and potential. nerve-shoulder response; - К1 – coefficient of increasing the nerve- 2. LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR PILOT shoulder unit. OPERATOR MODELS The structural scheme of the pilot transmitting function is on Fig. 1: There are different models (linear and non- linear) which are used to describe the pilot’s K1 1 +1pT τ− p K e 0 3 +1pT performance and they include the 2 +1pT abovementioned characteristics. Linear models, considered to be the most convenient Fig. 1 Structural scheme of the pilot transmitting function from engineering point of view, have been extensively developed and are widely used. The first section of the chart is the However, they have some disadvantages: amplifying section with delay. Here the - they don’t take into account the ability of calculated information from the indicators is the pilot to anticipate the process; received. And the signals in proportions based - they cannot interpret experimental data, on dynamic characteristics are added. The so the pilot operator tends to behave second section is a calculating element discretely. processing amplification and differentiation of Some non-linear pilot-operator models are the received signals. That element has the known to be based on the psycho- feature to amplify the signal. The third section physiological analysis of the pilot’s reactions. is inertial and it uses its dynamic features. It In a linear pilot-operator model based on reflects the neuro-muscular effect on the “tracking with pursuit”, pilot is represented as managed object. a section of the tracking system and it is The experiments [3] show that the operator possible to be described with transmitting changes his transmission characteristics in function. It is suggested that the transmitting dependence with the managed object features function of all pilots has the same structure and the disturbance function. The experience, and their individual features are read from the training and fatigue are factors with an transmitting function coefficients values. The influence on the type of the transmitting pilot model describes the real pilot’s characteristics, therefore the operator does not characteristics with approximation. possess one defined transmitting function and To receive the estimated values of the he is able to tune his work up in relation with airplane control surfaces in dependence with what the function is. the discordance angles: The experiment results show the pilot виви 1 1 ),( еиеит 1 β−βδ=δε−εδ=δ 1т )( changes his transmitting characteristics in The following pilot’s transmitting function dependence with managed object features and is used [2]: the type of disturbance. That means that the τ− p pilot is able to tune himself up according to 0 ()+ K1pTeK 11 the concrete task. л )p(W = (2) ()(32 ++ 1pT1pT ) For identified task circle and concrete where airplane the increasing coefficients values К0 44 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics and К and constant coefficients Т , Т , Т and 1 1 2 3 z1 & ви 20 Ксвви ε+δ+δ= &11 (10) τ change in particular narrow limits. After differentiation the result is: The pilot transmission function is used to receive the estimating angles of ventral z&1 ви 20&&& Ксвви ε+δ+δ= && 11 (11) surfaces deflection, when the discordance Then from equation (8): signals proceed to the input (Fig.2). &1 = 100z Ксвε11 −100δви (12) ε – ε 1 1т δви And introducing the symbol: β1 – β1т Wл(р) δеи z& 2 & Ксвви ε+δ= &11 (13) From equation (10) the result is: Fig. 2 The pilot transmission function & = 12 − 20zz δви (14) From formula (13) we receive: If use the Taylor decomposition limited with first two terms & ви z& 2 Ксвε−=δ &11 (15) τ− p τ−= p1e (3) After integration using nil initial conditions: and introducing the symbols: δви = z2 − Ксвε11 (16) 11 т ε=ε−ε 11 (4) 11 т β=β−β 11 At the end from equation (8) the system is received: We receive: δви = z2 − Ксвε11 δви с.в ()(1 τ−+ p11pTK ) −= (5) 20zz δ−= (17) ε11 ()(32 ++ 1pT1pT ) & 12 ви 100z К 100δ−ε= δ ()( τ−+ p11pTK ) &1 св 11 ви вe = с 1e. (6) β ()(++ 1pT1pT ) From (9) by analogy: 11 32 where Кс = К0К1 is general coefficient of δ и = z4e + Ксеβ11 amplification. & 34 20zz δ−= еи (18) As the value of Т1 is greater the process of &3 100z Ксе 11 100δ−β−= еи airplane control from pilot’s point of view becomes more difficult. Additionally, the Using equations (17) and (18) the angles of requested amplification of Т1 requires greater altitude controlling surface and ailerons accuracy in terms of identification of rate of deflection can be determined in dependence change of input signal. with discordance angles β11, ε11 in the lateral If the pilot possesses sufficient and longitudinal channels. To comply with professional skills the transition process ends that target it is necessary to determine faster if the following values of τ, Т1, Т2, Т3 general coefficients of amplification in the [4] have been accepted: abovementioned equations systems for both channels using criteria of minimum time for τ = 0,1s; Т1 = 0,1s; Т2 = 0,1s; Т3 =0,1s (7) discordance signals elimination. The formulas (5), (6) and (7) lead to the In result from the integration of those following differential equations determining equations angles needed for airplane control the longitudinal and lateral control channels: are determined: ви &&& ви 10020 ви && 11Ксв 100ε+ε−=δ+δ+δ 11Ксв δв = δви + δв.бал; δе = δеи (19) (8) where δви, δеи are values of altitude control еи &&& еи 10020 еи && 11Ксе 100β−β=δ+δ+δ 11Ксе surface angle estimated using the pilot (9) transmission function, δв.бал – balanced value After introducing the symbol: of altitude control surface angle. 45 The Use of Pilot Transmission Function for Airplane Control During the Process of Aiming For the purpose of discordance signals that 3. The amplification coefficients Ксв, Ксе tend to zero ε1 – ε1т, β – β1т, there is a need to and time constants Т1, Т2, Т3 and τ are determine amplification coefficients Ксв, Ксе. determined experimentally when the pilot The studies are accomplished separately for model is used with the model of concrete longitudinal and literal channels and for both airplane. The determined transmission channels simultaneously. function characterizes pilot actions only for The process modeling is accomplished concrete airplane and when the required with initial air speeds V1,0 = 160, 240, 320m/s; conditions are met [2]. initial altitudes Н0 = 600, 1100, 1600, 2100m and initial angles of descent: REFERENCES 0 0 0 λ0 = –10 , –30 , –50 . 1. Stoykov, O., Atanasov, D., Aviation 3. CONCLUSIONS aiming systems, Dolna Mitropolia, 2009; From research done in mathematical 2. Stoykov, O., The use of pilot’s modelling of airplane track and vertical profile management model in the aiming process, in the stage of descent when the transmitting Papers Collection 3 part issue VVMU function is used the following conclusions can “N.J. Vaptsarov”, 1996; be made: 3. Kirhnamurhi, M., Mayer, R., Friel, P., 1. The amplification coefficient Ксв of the Robust fault diagnosis using deep and pilot model for longitudinal channel depends shallow modelling approaches, ROMEXS- on the airplane speed; 86 Second annual workshop on robotics 2. The airplane trajectory is influenced by and expert systems, NASA Space Centre, aiming error that depends on amplification 1986. coefficient Ксв; 46 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics APPLYING DECISION THEORY TECHNIQUES TO INFORMATION SECURITY RELATED DECISIONS Cezar VASILESCU Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Brasov, Romania Abstract: Software designers and security specialists can improve their selections if they choose to apply decision theory techniques to reduce the uncertainty involved. In case of security technology selection decisions, decision theory is attractive because it provides a methodology to cope with the uncertainty and multi-objective nature of these decisions. This paper defines the information security technologies selection problem and tries to present different alternatives to be employed when quantifying the benefits of security countermeasures in correlation with the consequences of successful computer-based attacks. Moreover, it presents the sources of uncertainty underlying the process of taking decisions related to what security technology to use. Keywords: decision theory, information security, countermeasures, information system. 1. INTRODUCTION Both issues impact the structure of the selection method and the source of information Information Technology software projects used to make security technology decisions. and their implementation during the lifecycle To better understand how to respond to these contain a certain percentage of uncertainty in challenges, we first need to examine the nature the objectives and in the selection of the of decision theory and its standard methods of appropriate ways to fulfill them. Software application. designers and security specialists can improve Using decision theory we could provide their selections if they choose to apply the answers to four main questions [2]: power of decision theory to reduce the 1. What is a decision? We can define a uncertainty of their success. This involves decision as “a conclusion or resolution relying on somebody else’s specialized reached after consideration” [3]. Another expertise that leads to a very important definition that is close to our goals states that question: how to apply decision theory “a decision is a choice made by some entity of techniques to information security related an action from some set of alternative actions” issues and deal with the challenges that could [2]. appear. There are several selection methods 2. What makes a decision good? A and methodologies recommended to be used to decision is good when it identifies an solve the security technology selection alternative that the decision maker believes problem [1]. Using decision theory in will be as effective as other alternative actions. choosing software security technologies is 3. How should one formalize evaluation very challenging and usually the specialist of decisions? Good decisions are formally may have to address two decisions: characterized as actions that maximize expect- • If the final goal is to replicate another’s ed utility. Decision theory formalizes this security manager security selections or to notion in stages: improve them; • It first presumes an association of a set of • The appropriate level and detail of outcomes with each action. A stands for the set information necessary to make reasonable of all outcomes identified with the actions or selections. alternatives. 47 Applying Decision Theory Techniques to Information Security Related Decisions A = action → outcome. consider tradeoffs among attributes, which can • Then, it presumes a measure U of outcome be used to make decisions. value that assigns a utility U()ω to each 2. INFORMATION SECURITY outcome Ω∈ω . Ω stands for the set of all RELATED DECISIONS outcomes identified with any actions (the union of those associated with each action). We can define Information Security The outcomes must be identified so as to have technologies selection problem as “the task some determined value or utility of the of selecting the best set of security decision under consideration. This is to ensure countermeasures for an information system”. that a single outcome cannot come about in The biggest challenge in this respect is to ways that differ in value. quantify the benefits of security • Then it presumes a measure of the countermeasures and the consequences of probability of outcomes conditional on actions, successful computer-based attacks. The degree where r (ω a|P )- probability that outcome ω to which a security countermeasure stops an comes about after taking action ∈ Aa in the attack (or deals with the consequences of it) situation under consideration. determines its usefulness. • Using these elements, the expected utility Making decisions during the development ()aEU of an action a as the average utility of or updating the information system security the outcomes associated with the alternative, architecture is one of the most challenging weighting the utility of each outcome by the tasks for a security analyst. probability that the outcome results from the Specifically, it is a flexible, systematic alternative, and repeatable process that prioritizes threats and helps select countermeasures to clarify the () ( ) ( )da|PUaEU ωωω= (1) ∫ r best investments for the organization’s Ω 4. How should one formulate the decision objectives. problem confronting a decision maker? The process of taking decisions regarding Alternatives, outcomes, probabilities and which security technology to use has a certain utilities are identified through an iterative degree of uncertainty, given by three key process of hypothesizing, testing and refining elements: sequences of formulations. By using • the attack itself, because most security knowledge of the situation and through direct designers have little data concerning the queries, alternatives and outcomes can be frequency of attacks and which attacks are identified. more likely to occur (that determines the In the case of security technology selection appropriate selection of countermeasures); decisions, decision theory is attractive because • the outcome of a successful attack, because it provides a methodology to cope with once the computer system is breached there the uncertainty and multi-objective nature of are many potential action paths an attacker these decisions. If the consequence of could follow; actions/decisions (the result) is uncertain, • the benefit from countermeasures, because decision theory calls them risky decisions. the effectiveness of a countermeasure in Risky decisions can also have multiple protecting or detecting an attack can only be objectives, each having an attribute that is the estimated. degree to which a given decision objective has Another source of uncertainty came from the been attained. fact the security designer/administrator must The value of each alternative is computed also balance multiple objectives when and ranked based on the objective attributes. selecting security technologies. Consequences Probability distributions can be associated of successful attacks must be balanced with: with each attribute to reflect the expectations • performance constraints; of decision makers. The power of decision • budget limitations; theory is that it provides a systematic way to • other design considerations. 48 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics This will add complexity to the application of decision theory techniques on information security related decisions. The selection process of the appropriate security technology could take advantage of the power of decision theory techniques, because possible outcomes from successful attacks (i.e. productivity loss) can be viewed as objectives. After the levels of outcomes are determined, reasonable alternatives can be generated from probability distributions. Fig. 2 Virus attacks - outcome mitigation 3. IMPROVING DECISIONS BY USING Generally speaking, if expertise is DECISION THEORY TECHNIQUES available, then decision theory techniques can be used to improve security design decisions. The application of decision theory techniques In order to use statistically analyzed attack in the software design decision process frequencies information, threat data must be improvement may result in an improved available. decision, but with a degree of uncertainty. If it In our days, one of the greatest challenges does not rely on sufficient information is to acquire reliable countermeasure expertise. (expertise), it could easily lead to a poor Because this could affect their prestige, very decision. For example, the information few organizations report security incidents, security technology selection process relies on and there is little reliable statistical data about countermeasure expertise to improve the attack frequencies. For example, even if 49% selection of countermeasures. This expertise of the companies that took part in a survey (the risk analysis consisting of the likelihood said that their primary security concern was of attacks and their potential outcomes) is used data leakage (such as employee or customer to realistically represent the impact of a information), and 29% of them were in fact countermeasure to a specific computer-based confronted with the problem in 2007, only attack. After the risk analysis is done, an 11% actually reported the incidents [4]. outcome distribution for each relevant attack Another important consideration in the results. When a countermeasure is used, the application of decision theory to design outcome distribution graphs might be problems is the level and detail of the different. For example, when anti-virus information used in the decision process. If the software is used, the frequency of successful information is too detailed, it will result in a virus attacks is reduced or the amount of large amount of data that are extremely revenue lost is reduced. The outcome difficult to be reassembled into meaningful distribution graphs might shift when an anti- recommendations. There are more than 18 virus technology is used (Fig. 1, 2). different types of computer-based attacks (from Denial-of-service (DoS) Attacks to TCP SYN or TCP ACK Flood Attack) [5], over 40 security countermeasures [6], and at least half a dozen possible outcomes [7]. Each class of outcomes may be associated with different attributes. A distribution curve may be also established for each outcome. For example, for each outcome of a computer- based attack three values could be provided: low, high, and expected. In order to take information security Fig. 1 Virus attacks - frequency mitigation related decision by using decision theory, an 49 Applying Decision Theory Techniques to Information Security Related Decisions important step is to determine a way to reduce complexity, high-risk consequences, multiple the possible combinations of attacks, outcomes alternatives (each with its own set of and countermeasures. The most efficient way uncertainties and consequences). to reduce the possible combinations is to focus With these difficulties in mind, the best on the most important. This technique way to make a complex decision is to use an eliminates aspects of the decision process that effective process. Clear processes usually lead do not contribute significantly to the final to consistent, high-quality results, and they can selection. In this respect, we must focus on improve the quality of our information security information about the top 3-4 outcomes and related decisions. also on the countermeasures that provide a moderate level of protection. REFERENCES In conclusion, the essence of the problem is to combine the information regarding the 1. Butler S., Chalasani, P., Jha S., Shaw M., attack with mitigation information, so that The Potential of Portfolio Analysis in countermeasures can be selected. There will Guiding Software Decisions, June 2000; be lots of different outcome distributions, 2. Doyle, J., Thomason R. H., Background to each distribution adjusted to several Qualitative Decision Theory, 1999; countermeasures that are also weighted based 3. *** Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford on their overall contribution to outcomes Corpus, 2009; mitigation. 4. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Only-11- of-Security-Incidents-are-Reported- 4. CONCLUSION 91335.shtml; 5. http://www.unp.co.in/f140/types-of- So far I have described a few issues that attacks-63305/; must be taken into consideration when trying 6. Norman, Th.L., Risk Analysis and Security to apply decision theory techniques to Countermeasure Selection, CRP Press, information security decision problems. 2009; Decision theory can be a significant tool in 7. Jürgenson, A., Willemson J., Computing information security practice. However, it Exact Outcomes of Multi-parameter Attack typically involves issues like uncertainty, Trees, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2008. 50 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics DIMENSIONING OF HEATING NETWORKS PIPES Emilia SCHEIBNER Department of Descriptive Geometry and Computer Graphics, „Transilvania” University of Brasov Abstract: The main objective of the project is to create a presentation about the main sized of supporting and clamping elements of industrial installations. These depend on diameters of pipes of industrial equipment. Therefore, prior choosing or determining construction elements of clamping and support items, there is necessary to thoroughly study all installation designs, whether electric, water, gas, rain water, compressed air, ventilation etc. according to which pipe networks have been dimensioned. Clamping and support devices with the highest constructive diversity are met at heating equipment. The specific of this type of installation is given by pipes expansion when heat transfer fluid flows. This paper develops information especially for the mechanical calculation of heating networks, i.e. calculation of pipe walls thickness and calculation between mobile and fixed supports. Keywords: heating equipment, mobile and fixed supports. 1. INTRODUCTION increases heating potential inside the boiler, taking over a part of heating energy The heating network is a system of transferred from the burnt fuel, and through a branched pipes which provide heat closed pipe network, transfers accumulated distribution. The size of this network may vary heat energy to the area to be heated, using according to the area served, from the ground heating surfaces. surface of a city, i.e. a district or building. Hot water heating systems are classified The mechanical calculation of heating according to composition or functioning network with steel pipes considers tension particularities [1], as follows: condition of the pipe material, generated by a) According to temperature of heat transfer charges (loadings) with action [1]: fluid at boiler outlet: hot water equipment: - permanent, generally derived from the average temperature; rated temperature of up weight of pipes and fittings; to 95°C; low temperature warm water - temporary (quasi - permanent): determined installations; rated temperature up to 65°C. by wind, friction on mobile supports and b) According to how warm water circulates in axial compensators, of internal pressure, the distribution network of heat transfer fluid: pretensioning etc.; natural circulation equipment, known as - temporary (variable): generated by rapid “thermosiphon” or gravity circulation; forced uneven heating of pipes, shrinkage of circulation equipment. mobile supports etc; c) According to the number of heat transfer - accidental – in event of earthquakes or agent distribution pipes: double pipe sudden valve closing. installations (bitube installations); single pipe installations (monotube installations). 2. CLASSIFICATION OF HEATING d) According to clamping diagram or SYSTEMS connection with atmosphere: open installations, provided with open expansion Hot water at maximum temperature of tank systems; closed installations, provided 95°C will be used. The heat transfer fluid with closed expansion tank systems. 51 About Aerodynamic Calculus of Impellers Using the Numerical Methods e) According to location of distribution pipes: pipe resistance calculation is based on the lower distribution; upper distribution. method of admissible mechanic tension [1]. f) According to the solution of forming the The thickness of pipes’ wall, expressed in distribution network: arborescent networks; cm, is determined with the formula radial networks; ring networks. Dp Ii g) According to response level to conditions s = + c (1) 2 σ⋅φ⋅ a of heat and hydraulic stability: local thermo- hydraulic adjustment installations; central Where: pi is the maximum interior operating 2 thermo-hydraulic adjustment installation; pressure (rated pressure) [daN/cm ]; Di – inner global energy management equipment. pipe diameter (that can be assimilated to the h) According to the components of heat nominal diameter [cm]; φ – welding quality transfer to heated area: with convective coefficient depending on the welding surfaces (static or dynamic); convection- technology used in making the pipe (values radiation surfaces; with radiation surfaces. ranged from 0.8 to 1); σa – admissible The main features of hot water heating resistance of material related to the loading systems are the following [1]: determined by the interior pressure on 2 - provides comfort conditions because of tangential direction [daN/cm ], depending on the material quality. low temperature of surface of heating 2 items; σa = σr/Cs [daN/cm ] (2) - allow central or local adjustment of heat Where: σ is the material’s breaking resistance transfer fluid flows delivered to heat r [daN/cm2]; C – safety coefficient, equal to spaces; s 3.75, for seamless pipe and 3, for welded - provides operation and maintenance safety; tubes; c – addition of corrosion and wear equal - average life duration, because of low to 0.05 cm for nominal diameters of D ≤ 250 corrosion coating; n and of 0.1 cm for pipes of D > 250. - presents high thermal inertia, compared to n After calculation, the standard dimensions other heating systems; of tubes in the current production are selected; - presents freezing danger, in case of the tubes wall thickness being selected absence of a protection system with according to the standard value immediately attached conductors or freezing inhibitors; higher resulted from calculation with the - have high investment costs compared to formula (1). Calculation for checking the other systems. tension generated by interior pressure is done by choosing the thickness of tube walls 3. CALCULATION OF PIPE WALL (table 1) of the current manufactured series, THICKNESS with the formula: Dp Ii According to official design instructions =σ σ≤ a (3) (Instructions RT-1 M.E.E.-I.S.P.E.), thermal ()−⋅φ⋅ cs2 Table 1 Sizes and weights for pipes STAS 6898 (extras) Outer Wall thickness, [mm] diameter 7,1 7,9 8,7 9,5 10,3 11,1 11,9 [mm] Linear mass, [kg/m] 406,4 69,91 77,73 85,32 92,98 100,61 108,20 115,77 508 87,70 97,43 107,12 116,78 126,41 136,01 145,58 610 105,56 117,30 129,00 140,18 153,32 163,93 175,54 711 123,24 136,97 150,67 164,34 177,98 191,58 205,15 813 141,10 156,84 172,56 188,24 203,88 219,50 235,09 914 158,79 176,52 194,22 211,90 229,54 247,85 264,72 1016 - 196,30 216,11 235,79 255,45 275,07 294,06 1118 - - 237,99 259,69 281,35 302,99 324,59 1219 - - 259,66 285,35 307,01 330,63 354,23 52 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics 1321 - - 282,00 307,25 332,92 358,55 384,16 1422 - - 303,70 330,91 358,57 386,20 413,80 1524 - - 325,62 355,69 384,89 415,00 444,15 1626 - - 347,54 378,70 410,38 442,04 473,66 4. CALCULATION OF THE DISTANCE Where: σai is the admissible bending resistance BETWEEN MOBILE AND FIXED thanks to the sole weight [daN/cm2] with SUPPORTS values ranged between 200 and 250 daN/cm2 for laying down pipes in canals unable to Regardless the type of mobile supports inspect and elbows area, regardless the employed (with each sliding or rolling location, and in the other cases (airborne friction) the distance between these supports is location and inspected canals) with values of 2 determined with the load evenly distributed 500... 600daN/cm ; W – pipe section resistance 3 continuous beam bending formula of module [cm ]; gt – total tube, water and calculation [1]: insulation weight [daN/cm]. Values for W and gt are give in table 2, for W10 σ⋅⋅ l = ai [cm] (4) other pipe dimensions must be calculated gt according to formulas applied in strength of materials. Table 2 Technical data for calculation of central heating pipes Transversal section area Pipe Diameter Pipe outer Inertia Ref. Pipe wall [cm2] strength surface moment no. Nominal Outer De thickness Pipe wall Outer free 2 4 module [m /m] I [cm ] 3 Dn (mm) (mm) Ap Ai W [cm ] 1 40 48 3,5 4,89 13,20 0,150 12,164 5,06 2 40 48 4,0 5,25 12,57 0.150 13,467 5,61 3 50 57 3,5 5,88 19,63 0,179 21,099 7,40 4 50 57 4,0 6,66 18,85 0,179 23,476 8,32 5 65 70 3,5 7,31 31,17 0,219 40,459 11,55 6 65 70 4,0 8,36 30,12 0,219 45,244 12,92 7 80 89 3,5 9,40 52,81 0,279 85,897 19,30 8 80 89 4,0 10,68 51,53 0,279 96,508 21,68 9 100 108 4,0 13,07 78,53 0,339 176,639 32,70 10 100 108 4,5 14,63 76,97 0,339 195,947 36,65 11 125 133 4,0 16,21 122,71 0,417 336,924 50,66 12 125 133 4,5 18,16 120,76 0,417 374,748 56,35 13 150 162 5,5 25,31 156,14 0,477 678,849 89,32 14 200 219 7,0 46,62 330,06 0,688 2617,36 239,02 15 200 219 8,0 53,03 326,65 0,688 2950,17 269,42 16 250 273 8,0 66,60 518,64 0,857 5841,29 427,93 17 250 273 9,0 74,64 510,70 0,857 6498,97 476,11 18 300 325 8,0 79,67 749,90 1,021 9996,09 615,14 19 300 325 9,0 89,34 740,23 1,021 11141,40 685,62 20 350 377 9,0 104,05 1012,23 1,184 11759,26 933,29 21 350 377 10,0 115,30 1000,98 1,184 19391,30 1028,71 22 400 419 7,0 90,60 1288,25 1,316 19195,60 916,23 23 400 419 8,0 103,29 1275,56 1,316 21780,40 1039,63 24 500 521 7,0 113,03 2018,86 1,636 37269,50 1430,7 25 500 521 8,0 128,93 2002,90 1,636 42348,00 1625,6 26 600 620 8,0 153,81 2865,20 1,947 71895,90 2319,2 27 700 720 8,0 178,94 3892,50 2,261 113206,30 3146,1 28 800 820 8,0 204,08 5076,90 2,576 167913,70 4095,3 29 900 920 8,0 229,21 6418,40 2,890 237899,70 5171,7 30 1000 1020 8,0 254,34 7916,90 3,202 325045,90 6373,4 31 1100 1120 10,0 348,71 9503,30 3,516 536154,80 9574,2 32 1200 1230 11,0 421,26 11461,03 3,862 781133,40 12960,5 33 1300 1330 12,0 496,88 13396,03 4,176 1077083,9 16196,7 34 1400 1430 13,0 578,72 15481,90 4,490 1450025,1 20280,1 35 1500 1530 14,0 666,38 17709,60 4,804 2044832,7 26729,8 53 About Aerodynamic Calculus of Impellers Using the Numerical Methods Depending on constructive solution of mobile supports, at tubes with diameter of Dn ≥ 700 there is the possibility to increase Tirant the distance between mobile supports, by additional calculation of tube consolidation. This can be done by the increase of the inertia moment (resistance module W) of pipe section in the are of maximum bending moments; for this will be welded, in the vertical plane of the tube section, either a metal sheet rib with thickness of 10…30 mm and adequate width (Fig.1,b), or a metallic profile (Fig. 1, a). Fig. 2 Rod support of tubes Improvement of the resistance module is achieved by welding, at the upper side of the For the calculation of distance between tube, of two metal sheet ribs, creating an angle fixed supports it is necessary to take into of 15…20° with the vertical plane (Fig. 1, b). account the value of reaction forces generated Insertion of intermediary rod supports is by the expansion compensator existing another solution to increase distances between between the two fixed supports. The critical supports (Fig. 2). buckling force (Pcr) is calculated considering the tube embedded in the fixed support and 15-2 0 articulated in the compensator [1], with the 2 formula: 1 2 ⋅⋅π IE ⋅ IE Pcr = 2,20 ⋅= [daN] (5) ()⋅ L7,0 2 L2 3 b Where: E is the elasticity module of material a [daN/cm2]; I – inertia moment of pipe section 4 Fig. 1 Solutions to increase tubes’ self - support: [cm ] (table 2); L – distance between fixed a - metallic profile welding; b - welding two sheet support and compensator [cm]. metal ribs (1 - metallic profile; 2 - rib; 3 - tube) Table 3 Distances between mobile and fixed supports of heating tubes Distances between mobile supports, [m] Distances between fixed supports, [m] Stuffing box Stuffing box Compensators ∏ Compensators ∏ compensators compensators Nominal S Ref. Canal to Overhead Canal to Overhead diameter Thickness Remarks no. Canal Canal inspect laying Canal Canal inspect laying [mm] [mm] Overhead Overhead unable to to Only for hot water unable to to Only for hot water laying laying inspect inspect pipes and inspect inspect pipes and condensate condensate 1 40 3,5 3,0 4,5 4,0 - - 45 50 50 - - 2 50 3,5 3,5 5,0 4,5 - - 50 55 55 - - 3 65 3,5 4,5 5,5 5,0 - - 55 60 60 - - 4 80 3,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 - - 65 70 70 - - 5 100 4,0 5,5 7,5 7,0 - - 70 75 75 - - Seamless pipes 6 125 4,0 6,0 8,5 8,0 7,0 6,5 75 80 80 65 65 STAS 404 7 150 5,5 7,0 9,5 9,0 8,0 7,5 85 90 90 70 70 8 200 7,0 7,5 11,5 10,5 9,5 9,0 100 100 100 75 75 9 250 8,0 8,5 13,0 12,0 11,0 10,5 100 105 105 85 85 10 300 8,0 9,5 14,0 13,5 13,0 12,0 115 115 115 95 95 11 350 9,0 11,0 15,0 14,5 14,0 13,5 115 135 135 105 105 12 400 7,0 10,5 14,5 14,0 13,5 13,0 120 150 150 115 115 13 500 7,0 10,5 15,5 15,0 13,5 13,0 125 160 160 130 130 14 600 8,0 11,5 16,5 16,0 13,5 13,0 125 170 170 140 140 Helicoidally 15 700 8,0 12,0 17,0 16,5 13,5 13,0 130 170 170 140 140 welded pipes 16 800 8,0 12,5 18,0 17,5 14,5 14,0 130 180 180 150 150 STAS 6898 17 900 8,0 13,0 19,0 18,5 15,0 14,5 135 180 180 150 150 18 1000 8,0 13,5 20,0 18,5 16,0 15,0 135 200 200 160 160 54 Technical Sciences and Applied Mathematics 19 1100 10,0 14,0 21,0 20,0 16,5 15,5 140 205 205 160 160 Longitudinally 20 1200 11,0 15,0 22,5 21,5 16,5 16,0 140 210 210 160 160 welded pipes 21 1300 12,0 15,5 24,0 23,0 17,0 16,5 150 215 215 160 160 STAS 7656, 22 1400 13,0 16,0 25,0 24,0 17,0 16,5 150 220 220 160 160 7657 23 1500 14,0 17,0 27,0 25,5 17,5 17,0 160 225 225 160 160 Under the condition for the critical buckling force to be higher than the REFERENCES compensator reaction force will be determined the limit distance between fixed support and 1. Ilina, M., Berbecaru, s.a., Instalaţii de compensator. These limit distances are given încălzire, Publishing House Artecno, (table 3) for curved compensators of U shape Bucharest, 2002; and axial expansion joint ones. 2. Scheibner, E., Pipe Clamps for Industrial The variety of tubes and multiple versions Equipment, Modern Constructions, The of design of installations, lead to the need to 6th International Scientific Conference On dimension support elements of networks Naval And Mechanical Engineering, examined herein. TEHNONAV 2008, Conference Proc. of The specific of these networks consists of Tehnonav, 2008. temperature variations or pressure variations to which tubes are subject. 55 Management and Socio-Humanities PERCENT ERRORS IN STANDARD MULLER-LYER AND RIGHT-ANGLED ILLUSIONS Aurel Ion CLINCIU*, Ruxandra Maria CLINCIU** *“Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania **University of Essex, Department of Psychology, Colcester, UK Abstract: This within-subjects experiment focuses on the possible causes and origins of the Müller-Lyer illusion by introducing two theories (the confusion theory and the perceptive theory) that investigate the effect of the placement of wings on judging the mid-point of the shaft. The assumption that was made was that when judging the mid-point of a line, one estimates the end points and then bisects the distance. The Independent variable consisted of a shaft with either two wings or with a right angle figure. The Independent variable had six conditions, depending on the two types of figures: the standard Müller-Lyer illusion or the right-angled illusion. The Standard Müller-Lyer illusion had greater effects of distortion than the one with the right-angled extensions, where the effect of perspective could not be invoked. Keywords: Müller-Lyer illusion, size scaling effect, acute/obtuse or right-angled wings. 1. INTRODUCTION there are still a couple of important counter arguments: firstly, the illusion works perfectly Although it is one of the oldest and most even in the absence of the shaft and the wings well known geometrical illusions, the Müller- alone can create the impression of expansion Lyer illusion [1] is still very far from a unitary or compression of the space between them [2]. psychological explanation. Though the studies Secondly, the illusion can also be obtained regarding this illusion are numerous, the when “the fins of the two figures are replaced mechanisms of producing the perceptive by other attachment such as circles and distortion have not been discovered yet. squares” [3] . Thirdly, the illusion “can appear Among the explicative theories that are in the three-dimensional space as well” [4]. often cited, Gregory’s perspective theory [2] On the other hand, the confusion theory is one of the most relevant. However, as draws attention upon the fact that the decisive appealing as it is, it still does not explain the elements in the judgment of the shaft length illusion in a satisfactory manner, thus are the wings that are placed at its extremities. confirming the point of view expressed by Thus, the obtuse wings (pointing outwards) Eysenck and Keane: “In all probability, more tend to move perceptually the end of the shaft than one factor contribute to the Müller-Lyer in the same way, towards the exterior, whereas illusion” [3]. According to this perspective the acute wings (pointing inwards) produce the theory, the knowledge, which derived from a opposite effect. In other words, while the previous perceptual activity of the three- obtuse wings produce an effect of expansion, dimensional objects, is inappropriately the acute wings produce an effect of transferred to an actual perception of a two- compression on the shaft length. This theory dimensional object. It is taken into account, also states that these effects of expansion and therefore, the apparent distance in order to compression of the length are localized conserve the constancy of the shape and towards the extremity with the respective though measures concerning the depth are wings. Thus, the name of the local distortion: taken, they are of a two-dimensional figure. the distortion in length arises close to the Although it is sustained by multiple evidence, wings, not all along the length of the shaft. 56 Percent Errors in Standard Muller-Lyer and Right-Angled Illusions There are a lot of theories of vision, offered depending on the different type of extension. as explanations for the classic Müller-Lyer The hypothesis that have been outlined are illusion, like direct size scaling [5], perceptual the following: assimilation of the length of the shaft toward 1. The study aims to verify the validity of the length of the contextual elements [6] (or the local distortion theory by using one wing visual scene interpretation) [7], framing effects shaft with acute and obtuse wings (standard [8]. Müler-Lyer illusion) or inward/outward In order to verify this effect, [9] eliminated extensions in a right angle. It is expectable that the wings from one of the ends in an the errors occurred in the judging of the mid- experiment based on the task of subjective point of the shaft to be negative or positive appreciation of the centre of the shaft. They only in the segment with the wings, regardless reported a stronger effect of expansion for the of the type of extension, classic or in a right obtuse wings than for the acute wings. angle. Furthermore, the effect of perceptual 2. In the judging of the mid-point of the compression seems to be localised more shaft we estimate where the ends points are, towards the end with the acute wings rather and then bisect the distance. In the standard than towards the end with the obtuse wings. Müler-Lyer illusion, the error of estimation As a replicate, Predebon’s study [8] reported appears as a consequence of the subjective similar effects regarding the intensity and the movement either inwards or outwards of the location for both types of wings, namely ends of the shaft. In this experiment, the “acute and obtuse-angle forms yelded similar extensions in right angle fall perpendicularly pattern of bisection errors” [8]. These on one of the shaft’s end. By having the ends discoveries seem consistent with the local of the shaft, it is expectable for the error of distortion theory because the mid-point errors estimation to be substantially lower than in the are in the underlying region of the shaft, standard illusion. Also, it is expectable for the therefore being negligent in the spare space of local distortion, generated by the type of the shaft. extension used, to persist, regarding its Specifically, Gregory’s perspective theory inwards or outwards orientation. In other has generated the challenge to verify the effect words, the effects of the illusion in modified of the Müller-Lyer illusion through other types conditions (right angle) will be similar to those of approaches, different from the acute/obtuse with standard extensions (acute wings or wings, for example through the extensions obtuse wings). with circles and squares. The local distortion 3. Another new element in this study is the theory has produced diverse models of fact that the extensions that are attached to the research that could verify the different types of shaft do not have opposite directions. They are distortions by the category of the extension combined so that different extensions are in (inwards or outwards), as well as the the same direction. It is anticipated that in this uniformity of its distribution on the length of experimental condition, the effects of local the shaft. This process is called bisection and distortion will be the biggest. scaling of the effect because it implies the 4. Last/finally similar effects are anticipated judging of the centre of the shaft by reducing for the same type of extension (outwards or the conventional figures to the one-wing inwards), regardless the category of which the version. wings are in (standard Müller-Lyer or right The present investigation approaches angled). matters that have resulted from both of the If hypothesis one is true, the local theories and tries to answer the question distortion theory could find a strong whether the effects are as strong and as clear experimental support. Similar, if hypothesis for the conventional extensions as for the right two is confirmed, it will be in agreement with angles. This could contradict Gregory’s theory Eysenck and Keane’s point of view, according of perspective. In the same time, the present to which the Müller-Lyer illusion can be study investigates the judging of the distortion explained through more types of mechanisms. 57 Management and Socio-Humanities In the end, the last hypothesis will confirm wing on one end; condition 2 was acute wing whether or not our data are consistent with the on one end; condition 3 was obtuse wing on results Predebon or Warren & Bashford one end, acute on the other (like an arrow). For arrived at. the second type of figures, the right-angled ones, condition 4 was wing extends outwards; 2. METHOD condition 5 was wing extends inwards; condition 6 consisted of wings at both ends. Participants: 105 undergraduate students All the participants were presented 4 figures of from the University of Essex participated in each type and for the asymmetrical figures, on the experiment as a compulsory module half the trials the figures were left-right requirement. reversed. Apparatus: Each participant used a The Dependent variable was the percent Macintosh computer to determine the mid- error. In other words, the score obtained on point of the shafts that were presented. each trial by all the participants was the mid- Materials: The original Müller-Lyer point error divided by the length of the shaft. illusion consists of two figures (see appendix). Procedure: The procedure was the same They have in common a horizontal line of the on each trial. Firstly, a box appeared either on same length, called “shaft” or “axis”, and a the left or on the right hand side and it had the pair of symmetrical oblique lines, called function to prevent the effect of perceptual “wings” or “fins”, attached at the both ends of setting. The participants had to click the mouse the axis. In one figure the wings form an in that box and the cursor and box would obtuse angle with the axis by extending disappear. Following a short delay, the figure outwards from the shaft and in the other figure which had to be judged was shown and the the wings form an acute angle with the shafts, participants were instructed to look closely at by pointing inwards to the centre of the figure. the figure and try to determine the mid-point In this experiment the participants had to of the shaft by eye. In order to record the mid- examine two types of figures: one was based point they had to simply click the mouse on the standard Müller-Lyer illusion and it where they believed to be the mid-point of the involved both acute and obtuse angles, axis. After two seconds, another box would whereas the other type of figure was made up appear and the same process would restart. of right angles only. For both types of figure a The participants were instructed to look computerised programme was used to display closely at the figure and decide where the mid- the stimuli. In each figure the shaft measured point was without placing the cursor on the 16 cm in length and 1mm in thickness and the line because they would violate the estimation wings measured 4 cm in length and 1mm in by judging the figure and the cursor as one thickness each. However, for the standard composite. illusions, the obtuse angle measured 90 The participants were also asked to be degrees and the acute angle 45 degrees. In the silent during the presentation as they might right-angled figures, the wings resembled a disrupt other participants in the experiment. square with one missing side. Design: This study was a within-subjects 3. RESULTS experiment. The order in which all the participants had to judge the figures was For each of the six experimental conditions randomised but in the end all of them were previously presented, the computer generated presented the same figures. the percent error (normalized deviation score), In this experiment, the Independent noted by each of the 105 participants, as no variable consisted of a shaft with either two data were discarded. The data that were wings or with a right angle figure. The obtained were processed for each experimental Independent variable had six conditions, condition. The mean and standard deviation, as depending on the two types of figures: for the well as the types of illusions are represented in Standard Müller-Lyer, condition 1 was obtuse the table below. 58 Percent Errors in Standard Muller-Lyer and Right-Angled Illusions Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the Standard Müller-Lyer extensions (obtuse, acute, combined and total) and for the extensions in right angle (outward, inward, combined and total) Category Müller-Lyer standard (acute, obtuse) Right-angled Condition 1 2 3 1_2_3 4 5 6 4_5_6 N 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 Mean 2.11 -2.05 -4.57 -4.51 0.88 0.68 -1.33 -0.23 SD 1.85 1.40 1.56 4.16 1.49 1.25 1.35 2.93 The first four columns from Table 1 above used. Eysenck and Keane’s supposition with represent a veritable confirmation of the fact concern to the multiple mechanisms (possibly that the orientation of the arrows towards the different) of producing this illusion seems to exterior or the interior dilates or comprises the be well supported by these results. Similarly, if underlying segment from the shaft. The sign of the local distortion theory had been correct, the distortion is in agreement with the specific then the second, third, fifth and sixth hypothesis. conditions would have had to give negative Also, the third column shows that the values. distortion produced by combining the two In order to test the second specific types of extensions is greater than the simple hypothesis, a t-test was conducted and the addition of the average percent error of the significance of the difference between the first two experimental conditions, thus percent errors from columns 4 and 8 in Table 1 providing a reliable explanation for the effect was determined. The result was the following: of synergy of the effects of distortion. t(104) = 12.35, p < 0.001, which means that The last four columns of Table 1 are the difference of 4.28 produces a t-value similar to the ones analyzed previously with extremely significant. This means that the two mentions. Firstly, the absolute size of illusion has greater distortion effects in the these average percent errors is much smaller. Standard illusion rather than in the right- Secondly, the results from condition 5 are angled one. opposite to those in condition 2, contradicting The type of extension outwards-inwards one of our expectations. Or, if the allegation of does not produce more outlined effects Eysenck and Keane or Goldstein is true for expansion, as Warren and Bashford (Müller-Lyer illusion occurs with other types claimed. of extensions than conventional ones), the fact The t-test supports this argument: that was previously pointed out should not t(104) = 0.33, p < 0.05 for the Standard occur. Therefore it would have to be illusions and t(104) = 1.50, p < 0.05 for the considered a critical incident and an indirect right-angled illusions. confirmation of Gregory’s theory of In conclusion, the local effects are fully perspective. comparable in size for the inward-outward A one-sample t-test was conducted in order orientation, which is in disagreement with to investigate whether the means for each of Warren and Bashford’s findings. the six conditions are significantly different from the test value of 0. The results confirm 4. DISCUSSION the fact that all the values are statistically significant (p < 0.001). The t-values are greater The present study produced results that for the Standard Müller-Lyer. were consistent with the initial assumptions. The critical incident regarding the positive Thus, for five out of six experimental score for the fifth condition t(104) = 5.60, conditions, the local distortion theory was p < 0.001 is opposite to the one in the second correct (hypothesis one). However, there was condition and it clearly indicates that the one critical incident, because in the fifth mechanism of the illusion is not the same, experimental condition the value was positive, regardless the different types of extension rather than negative, as it was expected. 59 Management and Socio-Humanities The main hypothesis of this experiment may be more than just one explicative (that the types of extension used would mechanism. generate similar distortion effects) can be The present study clearly demonstrated the confirmed only partially, because the inwards effect of synergy but leaves unsolved the extension in right angle produced opposite problem of possible experiments with other effects to the one in acute angle. Nevertheless, types of extensions (circle, oval, square, the assumption that the magnitude of these complete, incomplete, angular may closed or effects of distortion (error percent) of the open, etc.) or the approach in three- centre was greater in conventional illusion was dimensional space, as suggested by Goldstein fully confirmed, because the bisection was [4]. facilitated when the ends of the shaft were indicated by perpendicular lines, as in the case REFERENCES of the right angles. The fact that there were no differences of distortion effects between the 1. Müller-Lyer, F.C., Archiv für Anatomie & extensions outwards and inwards, indicated Physiologie Abteilung, Optische- that the mechanism of generating distortions Urteilstäuschungen, 2(Suppl.), 263-270, was similar. 1889; There was a great agreement between the 2. Gregory, R.L., Eye and Brain. The results of this study and Predebon’s, because Psychology of Seeing, London, World the effect of the illusion had the same University Library, 1966; intensity, regardless the type of angle. In 3. Eysenck, M.W. & Keane, M.T., Cognitive addition, the local distortion theory was Psychology. A Student’s Handbook, 3rd correct in five out of six experimental Edition, Hove, Est Sussex: Psychology conditions. Press, 1995, p. 76; The fifth condition can be considered a 4. Goldstein, E.B., Sensation and Perception, critical incident that requires the taking into Sixth Edition, Pacific Grove: Wadsworth – account of other explanatory mechanisms, Thomson Learning, 2002, p. 256; such as the Gestaltist model, which states that 5. Gillam, B., Illusions at century’s end, In J. we perceive the whole before perceiving the Hochberg, (Ed.), Perception and cognition parts and that the synthesis precedes the at century’s end (95-136), San Diego, analysis. Academic Press, 1998; Gregory’s perspective theory was partially 6. Brigell, M., Uhlarik, J., & Goldhorn, P., confirmed because the Standard Müller-Lyer Conceptual influences on judgements of illusion had greater effects of distortion than linear extent, Journal of Experimental the one with the right-angled extensions, Psychology: Human Perception and where the effect of perspective could not be Performance, 3, 105-118, 1977; invoked. 7. Redding, G.M., & Howley, E., Length There are also some intriguind aspects, illusion in fractional Müller-Lyer resulting from our experiment. Unlike the stimuli: An object-perception approach, finding of Christie [10] (1992) or Predebon [8] Perception, 22, 819-828, 1993; of greater length illusion magnitudes for the 8. Predebon, J., Framing effects in and obtuse-angle Müller-Lyer figures, in our the reversed Müller-Lyer illusion, research the magnitudes of the percent Perception & Psychophysics, 52, 307-314, bisection errors for acute angle wings were 1992; similar or greater those corresponding to 9. Warren, R.M., Bashford, J.A., Müller-Lyer obtuse-angle conditions. illusions: their origin in process There are a couple of questions that remain facilitating object recognition, Perception, unanswered, for example the incompatibility 6, 615-626, 1977; of the fifth condition which suggests that 10. Cristie, P., Assymetry in Müller-Lyer Eysenck and Keane might be right when illusion: Artefact or genuine effect?, affirming that in the Müller-Lyer illusion there Perception, 4, 453-457, 1975. 60 Management and Socio-Humanities APPENDIX The six experimental conditions and The start point screen for experiment Müller-Lyer conventional and with right angles. 56 Management and Socio-Humanities SYSTEM OF PROJECT MANAGE IN PHASE OF REALIZATION Lubomír BELAN*, Lenka KURHAJCOVÁ* *Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia Abstract: In the article we point on problem of project manage in phase of project realization and his possible steps. We mention on possibilities like manage this whole hard process. There is no simple way like to manage process of project realization. It depends on specialist skills, social and personal competencies and it depend on praxis of project managers, too. But not least it depends on project team, too. Keywords: project management, project manage, realization of project, time plan, risk analysis. 1. INTRODUCTION of project realization. During project realization is very important fact of project Project manage feel like simple way, but type (category of project). It depends of praxis shows that this problematic isn’t simple. project depth, his complexity, human Complexities of project manage result from resources and costs. many activities which are needed. Appropriate manner like to make manage The first place is project planning, which system of project realization work according to isn’t simple. The second place, when we have Nemec [1] have six part (subsystems), which successfully planed project, his own help to project manager manage project realization isn’t simple way. In the phase of realization. Content of subsystems is: realization is needed to keep plans, which are - Monitoring solvency of project realization affecting by many factors (human resources, considers identification, measurement and budget, material, conflicts, meteorological collects data about pass of project influence and so on.) realization (project monitoring). In the article we point on problem of - Control representative fulfill task and project manage in phase of project realization terms, exploitation of sources, cost and his possible steps. We mention on drawdown and make high quality of possibilities like manage this whole hard project work. Scope of control is process. There is no simple way like to identifying divergence. manage process of project realization. It - Decision making representative choice of depends on specialist skills, social and effective variant of project work realization personal competencies and it depend on praxis by obtained information’s and by using of project managers, too. But not least it optimal criteria’s for appreciate (task of depends on project team, too. project manager). Sarvey Golub told: „Negligently done - Regulation is establishment of harmony project take thrice time more, like was planed. between planed and real realization (task of Carefully done project take only twice more”. project manager). Scope of establishment 2. REALIZATION OF PROJECT is remove divergence from real realization and planed variance. View of solving ipso facto of project - Motivation is create motivational realization may be different. It depends on environment for all stakeholders (task of many factors, which have mainly influence project manager). 62 System of Project Manage in Phase of Realization - Administration and technical support Earned Value Analysis. Scope of earned include lists, documentation work of value analysis is effective support of project management, software support, manage. administrative support (task of top This method makes possible to project management). manager (or to superior) compare basic plan For monitoring and control showing with realization work according to planed project realization is needed point on basic budget. Analysis of earned value uses these plan document, which is described by triple – basic parameters: imperative (Fig.1) by following: BCWS - Budgeted Cost for Work Scheduled, - What and how we have to do. BCWP - Budgeted Cost for Work Performed, - Time - plan – term monitoring, ACWP - Actual Cost of Work Performed. - Budget monitoring (planed cost on every From above parameters start these activity). indicators of project progress: Triple - imperative (Fig. 1), which 1. CV (Cost Variance) representative: time manage, cost manage, CV = BCWP - ACWP; CV% = CV/BCWP quality manage. 2. SV (Schedule Variance) SV = BCWP – BCWS; SV% = SV/BCWS Time 3. Divergence in ending manage VAC = BAC - EAC 4. Cost index CPI = BCWP/ACWP Time 5. Planed index plan SPI = BCWP/BCWS Where: BAC - planed budget (complex), EAC - calculation of estimated ending budget at budged specification origination divergence. Cost Quality Using this method is effective, when is manage manage integrated to software for project planning. For example Microsoft Project support count and Figure 1 Triple - imperative graphic display (Fig. 2) result of earned value analysis. Whole three part is re –bound to each other. Change in one parameter is reacting to left over two. Project manage expressive so – called feedback loop. It matter regularly and systematic evaluate proportion in praxis: Plan value planning = (1) alityRe measured(real )value For control to plan fulfill is made interval of its monitoring. It is needed to monitor of project work progress from time to time, it is good for easier detection of problems and following correct realization will be easier. Fig. 2 Graphic display result of earned value Project manager may from subordinates analysis demand: a) to inform project manager every week by Project would like to manage by following the status of project (workshop of project steps: team), 1. Make effective system of reporting b) Every month realize control day of project. (reporting system). 63 Management and Socio-Humanities 2. Monitoring of project output in specific It is important to prevent from cost dead – lines. (Milestones). divergences (what isn’t easy proposition), how 3. Analyze scope, plan and actual divergence. to prevent divergence of cost? 4. Variants planning and make simulations - Prevention, (What if Analysis). - Good and in detail made financial analysis 5. Develop and applied control interference. and budget, avoid changes in project. 6. Modification of project scopes. (Plan During whole phases of project is very Revision). important to monitor and manage risks by 7. Documented existent phase [3, 4]. process of risk identification, appraisal risk In the phase of project realization is needed and attendance with risk. to monitor situation of project time – plan. We Project has to be managing by sense, that analyze next steps for identification trends and everything has risk. Plans of risk have to be in possibilities of uncertainty in remaining part of stand – by treatment. Reports from risk project work. monitor has to be part of valuation his For valuation of process we need to use duration. ordinary time – plans. From this plans we can In the phase of realization changes may identify and analyze divergences. If have positive influence (opportunities), but divergences are eminent, we have to adequate negative influence on project. We have to reacted on it (Example 1). analyze key reasons of negative influence and It is important identify key reason of use result for preventive measure and start – divergences from time – plan, whether up with improvement [2]. fortunate or unfavorable. The reasons of Measuring time divergences, cost unfavorable and fortunate divergences we can divergences, but quality divergences too from use for permanent improvement. plan we can detail analyzed by 5W1H Project manager mention quality manage questions: to praxis by quality plan, quality control, - WHAT happened? quality realization and quality improvement in - WHEN did it happen? quality manage system. - WHERE did it happen? For costs manage is needed to observe - WHY did it happen? these steps: - WHO was involved? - Feedback from interested, - HOW did it happen? - Result from monitoring, budget drawdown Example 1 „Time planning“ of project; quantification of non –planed costs (risk, radical change of specification, Project has 8 activities. The project has to failure of contractor, and so on.), be finished till 16 months. Day limit of - Interpretation of divergences from budget workers is maximum 14 workers. drawdown which was accredited, When we control time plan we find out that identification of causality breach budget project duration is 19 months. Project manager drawdown time table, design and manage have to fulfill time table (16 months) and it is correction, needed to change time plan. - Actualization of time table of budget In time plan modification we have more drawdown and documented of changes. variants, which activities we can move or Causalities of divergences of project costs shorten. It exist one rule, when we change are: time plan, we can not forget to change - Decreasing of costs without time plan sources too. change or quality, If it is duration of critical way all right, you - Purchaser compress costs by misusage can finish solving. If it is duration of critical competitors (competition of liars), way bad, try to devise modification (Step 6): - Optimistic guess by sources planning and - point what and why you are changing on mistake in cost calculation [2, 4]. chosen activity. 64 System of Project Manage in Phase of Realization Step 1 Step 2 Gantt graph Step 3 Table of activities duration Step 4 Gantt graph 65 Management and Socio-Humanities Step 5 Gantt graph Step 6 Table of activities duration Step 7 Table of human resources planning 66 System of Project Manage in Phase of Realization 3. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Manage and decision making in project 1. Němec, V., Projektový management, Grada realization is very hard process which is made Publishing, Praha, 2002; by many professionals. 2. STN ISO 10006, Systémy manažérstva It is very important that this work is made kvality. Návod na manažérstvo kvality by skilled persons, because process during v projektoch, Slovenský ústav technickej project realization have to be monitor and with normalizácie, Bratislava, 2004; right interpretation. If the project manager 3. Všetečka, P., Belan, L., Projektový observe this progress it will be ensure manažment I, Liptovský Mikuláš, 2006; continuity of whole process within project 4. SPS-3, Súbor požadovaných schopností pre manage and success of achievement scopes. odborníkov na projektové riadenie (podľa Invest labour to manage every project is in ICBv3.0), Spoločnosť pre projektové its success realization and in addition for area riadenie, 1, vydanie, Bratislava, 2008. in which is project made. 67 Management and Socio-Humanities COMMON LAW AND CIVIL LAW: THE MAJOR TRADITIONS OF THE WESTERN LEGAL CULTURE Oana-Andreea PÎRNUŢĂ*, Alina-Adriana ARSENI* *“Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania Abstract: The purpose of the present paper is to examine the defining traits of the two highly influential traditions of Western law, namely Common Law and Civil Law. They are an integral part of the Western legal culture, as the various systems of law which are part of it are generally described as belonging either to one or the other. At the same time, this identification implies an adherence to a certain view on law, which reveals a specific set of rules, principles, and institutions. But most importantly, the theoretical and practical aspects concerning the Western legal traditions place the discussion in a cultural context: in order to thoroughly understand the contemporary legal configurations of different states, one must bear in mind the distinctive historical and cultural evolution of the Western world, which has shaped the development of these two great traditions over the centuries. Keywords: common law, civil law, legal traditions, legal culture, systems of law, comparative law. 1. INTRODUCTION As Merryman and Pérez-Perdomo [12] rightly argue, the concepts of legal tradition The common law (or Anglo-American law) and legal system have quite different and the civil law (also known as the Romano- meanings. Thus, a legal system is ‘an Germanic or continental law) represent the operating set of legal institutions, procedures two major legal traditions of the Western and rules’; according to this definition, all world. states have a distinct legal system. On the They are part of the legal culture as both other hand, it is a well-known fact that, for law and legal systems are, broadly speaking, instance, England, New Zealand and the ‘cultural products’ [3], ultimately reflecting a United States of America belong to the well-established set of values, which can be ‘common law’ tradition, just as France, perceived in all social manifestations, starting Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Argentina, Brazil from the organization of the judiciary and or Romania are members of the ‘civil law’ ending with the individuals’ everyday lives. family, but this does not imply that they have Moreover, it has been stated that ‘one cannot identical legal institutions, procedures or rules. understand the role of law in society without The distinction can be taken even further, both understanding something of legal cultures’ [7]. on the national level, as in the case of the Throughout the past centuries, the United States, where there is one federal and language and law of different European states fifty state legal systems, and on the represented the primary cultural products to be international level, organizations such as the exported. These came into contact with the United Nations or the European Union having languages and laws of the farthest places and created their own systems of law. they would either coexist with the local The role of the legal tradition is highly languages and laws or make them disappear. relevant as it ‘relates the legal system to the Due to the recent revolution in the fields of culture of which it is a partial expression. It transport and information, this longstanding puts the legal system into cultural perspective’ process has intensified, taking the form of [12]. Thus, the macrocosm of a legal culture globalization [11]. can be highlighted. 68 Common Law and Civil Law: The Major Traditions of the Western Legal Culture 2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE be used in two senses: on the one hand, it NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF LAW refers to the major legal tradition governing England and the majority of its former The scholarship studying the different colonies and, on the other hand, it refers to the systems of law is called comparative law. The jurisprudence of the courts and to the law comparatist approaches in this field of formed by the court decisions (in the latter knowledge have attempted to group the meaning, it is a synonym for ‘case law’). national systems of law, according to different Historically speaking, before 1000 A.D., a criteria, into larger categories called families conglomerate of norms of different origins of law, major systems of law or types of law. coexisted on the British territory, namely Here is a synopsis of these classifications [5]. Germanic norms, as well as Roman and According to the community of principles, canonic law, introduced in 664 A.D. As a sources and legal language, René David result of the Norman Conquest (1066), the law identifies the following families of law: the of the conquerors was imposed on these Romano-Germanic law, the common law, the heterogeneous practices. The unification of socialist law, as well as the traditional and law in Great Britain was the direct result of the religious systems of law. This classification is political unification accomplished by William widely accepted. the Conqueror. Therefore, this unified law was Some authors, such as F.S. Canizares, called ‘common law’ as opposed to the laws propose a tripartite taxonomy, reducing the that had been in force before [11]. aforementioned families of law to three types: The judicial precedent is a key element in Western, socialist and religious. common law systems, binding the courts to In accordance with the Marxist theory, consider previously decided cases. If such a which lays emphasis on the class factor, there precedent does not exist, the judge will rule are four types of law: slave-owning, feudal, according to the general principles of law and bourgeois and socialist law. so, the precedent is created for future Following the historic evolution of law, decisions. Thus, the common law tradition lays there is the incipient law, the antique law, the great emphasis on the so-called ‘judge-made medieval law, the modern law and, finally, the law’ (using a phrase coined by Bentham) [10, contemporary law. 14], the guiding principle being that ‘it is From among the various criteria suggested unfair to treat similar facts differently on in the literature, Peter de Cruz [6] adopts the different occasions’ [2]. one proposed by Zweigert and Kötz in An The type of reasoning used by judges of Introduction to Comparative Law (1977, the common law tradition is inductive, ‘(…) 1998). The quoted writers consider that the deriving general principles or rules of law ‘juristic style’ is the determining test according from precedent or a series of specific decisions to which the legal systems can be classified, and extracting an applicable rule, which is then this being established according to the applied to a particular case’ [1], as opposed to following factors: the historical background the deductive method employed in the civil and development of the system, the law legal systems, where the judge has to characteristic mode of thought, the analyze the rules and general principles of law distinguishing institutions, the types of inscribed in codes or other laws in order to acknowledged legal sources and the way it reach a specific decision. relates to them, as well as its ideology. Consequently, the decisions pronounced by the courts are mandatory not only for the 3. THE COMMON LAW TRADITION parties, but also for the other courts. This is expressed by the principle of stare decisis, i.e. The common law tradition relies on three ‘to stand by what has been decided’. pillars: Common Law, Equity and Statute [2]. Concerning this aspect, the following An important inference from the previous distinction must be made: a judgement consists statement is that the phrase ‘common law’ can of two parts, namely the principle of law on 69 Management and Socio-Humanities which the decision is based (ratio decidendi) with several exceptions, as there can be and other incidental observations added by the observed from the following enumeration [2]: judge in order to clarify the decision (obiter most of the United Kingdom (excluding dictum, literally meaning ‘something said by Scotland), Ireland, the United States of the way, in passing’). It is only the former part America (federal law and the law of forty-nine of the judgement that is binding, the other states, except Louisiana), Canada (except having a merely persuasive purpose. Quebec, which belongs to the civil law system, Moreover, the ratio decidendi does not its legal system being inspired by the French represent the decision itself (which must be law), Australia, New Zealand, India (except obeyed by the parties), but only that part of it Goa, whose law is inspired from the which is binding in later cases [14]. Portuguese civil law system), Pakistan, Hong There is also a hierarchy of precedents: the Kong, and so on. lower courts must follow the decisions of the There are also mixed systems, such as that higher courts (in a descending order, the of South Africa, which is based both on the hierarchy of courts in England is the Roman-Dutch law and on the English common following: the House of Lords, the Court of law, or of Nigeria, incorporating, besides Appeal and the High Court of Justice) [10, 14]. English common law, Islamic and traditional Equity is equally important for the law [for a comprehensive list of the legal common law tradition, having a supplementary systems of the world, see The CIA World status, since, as the name suggests, it aims at Factbook, Field Listing – Legal System, achieving justice and fairness by avoiding a https://www.cia.gov]. rigid application of common law. Both equity and common law have been applied by the 4. THE CIVIL LAW TRADITION same courts since 1875, and if the two happen to contradict each other, equity shall prevail The civil law tradition consists of the [2]. The rules developed by the courts to following national legal systems: the French govern the application of equity are named legal system, together with those related to it, ‘maxims’ of equity. Here are a few examples: namely the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, ‘Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without a Belgian, Romanian, the legal systems of Latin remedy’ (that is, equity intervenes only in the America, some of Asia and Africa, as well as absence of a common law remedy), ‘Equity the German legal system. Both the French and follows the law’ (the equitable remedy must the German law have common roots in the not be contrary to the law, i.e. equity does not Roman law. Moreover, this great tradition is take the place of the common law), ‘He who also based on the Germanic customary law, comes to equity must come with clean hands’ which has influenced, in its turn, the French (any party who acts unfairly shall not be legal practices standing at the basis of the granted an equitable remedy), ‘Equitable Napoleonic codifications. Hence, the label remedies are discretionary’ (only the court has ‘Romano-Germanic’ law [5]. the power to decide, after analyzing the Still regarding terminology, the phrase circumstances of the case, whether to grant the ‘civil law’ stems from the tripartite division of remedy or not), and so on [14]. private law in ancient Rome, introduced by Statute law is the law enacted by the Gaius, more exactly from the term jus civile Parliament. The Parliament exerts the (or jus quiritum), a highly formalist system, legislative power, passing the laws, and it is whose norms applied solely to Roman citizens; the role of the judiciary to apply them to the other two systems of law were jus gentium, individual cases, but not before undertaking a applying to the contacts between Romans and process of statutory interpretation through foreigners, and jus naturae, a system of law which the meaning intended by the legislator deemed valid for all peoples and in all times is sought [14, 2]. [6, 13]. The common law tradition can be traced in One of the chief features which distinguish almost all the countries of the Commonwealth, the civil law tradition from that of the common 70 Common Law and Civil Law: The Major Traditions of the Western Legal Culture law is codification, deriving from Emperor or commercial law, while the latter includes, Justianian’s Corpus Juris Civilis. In the among others, constitutional, criminal, continental law tradition, written law is financial, or administrative law. In Romania, prevalent, as opposed to the law created by for instance, both criminal and civil judicial decisions, as in the common law procedures are considered part of the public tradition. This characteristic provides a greater law, although in some countries civil degree of systematization of the legal procedure is regarded as belonging to the branches, but, at the same time, the legal private law. There are also mixed legal provisions are less flexible as opposed to the branches (as labor law, for example) [1, 5]. common law systems. Although codes are also Even though this division might seem seen in common law systems, such as the clear-cut, the different branches of law United States, ‘(…) the underlying ideology – belonging to the public or to the private law the conception of what a code is and of the are interconnected in many ways [5]. In other functions it should perform in the legal process words, the rapports between individuals, – is not the same’ [12]. The quoted authors which are specific to private law, depend on exemplify this statement by analyzing the those established between the sovereign power underlying motivations behind the French and the individuals, the latter being part of Civil Code of Napoleon (1804) and the public law [11]. German Civil Code (1896), both of them Different criteria have been suggested in aiming at a solid separation of powers between the legal literature to stand at the basis of this the legislative and the judicial and, at the same distinction between public law and private law time, seeking to create a complete, unitary [5]: the nature of the protected interest (a piece of legislation in order to support the general one, in the case of public law and an unity of the state. In contrast, the codes of the individual one, in the case of private law); the common law systems – as, for instance, the legal form or the way in which the protection California Civil Code or the Uniform of rights is assured (ex officio or at the request Commercial Code adopted in the American of the involved parties, respectively); or the jurisdiction – stem not only from a different organic criterion, according to which public ideology, but also from a different cultural law refers to those who govern, while private reality: on the one hand, they are not based on law is targeted at the governed. the idea of completeness and, on the other Although the common law systems also hand, they do not reject the previous laws, but acknowledge that private law governs the rather try to improve them. ‘Thus the relations between private citizens and conservative tendencies of the common law corporations, whereas in public law relations tradition stand in marked contrast to the the State is one of the parties at all times, the ideology of revolution from which the spirit of distinction has far less practical significance civil law codification emerged’ [12]. than in the civil law systems, where there are The long-standing dichotomy private law – generally specialized courts dealing with the public law represents another trait of the civil two types of law [6]. law systems (although this theory has a tradition dating back to Roman law – here it is 5. OTHER DIFFERENTIATING worth to mention Ulpian’s famous remark: ASPECTS BETWEEN THE TRADITIONS ‘publicum jus est quod ad statum rei Romanae OF COMMON LAW AND CIVIL LAW spectat, privatum quod ad singularum utilitatem’, i.e. public law deals with the Apart from the aspects which have already organisation of the Roman state, while private been mentioned, and which, by delineating the law applies only to the relations among profiles of the two traditions, set them apart at individuals [13] – it has been criticized by the same time, there are several others issues authors like H. Kelsen, a leading exponent of to be discussed. legal positivism, or L. Duguit). The former The fact that case law is a valuable source category comprises branches such as civil law of law in the Anglo-American legal tradition 71 Management and Socio-Humanities determines a different role for the common communications, testimonies, the proposing law judge, as compared to the judge belonging and presenting of other evidence, and so to the civil law tradition: while the former on [1]. Comparatists speak about the contributes to the creation of law, the latter ‘concentration’ of the trial in common law only applies the law [1]. Nevertheless, when systems, a feature which the civil law reaching a decision for a particular case, the countries are trying more and more to civil law judge would consult relevant implement nowadays [12]. jurisprudence and doctrine on the matter. Pertaining to criminal procedure, the The independence of the judiciary is a key notions of adversarial or accusatorial and principle in both traditions due to the fact that inquisitorial justice correspond to the two they are considered ‘the upholders of the rule legal traditions under consideration. Thus, the of law’ [14]. A judge must be independent criminal trial in common law systems is from the executive power and from the parties. preponderantly accusatorial, while, in civil law Also, a judge’s career follows different countries, criminal proceedings are mainly stages in each of the two traditions. In inquisitorial. However, there is an ongoing England, for instance, judgeship is considered trend for the inquisitorial systems to borrow a highly prestigious status and this perception accusatorial elements and the other way round. is supported by the fact that, as a rule, only the Thus, no legal system relies completely on one most brilliant jurists become members of this of these approaches. The Netherlands is profession [10]. considered probably the most inquisitorial of Another noteworthy area is the legal the West European countries, while the process. Both the civil and the criminal English/ Welsh system is deemed to be the procedures are conducted in accordance with most accusatorial [9]. specific provisions. Since the complexity of this subject One of the main differences between the exceeds the aim of the present paper, a sketch two traditions is the existence of a jury in the of the conventional images of both models will case of common law jurisdictions (this suffice. The classical inquisitorial model takes tradition remains strong especially in the place as follows: the criminal investigation is United States, as there is a constitutional right conducted by a supposedly neutral judicial to a jury even in civil cases [12]), whereas in officer and the competence for determining the civil law systems, this is uncommon. guilt or innocence of the defendant belongs to However, it has been observed that the role of a judge or a panel of judges, having full access the jury in the English legal system has started to the investigation file (or dossier). The to decline in recent years [14]. proceedings at trial are overseen by a presiding The judge belonging to the civil law judge, without a jury. The rights of the tradition manifests an active role throughout defendant are not as clearly emphasized as in all stages of the process until he/ she is ready the accusatorial trial, in the latter case the to give the solution, as opposed to its common presumption of innocence, the right to an law counterpart; in common law proceedings, attorney, or the right to silence playing an the lawyers generally dominate the courtroom. essential part. The inquisitorial trial may not Concerning civil procedure, as it has be continuous and can last for an excessive accurately been asserted, ‘just as civil law is period of time. In the accusatorial model, the the heart of the substantive law in the civil law police investigation is non-neutral and aims at tradition, so civil procedure is the heart of collecting evidence. The trial is held before an procedural law’ [12]. Compared with the civil independent and impartial judge or jury with trial specific to common law countries, which no previous information about the case or takes place as a unique event, civil procedure dossier. The proceedings are continuous and in the continental law unfolds as a series of are conducted according to the principle of court sessions, during which many actions are morality; there is a ‘trial by combat’, where taken: at the beginning, preliminary issues are the attorneys attempt at deconstructing the discussed; then follow hearings, written arguments of the opposing party [4]. 72 Common Law and Civil Law: The Major Traditions of the Western Legal Culture Both models include both strengths and 2. Arnold-Baker, Ch., The Companion to shortcomings [4]. In the inquisitorial trial, the British History, 2nd Edition, Routledge, magistrate relies on the resources of the state London, 2001, p. 486; to uncover the truth, but there is a rather rigid 3. Bierbrauer, G., Towards an Understanding approach to the case. of Legal Culture: Variations in The accusatorial model has the benefit of Individualism and Collectivism between safeguarding the rights of the parties, but its Kurds, Lebanese, and Germans, Law and main disadvantage results from the virtual Society Review, Vol. 28, Issue 2, 1994, pp. inequality between the prosecuting and the 243-264; defending parties, the former generally being 4. Bradley, C.M. (ed.), Criminal Procedure. more resourceful. A Global Perspective, 2nd Edition, Carolina Academic Press, Durham, 2007, pp. xvii- 6. CONCLUSIONS xxv; 5. Craiovan, I., Tratat de teoria generală a Even though the common law and the civil dreptului, Universul Juridic, Bucureşti, law traditions have developed distinctive rules, 2007, pp. 59-77, pp. 400-401; principles, and institutions, there are more and 6. Cruz, P. de, Comparative Law in a more interactions between the two, each of Changing World, 2nd Edition, Cavendish them being inspired by the other. Publishing Limited, London, 1999, p. 36, The scholars agree upon the following p. 43; issue: in the context of globalization and, 7. Gibson, J.L., Caldeira, G.A., The Legal regionally speaking, facing the new challenges Cultures of Europe in Law and Society generated by the European Union and the Review, Vol. 30, Issue 1, 1996, pp. 55-85; European Court of Human Rights, the 8. Holmes, O.W. (Jr.), The Common Law, processes of adaptation and unification are Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1923; likely to evolve. This is why, at the present 9. Koppen, P.J. van, Penrod, S.D. (eds.), time, a thorough study of law is bound to Adversarial versus Inquisitorial Justice. include the comparative method. Psychological Perspectives on Criminal Moreover, in order to keep the positive law Justice Systems, Kluwer Academic/Plenum into perspective, lawmakers also ought to take Publishers, New York, 2003, p. 4; into account the features of different systems 10. Leş, I., Sisteme judiciare comparate, All of law when drafting normative acts. Beck, Bucureşti, 2002, pp. 337-340, p. 351; Finally, by investigating these two great 11. Losano, M.G., Marile sisteme juridice: legal traditions, which stand at the core of the Introducere în dreptul european şi Western legal culture, one attains a deeper extraeuropean, All Beck, Bucureşti, 2005, understanding of the configuration of the p. 1, p. 291, p. 79; diverse national legal systems. Thus, the 12. Merryman, J.H., Pérez-Perdomo, R., The affiliation of a certain system of law to either Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the common law or civil law is not at random, but Legal Systems of Europe and Latin rather results from a specific complex of America, 3rd Edition, Stanford University cultural factors. Press, Stanford, 2007, pp. 1-2, p. 28, pp. 32-33, p. 112; REFERENCES 13. Murzea, C., Drept roman, 2nd Edition, All Beck, Bucureşti, 2003; 1. Apple, J.G., Deyling, R.P., A Primer on the 14. Russell, F., Locke, C., English Law and Civil-Law System, Federal Judicial Center, Language: An Introduction for Students of available online: http://www.fjc. gov, pp. English, Phoenix ELT, Hemel Hempstead, 1-39; 1993, p. 7, pp. 44-47. 73 CrisisManagement and Socio-Humanities THE ECONOMICAL SECURITY CONCEPT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS Cătălin CIOACĂ “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Abstract: The analysis focuses on the dark realities of present, when the global economic body slipped down of the generalized imbalance. If the original was more a liquidity crisis and of the stock exchange, the effect of the current economic downturn has been felt in all areas and worldwide. The author is investigating the impact of crisis to the national economic security and particularly the case of Romania. For purposes of this paper, I considered relevant the analysis of economic security under the current crisis in terms of national economic competitiveness. The fall of the national economy has many serious effects, from the economic security of the individual and his family up to reducing the state economic security, from the vulnerabilities amplification political, economic, social and military rule, up to shock the architecture of security and regional and global stability. Keywords: economic security, global economic crisis, competitiveness economic environment. 1. THEORETICAL APPROACHES The economic security is a complex and dynamic concept derived from many economic To understand the economic security phenomenons, that occur both nationally and concept is required a prior analysis to the term globally. For purposes of this paper I believe of security. This, despite numerous that the definition of relevant economic discussions, remains nebulous, often used as a security aims to ensure the conditions for the pretext, an excuse or justification for other full exercise of its law to dispose freely of political measures or strategic ones, more or external nature, in harmony with its own less justified [1]. However, what we can say interests and aspirations [3], resource, finance with certainty is that security is the common and markets necessary to ensure an acceptable denominator of the major concerns that level of wealth and power of the state (Barry include for understanding and application, the Buzan). To define the economic security of state and social stability, political, economic, Romania requires to identify all the necessary cultural and other indispensable both to the conditions to be provided for the country's existence and development of state actors or economic development and catching of union of any of them, and preservation of their development with the Western EU countries. fundamental values and positive promotion of In the context of these approaches, it must their interests [2]. operate at the conceptual distinction between Blackwell dictionary of political science the economic security and the economic indicates that security is a concept used in dimension of security. If the first concept discussions about foreign policy, but suitable concerns the functioning of an economy and is also for statements regarding individuals or equated with „safety tomorrow” in terms of states. If during the Cold War there were limits prosperity, welfare, standard of living to define the term security, charging it with decent/adequate, economic independence, the particular military connotations, after the fall second captures the operation of the social and of the Iron Curtain and especially after 9/11, political systems, the state, public institutions, security is extended to the political, economic, and national organizations as part of societal and environmental. international alliances and coalitions [4]. On 74 The Economical Security Concept in The Context of the Global Economic Crisis the other hand, if economic security is a direct an active position. Thus, to avoid entry into consequence of the economic power of the financial system collapse, banks have been state, the economic dimension of security is rescued or nationalized on an unprecedented relevant to the fact that without a strong scale. It is in contradiction with the modern modern economy , the safety and stability of capitalism principles and it has strengthen the the state or the international community can private sector in expense of the state. not really exist. The current financial shock has led to In terms of economic and financial crisis, slowing the global economic growth in an the economic security is a key component of alarming rate: 6.3% reduction in the last national security at least in terms of resources quarter of 2008, compared with growth of 4% and ensuring a dynamic balance for other a year ago [8]. Financial bankruptcy expended components of this system [5]. rapidly over the world, based next near tricks What in February 2007 seemed to be just a with irregular loans, on the following cases: a U.S. financial problem, a year later turned into flow of cheap money coming from emerging a global economic crisis. Before the financial markets (especially China), financial downturn, the international economy was regulation inconsistencies, distortions in already severely affected by rapidly increasing government policies and an inappropriate oil prices and increased market prices of oversight on these markets. consumer goods [6]. Even if the economic As a result, according to IMF estimates, the security is a concept with multiple meanings, aggregate amount of losses to banks and other the threats which it is subjected to throurgh the financial institutions, only in 2009, has changes in the external economic environment exceeded 4 trillion, while only 1,1 trillion was are a certainty, especially in conditions of designed to resolve the crisis. An analysis of globalization, when economies overlap and the effects only to the U.S. [9] show that GDP become vulnerable to a global crisis. for 2009 is lower compared to 2008 by 7%, Economic security is directly affected by cumulative for three years, the buildings fell the competitive economy, by the way it adapts by 33%, 22% of the amount of funds lost to changes in the global economy. The retirement, to which adds 1,2 trillion in competitiveness is defined as all institutions, deposits and investment losses. All these policies and factors that determine the losses amount to colossal figure of 8,3 trillion productivity of a country [7]. This level of USD. productivity, in it’s turn, determines their Before analyzing the effects of the current sustainable growth that can be achieved by an crisis on economic security, I think it is good economy. In other words, the competitive to know that this can be quantified. There are economies lead to improved living standards several concerns in this area, of which I of population and also determines the rates of mention: the International Labor Organization, return obtained by investing in an economy. which launched the methodology of Therefore,the concept of competitiveness calculating an index of economic security to has both a static and one dynamic side: it the individual level or Sightline Institute in the determines the ability of the state to support its U.S. that calculates an index based on their level of income, but investment returns in the economic security unemployment, children economy, beeing one of the factors explaining powerty and the average income. the growth potential in the future. The economic security is directly influenced by economic competitiveness so, 2. THE WORLD CRISIS AND THE my analysis is designed starting from the ECONOMIC SECURITY Global Competitiveness Index (GCI), index that the World Economic Forum based its In the context of confrontation with the reports since 2005. This index captures the largest global recession in the last decades, microeconomic and macroeconomic policy makers were confronted with new foundations of national competitiveness and economic management challenges and adopted has 12 pillars: institutions, infrastructure, 75 CrisisManagement and Socio-Humanities macroeconomic stability, health and primary contraction. For Romania, a country education, higher education and training, considered to be affected average by the crisis goods market efficiency, labor market (Table 1), these indicators show the following: efficiency, financial market sophystication, Unemployment returned on an upward technological readiness, market size, business trend since the second half of 2008. sophistication and innovation. Unemployment reached 6.3% in July 2009, a The importance of a solid institutional level that has not been confirmed from 2006. environment has become even more apparent Most of those who remained unemployed in during the curent crisis, given the increasingly 2009 come from the private sector, more direct role played by the state in the economy sensitive to shocks in the economy. The of many contries. The degree of control by the government planned to reduce the vast state to private groups is greater, the public bureaucracy of the year 2010, the number of goods tend to be directed primarily to unemployed will probably exceed the representatives of dominant groups and the threshold of 1 million. state becomes increasingly weak. If anti-crisis strategy does not pose serious challenges for Table 1 Romanian macroeconomic indicators knowledge, serious problems may occur in GDP (1st half 2009/1st half 2008) -8.7% practical application where there is lack of Hoseholds consumption -15% institutional capacity, mechanisms confusing (1st half 2009/1st half 2008) or inexplicable bureaucratic delays. Gross fixed capital formation -25% Also, private institutions are an important (1st half 2009/1st half 2008) element in creating prosperity. The ensurence Industrial production -6.9% of transparency in the private sector is (July 2009/July2008) essential for business, as indeed, the recent global economic crisis has highlighted the Current account deficit -73.8% relevance of accounting and reporting (July 2009/July2008) Unemployment (August 2009) 6.6% standards for the prevention of fraud and Budget deficit (8 months 2009) -4.4% mismanagement. Infrastructure is the key to ensuring the effective functioning of the economy. In the Inflation has changed its upward trend at crisis context it became more evident that lack the same time with major reductions in of infrastructure is a brake in economic spending population. Thus, the annualized development. Infrastructure is, for any inflation down by nearly 4 percent from the country, the backbone of the economy. It is an maximum recorded in summer 2008, reaching area in which the crisis can still be a positive 4.7% at the end of 2009. Some banking factor on the long term, given the central role analysts argue that this level is still slightly of infrastructure development in most national higher because of the monopolistic markets stimulus package. where consumers can not exercise sufficient Macroeconomic stability is important for pressure to determine the reduction rate of business, but equally important is the fact that price increase. by itself it can increase the productivity of a Industrial production went into negative nation.Maintaining macroeconomic stability is territory since the fall of 2008. The decline essential to prevent adverse effects associated deepened in 2009 when there were significant with sudden fluctuations. Economic indicators monthly decline, in the context of the low fluctuations, a high interest rate monetary demand which caused the companies to reduce policy, an unstable exchange rate can be for the volume of manufactured goods. In the II investors as many signs of declining marginal quarter, Romania's industrial output dropped productivity of capital [10]. The impact of the by over 8%, while in some European countries crisis on macroeconomic indicators is clear: dropped by over 20%. Amid the decline of they have changed over the past years and exports and domestic demand weak, some have generated or have reacted to economic factories even produce at half of their capacity. 76 The Economical Security Concept in The Context of the Global Economic Crisis External debt of Romania's medium and the late of 2008 and early months of 2009, long term exploded in 2009, reaching 57.2 when it exceeded the threshold of 4 lei/euro. billion EUR. Analysts argue that because the The result of plummeting current account most debt is represented by the long term, the deficit has led most specialists estimate for major risks in the economy are minor. 2010 has an oscillation rate between 4.0 and GDP, after in 2008 reached a record 126.4 4.5 RON/ EURO. billion EURO, up by 7% compared to 2007, The exports of the Romanian companies declined by 7.1% in 2009. This is the first have declined in the late of 2008, amid annual decline after 2000 (Fig. 1), during contractions developed economies of Western which nominal GDP of Romania increased by Europe. During January-June 2009 exports more than tripled. registered an average decline of almost 19% over the same period in 2008, while imports recorded an average contraction almost double. Thus, the Romanian commercial deficit in the first 6 months of 2009 was 4.3 million EURO, 6.8 million EURO less than the same period of 2008. Fig. 1 GDP (PPP int’l $) per capita, 1980-2008 Following of the output recession signals in the Western European economies, it is Decreased the exports, the industrial expected to demand a return of Romanian production and the foreign investment have products since 2010 (Fig.2). A healthy put huge pressure on emerging countries in population means a vigorous nation and a Eastern Europe, including Romania, which productive workforce, which is a prerequisite have seen no source that fueled the economies for sustainable economic development of a in the past. country. Public debt reached in the midle of 2009 the value of 29.3 billion EURO, almost one quarter of GDP. With falling revenue from the state budget, the Government had to borrow from both local banks and from international lending institutions. Net average wage has continued to grow and in early 2009 but at rates much lower than previous years. Thus, in June 2009 it was 1379 lei, by 8.3% above the same month in 2008. The wage growth has stopped speaking of a „freezing” of the wage income of the entire 2010 budget. The high pressures to reduce costs recorded also in the private sector. Foreign direct investment in the Romanian market in 2009 saw a decline of almost 37% compared to 2008, year of the post- revolutionary maximum (over 9 billion Fig. 2 GDP growth in 2010 EURO). Now, the investors are more alert regarding the risks of operations in emerging The financial crisis is felt in the health markets, especially in a time when funding is system, which in most cases requires more difficult obtained than previously. additional funds, otherwise the risk of inability The exchange rate leu-euro has stabilized to grant health care essentials is imminent. The in the recent months around the threshold of only way to avoid such devolution is to 4.2 RON, after a galloping growth recorded in maintain system health on the agenda of 77 CrisisManagement and Socio-Humanities government priorities, investing and using system following the credit crisis could health resources efficiently. amount to 2800 billion USD (after the Bank of Basic education, the quality of higher England's estimate of 28.10.2008). The most education and training are crucial for severe financial crisis of the past 80 years has economies that want to move the value chain caused the global collapse of the stock beyond simple production process. The global exchanges, the bankruptcies of more banks financial crisis threatens to deprive millions of emblematic of the modern market economy children in the poorest countries of education, and adopt more extreme measures by countries with a secondary effect on future economic to stabilize their economies or avoid collapse. growth. Governments are forced to reduce The current economic climate has led to a expenditure on education, which might lead change in thinking about technology and its some parents to withdraw children from impact. In the context of „new normality” [13], school. Thus, we witness the „creation of a lost innovation based on technology are the main generation with huge costs to society” [11]. leverage in order to create competitive In terms of efficiency of the goods market, advantage. The feature taxes for technology because of the sharp fall in prices on are becoming more limited, but what the state commodity exchanges, the strategy followed can do is to provide a fair competitive market. by major exporters was to extend massive The same phenomenon is found in stocks, while reforming the industry. scientific research. Drastic decrease in the The economic crisis brought on the budgets in this area affects not only the labor market new supply and demand opportunity to conduct research projects by reformulations. If qualified staff felt the effects national or international competitions, but the of the crisis by lowering offers and reduced long term, the loss of human resources in wages, those with common jobs are faced with research. Basically, under-funding of research the need to retrain in order to keep their jobs or is a loss of national competitiveness of the to find some work, in conditions that the economy that will persist for decades. unemployment is rising. Thus, in an The markets were not immune to current International Labor Organization report shows financial shock and many were severely that in 2009, global unemployment has affected. For example, the situation on the reached 6.6%, meaning 212 million people main market in early October 2008 was unemployed. presented in this way: The U.S. Dow indicator Despite measures taken by governments, decreased by 25% in three months, the the number of unemployed will remain high in indicator of China's Shanghai Exchange fell by 2010. The young people under 35 were most 30% at Brazil's BOVESPA, with 41% and affected. Between 2007 and 2009, 10.2 million Russia, RTSI, with 61%. people were forced to live from unemployment Not even the emerging markets have been benefits. In Romania, the crisis has created avoided; they were badly affected due to a paradoxical situation: in terms of reduction of export and flow of private capital. unemployment rates that exceeded 8% in This effect was magnified by the phenomenon January 2010, there are a number of sectors in of „flight to quality” when investors withdrew which jobs are available for anyone but their capital from risky markets. The countries nobody applies to occupie them. The are required more than ever to manage necessary staff training and workplace training economic sovereignty from national for adoption workers' skills to the changing competitiveness, increase of national wealth needs were the last priorities in the current fund involvement in international economic economic context. relations and national economic security. Those who regulate and supervise the financial markets should never underestimate 3. CONCLUSIONS systemic risks and have to be always on alert when it comes to financial stability. The The main lesson that we gave the current accumulated losses of the global financial recession is mainly related to reconsider the 78 The Economical Security Concept in The Context of the Global Economic Crisis state's role in rescuing the financial system, in REFERENCES ensuring the sustainability of the system, integrity and transparency it. 1. Baldwin, D., Neorealism and Also, the risks during the crisis are neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate, changed and interventionist measures by Columbia University Press, N.Y., 1993; governments are not always welcome, 2. Cioacă, C., A study regarding the particularly because of the long-term effects. applicability of the security complex theory That can be gold-plating of the financial sector in the WBSR, XXI Strategies, National or lack of resources that have to be allocated to Defence University, 9-10 april 2009, prevent other risks, such as those related to Bucharest; infrastructure. 3. www.e-juridic.ro/dictionar-juridic/ However, this crisis could provide an securitate-economică/3936.html; opportunity for governments “transition 4. Rotaru, M.P., The economic security – countries” (as Romania) to regain credibility organic dimension of national security, of their citizens by adopting measures such as Impact strategic no.3/2009, Bucharest, the creation of macro and micro economic safe NDU Publishing House, 2009; conditions for capital investment stranger, to 5. Minculete, Gh., Popescu, M.M., Economic continue the structural reforms that will be the security and challenges of the global basis for sustainable growth, focusing on fiscal economic crisis, Impact strategic no.3/ and monetary policies, the imposition of rule 2009, Bucharest, NDU Publishing House, of law, institutions of law and property rights 2009; protection. 6. Frunzetti, T., Geostrategy, CTEA Publi- Without doubt, any state is concerned shing House, Bucharest, 2009, p.180; about economic security. In crisis, economic 7. World Economic Forum, The Global security becomes more than a component of Competitiveness Report 2009-2010, national security. Geneva, Switzerland, 2009, p. 4; It is a direct consequence of the economic 8. International Monetary Found, World power of the state, both seriously affected by Economic Outlook, Crisis and Recovery, changes in external economic conditions and April 2009, p. 4-9; by a number of internal factors: the political 9. Altman, R., The Great Crash, A system, lack of the economic competitiveness Geopolitical Setback for the West, Foreign and the failures of the social protection Affairs, January-February 2009, p.5; system. 10. Keynes, J.M., General theory of Paradoxically, should Romania is able to employment, interest and money, Publica, effectively manage EU funds under the anti- Bucharest, 2009, p. 387; crisis plan, alongside with a program and a 11. Bokova, I., Education for all, Global properly tailored crisis budget, flexible Monitoring Report, 2010; enough, it could get out of this crisis stronger, 12. www.zf.ro/daniel-daianu-criza-financiara- with a substantial increase in economic internationala/3054446; security. 13. www.mckinseyquartely.com/Time-to- raise-the-CIOs-game-2447. 79 Management and Socio-Humanities GOOD RESISTANCE TO MANIPULATION AND THE COMPETENCE OF APPLYING ETHICS IN MANAGEMENT Daniela BELU “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Abstract: This paper has the purpose of transmitting information and ideas about the things that stand at the foundation of performance assessment destined to bring success in private life and also in the organisation development. Keywords: management, emotional intelligence, resistence to manipulation. 1. OVERVIEW The second instrument is an adapted version [1] of the questionnaire in Table 1, The purpose of the survey was to check the which comprises 30 questions about different following hypotheses: usual life situations, some of them really I. Not all subjects with Machiavellian critical, even irritating. You can answer YES, attitudes are as well victims of NO or MORE OR LESS, when you are manipulation (that is with a weak undecided. There is no time limit for resistance to manipulation) or not. completing the test, but it would be better to II. Can the subjects with good resistance to try to answer quickly, without philosophizing manipulation be found to a greater extent too much on each question, without splitting only in sample 2 and are missing from the hairs. Answer with absolute sincerity, because samples 1 and 3 or not. only this way you have the opportunity to III. Are there subjects with weak resistance to know your real conditions in the face of the manipulation only in the samples 1 and 3 environment and whether you are a victim of or not. manipulation or not. In the light of the above mentioned aspects, The achieved score is calculated as we find it opportune to emphasize the follows: at first, award 2 points for each YES competence of the young military students answer to the questions 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, (future officers for the Infantry and Air Force) 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, and civilians (future doctors) regarding 27, 29 and for each NO to the questions 1, 4, the competence of applying ethics into 7, 12, 23, 26, 28, 30. Furthermore award 1 management (reflecting emotional intelligence point for each MORE OR LESS answer. in dominating the own negative emotions and Summing up the points, you shall get the to transmit positive emotions to the others). personal score which can be interpreted We used as a measuring system the second according to the value categories in Table 3, in indicator: the capacity of not surrendering to order to find out the grade for susceptibility or manipulators. in other words your resistance to manipulation. Table 1 Are you being manipulated? Current Questions no. 1 Do you know how to stand to your interests? 2 Are your thoughts and emotions easy to read? 80 Good Resistance to Manipulation and the Competence of Applying Ethics in Management 3 Are you a hot- tempered person? 4 Do you answer a determined NO to an inconvenient demand? 5 Were you involved in absurd actions only to please someone? 6 Do you have a soft spot for certain persons? 7 Are you being called a stubborn person? 8 Do you agree with the saying: no great loss without some small gain? 9 Do you consider the first decision taken to be also the best? 10 Do you easily fall into traps? 11 Do you enjoy gambling? 12 Do you cease an activity in the middle of it when you find out that the result being pursued is uncertain, although you have invested a great deal of money, time and energy? 13 Do your acquaintances consider you a naïve and credulous person? 14 Do you subscribe to the Latin aphorism “Errare humanum est, perseverare diabolicum est”? 15 Do you hold yourself responsible only if you have promised something to someone even formally? 16 Do you fulfil your promise, even if it was forced upon you? 17 Do you get easily angry? 18 Have you sometimes realised that you have certain opinions, but you cannot justify their origin? 19 Is the saying “Capul plecat sabia nu-l taie” correct? [Romanian proverb meaning “Obedient people don’t get into trouble”] 20 Do you deliver a service to someone even if you consider he/ she does not deserve it? 21 Are you usually a polite person? 22 Are you inflexible in your decisions? 23 Is your sleep restful? 24 Do you give in to the requests of a charming person? 25 Do you listen to the statements of an interlocutor even if he/ she is uttering gross ineptitudes? 26 Do you consider that everything you do is the consequence of your decisions? 27 If you started an activity and have not achieved the desired results, do you have the tendency to invest new expenditures considering that you hereby approach the pursued goal? 28 When you make an important decision, do you also take into account other persons' opinions? 29 Do you stick to a point of view only because you do not want to be regarded as a weak, hesitating person? 30 Do you set yourself a limit (of time, money, effort) in solving a problem, beyond which you give up your activity? Table 2 Score interpretation two tests, which have already been presented Grade of resistance to Achieved score in terms of content and interpretation, are manipulation depicted in the Tables no. 3, 4, 5. 60-43 Weak Regarding the resistance to manipulation, it 42-23 Average has been determined that, in sample no. 1, out 22-10 Good of six subjects who do not use manipulation 9-0 Very good techniques, three subjects have an average resistance to manipulation, and the other three We established three samples of 12 have a good resistance, whereas out of the 6 subjects each: students who apply manipulation techniques 4 - SAMPLE 1 made up of infantry students, have an average resistance to the attack of - SAMPLE 2 made up of military students- other manipulative persons, one has a poor navigating aviators from the Air Force, resistance and only one displays a good - SAMPLE 3 made up of civilian students resistance (Table no. 3). from the Faculty of Medicine. In sample 2, one subject of the 2 who do The three samples of military and civilian not use manipulation techniques has an students, as well as the results of applying the average resistance to manipulation and the 81 Management and Socio-Humanities other one has a good resistance, whereas out of what sample they are from is the fact that they the 10 subjects who apply manipulation use the manipulation techniques listed techniques, 4 have an average resistance to the below in groups: attack of other manipulative persons and the - “I make a merit of not being honest by rest of 6 subjects show a good resistance labelling my attitude as diplomacy”; (Table no. 4). - “I use force in order to make people around In sample 3 all 9 subjects who do not use me to act as I want them to”; manipulation techniques have an average - “I feel no remorse when I am lying to resistance to manipulation, and out of the 3 someone in order to gain certain benefits”; subjects who use manipulation techniques, 2 - “My goal is not to act morally.” have an average resistance to the attack of At least two of the 4 manipulation other manipulative persons and one has a poor techniques highlighted above have been resistance (Table no. 5). applied in sample 2 by each of respondents 6, What differentiates respondents with low 11, 12, who show, all three of them, an resistance to manipulation (respondent 11 average resistance to manipulation, like 50% from sample 1 and respondent 11 from sample of the upright respondents from samples 3), from the rest of the respondents, no matter 1, 2, 3. Table 3 SAMPLE No. 1 xi→ Standard deviation Variation 1x = ( ∑ xi )/12 = Standard sample deviation σ1 = xi - 1x σ1 ² 1,08(3) 27 -1.08(3) 1.1728 21 -7.08(3) 50.1688 28 -0.08(3) 0.0068 ∑ xi( − 1x ) 2 = 554.915 27 -1.08(3) 1.1728 27 -1.08(3) 1.1728 22 -6.08(3) 37.0028 26 -2.08 4.3388 36 +7.917 62.6788 [ ∑ xi( − 1x ) 2 ]/12 = 46.2429 26 -2.08(3) 4.3388 33 +4.917 24.1768 45 +16.917 286.1848 19 -9.08(3) 82.5008 Table 4 SAMPLE No. 2 xi→ Standard deviation Variation Standard sample deviation 2x = ( ∑ xi )/12 = 22,91 σ2 = xi - 2x σ 2² 28 +5.09 25.9081 18 -4.91 24.1081 30 +7.09 50.2681 ∑ xi( − 2x ) 2 = 384.6 13 -9.91 98.2081 18 -4.91 24.1081 27 +4.91 16.7281 22 -0.91 0.8281 2 19 -3.91 15.2881 [ ∑ xi( − 2x ) ]/12 = 26.4097 22 -0.91 0.8281 22 -0.91 0.8281 26 +3.09 9.5481 82 Good Resistance to Manipulation and the Competence of Applying Ethics in Management 30 +7.09 50.2681 Table 5 SAMPLE No. 3 xi→ Standard deviation Variation Standard sample deviation 3x = ( ∑ xi )/12 = 4,083 σ3 = xi - 3x σ 3² 27 -2 4 27 -2 4 30 +1 1 ∑ xi( − 3x ) 2 = 280 23 -6 36 38 -1 1 30 +1 1 26 -3 9 26 -3 9 28 -1 1 [ ∑ xi( − 3x ) 2 ]/12 = 23,33 35 +6 36 42 +13 169 26 -3 9 2. VALIDATION OF THE SCORE OF We compare the average from sample 1 to RESISTANCE TO MANIPULATION the average from sample 2 and apply the “t” test, i.e. we use formula (1): By studying the information referring to − 2x1x (1) the resistance to manipulation we find that the t = ()2 ( )2 ⋅σ+⋅σ 112111 1 1 share of those who have a good resistance and ∑∑ +⋅ respectively a weak resistance to manipulation 22 12 12 in the 3 sample is as follows: Common standard deviation is calculated Sample no. 1 using formula (2) 3…12 2 ∑∑ 2 ⋅σ+⋅σ 22/]11)2(11)1[( (2) x…100 → x = 3·100/12 = 25% − 91.22)3(08.28 have good resistance to manipulation t = = 1…12 ⋅+⋅ 119172.316119156.554 2 ⋅ x…100 → x = 100/12 = 8.33% 22 12 have a weak resistance to manipulation. 173.5 The other 66.67% have an average = = 1919.0 resistance to manipulation. 948649.26 Sample no. 2 tcalculated= +0. 1919 7…12 Looking into the table of “t” values on x…100 → x = 7·100/12 = 58.33 % the row indicated by the liberty threshold have a good resistance to manipulation. (n1 + n2 - 2) and in the column indicated by The other 41.67% have an average the probability threshold, 0.20, (i.e. at the resistance to manipulation. intersection of column 0.20 with line 22) we Sample no. 3 find the value of tcritical : 0…12 t = +1.32 x…100 → x = 0·100/12 = 0% critical have a good resistance to manipulation tcalculated < tcritical ; 1…12 +0. 1919 < +1.32 → x…100 → x = 100/12 = 8.33% Null hypotheses 6 is accepted have a weak resistance to manipulation. With an error risk of 20%, (0.20·100 =20), The other 91.67% have an average we conclude that the two averages of samples resistance to manipulation. 1 and 2 not differ significantly. By observing 83 Management and Socio-Humanities the two environments we notice that the 2 2 ∑ valuse subjects of sample 1 are less resistant to ∑ valuse − manipulation than the subjects of sample 2 valuesofnumber (6) (28.08(3) > 22.91). −1valuesofnumber We compare the average of sample 1 to the ∑ )values( 2 = (27) 2 ·3 + (21) 2 +(28) 2 + average of sample 3 and apply “t” test, i.e. we 2 2 2 2 2 use formula (3): (22) + (-36) ·2 + (33) + 45) + (19) = − 3x1x =10019 t = (3) Standard deviation from sample 1 = 2 2 () ()⋅σ+⋅σ 113111 1 1 ∑∑ +⋅ = 10019( − 11/)12/10019 = 28.894925 22 12 12 t = -6.08(3)/(28.894925/ 12 ) = 0.7292 Common standard deviation is calculated Looking into the table of “t” values on the using formula (4) row indicated by the liberty threshold and 2 ∑∑ 2 ⋅σ+⋅σ 22/]11)3(11)1[( (4) (n1 - 1) in the column indicated by the − 29)3(08.28 probability threshold, 0.20, (i.e. at the t = = intersection of column 0.20 with line 11) we ⋅+⋅ 11280119156.554 2 ⋅ find the value of tcritical : 22 12 t = + 1.37; t < t ; 917.0 critical calculated critical = −= 03477.0 +0.7292 < + 1.37 → 371916.26 Null Hypothesis 1 is accepted. tcalculated = -0.0377 With an error risk of 20%, (0.20 · 100 = 20), Looking into the table of “t” values on the we conclude that: row indicated by the liberty threshold and in - 66.67% of the subjects in sample no.1 have (n1 + n2 - 2) the column indicated by the and average resistance to manipulation, (i.e. probability threshold, 0.20, (i.e. at the they have a slight tendency to let themselves intersection of column 0.20 with line 22) we manipulated by other people, recovering find the value of t critical : quickly from a rational and logical point of t critical = +1.37; t calculated < t critical ; view), and 33.33% of these use manipulation - 0.0377 < + 1.37 → techniques themselves; Null Hypothesis 5 is rejected. - 8.33% of the subjects, i.e. one subject only, We therefore conclude that a risk of error (who also applies Machiavellian techniques), of 20%, (0.20 · 0.001 = 20), that the two has a weak resistance to manipulation, (i.e. averages belonging to sample 1 and sample 3 he/she manifests the tendency to accept other not differ significantly. By observing the people’s ideas and easily gets under external averages we find that the subjects of sample 1 influences which might pertain to mundane are somewhat more resistant to manipulation lifestyles, the acceptance of novelty in all the than the subjects of sample 3 (28.08(3) < 29). domains, a great receptivity to advertisements By way of transitivity it results that the and commercials); subjects of sample 2 resist a lot better to - 25% of the subjects have a good resistance manipulation than the subjects of sample 3 to manipulation, (i.e. they manifest the (22.91 < 29). tendency to imitate certain attitudes, By comparing, in sample 1, the average to sometimes unconsciously). the norm of resistance to manipulation, we By observing the norm and the average in apply the “t” test, this time using formula (5): sample 1, (22 < 28.08(3)), we find that the + nom1sampleofagevara subjects generally have an average resistance t = (5) dardtans + nom1sampleindeviation to manipulation, (i.e. they have a slight tendency to let themselves manipulated by 1sampleinsubjectsofnumber other people, but recovering rapidly from a Standard deviation from sample 1 is rational, logical point of view). calculated using formula (6): 84 Good Resistance to Manipulation and the Competence of Applying Ethics in Management By comparing, in sample 2, the average Standard deviation from sample 3 = with the norm of not using manipulation = 10372( − 11/)12/10372 = 29.399546 techniques, meaning being an upright person, we apply the “t” test, again using formula (5). t = 7/(29.399546/ 12 ) = 0.8247 Standard deviation from sample 2 is calculated using formula (6): Looking into the table of “t” values on the 2 2 2 2 row indicated by the liberty threshold and (n1 - ∑ )values( = (28) +(18) · 2+(30) ·2+ 1) in the column indicated by the probability +(13) 2 +(27) 2 +(22) 2 ·3+(19) 2 + threshold, 0.20, (i.e. at the intersection of + (26) 2 = 6619 column 0.20 with line 11) we find the value of Standard deviation from sample 2 = t critical : = − 11/)12/66196619 = 23.455811 t critical = +1.37; t calculated < t critical ; t = 0.91/(23.485811/ 12 ) = 0.1342 +0.8247 < +1.37 → Looking into the table of “t” values on the Null Hypothesis 1 is accepted. row indicated by the liberty threshold (n1 - 1) With an error risk of 20%, (0.20 · 100 = 20), and in the column indicated by the probability we conclude that: threshold, 0.20, (i.e. at the intersection of - 91.67% of the subjects of sample no. 3 column 0.20 with line 11) we find the value of have an average resistance to manipulation, (i.e. they have a slight tendency to let t critical : themselves be manipulated by other people, t = +1.37; t < t ; critical calculated critical but recover fast from a rational, logical point +0.1342 < +1.37 → of view), and 16.6% of them use manipulation Null Hypothesis 1 is accepted. techniques themselves; With an error risk of 20%, (0.20 · 100 = 20), - 8.33% of the subjects, i.e. one subject (who we conclude that: also applies Machiavellian techniques), has - 58.33% of the subjects from sample no.2 weak resistance to manipulation, (i.e. he/she have a better resistance to manipulation (i.e. manifests the tendency to accept other they manifest the tendency to sometimes people’s ideas, easily abiding by external imitate attitudes unconsciously), and 50% of influences that might pertain the mundane them actually use manipulation techniques; lifestyle, the acceptance of novelty in all the - 41.67% of the subjects have an average fields, a great receptivity to advertisements resistance to manipulation, (i.e. they have a and commercials). slight tendency to let themselves be By observing the norm and the average in manipulated by other people, rapidly sample 3, (22 < 29), we find that the subjects recovering from an emotional, logical point of generally have an average resistance to view), and 50% of these actually use manipulation, (i.e. they have a slight tendency manipulation techniques. to let themselves manipulated by other people, By the norm and the average in sample 2, but recovering rapidly from a rational, logical (22 < 22.91), we find that the subjects point of view). generally have good resistance to manipulation, (i.e. they manifest the tendency REFERENCES to sometimes imitate certain attitudes unconsciously). 1. McMillan, P., Personality Tests, Aldo By comparing, in sample 3, the average to Press Publishing House, 1996, pp. 114,115; the norm of resisting well to manipulation, we 2. Kets de Vries, M., Leadership, the Art and apply the “t” test, again using formula (5). Mastery of Leading, Condex Publishing Standard deviation from sample 3 is House, 2003; calculated using formula (6): 3. Goleman, D., Emotional Intelligence, ∑ )values( 2 = (27) 2 · 2+(30) 2 · 2+(23) 2 + Curtea Veche Publishing House, 2001; +(28) 2 ·2+(26) 2 ·3+(35) 2 +(42) 2 = 10372 85 Management and Socio-Humanities 4. McMillan, P., Personality Tests, Aldo 5. Maxwell, J.C., Develop the Leader Inside, Press Publishing House, 1996; Amaltea Publishing House, 1999. 86 Management and Socio-Humanities MEMBERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS AND SELF-ESTEEM IN THE CONTEXT OF BIOLOGICAL INVOLUTION IN ADULT FEMALE Elena-Simona INDREICA*, Camelia TRUŢA* *“Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania Abstract: Personal successes and failures and internalization of others opinions influence, among other factors, self - image. In adulthood a person remodels his or her self-image on the ground of perceived body-image and according with status and successes. Our investigation was designed as a comparative study between adult female members of an organization and adult female non-members of an organization regarding their self-image, in the context of biological involution characteristic to the 45 - 55 age sub-periods. All participants in our study were considered professional successful. Our hypothesis was confirmed at a highly significant level. Keywords: motivational area, adult female, biological involution, self-image, organization. 1. INTRODUCTION getting old are more vulnerable in developing depression or negative self-esteem. Can we Biological involution does not imply only a talk about differences regarding self - esteem genetic program of individual ontogenesis, but between adult women who belong to an also subjective experiences, emotional organization and those who don’t, while both feelings, and mental states [1,3,10]. Attention categories have professional success? is mostly driven by the physical changes, psychological ones being neglected. 2. BIOLOGICAL INVOLUTION AND Despite the controversies about age stages PSYCHOLOGICAL AGING between different authors in developmental psychology, we consider in this article the 45 - Psychological aging is the result of age- 55 age interval as being part of adult life. induced changes in biostructures [10], which Often characterized by professional and socio- constitute the material support of mental life cultural identities [1,12], this stage is marked and that of actual performance of psycholo- by biological involution, tensioned events, gical functions [2]. These changes are depression, and changes in the usual life determined by intern factors (such as heredity, rhythm [10,11]. “Middle age crisis” is used by usage of the nervous system) and external researchers to describe the moment in which factors (ecological, social and cultural factors) middle age women realize the changes [3]. produced in their lives, such as getting old, Events in the social environment (the occupational changes, children departure. socio-professional environment, socio-cultural Personal successes or failures and others’ environment and relational environment), interiorized opinions influence self – image. which particularly occur in the life of adults As an adult, a person rechanges his/her self- [11], have a strong echo on the psychological image according to the way in which he/her plan, being the ground of psychological aging. perceives the corporal self and her Retirement from professional activity, waiving achievement. Women without a professional of some activities, diminishes in biological activity or those obsessed with the idea of potential, frequent somatic illnesses, possible 86 Membership in Organizations and Self-Esteem in the Context of Biological Involution in Adult Female disabilities, decreases in the number of family 1. Changes in attention or diminished ability members (death of life partner, children to concentrate, diminished voluntary attention become adults), disappearance of old friends which lead cu decreases in mnezic ability, are some of these social events [2]. especially in the short-term memory; Regressions in the sensorial plan information in long-term memory appears to associated with diminished informational be much more organized and systematized. flux and relational sphere [1,12], determine 2. Changes in thinking which are psychological suffering changes such as characterized by decreases in spontaneity, helplessness, isolation, ideas of injuries. flexibility, quick adaptation disorders and Another important factor of psychological stereotypes. Decreases in the number of changes and disorders is becoming aware neurons and of nervous connexions do not of biological involution and associated affect in the same way every cerebral structure uncertainties regarding the future perspectives. or region. These differential characteristics Psychology of senescence is characterized, in appear in behaviour. general, by unequal and non-linear involution 3. Several disharmonic pre-existent traits can of discrete psychological functions, associated be accentuated or even developed at the with important individual differences character dimension. determined by innate predispositions, previous 4. The affective dimension is dominated by level of psychological abilities development, depression, apathy, coldness, which lead to an level of achieved performance, experience, unstable or irritable behaviour. Somatic cultural level and educational level [13]. sufferings, sleep and appetite disorders, feeling Psychology of senescence has three general of culpability and uselessness, self-blaming are aspects [2, p.45]: symptoms of involution depression. - The differential character, which highlights Characteristics of the aging process are significant differences between persons and obvious at all personality dimensions [14]. between the systems or functions of the same Depending on the attitudes systems developed person. in relation with complex existential state of the - Multiple determination of the psychological adult, a person may be in one of the following senescence, the aging process is the result of frequent condition: existential situation is individual interactions with the particular perceived as being overwhelming and physical, biological and social environment, disarming, constructive or refused [2]. which determine the degree of aging to depend Those approaching the first condition will less on the age and more on genetic, somatic, develop aging models with high pathological moral and social characteristics of the risk; egocentric, introvert, depressive and individual. anxious, and hypochondriac traits are in - Relative character of disabilities, advantage. Those persons approaching the physiological senescence appears without second condition will develop optimal aging obvious signs as a consequence of the fact that models. We mention here adults or elder human body and mind can compensate and persons who have a balanced and structured balance deterioration by using complex personality and who can reorganize their reserves. For example, although intelligence potential and invest it in an activity in reaches maximum performance in fluidity concordance with their new, post-retirement, between 16 and 25 years old, we cannot talk of personal, familial and social conditions. deterioration of intelligence after this period of Persons in the third condition will also age, many times similar or even greater develop aging models with high pathological performance are obtained later. risk but in a different manner. As a dominant According to PhD Constantin Bogdan characteristic of these people is the strain their (1997), normal functioning of an elder excessive “hyper-ego” imposes. Not admitting implies physical, psychological and social specific deterioration of their age, these balance. persons remain at activity levels that go Psychological changes imply [2]: beyond their possibilities and risk to suffer 87 Management and Socio-Humanities somatic or psychological break-downs much with ages between 45 and 55; 41 persons were difficult to overcome later. working in different organization, while 39 We should also mention a disharmonic women were free-lancers. structure of personality on the ground of Instruments used: biological involution biological involution giving the elders a questionnaire; self - esteem questionnaire; general negative state [13]. The analytical social self - esteem inventory; corporal self adult will become the pestiferous old man, the perception questionnaire; observation guide. prudent adult will become the suspicious old man, the meticulous adult will be the 4. RESULTS stereotypical old man, the economic one becomes miser and so on. Hypothesis 1: The correlated variables in hypothesis 1 are biological involution level 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY and self - esteem level. Bravais - Pearson correlation coefficient was used in order to Purpose of the research: to conduct a determine the relation between the two comparative study on self - image in female variables. We obtained: r = −0.406, N = 80, adults who belong to an organization and self - p < 0.001. The statistically significant negative image in female adults who don’t belong to an correlation allows us to affirm that the organization, according to specific biological hypothesis is confirmed: while biological involution of the 45 -55 age stage. involution accentuates, self - esteem level Research objectives: to stress biological decreases. involution influence on female adults’ self - Hypothesis 2: The correlated variables are esteem; to identify the biological factors that corporal self perception and social self - influence adult women’s self - esteem; to esteem level. The result of the correlation was point out the necessity of maintaining statistically significant: r = 0.289, N = 80, women’s health through their involvement in p < 0.001. Hypothesis was confirmed: as adult family and society; to identify the professional women are more satisfied with their physical factors that influence adult women’s self - appearance, the level of social self - esteem esteem. increases. General hypothesis: under the impact of It was also noticed that participants’ biological involution, women’s self - esteem occupation influences their perception of records negative changes, especially in persons physical appearance, and social self - esteem. who don’t belong to an organization. The result of the correlation (Bravais - Pearson Specific hypotheses: correlation coefficient) between participants’ 1. There is a significant correlation between occupation and the way in which they perceive the degree of biological involution and self - their physical appearance was: r = 0.265, esteem level in adult women (of 45 - 55 years N = 80, p < 0.005. The coefficient is old). statistically significant which means that 2. There is a relation of interdependence corporal self perception improves as between corporal self perception and social participants’ occupation is higher. self - esteem in adult women (of 45 - 55 years Regarding the relation between old). participants’ current occupation and their 3. There is a correlation between professional social self - esteem, the result of the dissatisfaction level and self - esteem level in correlation was: r = 0.238, N = 80, p < 0.005. adult women (of 45 - 55 years old). The correlation is statistically significant: as 4. There is a correlation between health participants’ current occupation is higher, their problems associated with the age and self - social self - esteem is higher. esteem level in adult women (of 45 - 55 years Hypothesis 3: The correlated variables are old). the level of professional dissatisfaction and The investigated sample: all the self - esteem level. The result of the participants (80 persons) were adult women, correlation (Bravais - Pearson correlation 88 Membership in Organizations and Self-Esteem in the Context of Biological Involution in Adult Female coefficient) was: r = −0.263, N = 80, Women involved in an organization receive, p < 0.005. The statistically significant negative also, much more compliments and correlation confirms the hypothesis. As encouragements when compared with free- participants’ professional dissatisfaction lancers. This helps them to accept more easily increases, self - esteem decreases. the process of getting old. Hypothesis 4: The correlated variables are The objectives of the research were health problems associated with the age and partially achieved, the neccessity of self - esteem level. The result of the maintaining women health through correlation (Bravais - Pearson correlation involvement in family and society and coefficient) was: r = −0.245, N = 80, identification of specific differences in the p < 0.005. The statistically significant negative perception of corporal, psychological, social correlation confirms the hypothesis. As health selves of female adults regardless of their problems associated with the age accentuate, social status, their culture or nationality self - esteem level decreases. remaining as points of interest for future researches. 5. CONCLUSIONS REEFERENCES Most of the women (78% from the investigated sample) build their self - image 1. Birch, A., Psihologia dezvoltării, Ed. during adolescence. The fundament of self - Tehnică, Bucureşti, 2000; image construction was corporal self, 2. Constantin, B., Geriatrie, Ed. Medicală, psychological and social selves playing a Bucureşti, 1997; secondary part. Therefore, biological 3. Dacey, Travers, Human Development. involution in adult life determined negative Across the lifespan, Boston College, The changes in self - image, because the changes Third Edition, 1996; associated with the process of getting old are 4. Iluţ, P., Sinele şi cunoaşterea lui, Ed. evident and irreversible (on a scale from 1 - Polirom, Iaşi, 2001; unnoticed to 20 - extremely evident, the mean 5. James, W., Zanden, V., Human for the degree of getting old is 16, which development, The Ohio State University. means a high level of biological involution at The Fifth Edition, 1978; the participants in the research). 6. *** Larousse. Marele dicţionar al For testing the main hypothesis, we used psihologiei, Ed. Trei, Bucureşti, 2007; independent sample t test for difference of 7. Luca, L., Un ghid pentru femeile de toate means between the self - image of adult vârstele, Ed. Speranţa, Iaşi, 1991; women belonging to an organization and the 8. Modrea, M., Imagini de sine şi persona- self - image of adult women who don’t belong litate în adolescenţă, Ed. Aliter, Focşani, to an organization. The difference is 2006; statistically significant (t = 4,12, higher than 9. Olteanu, O., Psihiatria femeii, Ed. Dacia, the 3,62 value correspoding to p < 0,001), Cluj-Napoca, 1999; confirming therefore the fact that the self - 10. Sion, G., Psihologia vârstelor, Ed. esteem suffer, under the impact of biological România de Mâine, Bucureşti, 2003; involution, negative changes in persons who 11. Tudose, C., Gen şi personalitate, Ed. don’t belong to an organization. A possible Tritonic, Bucureşti, 2007; explanation is that the persons involved in an 12. Şchiopu, U., Verza, E., Psihologia organization perceive their corporal self in a vârstelor. Ciclurile vieţii, Ed. Didactică şi more positive manner (the comparison with Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1997; others is at a low level as a consequence of 13. Vladimir, I.G., Biologia vârstelor şi lupta standard conduct or uniforms - on a scale from împotriva bătrâneţii, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi 1 to 5, the mean is 1.7; for persons whot don’t Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1984; belong to an organization, the mean is 4.1, the 14. Zlate, M., Eul şi personalitatea, Ed. comparison being at a much higher level). Polirom, Iaşi, 2004. 89 Management and Socio-Humanities ROMANIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS’ EVOLUTION Răzvan-Lucian ANDRONIC*, Anca ANDRONIC* *Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, „Spiru Haret” University, Braşov, Romania Abstract: Although a “core” and non-profit sector, having an important role in the functioning of a democracy, Romanian NGOs are little known to the general public and only rarely addressed by specialists. This article presents a brief history of the Romanian NGOs (from their appearance to date), with the emphasis on specific elements. Keywords: NGOs, association, democracy. 1. NGOs: THE „CORE” OF THE abbreviation “NGO” comes. It is used NONPROFIT SECTOR the correct form, “non-governmental organization” (composed of the prefix “non- Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) element of composition, adding the meaning have a unique position, being the most visible ‘not’ to nouns, adjectives and adverbs” and most influential component of the civil (Explanatory Dictionary of Romanian society, the “core” of the “third sector”, and Language, DEX, 674) followed by the membership in such organizations is a non- adjective “governmental – belonging to political form of participation (Almondo and government, regarding the government, Verba, 1996, 267). coming from the government; which At present, the NGOs have globally an represents or supports the government” – accelerated rhythm of numerical growth and of DEX, 439), as well as the incorrect one, diversification of their fields, developments “ungovernmental organization” (composed of that create major problems to the typology of the prefix “un- element of composition that these nonprofit entities. Referring to the adds the meaning “not”, “lacking” before adopted classification criteria, Vasile Stanescu nouns and some adjectives” (DEX, 698) (2001, 142-143) mentioned: the way the followed by “government”). The incorrect use members are recruited (depending or not on is common, being present especially in the membership or profession); membership or media, but also in public or nongovernmental coverage area (local, national or international sources of information. NGOs); types of beneficiaries (the general The main obstacle to the full affirmation of public, one or more target groups); sources of the role of the Romanian NGOs as a central income; the organization’s size. For the same element of “the third sector” is the fact that it author, “the most interesting classification of is not very well known, a “lack of basic NGOs” is the “International Classification of information on the sector and how it works” Nonprofit Organizations” – derived from the (Salamon and Anheier, 1998, 6). This UN’s international standard of industrial statement is fully true for Romania, where the classification – which divides NGOs into nine sources of information on NGOs are few and main categories, according to their main scattered (Stoiciu, 2001, 15): various reports of carried out activity (activity to which the most the National Institute of Statistics and operational expenses are destined). Economic Studies, reports published annually In Romania there has been a confusion by the Foundation for the Development of regarding the correct name from which the Civil Society (FDSC) or other organizations, 90 Romanian Non-Governmental Organizations’ Evolution such as CENTRAS. Other sources of reduced drastically; that was why the information can be found in public monasteries were no longer involved in social administration (e.g. publication of the balance activities; sheets by the Ministry of Public Finance). c) the rural character and the community- based organization of the Romanian society: 2. BRIEF HISTORY OF ROMANIAN the population consisted largely of peasants in NGOS the state of poverty, which provided cheap labour for landowners. The middle class did Mihaela Vlăsceanu (1996, 13) wrote that not make its presence felt during the the existence of “the third sector” has been principalities, which led to the “persistence of known for at least four centuries, as the the traditional rural mentality, leading to the activities of the church, philanthropic and isolation of rural communities. The society charitable institutions, mutual aid associations, suffered from chronic atomization, manifested etc. For Vasile Stanescu (2001, 135) at all levels of the community life, maintaining “associations and foundations have a fruitful a primitive way of life and thus remaining an local tradition”, with a distant origin in the impenetrable environment for the progressive associations of the type of the Roman colleges ideas”. (Saulean and Epure, 1998, 4) (attested by inscriptions from the third century The NGOs’ development was made AD), then the handicraft professional possible by the occurrence of the Law associations (since the XIIth century) and then 21/1924, “Law for legal persons (associations the guilds (the XIVth century). The Calimach and foundations)”, which occurred one year Code (the first form of civil code of Moldova, after the Romanian Constitution of 1923, the in force between 1817 and 1865) expressly first Romanian Constitution recognizing the recognized the legal personality of the guilds, right to free association. Law 12/1924 has an a provision which is found in the Organic interesting history. It was initiated by the then Regulations. Justice Minister, G G Marzescu, in order to Daniel Saulean and Carmen Epure (1998, use the “tools of association and foundation 2-4) present the history of philanthropy and well and clearly regulated” in an effort to the nonprofit sector in Romania, which began connect Romania to the evolution of the to develop at the border between the XIXth “civilized countries, where the expansion of and the XXth centuries. In relation to countries private initiative is ongoing upward” from the Western Europe, this development (Stanescu, 2001, 136). The law was not was delayed by a series of “general changed for many years (75 years) and resisted inhibitors”: the attempts to repeal it, repeals tried by the a) geopolitical factors: the fact that state leadership of the Romanian Communist Party, institutions have emerged later, following the due to the efforts of the Legislative Council, influence of our neighbouring empires; which “managed to keep the law under the political instability and dependence on foreign category of active regulatory acts, using an leaders; ingenious solution, that is “by omission”, b) the role of the Orthodox Church: unlike avoiding its inclusion in both the active track Catholicism, the Orthodox theology “does not and in the “passive” one, the one of the stress and promote charity as a means of repealed legislative acts” (Stanescu, 2001, salvation”. However “in the absence of good 166). administration of the state, the Church was During the interwar period, NGOs grew neither more nor less than required to meet substantially, both numerically and by several functions of social assistance. The diversifying the scope of their concerns. Orthodox monasteries became involved in However, the NGOs’ expansion in number hosting and supporting the poor”. (Saulean and was not a spectacular one, given the fact that Epure, 1998, 3) With the secularization of the civic activism and philanthropic activity were churches’ assets (in 1863), the resources generally the preserve of the upper strata of available to the Orthodox Church were society. 91 Management and Socio-Humanities In relation to the interwar Romania, the advocacy role of a speech highly critical of the communist regime meant a “significant step new power, who was labelled as a relic of the backwards” (Saulean and Epure, 1998, 7) in communist government; terms of NGOs' activity. Officially, the party- b) between 1993 and 1996 the attitude state controlled any type of organization, towards NGOs has improved slowly but including those based on free association, even surely. The first notable collaboration of the if their work could hardly become a NGOs with public authorities appeared then. “subversive” one (for example, the Bee The lack of opportunities for obtaining public Breeders Association of Romania). Gradually, funding is still felt, and media reports mostly the communist regime began to “encourage” the negative aspects of the non-governmental freedom of association, enabling some organizations’ activities (tax fraud, dubious associations to set up (according to special international adoptions, etc.). However, this laws and not to Law 21/1924, which was in period is a “good period” for the NGOs’ force, but inactive during the communist development; it has proved its ability to attract period) especially those supporting the and produce resources, “among which the totalitarian regime particularly in sports, human resources have got a special place” cultural and entertainment fields. This is about (Saulean, 1999, 18); the so-called “benign” development of the c) during 1996-2000 Romania has been non-governmental organizations in the ‘70- governed by a coalition that was strongly ‘80s (Stoiciu, 2001, 10), a phenomenon supported by the civil society’s common to the other countries of the former representatives, and a number of prominent “socialist bloc” (Salamon and Anheier, 1998, leaders of the NGO’s sector were involved in 19). A case that illustrates the “benign” ruling. The rapid erosion of trust in development of the civil society during the government (embodied by the fact that after communist period is the Flame Literary Circle the 2000 elections the coalition that governed (Stoiciu, 10-11), who represented “the had no parliamentary representation) affected communist perspective on civil society”. the credibility of the civil society’s leaders, Designed to “reduce social tensions and who supported it; mobilize youth, the Flame Literary Circle d) The year 2000 marked a turning point: encouraged artistic activities, becoming renewing the legislative framework related to gradually (for its direct participants) an the NGOs. The Government’s Ordinance authentic associative movement, providing 26/2000 (whose text is almost entirely support for social and cultural changes”, while proposed by the participants in the National for the critics it was merely a means of NGO Forum in 1999) replaced Law 21/1924, manipulation, due to the Communist leaders’ providing a more appropriate framework for control (Stoiciu, 2001, 10-11). the NGOs’ activity. The main changes brought by the Ordinance 26 are: the simplification of 3. EVOLUTION AFTER DECEMBER the procedure for registering an NGO (the 1989 number of individuals required for establishing an association is reduced from 21 to 3 and More stages can be identified in the NGOs’ there is no longer needed a ministry’s evolution after December 1989, starting from favourable opinion) allows diverse economic their approach in several works: Saulean and activities, including the foundations Epure (1998); Association for Community (something which was prohibited by Law 21 / Relations and Allavida (2003); Burada and 1924); an NGO can have the “public utility Berceanu (2005): status”, which can be obtained by providing a) the period 1990-1993 is characterized by public services; this status provides access to the predominance of the perception of the civil grants and partnerships with local authorities; society as the “public enemy” of the Romanian the National Register of NGOs was set up and power structures, opinion which was favoured any NGO must obtain a registration certificate by the expression of the NGOs with an from the court to which it belongs. 92 Romanian Non-Governmental Organizations’ Evolution e) the period 2001-2006 brought about a 4. Burada, V., Berceanu, D., Dialogue for decrease in funding opportunities for NGOs. Civil Society. Report on the State of Civil With the consolidation of democracy and the Society in Romania 2005, Fundaţia pentru European integration moment coming closer, a Dezvoltarea Societăţii Civile, Bucureşti, number of organizations, which in the past had 2005; significant financing programmes designed 5. Burada, V., Berceanu, D., Petrescu, C., exclusively for NGOs (Soros Foundation, Analiza mecanismelor de finanţare USAID, and even the European Commission), directă de la bugetul de stat pentru have significantly limited their activity, a trend organizaţiile neguvernamentale din that can be identified since 1997 (Stoiciu, România, Fundaţia pentru Dezvoltarea 2001, 26). On the other hand, a series of Societăţii Civile şi Centrul de Asistenţă government initiatives to fund NGOs appeared pentru Organizaţiile Neguvernamentale, with the help of some ministries (Ministry of Bucureşti, 2007; Youth and Sport) while the practice of 6. Salamon, L.M., Anheier, H.K., Defining subsidizing social services expanded (Burada, the Nonprofit Sector: A Cross-National Berceanu and Petrescu, 2007); Analysis, Manchester University Press, g) after Romania's integration into the EU, Manchester, 1997; the Romanian NGOs have achieved equal 7. Saulean, D., Epure, C., Defining the status with similar organizations in other nonprofit sector: Romania, In L.M. Member States, having access to structural Salamon şi H.K. Anheier (ed.). Working funds. However, the NGOs’ are still not very Papers of the Johns Hopkins Comparative well financed, in line with the low rate of Nonprofit Sector Project, Johns Hopkins absorption of the EU funds into Romania University Institute for Policy Studies, between 2007 and 2009. Baltimore, 1998; 8. Saulean, D., Sursele sociale ale vieţii REFERENCES asociative şi filantropiei în contextul tranziţiei, www.fdsc.ro/documente/22.pdf, 1. DEX. Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii 1999; române, Academia Română, Institutul 9. Stănescu, V., Societatea civilă, Editura de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan”, Editura Expert, Bucureşti, 2001; Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureşti, 1998; 10. Stoiciu, A. (coord.). Making Civil Society 2. Almondo, G.A., Verba, S., Cultura civică. Work, 2001, Editura Du Style, Bucuresti, 1996; http://www.idee.ro/public%20affairs/civils 3. Tendinţe ale comportamentului filantropic oc/civilsoc.htm; în România: donatori individuali şi 11. Vlăsceanu, M., Sectorul nonprofit. companii, Asociaţia pentru Relaţii Contexte, organizare, conducere, Editura Comunitare şi Allavida, Cluj-Napoca, Paideia, Bucureşti, 1996. 2003; 93 Management and Socio-Humanities FEMALE AUTHORSHIP REVISITED IN MARGARET ATWOOD’S THE BLIND ASSASSIN Kinga KOLUMBÁN “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania Abstract: Anxiety of influence and anxiety of authorship are two common terms in literary history and theory. Both of them refer to the struggle of an artist to come to terms with the impositions of the literary canon. The first one, coined by Harold Bloom, has a general reference over the poet and his relationship to his literary ancestry while the latter, originating from the - by now ‘classical’ – The Madwoman in the Attic, addresses this phenomenon from the point of view of feminine authorship – restricted by the constraints of patriarchal culture which has traditionally rendered authorship masculine and attributed women unrealistic roles which they haven’t been able to identify with. Canadian writer, Margaret Atwood approaches the problem of women’s authorship – directly or indirectly - in several of her novels. The present paper sets out to analyze such aspects in The Blind Assassin (2000), by tracing in the novel the motif of ‘the double’ and identifying it as a metafictional comment on women’s literary tradition. Keywords: anxiety of influence, poetic misprision, anxiety of authorship, the double, feminist metafiction. 1. INTRODUCTION those in Iris Chase’s story) and realize that the two narratives – interspersed with ‘the official The Blind Assassin is the somber story of version’ of newspaper cut-outs – are also two sisters, Iris and Laura Chase, tracing their instruments of revenge. Iris’s story will help lives from a happy childhood in a well-to-do Sabrina discover the truth about her origin and middle class family until Iris’s old age. The ‘reinvent herself at will’ [1]. When it is novel offers a realistic and accurate social published, the parallel story – attributed to milieu to the Canada of the beginning of the Laura and generating an actual cult around her century. From its debut, informing on Laura’s image as a one-book rebel who died too young suicide more or less triggered by Iris admitting – brings down Richard Griffen, the person an affair with Alex, the man Laura had been in causing both sisters’ misery. love with, we find out about Iris’s unhappy marriage to Richard Griffen, an industrial 2. THE ANXIETY OF INFLUENCE magnate, the loss of her daughter, the twists and turns that have lead to the tragic Harold Bloom, in his remarkable analysis conclusion in both sisters lives. The story on the mechanisms of poetic (and, implicitly, unfolds through Iris’s narrative who intends it artistic) imagination employs the term to be some kind of a testimony or confession ‘misprision’ in order to trace elements of to her granddaughter Sabrina, whom she has impact in the creation of new artistic work [2]. never seen. Parallel to Iris’s story there runs The meaning of the term itself covers both the another one about the secret rendezvous of two possibility of misunderstanding, as well as that lovers, the man – a true male Seherezade – of contempt of authority. As such, it becomes telling the gruesome story of the blind a pertinent word to denominate the position of assassins and sacrificial virgins –victims an artist within the continuum of tradition. turned into avengers - on the faraway planet of Bloom explains this process, which can be Zycron. We gradually connect the science described as both appropriation and fiction characters to the ‘real ones’ (that is, assimilation, in six episodes. The masterpieces 94 Female Authorship Revisited in Margaret Atwood’s The Blind Assassin of predecessors induce anxiety but at the same so does Iris. By writing the story she settles time they represent an imperative for new accounts with Laura, for having caused her creation through the prism of the old suicide. It is an offering in exchange for being one. Misprision implies a deliberate given the chance to arrange the pieces of the misunderstanding, or, in the case of literature, puzzle and put the fragments of memory into misreading and miswriting of a preexisting their right place. Throughout the story Iris is text to the point in which it no longer belongs the one who ‘is asleep’ as Laura tells her to the predecessor, much rather, it gives the (185). As opposed to her, ‘Laura had such a impression that the work of the predecessor direct gaze, such blankly open eyes’ (190). has been actually written by the successor. Despite her ‘not being like other people’, or This last episode is given the name perhaps exactly because of that, Laura ‘Apophrades: return of the dead’ and it is an recognizes the futility of Iris’s sacrifice in allusion to a belief in ancient Athens that on order to save her own family. By the time Iris certain ill-fated days the dead returned to can ‘see’ the truth (the choice of name also haunt the houses they had lived in. However, suggests the implication of vision) Laura is this ‘literary haunting’ is a necessary one, it dead. ‘I thought I could live like a mouse in the being the prerequisite frame of new creation. castle of the tigers, by creeping around out of As pointed out elsewhere: “there are no texts, sight inside the walls; by staying quiet, by but only relationships between texts” [3], so keeping my head down. No: I give myself too literature is a vast map of (artistic) misreading, much credit. I didn’t see the danger. I didn’t a succession of texts conjured into being by even know they were tigers. Worse: I didn’t the anxiety of influence. know I might become a tiger myself. I didn’t Margaret Atwood describes this process as know Laura might become one, given the ‘a negotiation with the dead’ and imagines the proper circumstances. Anyone might, for that artist – like Orpheus, Gilgamesh, Dante and so matter’(323). many others - as going down ‘to where the story is’ and bringing it to the surface. ‘All 3. THE ANXIETY OF AUTHORSHIP writing of the narrative kind’ – Atwood says – ‘is motivated, deep down, by a fear and a One possibility of reading The Blind fascination with mortality – by a desire to Assassin, offers itself right away, one make the risky trip to the Underworld, and to typically feminist, of a ‘feminine voice’ bring something or someone back from the negotiating a place of author (ity) exposing her dead’ [4]. Risky, because of the danger of not own perspective by weaving – like Penelope – being able to return but important because it is her complex tapestry of resistance. As such, a record of memories on past events, thus, this story can be considered as part of a saved for the future, securing one’s tradition in women’s writing brought into the immortality. The undertaking of Atwood’s discourse of literary theory by the second fictional writer, Iris Chase, who represents the wave feminism of the 60s and 70s. ‘key’ to the story, is twofold. The narrative In an anthological piece of that period, saves and recovers the sisters, and the ‘truth’ called suggestively The Madwoman in the for Sabrina who represents both Iris’s and Attic, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar produce Laura’s future. At the same time Laura is the famous feminist re-reading of Charlotte brought back by an admitted, spiritual Bronte’s Jane Eyre. contribution to the writing of the narrative. In their view, Bertha Mason, Rochester’s Yet, a probably more important reason for mad wife, who destroys her husband’s this memoir being put on paper is that of residence and herself by setting a fire, finally being revealed the truth. By his/her represents Bronte’s (and, as they argue - any descent to the Underworld the artist fulfills an woman writer’s of that age) hidden desire to ‘old arrangement’: ‘The dead get blood; […] break loose from the shackling representations In return, the poet gets clairvoyance and the of femininity in 19th century Western completion of her identity as a poet’ [4], and culture. 95 Management and Socio-Humanities “Before the woman writer can journey being Iris’s double/alter ego within the text, through the looking glass toward literary her sister’s shadow and constant companion, autonomy... she must come to terms with the even after the suicide occurs, and, also, by her images on the surface of the glass, with, that figure recalling the literary theme outside the is, those mythic masks male artists have text. Laura haunts the text even if at the end of fastened over her human face both to lessen her narrative Iris admits authorship of both their dread of her “inconstancy” and by parallel narratives (also the one attributed to identifying her with the "eternal types" they Laura): “I can’t say Laura didn’t write a word. have themselves invented to possess her more Technically that’s accurate, but in another thoroughly.” [5] Those masks are that of the sense – what Laura would have called the angel and the monster, the two extreme images spiritual sense – you could say she was my employed by 19th century western canon to collaborator. The real author was neither one represent women and the above quotation of us: a fist is more than the sum of its could well be a motto for second wave fingers”(490). Laura’s death makes it possible feminism’s project to disclose patriarchal for Iris to recognize the truth and set off her ideology behind these images of sweetness and ‘machinery of revenge’ but the revelation monstrosity. Being feminine equaled being comes too late and at too much a cost. ‘the angel of the house’, sweet, obedient and The Blind Assasin is vowen through with selfless, a two-dimensional image of purity references to 19th century images of that has no story to tell. Yet, the emphasis on femininity. During their childhood they study the ‘mysterious’ and ‘duplicitous’ nature of the 19th century poems, the house they live in, feminine betrays both distrust and fear of it their burial place is decorated with angelic and literature has abounded in images of evil, figures, after her marriage, Iris goes to a demonic witches and fiends. As artistic society costume ball dressed as Coleridge’s creativity has been rendered male, women’s Abyssinian Maid. Also, the angel/monster coming to terms with literary authorship meant divide, duplicity, and mistery related to the a somewhat schizophrenic state (hence the feminine is constantly present in the narrative. anxiety) while attempting to find themselves in Laura grows up to be seen by the others as an these unrealistic depictions. According to ‘odd child’, and her ‘being different’ is several Gilbert and Gubar the presence of the female times suggested. Yet, her characteristic is monster, the `writer’s ‘mad double’ within 19th purity, straightforwardness, Iris even calls her century fiction represents both their anxiety ‘skinless’. Laura’s clothes are ‘less like but also an unconscious strategy for ‘revising something she’d chosen to put on than like the self – definitions patriarchal culture has something she’d been locked up in’(8), on the imposed on them’ [6]. other hand clothes are a ‘secret consolation’ to Their book has attracted a lot of criticism Iris who is wrapped, hidden by them. Looking for various reasons, especially because it in the mirror she sees her own face ‘so loose regards the final, necessary death of the and transparent I could peel it off like a ‘monster-woman’ as liberation. Yet, it has stocking’ (43). Early in her childhood they are undoubtedly contributed to the creation of the educated in the name of ‘neatness, obedience, image of ‘the self-destructive female artist’, silence’ (152) but Iris soon learns ‘half also reinforced by the lives of writers like concealed insolence and silent resistance’, she Virginia Woolf or Sylvia Plath. Just how learns ‘not to get caught’ (160). strongly such an image has affected Atwood’s Her greatest project is, of course, placing self-perception as an artist can be traced in her Laura as the author of her book, thus, turning biography (anxiety confessed over being an her (or, rather letting her be turned) into a aspiring woman writer in the 50s Canada) and spectacular double for herself that hasn’t got also in her fiction, one of such examples being much to do with reality: “Laura was a Laura Chase who represents a literary kinship “modernist,” we are told on the inside flap. to these fictional or real predecessors. The She was “influenced” by the likes of Djuna complexity of her position is given both by her Barnes, Elizabeth Smart, Carson McCullers – 96 Female Authorship Revisited in Margaret Atwood’s The Blind Assassin authors I know for a fact that Laura never Laura Chase recall some of the female read” (276). This is not merely a possible characters rendered to the angel/monster action of prudence or cowardice, as she dichotomy of 19th century fiction but also ponders at a given moment (489); it is also the contribute to the dissolution of this artificial process of an artist being ‘obscured by the divide, thus, representing Atwood’s argument image he himself has created’ [4], the public for a more complex way of exploring persona replacing the one that writes the womanhood. stories. Yet, as Atwood points out, the one cannot exist without the other. “They alternate. REFERENCES They are attached head to head” [4]. In the same way, Iris’s narrative is “… a lefthanded 1. Atwood, M., The Blind Assassin, book. That’s why one of us is always out of electronic edition, RosettaBooks LLC, sight, whichever way you look at it” (490). By New York, 2003, p. 491, All the following creating her narrative, Iris refuses to die and excerpts have been taken from this edition; succomb to the literary pattern; in addition, she 2. Bloom, H., Anxietatea influentei: o teorie reveals her ‘real’ face. a poeziei, Paralela 45, Piteşti, 2008, pp. 20- The complementarity of the two sisters is 21, 60-62; more than just a narrative technique; their 3. Bloom, H., A Map of Misreading, Oxford relation to one another is also a reassessment University Press, 1980, p. 3; of artistic creativity, beyond the caveat 4. Atwood, M., Negociating with the Dead: a traditionally imposed on women. Thus, Writer on Writing, Virago Press, 2003, p. Atwood joins the line of feminist metafiction 140; as explained by Gayle Green. She carries out a 5. Gilbert, S., Gubar, S., The Madwoman in re-vision of an existing literary pattern and the Attic, (excerpt) In Rivkin, J., Ryan, M., manages to exceed that within the traditional Literary theory, an anthology, 2nd edition, and hardly spectacular frame provided by the Blackwell, 2004, (812-824), p. 812; 19th century realist novel. Metafictional novels 6. Moi, T., Sexual/Textual Politics, second masquerading as realism determine “critics to edition, Routledge, 2002, p. 59; reenter old plots to reevaluate them and 7. Greene, G., Changing the Story: Feminist novelists reenter them to rewrite them or to Fiction and the Tradition, Indiana ‘write beyond’ earlier endings” [7]. Iris and University Press, 1991, p. 8. 97 Management and Socio-Humanities ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION PATTERNS UNDERLYING THE CONCEPT OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Aura CODREANU Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Brasov, Romania Abstract: In order to understand what patterns of communication underlie organisational behaviour and thus better grasp the latter concept a two-fold approach is necessary. First, a broad outline of what communication is from the perspective of communication theories is necessary since it may provide an insight into the basics of the concept of communication proper. Thus, once general terminological delineations are made and a model of communication theory identified as the incipit for a communication paradigm, a breakdown of the concept of communication into its main variables from the perspective of organisational theory is required in order to set out the basic paradigm of analysis for the concept of organisational behaviour. Hence, the aim of this article is to provide an overview of theoretical delineations of the concept of communication with a view to future research in the field of organisational behaviour. Moreover, starting from the theoretical outlook, a depiction of the independent variables underlying prospective research in the field will also be carried out. Keywords: communication, organisational behaviour, research variables. 1. INTRODUCTION organisations, the latter’s observations can only yield partial insights into organisational Work experience with various life which may be biased, inconclusive or organisations contributes not only to increased narrowed to personal or group perceptions and expertise in the field of work. Beyond this likely to turn into mere clichés. surface there is a plethora of empirical As a result, the task of objectively studying observations about people’s character, and building up an overall picture out of the motivations, expectations, assumptions insights into organisational life through concerning the drivers behind individual employment of an overarching concept and of and/or group behaviour towards formal groups a paradigm through which the latter to be or formal leaders, new comers, informal better accounted for starting from a an groups, top-down changes, or hypotheses investigation into the already existing about how organisational design (i.e. number literature in the field of investigation lies with of departments, span of control) or the researcher. communication channels contribute to overall Thus, the focus of this article is to provide organisational efficiency. the theoretical tools necessary for the Consequently, the problem that appears is investigation of organisational life which is if all these observations point out to a reality also known as organisational behaviour. The that can be perceived, experienced only from paradigm by which the latter is to be tackled is within an organisation or any objective that of organisational communication patterns researcher can frame it from the outside. underlying the concept proper and the method Hence, the basic assumption underlying this considered as best for investigating both the article is that regardless of the background paradigm and the concept is the comparison of an empirical observer with various and contrast one. 98 Organisational Communication Patterns Underlying the Concept of Organisational Behaviour 2. COMMUNICATION FROM THE Muchielli’s term, their context or framework PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION within which they take place needs to be THEORIES analysed. In this respect, Watlawick and alii [3] view communication as a whole whose According to Bougnoux [1], ‘the primary parts are the content of the communication and role of communication is to organize social the relationship established between relationships, to structure daily life and to interlocutors. Thus, in order to understand a maintain community cohesion’. Thus, what message or behaviour, the type of relationship communication is about in the end, as the to which they are subsumed needs to be above opinion upholds, is the way the human understood. being connects with another human being and As a result, such knowledge informs on the thus influences the latter through signs. framework to which a specific instance of Moreover, as part of this pragmatic viewpoint, communication belongs and leads to the failure of communication or, in other words, conclusion that within communication as a miscommunication needs to be also taken into whole, it is the relationship that includes the account when approaching the topic of content and becomes metacommunication. communication. Another issue that needs to be In conclusion, communication also remembered when talking about the concept involves metacommunication as long as the already defined is that quantifying or interlocutor needs to know how a certain objectively describing communication results message is to be classified in terms of the is a vain attempt since, as Bougnoux highlights addressee; the latter’s status, the category the [1], no science or technique can encompass message falls in. Nonetheless, such communication due to the latter’s presence in metaframeworks, even though underlying so many fields that it becomes difficult to communication, need not to be made explicit grasp all the dimensions of the concept under a as long as the interlocutors agree on the issues unifying perspective. they communicate about. Only when However, such an attempt with inherent disagreement appears, metacommunication is shades of grey is made by Muchielli [2] who resorted to in order to account for the claims that from the point of view of framework to which the exchange belongs. communication theories, the concept is viewed Thus, starting form Bateson’s idea [1] as ‘all the “expressions” (and by this term the according to which ‘to communicate is to join author refers to communication instances cut the orchestra’, Bougnoux underlines the fact out of longer, more complex communication that the relationship developed while sequences) yielded by social actors and communicating needs to be aligned with the carrying an analysable intentionality’ within a already existing means, channels, networks of context defining for the actors involved. communication. In this way, one of the basic In addition to the above aspects, both constraints with a say in the communication Bougnoux and Muchielli [2], draw attention to process is the need to work within the the fact that communication is not only available network, rather than create a new information since the latter represents only the one. last stage within the communication process. In support of the above idea Auroux [1] Moreover, communication has to be viewed claims that statements do not exist outside the beyond the words uttered or put down on context in which they were uttered. Hence, the paper, beyond the exchanges taking place at an latter informs on who made the statement, the interpersonal level and, inherently, as covering place where it was made, and its witnesses and non-communication as well (namely what how it was made. Based on this, Muchielli could have been said, done or written but was distinguishes several contexts: not simply because this, in its turn, was meant • The spatial context, namely the place to convey a message). where the statement was made and the Consequently, in order to understand the inherent constraints of the place on uttering the ‘expressions’ of communication, to use statement 99 Management and Socio-Humanities • The physical and sensorial context as 3. TOWARDS A MODEL OF expressed through sight, hearing, smell, touch, COMMUNICATION FROM THE senses which convey meaning to a statement. PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION • The time context when what is said at a THEORIES certain moment becomes meaningful in comparison with what was said before In order to set out the basic framework of • The social relationship context, namely analysis and interpretation for future studies in how the quality of the relationship among the the field of organisational behaviour another interlocutors give meaning to a statement model needs to be employed. As a result, by • The cultural or sub cultural context built resorting to the list of models of on collectively shared norms and rules when communication presented by Muchielli, the statements acquire meaning in accordance best model that fits the purposes of this article with the norms acknowledged or established is the interactionist and systemic one. during communicative exchanges. According to the explanations provided by the aforementioned author, from the perspective of • The actors’ identities context when this model communication is defined as statements acquire meaning in accordance ‘participation to a system of interactions’ and with what is known or displayed about the is built upon a system of exchanges necessary intentions and stakes of those involved in to meet the requirements of all the actors communication. involved in terms of cohesion, advantages, Thus, starting from the contexts listed and collective participation to name just a few. briefly described above, the conclusion drawn Relating this model to the constituents of by Muchielli is that meaning emerges only by communication, namely content and contextualizing the communication process relationship described by Bougnoux, Muchielli and is shared by all actors only through and emphasizes the fact that there is a tight during exchanges that often become connection between the systems of metacommunication. relationships social actors (i.e. groups, As a consequence, out of the models (e.g. collectivities, organisations, institutions) are the sender-receiver model, the two-level part of and their identities, since the latter are communication model, the transactional based on these systems. Consequently, communication model, etc.) employed along communication sciences are concerned not the history of communication sciences, the only with systems of communication, but also contexts listed above point out as a model of with the identities of the social actors communication analysis the situational one. generating or joining these systems since the Hence, from the perspective of this model, claim they make is that one of the fundamental communication is a collective construct contexts for the analysis of communication is through contexts and, in this respect, the stakes the context within which an individual acts [3]. of communication are how meaning is shared and to what extent communication is possible. 4. COMMUNICATION FROM THE However, considering the topic of the PERSPECTIVE OF ORGANISATIONAL current research, very few of the contexts THEORY previously mentioned can be analysed in order to assess how the situational model of With a view to the above theoretical communication informs on organisational background and more specifically to the behaviour. Consequently, the model is not interactionist and systemic model through very helpful in constructing the paradigm which we believe that the analysis and needed to carry out the analysis and interpretation of the data of prospective in the interpretation of the data unveiled by field of organisational behaviour can be prospective research in the field. However, it carried out, as well as taking into account the may be useful when drawing the final dimensions of the concept of organisational conclusions of such research. behaviour as accounted for in previous articles 100 Organisational Communication Patterns Underlying the Concept of Organisational Behaviour [4], this sub-chapter aims at grounding the approaching the topic of organisational theory, research into a feasible paradigm through since communication techniques determine the which the findings to gain relevance for the structure and the scope of an organisation. reader. Consequently, in what follows, a Consequently, Steers, R. M and J. Stewart presentation of how communication is defined Black [7] point out the fact that in and viewed from the perspective of organisational settings there are several types organisational theory will be carried out. of organisational communication that can be Communication in an organisational context is identified in accordance with the direction a an evolutionary and cultural process which message can flow. Thus, the dimensions of consists of sharing information and enhancing organisational communication they identify relationships in formal organisations. are as follows: upward, downward and Building up on this definition, Martin [5] horizontal. emphasizes an idea already highlighted by As far as downward communication is Bougnoux and Muchielli. Thus, according to concerned, this type of communication is him, communication is not only the exchange employed by managers in order to direct and of information between two persons. In this control the activities of those in the chain of respect, it needs to be a two-way process command. The purposes identified by Daft, R. involving not only transmission of data, but and R. Steers as underpinning it are as follows: also proper interactions on those data. provision of clear goals, strategies, objectives Consequently, without mentioning the name of for the whole organisation, as well as for the the model proposed by this research as a departments within it in order to ensure possible paradigm of interpretation of the employees have a sense of direction and information to be made available by future purpose; job instructions and the rationale research, the aforementioned author reinforces behind them; organisation design; policies and the usage of the interactionist paradigm as a procedures through which people are informed means of investigation into the concept of on organisation design; performance communication as a landmark for assessment and correction of performance; organisational behaviour. indoctrination and socialization since In terms of the interacting systems employees are told what the organisation holds identified by Martin from the perspective of important and what not. organisational framework, the latter are built Concerning the other type of around the key concept of the communicator. communication identified by Steers and Black, The main roles of this “system” are as follows: namely upward communication, the latter to give instructions, to organize, to clarify, flows towards the top of the hierarchical direct and influence when getting into contact ladder and it involves the following aspects: with the system of subordinates, to establish problems and exceptions that are presented to parameters, identify options and influence the manager; performance reports; grievances, when in contact with the system of external disputes; accounting and financial reports. peers, to report, to seek approval, to clarify However, noteworthy in this respect is that, and to influence when in touch with the system as F. Luthans and J. Larsen observe [8], ‘when of superiors and last, but not least to persuade, upward communication does occur, it is likely integrate and influence when interacting with to be influenced to a considerable degree by internal peers. In conclusion, starting from the what the subordinate thinks his or her superior interactionist and systemic model the author wants to hear’. Consequently, when promotion proposes, the investigation of organisations is a personal goal, for example, then positive involves a complex process since, as he puts it message get exaggerated, while negative ones ‘Complexity in communication is an are downplayed or omitted. exponential function of the number of people As for the third type of communication, involved’. namely horizontal communication, the Barnard [6], in his turn, emphasizes the latter refers to inter-departmental and fact that communication holds primacy when intradepartmental activities carried out in order 101 Management and Socio-Humanities to ensure completion of projects and tasks established between an organisation and its assigned to departments or work groups. external environment. Besides these types of communication Thus, as Mullins points out ‘Organisations Zlate [9], drawing upon specialized literature make contributions to the quality of life and to in the field of organisational theory, identifies the well-being of the community’ through the two major types of communication: formal and plethora of stakeholders who have an interest informal. The formal one subsumes the three or are affected by the goals, activities and dimensions of communication already organisational behaviour. identified and described in the paragraphs Even though organisation theory does not above. As for the informal one, the latter state it explicitly, we believe that in the emerges from the complexity of networks relationship organisations establish with established among people as a result of their external environment, the output they psychological needs, the frequency of the contribute to the latter consists not only of the interactions among them, age, gender materials or services they provide, but also of similarities. In the case of this type of the way their image is communicated through communication, information flows in all all three dimensions of the concept of directions regardless of hierarchy. Among organisational behaviour, but especially some of its characteristics, the following are through individual and organisational worth mentioning: rapid information flow; behaviour. Consequently, depending on how focus on both organisational and personal life; successful this communication with external partial accuracy of information; positive, as environment is, the input these organisations well as negative output due to informal get in terms of the resources they need to socialization, increase of group cohesion. employ in their current activities is determined As we may notice, the above dimensions of and plays a major role in their positioning communication describe accurately the within a competing environment. interactionist and systemic model outlined by Martin. However, one important interaction 5. CONCLUSIONS fails to be observed by Steers, Black and Zlate, namely the one with external environment. In Based on the theoretical investigation this respect, it is organisation theories that provided by this article, further research into make the omission. organisational behaviour that resorts to Concerning the relationship between an patterns of communication as a paradigm of organisation and its external environment, the study and interpretation of data needs to view issue is of great importance because any this framework as the one yielding the organisation needs to be viewed as an ‘open independent variables. Consequently, we system’ [7]. Consequently, not only does any suggest two broad interrelated categories, organisation receive input from the external namely inter-organisational communication environment (e.g. employees, raw materials, and organisational outward communication as investment), but it also gives back output to umbrella terms for the independent variables. the environment (e.g. goods, services, etc.). Thus, in our opinion, inter-organisational Consequently, for an organisation to have communication is defined through the good communication with its environment and traditionally acknowledged variables of formal thus ensure its growth and survival it is communication (V1), informal communication necessary to be able to respond to the (V2), vertical communication (V3), horizontal opportunities, challenges, risks and limitations communication (V4). posed by the external environment [10]. As a In their turn, these variables can be result, factors such as the political, economic, measured through the variables and categories socio-cultural, technological, legal ones must described by the concept of organisational all the time be taken into consideration in behaviour. the relationship of continuous exchange Thus, any prospective questionnaires and data interpretation are bound to take into 102 Organisational Communication Patterns Underlying the Concept of Organisational Behaviour account the following concept-defining V5: Organisational outward communi- variables: cation viewed as organisation’s behaviour V1: Formal communication described within its environment; outward linguistic through the following independent variables: projection of organisational relationships and communication in terms of organisation individual attitudes towards job satisfaction, processes; organisation design; job policies organisation commitment, organisation trust. and procedures; career; leadership; work In conclusion, we believe that based on the environment; conflict (measured through the insights into the categories and variables of categories of ‘conflict sources’ and ‘conflict organisational communication patterns an approach’). accurate and through investigation into the V2: Informal communication measured concept of organisational behaviour can be through communication at informal group further undertaken. level and power relationships V3: Vertical communication (i.e. upward REFERENCES communication) described through the inward projection of organisational relationships in 1. Bougnoux, D., Introducere in ştiinţele terms of linguistic means of showing respect comunicării, Bucureşti, Polirom, 1998; to superiors 2. Muchielli, A., Corbalan J.A., Ferrandez, V4: Horizontal communication depicted V., Teoria proceselor de comunicare, Iasi, through communication at formal group level; Institutul European, 2006; conflict (measured through the category of 3. Watlawick, P. et alii, Une logique de la ‘conflict sources’); power and politics communication, 1972, p. 37; As for the category of organisational 4. Codreanu, A., Managementul integrat al outward communication, the focus is a two- apărării din perspectiva conceptului de fold one. Thus, even if when tackling this issue comportament organizaţional, Revista specialized literature speaks only of militară de management şi educaţie, No. organisational behaviour in relationship with 3/2007; pp. 11-14; 14-17; environmental factors (see for example Steers 5. Martin, J., Organizational Behaviour, and Black, 1994: 358-394), the current article Thomson Learning, 2001; upholds the assumption that if the concept of 6. Barnard, C., The Functions of the organisational behaviour is to be discussed Executive, Cambridge: Harvard University from the perspective of the patterns of Press, 1938; communication underlying it, then it is 7. Steers, R.M., Black, J.S., Organizational individual behaviour that needs to be held Behaviour, Harper Collins Publishers, under scrutiny. As a result, individual attitudes 1994; towards the organisation in terms of job 8. Luthans, F., Larsen, J., Observe How satisfaction, organisation commitment and Managers Really Communicate, Human organisation trust can inform both on the relations, 1986, pp. 167-168; current and future status of the organisations 9. Zlate, M., Tratat de psihosociologie under scrutiny. Thus, for a better organizational-managerială, Iasi, Polirom, understanding of the variables measuring the 2004, pp. 501-505; category of organisational outward 10. Mullins, L., Management and communication, the former are listed below: Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall, 2006. 103 Military Sciences BASIC OPERATION CAPABILITIES OF THE SLOVAK AIR FORCE Pavel BUČKA*, Pavel NEČAS* *Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia Abstract: The paper describes basic operation capabilities of the Air Forces of the Slovak Republic. The capabilities have to be achieved within the specific requirements and capabilities and stem from the operational requirements, placed on the modern Air Forces conducting future operations and air campaigns. The Air Power, Air Defence tasks, and tactical Air Force assets are elaborated and characterized in this paper. Keywords: Air Force, operational capabilities, NATINADS, MiG-29, sophistic weaponry. 1. INTRODUCTION use. The basic factors of effective deployment of airborne platforms are: Doctrine documents of the Allies - rapid projection of capabilities, abilities characterise the Air Force as the capability of and capacities, combat force projection in the air or space by - operation far away from protected objects, means of airborne platforms and guided - ability to operate deep in the operation missiles. Air force is best applied space, predominantly in joint and combined - rapid and flexible response to changes in operations over the whole scope of the the course of operation activity, conflict. It is the most powerful element in - wide range, manoeuvre capabilities of combat and combat - clear situation overview of the operation support operations. From the point of view the space, compatibility of future Air Forces of the - flexibility and versatility, Slovak Republic capabilities with other - concentrated impact of power, segments of the Slovak Republic Armed - sustainability depending on logistic Forces, the focus is on basic operation support, capabilities, which determine in decisive role - limited endurance in operation space, the quality increase in capabilities of task - vulnerability (on the ground and in the air). achievement, primarily in the airborne air These factors determine the advantage and defence within the Air Defence of Slovak special role of the Air Force in both military Republic Armed Forces. The capabilities have and non-military operations and missions, but, to be achieved with the specific requirements on the other hand, are limiting and narrowing and capabilities and stem from the operational ones in the planning and implementation of the requirements placed on the Air Forces of the deployment at different levels of conflicts. Slovak Republic in future operations and air The key advantages, crucial in the use of campaigns. the Air Force, can be found in such capabilities as rapid and flexible projection of 2. AIR FORCE SPECIFICS force in the area of interest without geographical limitation. Over the last several Air Force can be characterised by such years, Air Force has been used in a great fundamental and unique characteristics as the extent in the escalation of military force and movement in three-dimensional space, focused threat, as a part of complex political and on the wide range of height, velocity and range military strategies of deterring and persuasion. 104 Basic Operation Capabilities of the Slovak Air Force Without favourable air situation over the have been adopted, which are decisive for operation space of Ground Force or the Navy, further development of air defence and Air Force cannot conduct operations with undermine the trends of development in the necessary freedom and operation pace. It following decades. They focus primarily on provides rapid reaction for the attack against the area of airborne operations and adequate point reinforced targets out of ground asset personnel training. The training in peace time range. conditions necessitates further requirements on It can supplement or replace artillery and the implementation of a wide range of armour fire power. It can operate standards according to the regulation and simultaneously against tactical operation and harmonising of air space utilisation within strategic targets in joint operation space. It International Civil Aviation Organization requires localised command, control and (ICAO). Furthermore, they involve the planning and decentralised operation focused preparation of an air unit for NATINADS on effects. Moreover, manned or unmanned system to meet NATO standards and criteria. airborne platforms, designed for surveillance, Modernisation of air and ground assets to search, observation and intelligence, are make navigation, communication and irreplaceable in achieving information and identification systems and devices compatible intelligence advantage, and decision-making for self-protection of aircraft in the whole process advantage as well [2, 3, 4]. electromagnetic spectrum also plays an important role. 3. AIR FORCE TASKS A system of regular evaluation of task achievement in the form of so-called Key Following comprehensive analyses and Tasks has been developed along with the real evaluation of possible contribution to joint Component Command Air HQ in Ramstein, defence of Alliance interests, responsibilities Germany [1]. SlovakSlovak ArmedArmed ForcesForces TrainingTraining and and GroundGround AirAir SupportSupport ForcesForces ForceForce ForcesForces 1. Mechanized BDe Air Wing Training Bn Topolčany Sliač Martin 2. Mechanized BDe Air Wing Logistic Base Prešov Kuchyňa Poprad, Nemšová NBC Bn Air Wing Com Log Group Rožňava Prešov Trenčín ENG Bn GBAD BDe Garrison HQ Sereď Nitra Bratislava Support Bn C2 BDe Trenčín Zvolen AS Bn Zvolen Fig. 1 Structure of the Slovak Republic Armed Forces The tasks of Air Force of the Slovak - the defence of the territory of the Slovak Republic Armed Forces (Fig. 1) can be divided Republic by all available assets and into the following basic categories: forces, 105 Military Sciences - the defence of facilities of special force not being capable of meeting the importance and other important facilities, responsibilities and tasks in the necessary - providing the integrity of the Slovak effect, both to national and alliance Republic air space, responsibilities has become imminent. To ○ the defence of the Slovak Republic air divert this threat, the modernisation projects of space sovereignty, all types of current air assets have commenced ○ the defence of the NATO – NATINADS in order to provide compatibility and integrated air space, interoperability in both joint and international - providing support to aircraft in emergency operations. over the area of the Slovak Republic, Tactical aircraft assets currently represent - support of NATO and EU forces during 12+3 MiG-29 (10 Mig-29 AS, 2 MiG-29UBS, flybys, in the area of deployment and 2 Mig-29 A and 1 Mig-29UB), along with 10 during their deployment in the Slovak L-39 aircraft in CM and ZAM modifications, Republic- Host Nation Support, which represent the training system for tactical - onstant surveillance and monitoring of the air force. After the modernisation programme Slovak Republic air space. is completed by 2015, the tasks resulting from A section of the Air Force of the Slovak operation requirements can be successfully Republic Armed Forces has become a part of fulfilled [1, 2, 3]. joint integrated system of air space defence The diversity of airborne facilities in the NATINADS. The full participation in sharing area of operations and responsibility of the air the responsibilities, resulting from this fact, force is a challenge, and it also determines the requires a different understanding in relation to criteria for an effective weapon complex with previous approaches, mainly in the ways of adequate ground based technical and logistic operation preparation, personnel training and support and robust system of command, building specific capabilities. control and communication. The importance of The key role is taken by the functioning such system is also emphasised by the fact, integrated structure of command and control that the response to new threats of misuse of (C2), which relies on a complex summary of a civilian aircraft as a terrorist weapon, so information from the available sources and called RENEGATE, requires a rapid decision- sensors, its processing and the distribution to making process, which necessitates an all users. adequate system of command, control and Providing the defence of the sovereignty of communication. The effective achievement of the Slovak Republic air space in the context of common air space protection and defence tasks possible threats is an important part of the is a prerequisite for member countries Cross activities of the national system of integrated border Operations. air defence, in line with the Concept of Following the fore-mentioned requirements capabilities of the future Armed forces of the and tasks, the fundamental characteristics of Slovak Republic. The main assets of the the weapon complex developed in this way, airborne air defence comprise tactical aircraft can be summarised into the following key of the Air Force, equipped with combat and areas: training jet aircraft, stationed at Sliač Air - supersonic combat aircraft, Wing. - multi-purpose concept – multi-purpose use: Tactical Air Force has undergone a lot of ○ medium range active and passive guided changes over the period of the sovereignty of airborne target weapons, the Slovak Republic. Apart from a significant ○ accurate, guided ground target decrease in the total number of aircraft, ammunition, a major structure change has occurred as well. - integrated attack and defence systems, Over the last years, the Air Force has lost - data and information interconnectivity into specialised airborne platforms for effective a networked system of other combat ground operation support, due to high cost and platforms and sensors of the Armed Forces being not economical. The threat of the air of the Slovak Republic and NATO, 106 Basic Operation Capabilities of the Slovak Air Force - aerial refuelling powerful fighter aircraft, thus being - the possibility of operation deployment demanding for air personnel skills and from limited airport runways. experience. Only the pilots with the license for subsonic jet trainer aircraft can be integrated 4. FIGHTER AIRCRAFT MiG-29 into the supersonic jet fighter training programme. Fighter aircraft MiG-29 AS and MiG-29 MiG-29 AS and MiG-29UBS have an UBS (FULCRUM) (Fig. 2) are supersonic jet extended technical lifecycle which is to expire fighter aircraft primarily designed to operate in between the years 2029 and 2035. After against airborne targets. They are closely their modernization the jet fighter aircraft are associated with the defence of airspace to meet the NATO norms and standards and sovereignty of the Slovak Republic. Since EUROCONTROL recommendations, which 2005 they have served as a part of an specify the compatibility between jet fighter integrated NATO Air Defence system within aircraft and communication, navigation and the European Allies. They belong to the most identification systems (CNS). Fig. 2 Supersonic jet fighter aircraft MiG-29AS from Air Wing Sliač General characteristics: - Range: 700 km (430 mi) - Crew: One - Ferry range: 2,100 km (1,800 mi) with 1 - Length: 17.37 m (57 ft) drop tank - Wingspan: 11.4 m (37 ft 3 in) - Service ceiling: 18,013 m (59,100 ft) - Height: 4.73 m (15 ft 6 in) - Rate of climb: initial 330 m/s average 109 - Wing area: 38 m² (409 ft²) m/s 0-6000 m[101] (65,000 ft/min) - Empty weight: 11,000 kg (24,250 lb) - Wing loading: 442 kg/m² (90.5 lb/ft²) - Loaded weight: 16,800 kg (37,000 lb) - Thrust/weight: 1.01 - Max takeoff weight: 21,000 kg (46,300 lb) The reasons for modernization: - Powerplant: 2×Klimov RD-33 after 1. The modification of cockpit equipment of burning turbofans, 8,300 kgf (81.4 kN, MiG-29 needs to be standardized according to 18,300 lbf) each the NATO requirements, which cover the Performance: interoperability of all systems. - Maximum speed: Mach 2.25 (2,400 km/h, 2. It is vital to regain the baseline MiG-29 1,490 mph) At low altitude: 1,500 km/h, performance, which includes ability to identify 930 mph airborne targets, according to NATO standards. 107 Military Sciences 3. The use of an original Russian navigation The mutual integration of Russian and system RSBN, which is the basic part of “western” systems guarantees the reliability airborne navigation and airborne weapon and safety of MiG-29 systems as a whole. This system, has been terminated by the resolution modernization meets the NATO standards of the Slovak Republic government. The defined for this type of air assets. It provides accomplishment of flying missions would be the compatibility of jet fighter systems with impossible without an appropriate replacement NATO systems (5-10 year period), thus of the original RSBN system. Replacement of providing space for considering the further the whole Russian RSBN system with a need for new jet fighter aircraft. primary NATO navigation system – TACAN means into an aircraft avionic system 5. CONCLUSIONS 4. Changing the flight data indication from metric system into Anglo-Saxon system. The Slovak Air Force performed an 5. The improvement of flight security in the upgrade on their MiG-29/29UB in order to international flight corridors. achieve full NATO compatibility. Work has The manufacturer of MiG-29 is in charge been done by RAC MiG and Western firms, of the modernization. It guarantees the utility starting from 2005. The aircraft now has of the system as a whole and the MiG-29 flight onboard navigation and communications security as well. The manufacturer cooperates systems from Rockwell Collins, an IFF system with BAE SYSTEMS, ROCKWELL from BAE Systems, new glass cockpit features COLLINS and Aircraft Repair Company multi-function LCD displays and digital Trenčín JSC. The modernization of processors and also fitted to be integrating networking and communication equipment is with Western equipment in the future. compatible with NATO equipment and meets However, the armaments of the aircraft remain the further requirements of interoperability in unchanged. Already 12 MiG-29 were combat operations. upgraded and had been delivered as of late The modernization of radio navigation February, 2008. systems meets NATO standards. Navigation equipment is fully compatible with NATO REFERENCES systems and guarantees safe navigation in international flight corridors and landing on 1. Koncepcia spôsobilostí budúcich both military and civilian airports. Vzdušných síl Slovenskej republiky, GŠ OS The modernization of identification SR, štáb požiadaviek a dlhodobého equipment meets the latest NATO standards. plánovania Bratislava, 2006; Such an extensive installation has never been 2. Bučka, P., Kelemen, M., Requirements performed in any MiG-29 jet fighter in the related to the Slovak republics Air Forces, world. The identification equipment will meet Medzinárodná konferencia International the standards and further NATO identification conference on military technologies 2009 v systems requirements. Also NATO jet fighters sekcii “Air Force, Aircraft and Rocket have to be newly equipped with the same Technology“, UO Brno Česká Republika, identification equipment to support 2009; compatibility. 3. Bučka, P., a kol, Koncepcia rozvoja PVO The modernization of cockpit is to bring SR do roku 2015, Záverečná výskumná better and easier equipment operating, data správa o riešení projektu ŠPP 096_06- readability, testing of newly installed RO02_RU21-240, AOS Liptovský Mikuláš, equipment and to lessen pilot stress during the 2007; flight, thus considerably improving the flight 4. Szabo, S., Kandráč, P., Slovenské letectvo safety of MiG-29. včera, dnes a zajtra, Euro-atlantic quarterly, The system of flight data indication and roč. 1, č. 3, 2006, s. 18-19; radio communication will be fully compatible 5. www.lietadla.com/lietadla/ruske/mig- with NATO jet fighters. 29.htm. 108 Military Sciences THE PROFESSIONAL PROFILE OF THE ROMANIAN MILITARY Adrian LESENCIUC “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Abstract: The professional profile of the Romanian military is perceived as related to the image of the armed forces institution. The loss of percentage points from the perspective of civilians’ trust in the Armed Forces has become more evident, so the professional profile has changed gradually. Because of this dynamic, Huntington’s and Niculae’s coordinates of military systems of values are not proper to the present military framework. For example, corporateness looses in importance. A study based on a sample of 1.020 military students proves that it is possible to build a professional profile based on a set of values, which contains: “way of life”, “surroundings”, and “supervisory relationships”. Values such as “management”, “associates”, and “variety” are not appreciated as they should. In a mercantile society, the Armed Forces are no longer chosen for this military spirit, but for the economic return. Moreover, the individualism promoted nowadays, graduatelly determines the diminishing of the role of corporateness. Keywords: professional profile, military systems of value, Work Value Inventory. 1. INTRODUCTION the Orthodox Church institution totals 86% [3]. Basically, the armed forces, a “total The professional profile of the Romanian institution” in Goffman's terms [4], is military merges in the collective outlook with characterized nowadays by slow changes. The the image of the phenomenon of armed forces. process of “remaining unchanged” in this Furthermore, armed forces relate to institution, by maintaining in the leading rationalized myth of national identity [1], positions a managerial class relying on former while the military profession builds on myths ideology, that has adopted a false attitude of of: supporting the transition process, has been - devotion, as a result of higher reasoning made more visible by reference to a regarding the tasks, even with the price of management policy specific to a dynamic and life; consumerist society. - professionalism, derived from the degree Moreover, the cleavage between of complexity of preparation and bureaucratic management practices and - political equidistance, imposed imaginary reform has increased considerably, normatively. contributing to further erosion of society’s Although, it is considered to be a reputable trust capital in the armed forces institution. institution, which inspires confidence among With the erosion of the institution's image, the the masses, the armed forces have begun to be image of the military occupation has lost in seen more doubtfully. This aspect has led to a importance too. In parallel with the adherence loss of confidence barometer by 28 percentage to West European standards of organization, points over the past 19 years1 [2], amounting armed forces institution has begun responding in 2009 to 60% of options, while the trust of to the systematic restructuration based on framework plans and design of development, 1 The descedent trend of the trust in the armed forces regarding the professionalization of the staff, institution is indicated by the next percentages: 1990:88%, strengthening civil expertise and resizing. The 1991:82%, 1992:81%, 1993:87%, 1994:79%, 1995:85%, 1996:86%, 1997:81%, 1998:72%, 1999:71%, 2000:70%, assessment of the professional profile at 2001:75%, 2002:75%, 2003:77%, 2004:65%, 2005:69%, prospective level – regarding the future 2006:62%, 2007:65%; 109 The Professional Profile of the Romanian Military military personnel of the Romanian Armed specialized skills, which are the standards Forces - is an opportunity for gaining of competence, awareness of the need to define new training - responsibility, seen as the main motivation coordinates. of professionalism, involving commitment to the profession and, 2. MILITARY PROFESSIONAL - corporateness or group consciousness, PROFILE THEORETICALLY powered by membership to a professional PROJECTED organization. Moreover, the dimensions of professional The military profession has features expertise and responsibility as the defining resulting from circumscription of the armed features of the military institution are achieved forces in view of the war. The shaping of a through complex training and by the professional profile should be done taking into specificity of the military profession that aims account this phenomenon regarding the the security of the society. Corporateness is the military pattern. quality indicator. When trying to define identity dimensions Niculae [1] builds a professional value of a certain profession, Huntington [5] notes system, which contributes to maintaining a that the military profession meets some criteria high level of trust among the civilian as defining features: population, by targeting components of surface - expertise, based on knowledge and and depth. R O I V A H E B E C A F R U PREOCCUPATION S FOR TRAINING S LOYALTY LOYALTY L FOR THE FOR THE E HONESTY DIGNITY HONOUR V MILITARY WORK E L INSTITUTION GROUP PERSONAL P EXAMPLE E E D Fig. 1 Niculae’s professional value system Visibility is provided only for the surface sample of 1.020 subjects). In order to examine level: discipline and spirit of responsibility. If the ethnopsyhological profile, we may choose the spirit of responsibility is one of the most a WAY tool (a test Who are you?). The results significant characteristics of the Huntington of the test were pre-encoded based on M. model, discipline derives from a set of Rokeach’s table of values [6]. The attitudes and values from levels of depth: professional profile of military students, as honesty, dignity, honor. Unused by the well as the ethnic profile was outlined by inventory of professional values, honesty and investigating values, interests and attitudes. To dignity are found in the Rokeach table. emphasize that point I used the Work Value In a wide study realized in 2009-2010 (on Inventory (WVI) tool (Donald E. Super), 1.020 subjects), I investigated the ethno- adapted for the Romanian population by psychological, professional, and communi- Septimiu Chelcea [7]. In this case, we can use cational profile of military students (on a the results from the WAY test applied to build 110 Military Sciences the ethnic profile of military students in order Table 1 The students’ average scores on to configure the “discipline” level. Super’s WVI Regarding “honesty”, where we indexed all Rank Work values Scores the variables in open responses that refer to I Way of life 13.40 honesty, incorruptibility, integrity, loyalty, II Surroundings 12.92 probity, respectability, we raise a sensitive III Supervisory relationships 12.87 issue, interpreted as relation to hetero-image IV Achievement 12.21 regarding the ethnic profile of the Romanian V Economic return 12.14 military. VI Prestige 12.09 In the professional profile, “honesty”, located on top, is an indicator of the desire to VII Altruism 11.92 achieve discipline in terms of the surface level VIII Security 11.72 of military value system, but it is not doubled IX Creativity 11.71 by “dignity”. Dignity comprises moral X Independence 11.55 behavior, including relationships with XI Intelectual stimulation 11.31 superiors, and the score regarding the ethnic XII Management 11.15 profile set it on mid-range classification XIII Associates 10.26 ratings, with rank 20 (of 40). Also, dignity XIV Variety 10.25 comprises “prestige”, a value of rank VI (of XV Aesthetics 9.81 15) in Super inventory. We can observe that the “supervisory 3. MILITARY STUDENTS’ PROJECTED relationships” value reaches rank III, PROFESSIONAL PROFILE “achievement” - rank IV, “prestige” – rank VI, while “management” is a value of rank XII Responsibility, seen as “obligation to be and “associates” a value of rank XIII. Before responsible of own actions, facing certain trying to find trends in outlining the situations, according to well defined professional profile of the military, let’s procedures” [8], includes, besides procedural review the results of a study conducted by the dimensions, the concepts of “competence” and specialists of “Carol I” National Defense “power”. From the perspective of the ethnic University [9], which aims at identifying the profile “responsibility” is a value of rank 3 as socio-occupational image of the Romanian a mark of military environment, and officer among military pupils and students. “professional capacity”, interpreted in the The features of the officer’s model (projected same scale, is a value of rank 8. In Super image) were: sociability and the spirit of inventory, “responsibility” is replaced by a cooperation, which were designed by the combination of values. framework of citizen and educator The “spirit of responsibility”, a surface competences [9], while the officer‘s image value in Niculae’s model, is “fueled” from the (current image) was characterized by attributes deep levels by loyalty for the military developed by a set of projected skills. institution and for the work group, in Romanian officer is: disciplined (39%), interdeterminance with “honour” that “feeds” intelligent (30%), courageous (28%), the “spirit of discipline”. However, the spirit responsible (21%), patriotic (14%), of responsibility determines in depth a high perseverant (14%), sociable (10%) [9]. In level of preoccupation for training and other words, the current image of the officer is personal example. mainly characterized by features and mental These values are in accordance with skills (theoretical dimension) rather than by “achievement”, “prestige”, “management”, acquired capacity (practical dimension). “supervisory relationships”, and “associates”, The officer’s projected image is similar for identified and included in Super’s Work Value the military pupils and students, but the Inventory (WVI). The students’ average scores features are not arranged in the same order: for on WVI are presented in the next table: military pupils: intellectual capacity - 67%, 111 The Professional Profile of the Romanian Military accountability - 44%, management capacity - of the hierarchy of values of the indicators 44%, discipline - 43% and professional “economic return” and “security”. There are competence - 41%, respectively for military other indicators of the “individualization” students: intellectual capacity - 67%, trend, such as the high position (Ist rank) of professional competence - 65%, management “way of life”, but the IInd rank of “associates” capacity - 58%, accountability - 45% and value looks differently at the age of puberty, in discipline - 40%. We can conclude that a new spite of the rank XIII in our study . formative design ought to be based on leader, Another difference between present specialist and fighter skills. (hetero-) image of the officers and present Therefore, we observe differences between (self-) image of the future officer (military the military projection of self-image, the students) is linked to the “management”/ professional profile of the military student, and “managerial capacity” indicator. If in the first the projected image of Romanian officers. We case “managerial capacity” is a rank II value, can observe that the present image of officers in our study “management” is situated on the described in terms of Niculae’s and XIIth position from XIV possible positions. In Huntington’s system of military values is not other words, the officer projection is related to similar to the present image of future officers, leadership, which is not sufficiently promoted. detailed in terms of Super’s Work Value Inventory. We can define in our study, for 4. CONCLUSIONS involving a proper interpretation, the present image of the officers (hetero-image) and the The two professional profiles differ present image of the future officers (self- substantially. One of the indicators of this image). approach is the low valuation of the relational The major difference is determined by the dimension. This indicator is based not only on fact that in the professional profile of military the tendency towards individualization, students the values “way of life” (Ist rank), alienation, and employment relationships in “surroundings” (IInd rank) and “economic order to obtain major and immediate financial return” (Vth rank) are situated on top. These benefits, but it is also based on the lack of an values indicate the tendency towards indivi- appropriate design. dualism, erosion of the corporateness, If from the ethnical perspective the alienation, competition. They correspond to Romanian military profile is coagulated the tendency of Chelcea’s study [7], regarding around the relational/communicational over-valuing of the importance of extrinsic dimension, in terms of the professional profile, work factors, a “perverse effect” of the post- the Romanian military avoids this dimension. revolution period, but are dissonant with a The lack of communication competence of the small scale projected study at the “Dimitrie graduate military model leads to an increased Cantemir” High School College” from Breaza, trend of individualization in a profession that inconclusive from the point of view of requires corporateness. Moreover, despite the sampling [10]. unstable balance, this profession gradually According to this study (on the sample of turning into an occupation in the competition 83 subjects), the first places in the ranking between the institutional and the occupational values were “way of life” (medium value, model of armed forces [11]. m = 4.64), “associates” (m = 4.61) and “altruism” (m = 4.41), while the last places REFERENCES were “aesthetic” (m = 3.36), “management” (m = 3.51) and the “variety” (m = 3.51). The 1. Niculae, C., Schimbarea organizaţiei long period of time until the integration of militare. O perspectivă (neo)instituţiona- military pupils on the labor market and the listă, Tritonic, Bucharest, 2004, pp.127- high degree of security regarding the 128; professional range in the military framework 2. Lesenciuc, A., Ilişoi, D., The military have caused the placement on the second half profession and the option for armed forces, 112 Military Sciences in Knowledge Based Organization. The 8. * * * Larousse. Marele dicţionar al 13th International Conference, “Nicolae psihologiei, Trei Publishing House, Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Bucharest, 2006, p. 1038; 2007, p. 268; 9. Mureşan, M., Buţa, V., Anton, M., Anton 3. „Armata scade în încrederea populaţiei” E., Socializarea profesională în instituţiile [online], in Gândul, 10 february 2010, militare de învăţământ, “Carol I” National http://www.gandul.info/eveniment/armata- Defense University Publishing House, scade-increderea-populatiei-862629; Bucharest, 2007; 4. Rotaru, N., Criză şi dialog. Managementul 10. Ciupitu, T., Iacob, I., Grăjdan, Em., comunicării în structuri de tip ierarhic, Valorile profesionale ale elevilor din RAO, Bucharest, 2003, p. 31; Colegiul Militar Liceal „Dimitrie 5. Huntington, S., Profesia de military, In Cantemir” sub influenţa procesului Armata şi societatea, Info-Team instructiv-educativ [online]. In Psihologie Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998, p. 241; aplicată în mediul militar, vol. III, 6. apud Iacob, Luminiţa, M., Etnopsihologie http://www.e-scoala.ro/psihologie/valori_ şi imagologie. Sinteze şi cercetări, 11. profesionale_elevi.html]; Polirom, Iaşi, 2003, p. 233; 12. Moskos, Ch., Armata – mai mult decât o 7. Chelcea, S., Personalitate şi societate în profesie?, Ziua Publishing House, tranziţie. Studii de psihologie social, Bucharest, 2006. Scientific and Techical Publishing House, Buchares, 1994; 113 Military Sciences MISCOMMUNICATION: FAILING TO UNDERSTAND THOSE GI’s ? Daniela NAGY “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Abstract: The aim of this article is to draw attention to three types of miscommunication involved in the language used by the military. The social variables play an important part in failing to understand messages within the military environment. Among the common occurrences of miscommunication the use of acronyms, military jargon and euphemisms are mentioned. Keywords: miscommunication, acronyms, jargon, euphemisms, communication breakdown. 1. INTRODUCTION types is whether or not the participants overtly recognize a problem and manifest a Effective communication within the subsequent attempt at remediation.“ In case of military environment is vital so long as misunderstanding they do not, in the latter they the accomplishment of professional tasks do. is pursued. Nevertheless, instances of The military language, as a communicative miscommunication, either among the military instrument of individuals grouped under personnel or between military and non- the same social category lends itself military participants in the communicative act to misinterpretation, and subsequently, are frequent and of various types. results into miscommunication, once it is Consideration will further be given to users of inappropriately contextualized. proficient English, both native and nonnative For illustration, reference will be further speakers, involved in social and professional made to the use of military acronyms, jargon encounters while utilizing the language of the and doublespeak in verbal communication. military. In each of the above-mentioned semantic The dictionary definition of frameworks, the social variables as role miscommunication [1] is “failure to relation, participants and context (of speech communicate clearly”. One may find this and situation) play important parts. definition insufficient, at least from the perspective of the word ‘clearly’, as it does not 2. MILITARY ACROMYMS AND specify the amount of clarity necessary for ABBREVIATIONS successful communication, neither does it offer any hints with regard to the context in Acronyms are extensively used in the which such faulty communication occurs. In military environment and often a source of other words, there is still a large amount of major headache for receivers of oral messages confusion concerning whose fault it is in case containing them. Given the social context of of miscommunication: the sender’s, the the military instruction, the use of acronyms receiver’s or both? by drill instructors may lead to communication Susan M. Gass and Evangeline M. Varonis breakdowns provided that the semantic [2] have divided miscommunication into two abilities of the participants in the training are subcategories: (1) misunderstanding and (2) ignored or overestimated. incomplete understanding. They state that “a “Gents, our POI (Plan of Instruction) for major differentiating factor between these two today includes a GI (General Inspection) by 114 Miscommunication: Failing to Understand Those Gi’s ? the 1IC (First in Command). It will be first subordinates. In most circumstances, there is thing in the morning, soon after your PT no chance for remediation, since a further (Physical Training). Put on your BDUs (Battle request for explanation may be taken for Dress Uniforms) and make sure not to miss the disobeying a direct order: “MEDEVAC roll call. Morning classes may be delayed, (Medical Evacuation) operations in the DMZ though (…)”[3]. (Demilitarized Zone) will only occur at order, Assuming that participants in this morning at 5:00 ZT (Zulu Time). The ETA (Estimated briefing had been previously accommodated to Time of Arrival) for crews is confidential for the meanings of these acronyms, no the moment.” misunderstandings of the message should have Another instance of abbreviated language, occurred. On the other side, if such messages although it is not considered acronymic is had been transmitted in the absence of the use of clipped words. In verbal previous linguistic warning, the result of the communication, it indicates the relationships inevitable lack of understanding or even the between participants in the social activity: incomplete understanding of the plan of chief – subordinate, situation in which, instruction (POI) would have been a failure in conversation is often one-way (from the accomplishing the orders. It is worth superior to the subordinate, without any mentioning, though, that inference may chance of asking for clarification), or between sometimes help understanding the missing or equal ranks, which may indicate social unclear bits of conversation, on condition that, solidarity and in which remediation of at least two thirds of the whole message is the conversation occurs frequently: clear to receivers. “Shun!(Attention) (At)Ease! P’rade! P’rade In more elaborate conversational situations, ‘shun! (for parade at attention) Ajuwaya! (as incomplete understanding or misunderstanding you were)” [5], “Bro(brother), are you may occur due to the unawareness of the hap‘(happy) in this place?” “Shu, shu, mo’ participants. Military personnel belonging to than ha’.”(sure, sure, more than happy) [3]. various branches may, at one point, be gathered in an international coalition 3. MILITARY JARGON environment. In the absence of pre-training concerning the type of language to be used The phrase military jargon is more often during their cooperation, work expertise may used than military ‘language’. For better or not be of great help. Take, for instance, the worse, the language of the military and of case of identical acronyms, used by different warfare in particular has greatly impacted the branches to designate different realities. Such English language. In recent years, numerous acronyms will be made up of letters and/or dictionaries have been compiled in the attempt numbers: A, stands for ‘army’ or ‘air(force)’, to ascertain and record the often-ephemeral whereas in combination with numbers it may vocabulary associated with specific wars – not be an indicator of the chain of command: A3 only weapons terminology and technical (Operations Directorate). Furthermore, double jargon, but also the colorful slang that or triple letters, in acronyms often refer to inevitably characterizes every war. The social different matters: AA (aircraft assault/anti- variables are, again, worth mentioning, when aircraft), AAA (antiaircraft artillery/ arrival trying to give justification for the ‘coinage’ of and assembly area/ assign alternate area) [4]. several categories of jargons. Like their fellow The misuse of acronyms of this type would soldiers in Germany, Vietnam or Korea, those result in confusion of the participants in the deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq have created specific activity and ultimately, in a failure of a language all of their own, filled with black understanding messages appropriately. humor, cultural references and even with Roles of participants is a clear indicator of occasional crudity. Failing to understand these whether communication breakdowns have any jargons will be only due to the absence of chance of repair. Take, for example the case of initial stimuli that have lead to their coinage orders issued by superiors to their and the authentic context that generated them. 115 Military Sciences Among the most used military jargons environment have shown that military are those involving profession-related terminology that hides violence and danger associations: air-force pilots use the term under humorous or benign language indeed aluminum cloud for the F-14 Tomcat; black effectively alters perception. For instance, the Cadillacs are often mentioned by army guys to euphemism ‘collateral damage’ designating ironically describe their footwear as a mode of ‘civilian casualties’ is defined as damage that transport; navy officers employed aboard is incidental to the intended outcome. The term submarines proudly call themselves ducks, and originated in the United States military, but it the Dual Cool is a phrase for a Marine, usually has since expanded into broader use. Initially Recon or Force Recon, who has earned both the coined phrase was meant as an official the Scuba Bubble and Gold Jump Wings. excuse for damage caused in the urban areas, Jargon involving gender differences or even including loss of lives as a direct result of air sexual connotations may explain the social bombing. context in which such terms were coined: From the military environment, the term participants in the speech acts may have felt has been borrowed by other fields, to stand for like showing superiority in relation with the unpredicted damage besides the targeted one. opposite sex or making excuse for personal Nevertheless, if other fields than the military frustrations caused by the harsh war may not display hidden intentions of language conditions. Accordingly, a stealth woman control, the military intentionally fail to stands for a woman covered in black, as a present the truth in order to diminish the social veiled Iraki woman, whereas leg-spreaders is revolt, as civilians dislike being lied to with derogatively used for a fighter pilot’s insignia. regard to the front realities. Otherwise, irony Jargon using vocabulary that masks violence and even humor may be involved in the appears to play a dual role in the social making-up of euphemisms related to the context: on the one side, it is intended to military while the hidden intention of sweeten the horrors of the front, on the other distorting reality is still preserved. In such side, it may be used in order to hide the truth phrases as “an uncontrolled contact with the from receivers involved in the conversational ground”, in relation to an air crash, “runaway act. Take, for example the funny reference to denial device”, meaning a bomb that scatters the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) as clusters of cratering bombs over a wide area to Operation baby storm or Operation desert destroy air base runaways, “coercive stork due to anticipated high number of births, potential” referring to the military power, the nine months after the return of troops from the social implication consists of the fact that Gulf, while ‘laying down a carpet’ has nothing even if meaning is purposely distorted, the in common with domestic activities, its impact of the message upon the hearers is meaning being ‘saturation bombing’. lessened. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the 4. MILITARY EUPHEMISMS use of euphemisms, together with the other two linguistic devices – acronyms and jargon At the other extreme, the doublespeak or may justify the individuals’ need to convey the use of euphemisms, although considered a social meanings in the specific context of the jargon category, its conversational intention is military life. The social functions of the no longer to address members of the same language deriving from military realities social status but to deceit receivers of the provide a wealth of information about the way messages sent by social participants often the language works, as well as about the social found in an official position: members of relationships within the military community. parliaments, chiefs of military offices etc. By doing so, they deny their social roles and hope 5. CONCLUSIONS to diminish or even hide the tough impact their messages may have upon their targeted In conclusion, the major challenge for audiences. Statistics relative to the military addressing the impact of warfare and military 116 Miscommunication: Failing to Understand Those Gi’s ? terminology on the English language is one of AFB, San Antonio, Texas. Handouts scope. distributed during an Advanced Language Military terminology is incredibly flexible. Proficiency Skills course, in 2007; Not only are different military groups and, 4. The Department of Defense Dictionary of indeed, different wars characterized by Military and Associated Terms (short particular vocabularies, military terminology title: Joint Pub 1-02 or JP 1-02), 12 April also infiltrates the language of civilians and, 2001 (As Amended Through 30 May conversely, is impacted by a number of 2008); specialized civilian vocabularies. Failures in 5. Breakthrough, student Audio CD, unit 4. understanding correctly the meaning of the The British Council’s Peacekeeping message may have a variety of reasons, out of English Project (PEP), Published by the which, the social nature of the language plays Ministry of Defence of the Czech an extremely important part. Republic; Military Information and Service Agency (AVIS), march 2005. REFERENCES Note: *GI stands for Government Issue. This 1. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: reverts to military law, which says that, all www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ military personnel, and also the bunks they miscommunication; sleep in, the clothes they wear, and the guns 2. Gass, S.M., Varonis, E.M., they carry, are the property of the Miscommunication in Nonnative Speaker Government. What started as a common joke Discourse, in Coupland, N., Giles, H., among soldiers that they were, in fact, Wiemann, J.M. (eds), „Miscommunica- Government issued military property, became tion” and problematic talk, Newburry the standard ready reference. They were, quite Park, Sage Publications, 1991; simply, issued by the government and, 3. cited from class material provided by the therefore, became Government Issues. Defense Language Institute, Lackland 117 Military Sciences THE ROLE OF MARKETING-BASED APPROACHES IN INCREASING THE MILITARY EDUCATION’S PERFORMANCE Livia Ecaterina TĂTAR The Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies, Romania Abstract: In a constantly changing environment that may be described by an acronym such as VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous), military organisations should limit their traditional approach to doings things by means of complicated chains of command, and adopt instead different techniques in which flexibility and creativity play the pivotal role. This article briefly examines some models of marketing, and attempts to apply them to a hypothetical military educational organisation in order to conclude upon the usefulness and appropriateness of marketing tools in improving organisational performance in the military educational system. Keywords: marketing, military system, military education, organisational objective, organisational performance. 1. INTRODUCTION and values. Nevertheless, pointing out the common aspects of some of the models, as A constantly changing reality inherently well as the differences between them could calls for developing and re-developing models offer a more comprehensive perception of and approaches, especially when the term marketing planning processes. This is the “reality” defines the present global purpose of the first part of this paper. environment. The tremendous political, Its next stage attempts to apply the economic and social transformations occurred theoretical models to a specific organisational during the last decades, such as the collapse of context, whereas the final part aims at deciding the communist regimes in Eastern Europe, the upon at the usefulness of the models to the military conflicts in the Far East and former organisation in question. Yugoslavia, as well as the more recent events such as the economic crisis or the nuclear 2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS experiments of Iran have resulted in the After analysing the data resulted from a necessity of re-shaping both business and survey carried out among UK consumers and security objectives, strategies and attitudes. industrial companies more than twenty years The purpose of this paper is to analyse the ago, Griffin [1] concludes that ‘marketing’ is extent to which marketing approaches specific but one of the many terms “used to describe to the business environment may be applied to one of the main functions of business” as the military organisations, given the fact that the survey subjects reported the use of other terms, former have been developed in relation with such as ‘strategic’, ‘business’, ‘operational’, to private or corporate organisations – more name only three. prone to change and, therefore, to adaptation However, the content of what the study and flexibility, whereas the latter are presented as “a marketing plan” was described hierarchical, bureaucratic, and rigid par in “very similar” ways, as two-thirds of the excellence. respondents indicated. Regardless of its name, There is no right or wrong model of the document contained the following marketing planning, as each serves different elements: businesses with different purposes, structures, - SWOT analysis of the business; 118 The Role of Marketing-Based Approaches in Increasing the Military Education’s Performance - business objectives (to be achieved during sense that it contains the same elements, but or by the end of the year); positions the marketing audit phase on the first - business strategies on how to achieve the place, unlike McDonald and Westwood, who objectives; begin their planning processes with setting the - tactics regarding each element of strategy; corporate objectives. - forecast; Another characteristic of Majaro’s model is - estimate of income, expense, and profit; placing great emphasis on information - assessment methods to evaluate the overall gathering and feedback at every level. effectiveness of the plan and each element of Each model lends itself to different the strategy. organisational profiles, according to its On the other hand, one may consider strengths and weaknesses. Thus, one can argue different theoretical models, such as the that Majaro’s model is clear, logical, and marketing planning processes respectively offers good knowledge of the market developed by McDonald in 1984, Majaro in environment, but at the same time the audit 1993, and Westwood in 1997. The most procedures may be expensive. Consequently, it conspicuous aspect in this case is the high would be appropriate for small organisations degree of resemblance among the models on that are new on the market. the one hand, and between the models and the On the other hand, McDonald’s model is study findings on the other hand. both simple and comprehensive, in the sense All the models mentioned above contain that it focuses on the organisation, as well as common elements: corporate objectives, on the market. Also, it provides information on SWOT analysis, assumptions, and strategies. competitors, estimates results, and gives As far as McDonald’s and Westwood’s alternative plans. However, it has significant models are concerned, the resemblance can be shortcomings such as the lack of specific further expanded to the sequence of the first information on customers and budgetary stages: setting corporate objectives, carrying constraints. out internal and external marketing research, Finally, Westwood’s model encompasses SWOT analysis, marketing objectives. strengths such as focus on employees, which Nonetheless, the order of the last stages of increases their motivation and participation, the two models is not identical: whereas opportunity to review the plans, and emphasis McDonald [2] suggests that programme on external preferences. On the other hand, its implementation should be followed by implementation may be expensive and time- measurement and review, Westwood [3] consuming, which makes it unsuitable for considers that these two stages should be large or multi-facet organisations. separated by a control system phase, whose However, mention should be made that the role is to ensure that all the necessary practical application of such models requires conditions for the plan implementation are adaptability and flexibility of interpretation, met. both regarding the terminology used and the Another difference between McDonald’s contents of the plans, as “the number of and Westwood’s models is the emphasis on components of the plans structure and the feedback: McDonald advances the idea that amount of wording that goes with each are, in the feedback loops should connect all the the end, a matter of management style”[1] . marketing planning stages, from assumptions The idea of combining the marketing and to measurement and review, while managerial aspects originates from the fact Westwood’s opinion is that the feedback role that the two activities represent different should be restricted to the intermediate phases, perspectives of the same unitary issue: the from marketing objectives and expected effective and efficient running of the business. results to budget setting. This viewpoint is supported by Simkin’s On the other hand, Majaro’s marketing opinion [5]: “To be credible, marketing planning process [4] may be regarded as a planning must include an understanding of hybrid of the previous two models, in the managers’ behaviour and the broader 119 Military Sciences organisational context in which it takes Peterson [7] advance the idea that more and place”. more marketing research problems will be addressed based on secondary data alone due 3. THE ORGANISATIONAL PROFILE to the extensive nature of secondary data available over the Internet, from business, Due to the nature of the hypothetical government, and syndicated sources. Mention organisation taken into consideration hereby, should be made that the organisational the term “commandant” will substitute the objectives must be clear and communicated term “manager” in the context of this paper. properly to the staff. It is important that the The organisation’s objectives should derive objectives meet the so called SMART criteria, from its mission and may consist of the i.e., specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, following: and timed. 1. To develop understanding of concepts, The next step is the classical SWOT principles, methods and techniques related to analysis, which “consists of two parts: one military subject matters. dealing with the external environment 2. To implement modern operational methods (opportunities and threats), and the other with and techniques in the field of defence and the internal set of organisational resources security. (strengths and weaknesses)” [6]. One can 3. To carry out scientific research for argue that the SWOT analysis is subjective supporting the fundaments and application of and consequently its results are debatable. military sciences. However, “the SWOT analysis is ultimately Romania’s national security is determined about making informed judgements which by the regional, European, and global security. may themselves be informed in some way by The collapse of the communist regime in the results of a market analysis” [6]. December 1989 has imposed a new approach Then, the model refers to the action plans, to defence issues, while the NATO integration namely addressing the segment, target, and process has resulted in the necessity of positioning issues, as well as generating reforming the Armed Forces. The educational promotion plans, so an interesting question dimension is an essential part of the deep arises: “Who is the real customer? Is it the reform process of the Romanian military student, the student’s current employer, or system, and it must reflect the latest tendencies society at large?” [8]. and approaches in the field. Last but not least, the promotion strategy Consequently, when setting the corporate options refer to the organisation’s competitive objectives, the commandant must give serious advantage of uniqueness and monopoly. consideration to the elements of market After all these stages have been clearly orientation, which is “the aspect of business established, the plan is explained to the staff culture that motivates employees throughout as “effective service delivery requires the organisation to place the highest priority motivated and customer-conscious employees” on the profitable creation and maintenance of (Grönroos) [9]. During this phase the role of superior customers’ value” [7]. The model internal marketing is vital. As Ahmed and techniques are external and internal marketing Rafiq [9] argue, the employees’ behaviour or research, which leads to the aspect of using attitudes are essential “for the effective various methods of internal and external implementation of a particular corporate or marketing research data collection. functional strategy”. These include the already traditional ways As Nicholls et al. [8] notice, in today’s based on suggestion boxes, interviews – changing educational environment, “a new whether they are of a personal, mailing, or balance must be found between telephone nature – or the more modern email commercialism and professionalism”, but contacts or Internet approaches. Regardless of “academics do not necessarily enjoy the method in which it is provided, the promoting their services”. One way to feedback is essential. However, Malhotra and overcome this difficulty is using an 120 The Role of Marketing-Based Approaches in Increasing the Military Education’s Performance opportunistic and reactive method, based on political, cultural, and social events, the the fact that “discussions with colleagues in paramount importance of providing business schools elsewhere suggest this type of competitive military education cannot be approach is not unusual” [8]. overstated. Also, the organisation can make extensive use of ways in which risk can be reduced for REFERENCES the student and to facilitate the student’s decision-making processes, which would 1. Griffin, T., Marketing Planning: include prompt and accurate feedback to Observations on Current Practices and enquiries, as well as a “more proactive Recent Studies, European Journal of approach to promotion and perhaps, too, Marketing, 23(12), 1989, pp. 21-35; greater use of alumni associations” [8]. 2. McDonald, M., Marketing Plans: How to Finally, the controlling, reviewing and Prepare Them, How to Use Them, Oxford, updating systems are applied. At this stage, the Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995; progress of the plan is assessed by monitoring 3. Majaro, S., The Essence of Marketing. the number of potential students who manifest Pearson PTR, 1993; their interest in the courses by telephoning or 4. Westwood, R.I., Management Information accessing the organisation’s website. Systems in the Chinese Business Culture: A Another element to be considered is the Explanatory Theory, Information & compliance with the set budgets, whereas Management, 32, 1997, 215-228; according to the data collected, consequent 5. Simkin, L., Addressing organisational measures are taken: accelerating the prerequisites in marketing planning advertising campaign, reducing or increasing programmes, Marketing Intelligence and the budgetary allocation within the established Planning, 14(5), 1996, pp. 39-46; limits. 6. Slater, S.F., Market orientation at the beginning of a new millennium, Managing 4. CONCLUSIONS Service Quality, 11(4), 2001, pp. 230- 233; This paper attempts to explain how a 7. Malhotra, N. K., Peterson, M., Marketing combined marketing approach to achieving the research in the new millennium: emerging objectives of an imaginary military issues and trends, Marketing Intelligence educational organisation (based on and Planning, 9(4), 2001, pp. 216-232; Westwood’s marketing planning process) is 8. Nicholls, J. et al., Marketing higher not only useful, but also necessary, because it education: the MBA experience, ultimately enforces the very issue of credibility International Journal of Educational of the unit as a service provider. This Management, 9(2), 1995, pp. 31-38; illustrates the idea that “unless schools succeed 9. apud Ahmed, P. K., Rafiq, M., The role of in improving their marketing, they will stand internal marketing in the implementation accused of not practising what they preach” of marketing strategies, Journal of [8]. Considering the profound challenges Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing posed by the current economic, strategic, Science, 1(4), 1995, pp. 32-51. 121 Military Sciences THE EXTERNAL INFORMATION FLOW OF THE STRATEGIC AND NATIONAL SECURITY INFORMATION Carmen POSTELNICU “Mihai Viteazul” National Intelligence Academy, Romania Abstract: Modern intelligence services have constantly improved their analytical function, which allows them to develop relationships with the main social partners. Due to the position these key partners have within the structures of power, they intervene in a decisively manner into the national security policy, extending to the international one. Keywords: information, flow, expertise, security, beneficiaries, providers. 1. INTRODUCTION trend of the decision makers to pay no attention to those information products that do In the democratic countries, the not support the political strategies they want to intelligence services are institutions of the adopt, or those ones they already adopted and state, that achieved an increasingly degree of to which they made a commitment [1]”. relevance, having the role of a social partner Complex information products are for the power factors who are entitled to make disseminated to the beneficiaries, products that decisions on the national security plan, passed, within the services, through different extending to the international one. One of the phases of processing. The most important finalities of the specific activities conducted by phase that information to be transmitted to its the intelligence services is to support a recipient is passing through is the analysis. prevention process conducted by the body “The analysis refers to the process of legally entitled to obtain information products. transforming the information collected in any The institutional collaboration established manner into a product that can be used by between the providers/services and the decisional factors and military leaders” [1]. beneficiary/decision makers are achieved The analytical function increased its weight in through an external information flow that is all the types of intelligence organizations, generated by the services and captured by the considering that the information bombardment beneficiary. is excessive and the information is not The generic name of beneficiaries include properly filtered, and all these can cause people occupying key positions within the adverse effects. In the upper class of the institutions of the state, the highest level being intelligence services more and more emphasis held by the state president and the prime is put on the maximal use of the analytical minister, according to the form of government, function, both as a process and as an optimal by the presidents of the Chambers of the distribution of the staff who has expertise in Parliament, by the ministers or the this area. Optimizing the analytical capacity is representatives of local administration. a priority of intelligence services, which are Although all the states have precise regulations forced to adjust their capacity of response and in this field, in reality there have always been intervention to the coordinates and the dissensions between the intelligence services expressions of aggression factors or threats. and the political factor. “The difficulties arise, The strength of analysis and anticipation will according to the intelligence services, from the represent the success of the intelligence 122 The External Information Flow of the Strategic and National Security Information activity in the next years, given that aggression flexible their strategic and tactical activity and difficult to predict must be anticipated and will develop the analytical capacity of the field reported in terms and time allowing an workers, things that will lead to the increase of effective removal capacity. While traditional the anticipation potential on all levels of threats have diluted their dangerousness intervention. potential, the asymmetric or unconventional ones, with cross-borders symptoms, won a 2. EXTERNAL INFORMATION FLOW repudiated kind of celebrity, because of their AND ITS MAIN FEATURES aggressive potential, their pulling-back ability and their element of surprise, which, together The relationship between information with the anonymity of the authors, represents a providers and its recipients is based on destructive gear with a large capacity of external information flow, which is a proliferation and propagation. continuous process. These categories of threats will be able to In general, information flow is the amount be anticipated and effectively removed of information exchanged between the throughout the efficient combination of transmitter and the beneficiary of the gathering the information and analyzing the information and assigned the following information. characteristics: length, speed, reliability, cost Intelligence services will adapt and make and laden degree (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Information flow Applying this path to the relationship to some corroboration and analysis activities, between the intelligence services in Romania conferring them accuracy and adhesion. and the legal beneficiaries leads to the Regarding the NIC, it operates with national assumption that information is a highly security information that meet certain criteria, perishable product. the final form being assigned by the issuing The length of information flow between services. We can argue that the primary type the provider and the beneficiary must fit information referred to the NIC is already a within the tolerance limits designed to ensure complete one, verified and therefore safe. As a the transfer of information, without any jam consequence, NIC is favored because it along the circuit, to the intermediate structures. accumulates only information with a high In the Romanian formula, there is only a single degree of relevance, which improves the link between the providers and the analytical process. Analytical work is beneficiaries, the NIC – National Intelligence accessible, in terms of reducing the ballast Community, which operates a filtrate volume elements, those which duplicate the contents of information, that have already been subject and the redundant data. 123 Military Sciences In any collective type system there is also reduced to a kind of staff office the risk of waste accumulation, bypassing the correspondence but it is assimilated and process, and information services are no integrated into the final purpose of intelligence exception. The appropriate management activity, as an integrating process. projects and programs, along with the internal One of the problems of modern procedures adapted to the modern business intelligence services is subject to costs, which intelligence requirements, helps to increase the are included in budgets, and subject to quality and to reduce the unnecessary accounting purposes which does not exceed treasuresness of unnecessary information. any field of activity. Information costs as The speed of information movement much as each state wants to offer to obtain towards the beneficiaries is in a congruent them. The real cost of information is not relationship with the length of the information always reflected by the available budget of the flow. If there are more intermediate links service producing it. The intelligence services between the information provider and the never receive the budgets they wish for, and beneficiaries, those links can hamper the this fact can lead to the occurrence of development within the circuit and the shifting dysfunctions in the activities they undertake. speed decreases. For these reasons, between In fact, the budget allocated to the intelligence the providers and the beneficiaries there must services is one of the hottest topics that are be the fewest possible superstructures, in order debated by the political class and by the civil to disqualify the information and its subject to society representatives. Those who talk the perishable character. Returning to the idea least about their own budgets are the exposed above, in Romania, the information intelligence services themselves, which are in flow has a speed which is unconditioned by a defensive position to the other social partners external elements, NIC being the only and do not claim for any possible failures that intermediary entity, but one that doesn’t might occur because of the poverty or the lack intervene across the path of all the information of financial availability. In the secret services categories issued by the services the service. In zone is it a known fact that an added value of case of threats, aggressions or imminent risks, the information is obtained by the the information can be sent both to NIC, in professionalism of the workers who order to achieve the integration process, and to successfully compensate for the lack of the beneficiary, in order to promptly achieve money. the act of prevention as it must be done. In 2010 Romania allocated SRI – The reliability of the information flow Romanian Intelligence Service a budget of represents the measure of intelligence services 957,201,000 lei [3,5], compared to the 2009 professionalism within the institutional preliminary implementation of 958,726,000 relationship they have with the beneficiaries. lei, which director George Cristian Maior The request of maintaining viable the considers as satisfactory for carrying on daily information flow and to exclude any activities and assuming obligations to the malfunctions that may intervene at a particular international partners: “It's a crisis budget, moment, and under specified conditions, is reduced from 2009 and from previous years at placed on the provider, who must build his around 98%. We can also find a decrease in own internal mechanisms very well, in order to value of the share of GDP budget from 0.3% create the information finished product, which to 0.23%. We hope we can maintain at a falls outside his own system. From this strategic and operational level, the continuity framework, the beneficiary's contribution, of our mission on anti-terrorism, which helps maintaining the reliability of the counterespionage, or service’s mission on the process, should not be excluded. If the field of country cybernetic defense.(…) It is a beneficiary does not intervene to ensure the satisfactory budget in these days of crisis, we preventive function, it means that the ultimate have adapted ourselves to the rigors of the goal of the intelligence activity is not situation”. SRI Director confirmed that, achieved. Reliability, in this context, is not according to the evaluation of the service for 124 The External Information Flow of the Strategic and National Security Information the coming years, some categories of security reliability and, not at last, generates additional risks and threats are growing, “next year in costs. particular, increasing risks related to organized crime at the strategic level”, but also “a growth 3. CONCLUSIONS related to the terrorist threat in Euro-Atlantic area, foreseen by us”. Maior noted that If we place the strategic information in the external partnerships of SRI are “very context of the current marketing nowadays, we important” and said he was pleased that there can assign its appropriate result with the are budgetary resources for further degree of satisfaction of the beneficiary who is participation in operations alongside other using it. The relationship between the services “very strong services”. and the beneficiaries is an interesting and For SIE – Extern Intelligence Service, the legally postulated one, with obligation directed allocated amount is 214,300,000 lei [3,4], and towards the services that inform the decisional the Chairman of the joint activity control factors of the state, and they, at their turn, are commission decided to support the director’s presumed to occur through the enforcement of request to supplement the initial amount, in those measures that remove the threats to the order to sustain the technical segment. security or achieve prevention by another way It can be said, when talking about the year of expression, namely undertaking actions 2010 budget of the intelligence services in with positive impact on security: creating Romania, to be an adapted to the specificities favorable alliances, assuming international of the crisis one, but still being able to respond commitments, cooperating with other to the requirements for ensuring the national international structures and organizations with security. p rerogatives in the security field, etc. As a characteristic of the information flow, REFERENCES the laden degree is a volumetric representation of the ability distribution that intelligence 1. Shulski, N., Schmitt, A., Gary, J., Războiul services have in their relation with the tăcut – Introducere în universul informa- beneficiaries. The laden degree needs to be ţiilor secrete, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2008, pp. adherent to the needs of the beneficiaries, 206-207; which can not be excessively demanded, 2. Tsang, S., Serviciile de informaţii şi because of the risk of not succeeding in drepturile omului în era terorismului establishing priorities. As in any type of global, Ed. Univers Enciclopedic, communication, the laden degree of the Bucureşti, 2008; message must have a good dispersion, in order 3. *** Monitorul Oficial al României, Partea to avoid altering the finality of the original I, nr 60/27.01.2010, Anexa 3; purpose, the one of ensuring national security. 4. http://www.sie.ro; An abundant, excessive flow can induce 5. http://www.sri.ro. turbulence into the system, which loses also in 125 Military Sciences ECO-DRIVE – THE SAFE, FLUENT AND ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY DRIVING STYLE Cornel ARAMĂ*, Ioan BĂLOS*, Ovidiu MOŞOIU* *“Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania Abstract: What can the driver against the requirements of increasingly heavy road traffic management? What Can I do to drive as safe as quickly, with minimal costs, as smooth and respecting environment? The answer can be only one: adjusting the driving style to meet these demands. That is the eco-driving style. Keywords: eco-driving, environment, safety, smooth, fuel consumption. 1. INTRODUCTION driving has become a priority in most EU- countries as well as in the European Sitting relaxed behind the steering wheel. commission when energy efficiency, climate More comfort for you and your passengers. A protection as well as road safety programs are better overview over the traffic situation concerned. Eco-driving Europe has and more traffic safety. Cost saving through contributed to this favorable development by: less fuel consumption. Contributing to - building a European network environmental protection. That’s what the Resources have been shared to develop economical, fuel saving driving stile can offer. new solutions as well as to evaluate results. Also you can profit from eco-driving. Experience and know-how have been Eco-Driving, the training of an exchanged in workshops, demonstrations, economically and ecologically sound driving through newsletters or in personal contact. style, is a cheap method to save fuel and New solutions and knowledge are the result of money whilst contributing to road safety. The working together. EU-countries have benefited average reduction of fuel consumption from each others’ experience and results and amounts to 10%. Pay back periods of the could thus accelerate eco-driving activities and training lessons are reasonably short. programs. Nevertheless, the development of the market - building a knowledge basis for eco-driving is slow, at least on a European Facts and figures concerning eco-driving scale. have been collected throughout Europe and The project aims to accelerate the beyond and made accessible to stake-holders establishment of a European market for and starting countries. Moreover, know-how training lessons in an economic driving style and expertise on how to implement, market as well as to integrate eco-driving in and evaluate a program have been developed the driving license curricula in European and disseminated. countries. - making eco-driving a policy issue In 2001, the initiative „eco-driving The convincing evidence of it’s benefits Europe” started aiming to accelerate the has put eco-driving on both national and establishment of eco-driving in Europe. Until European policies’ agendas and has resulted then, there had been rather isolated national among others in an increased number of initiatives in the Netherlands, in Germany, directives and calls from the European Finland and Switzerland. In the meantime eco- commission that include eco-driving issues. 126 Eco-Drive – The Safe, Fluent and Environment Friendly Driving Style 2. BENEFITS OF “ECO-DRIVING” minute) equals the engine noise of 32 cars at 2000 rpm (Fig. 2). Thus, eco-driving reduces Eco-driving improves road safety as well one of the main problems of traffic in urban as the quality of the local and global areas [1,2]. environment and saves fuel and costs. All Costs and safety three benefits are important for furthering eco- Eco-driving reduces not only fuel costs, driving. Different benefits facilitate bringing but also costs for maintenance and costs for eco-driving to different stakeholders and repairing cars after accidents. The safer policy fields and their activities. The driving behavior results from: differences between the normal drivers and the • an anticipating driving style; drivers who followed special courses can be • maintaining a steady speed; seen into the figure 1 [3]. • less speeding; • less overtaking; • less stress/aggressiveness. Some examples: - CANON company in Switzerland trained the eco-driving style with 350 service car drivers in VSZ VELTHEIM. The drivers reduced fuel consumption by 6,1%, had 22% more km per accident and 35% less accidents in total; - Eleven month after eco-driving trainings, the German company HAMBURGER Fig. 1 The influence of Eco-Driving style WASSERWERKE effected fuel consumption reductions of more than 6 %, accidents and Fuel consumption and climate protection related costs could be diminished by more Eco-driving trainings lead to a than 25 %; consumption reduction up to 20 % after - In the year 2000, eco-driving trainings in trainings and about 5% in the long run. The the Austrian bus company NIGGBus reduced European Climate Change Program calculated fuel consumption by 5% in day-to-day driving. a reduction potential of eco-driving of at least The effect increased up to 7% in the year 50 million tons of CO2 -emissions in Europe 2001; by 2010, saving about 20 billion euros [1, 2]. - Eco-driving programs prove to be very cost- Local environment and health effective. The Dutch eco-driving program results in a cost-effectiveness of about 5 euro per avoided ton of CO2-emissions over a period of 10 years. 3. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF “ECO- DRIVING” STYLE IN EU-COUNTRIES Safe and economic driving behaviors (often referred to as eco-driving) have the potential to considerably reduce the energy use and CO2 emissions of transport. This has been stated in many national strategies and Fig. 2 Reducing the noise in urban traffic programmers concerning transport in Finland. However, in order for eco-driving to become a Eco-driving reduces noise pollution as well common behaviors model there is a need for as local air pollution. The engine noise of one systematic and long-term training and car driving with 4000 rpm (revolutions per communication to many stakeholders. This 127 Military Sciences concerns especially those who already possess • Vehicle Administration; a driving license, since the training of safe and • Car importers; economic driving has already been obligatory • The Finnish Central Organisation for Motor for new drivers (in the 2nd training phase) in Trades and Repairs; Finland for 6 years. • OIL INDUSTRY SERVICE CENTER; The awareness of stakeholders is raised • TAPIOLA INSURANCE COMPANY. concerning the economical, safety and The Netherlands ECO-DRIVING environmental benefits of safe and economic programmer ‘Het Nieuwe Rijden’ resulted driving. Pilot projects based on new models of from the Kyoto agreement and from national getting drivers trained are launched among policy documents targeting CO2 emission certain target groups. reductions in traffic and transport. The The primary targets groups are the programmer concerned a long-term strategy following: for the period 1999 until 2006, involved about • consumers (car buyers, car owners); € 20 Million. There already was a long • transportation companies, companies; tradition of eco-driving projects and activities purchasing transportation services; in the Netherlands since 1988. After the Kyoto • municipalities; agreement however, the programme grew to • decision-makers of company car acquisition. maturity. The secondary target groups are: The programme was implemented by • retailers of passengers cars; NOVEM (Netherlands agency for energy and • media; the environment) on behalf of the Dutch • political decision-makers. Ministry of Transport and in co-operation with The key messages of marketing are based the Ministry of Environment. It aims to on the following viewpoints (the priority order motivate (professional) drivers and fleet and the communication for each target group owners to purchase and drive passenger cars, is defined separately): delivery vans and lorries more energy- • safe and economic driving enhances traffic efficiently. The programme created conditions safety; and organizational and logistics structures to • safe and economic driving can bring about achieve CO2 emission reductions. The fuel cost savings of 5–10 % without lowering programme co-operated with over 20 the average speed; consumer and retail organisations, mainly in • safe and economic driving is the fastest and the transport and car business. These the most cost-effective measure to reduce the organizations had signed an agreement to environmental effects of transport; implement eco-driving activities. Among these • safe and economic driving can reduce the organisations are the Royal Dutch Touring vehicle repair costs considerably. Club (ANWB), the Dutch Consumer The project was implemented between Association (CONSUMENTENBOND) and 01.01.2005–31.12.2006. The costs of the the Dutch Association of Car Importers (RAI- project was 95000€. Responsible for the VERENIGING). These organisations are best implementation of the project were: fitted to address the target groups with the eco- • ECODRIVING CENTER Ltd (training driving mission. network including 35 training units and 70 trainers in Finland); The Netherlands eco-driving programme • KH FIN LTD (KEY training network has been addressed the following issues: including 14 training units and 90 trainers in 1. Driving style of (professional) drivers; Finland). 2. Driving school curriculum; The project involved also the following co- 3. Fuel-saving in-car devices; operating parties: 4. Tyre pressure; 5. Purchasing behaviour (e.g. car labeling). • The Ministry of Transport and Communications; Some achievements and aims of the • The Ministry of Trade and Industry; Netherlands eco-driving programme: 128 Eco-Drive – The Safe, Fluent and Environment Friendly Driving Style • More than 90% of the Dutch driving the Commercial Professional Co-operation, instructors and examiners (6,500) were trained the Federal Union of Driving Instructors, the in eco-driving. FORD company, the German foundation on • Eco-driving is already part of theory exams environmental help for driving instructors, examiners and learner On the basis of the brand „Fahr und Spar drivers. Shortly eco-driving will also become mit Sicherheit - Sicher wirtschafltich und part of practical exams. umweltschonend fahren” „ECO-DRIVING” • The eco-driving program aims at the has been developed, tried and tested, and standard equipment of all newly sold cars in evaluated by FORD COMPANY AG and the the European Union with fuel-saving in-car German Road Safety Association together devices such as on-board computers and cruise with the Federal Union of Driving Instructors. control. „ECO-DRIVING” is a programme for private • A large mass media campaign (TV, radio customers and companies and will be spread and print) starts in 2004, mainly focusing on to the public through FORD dealer Federal private car drivers. Aim of the campaign is to wide offers. stimulate car drivers to apply the main driving In June 2000, eco-driving, managed by style recommendations. DVR, was presented to the public. The • The program co-operates with a large programme was supported by the Federal network of consumer and retail organizations, Ministry for Construction, Housing and mainly in the transport and car business. These Transport. The „DVR-Spritsparstunde” was organizations actively promote eco-driving to introduced in 2002. Interested persons can join the target groups. courses nearby and only in one hour. A • A certification and education system has professional trainer teaches the technical of the been set up for eco-driving trainers. new driving style in the customer’s car and • The number of providers of eco-driving gives support when it is needed. courses as well as the variety of courses has increased significantly since 2001. 4. THE “GOLDEN RULES” OF In the time from 1995 to 1996, the German “ECO-DRIVING” Road Safety Association, the Commercial Professional Co-operation and the Federal In the last decades, engine technology and Union of Driving Instructors developed, tried performance of passenger cars, Lorries and and tested, a practical training programme buses have improved rapidly; however, most using real traffic situations for the education of drivers have not adapted their driving style. drivers on a more environmentally friendly Eco-driving is adapted to modern engine driving style. The programme had the title technologies and means smooth and safe „Safe, economical and environmentally driving at lower engine revolutions. Eco- friendly driving” and the target was to teach driving is easy to learn and it has been shown fleet drivers in the new driving style. In the that written information itself has a substantial time from 1996 and 1997, the DVR, impact on driving behavior, on safety and on Commercial Professional Co-operation and fuel consumption without increasing travel Federal Union of Driving Instructors have time. installed training network for the whole There are four basic rules to follow (main Federal Republic of Germany. The trainers recommendations): educating the drivers have all received a 1. Shift into a higher gear as soon as possible certificate from DIN EN ISO 45013 and are (Fig. 3); subjected to an ongoing quality control. 2. Maintain a steady speed, using the highest On the basis of the former programme, the gear possible. Your engine will work in the trademark „Fahr und Spar mit Sicherheit - very efficient area; Sicher wirtschafltich und umweltschonend 3. Look ahead and anticipate traffic flow. fahren” was developed in 1998 by the German This gives you enough space to react Road Safety Association in co-operation with adequately and without stress; 129 Military Sciences 4. Decelerate smoothly by releasing the Controlling the vehicle accelerator in time, leaving the car in gear. In • proper use of safety belts, rear-view this case, modern engines do not need any mirrors, head rest, seat; fuel. • proper use of lights and other equipment; • proper use of clutch, gearbox, accelerator, braking systems (including third braking system), steering wheel; • controlling the vehicle under different circumstances, at different speed; • steadiness on the road; • taking into account the measures, weight and characteristics of the vehicle; • taking into account the weight and kind of Fig. 3 The influence of Eco-Driving on fuel the load; consumption • taking into account the comfort of the passengers (no fast acceleration, smoothly Additional recommendations: driving and no hard braking). • Switch off the engine at short stops (> 1 Observation minute); • all-round observation; • Check the tire pressure once a month. High • proper use of mirrors; tire pressure saves fuel and endures the • long, near, middle distance vision. lifetime of the tire; Priority giving way • Make use of fuel saving in-car devices • priority at crossroads, intersections and such as board computers, econometers, cruise junctions; control etc; • giving way at other occasions (eg. • Change into a lower gear when you changing direction, changing lanes, special approach a curve; maneuvers). • Take care of your vehicle aerodynamics; Correct position on the road • Do not accelerate without reason; • proper position on the road, in lanes, on • Get rid of surplus weight and not used roof roundabouts, in bends, suitable for the type racks. and the characteristics of the vehicle; • pre-positioning. 5. TESTING THE DRIVER, „ECO-DRIVING” CRITERIA Keeping distance • keeping adequate distance to the front, the There must be a reference point for the rear and the side; assessment of a driver. In assessing a driver, • keeping adequate distance from other road the trainer has to consider following items [3]: users. Defensive and social driving behavior Speed Defensive and social driving reflects the • not exceed the maximum allowed speed; overall style of driving. The consultant should • adapt speed to weather/traffic conditions take this into account in the overall picture of and where possible up to national speed limits; a driver: • drive at such speed that stopping within • adapted and determined (safe) driving; distance of the visible and free road is • taking into account road and weather possible; conditions; • adapt speed to general speed of same kind • taking into account other traffic; of road users. • taking into account the interests of other Traffic lights and road signs road users (particularly the more vulnerable); • acting correctly at traffic lights; • anticipation. • obey indications from traffic controllers; 130 Eco-Drive – The Safe, Fluent and Environment Friendly Driving Style • acting correctly at road signs (prohibitions • No man, however experienced it can not or commands); provide everything; • take appropriate action of road markings. • A good driver uses as little clutch pedals Braking and stopping and especially the brake; • decelerating in time, braking or stopping • Especially at night to drive so we can turn according to the circumstances, if necessary to where we see; using the third brake; • “Better late in the earth, than in advance • anticipating. ... underground” [4]. Important remark: “If these points are done properly, a driver automatically drives REFERENCES economically and environmentally friendly”. 1. www.ecodrive.org, Perspectives and 6. CONCLUSIONS challenges for ECO-DRIVING, the Hague, the Netherlands, 9 June 2004; And because road safety is the most 2. www.ecodrive.org, BEET – Benchmarking important will conclude with some useful tips Energy Efficiency in Transport, Rijswijk, and maximum: the Netherlands, 11 April 2002; • Quality is not essential to drive slowly, but 3. www.drivingskillsforlife.com, Eco-Drive it is to drive well [4]; Under Test, Evaluation of Eco-Drive • Many people think they are exceptional Courses, Swiss Energy, 2006; drivers, but among those snooty 4. Cristea, P., Arta de a conduce automobilul, recruitment is producing most of the Technical Publishing House, Bucureşti, serious accidents; 1970; • Experience is an important factor, but not 5. Buzea, V., Beda, V., Ene, Gh., Conduita exclusively; preventivă în circulaţia rutieră, Sport- • Nearly 90% of all crashes are caused by tourism Publishing House, Bucureşti, about 10% of drivers [4]; 1979. 131 Review of the Air Force Academy NOTES FOR AUTHORS When editing the articles which are to be across the whole breadth of the page either at published in the review some rules will be the top or the bottom of the page. respected as follows: the whole paper must be Diagrams and charts will be numbered by written with no free space between lines using using Arabic figures and will be accompanied the Times New Roman CE; the margines of with captions. Ordinal numbers and figure the text: Top – 28mm, Bottom – 20mm, Inside captions will be printed leading of free space – 25mm, Outside – 20mm, Header – 18mm, 8pt below the drawings, centred, font 11pt. 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