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The Past, Present and Future of Flow Cytometry in Central Nervous System Malignancies

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The Past, Present and Future of Flow Cytometry in Central Nervous System Malignancies Review The Past, Present and Future of Flow Cytometry in Central Nervous System Malignancies Evrysthenis Vartholomatos 1, George Vartholomatos 2, George A. Alexiou 1,3 and Georgios S. Markopoulos 1,2,* 1 Faculty of Medicine, Neurosurgical Institute, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece; [email protected] (E.V.); [email protected] (G.A.A.) 2 Haematology Laboratory-Unit of Molecular Biology, University Hospital of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece; [email protected] 3 Department of Neurosurgery, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Central nervous system malignancies (CNSMs) are categorized among the most aggressive and deadly types of cancer. The low median survival in patients with CNSMs is partly explained by the objective difficulties of brain surgeries as well as by the acquired chemoresistance of CNSM cells. Flow Cytometry is an analytical technique with the ability to quantify cell phenotype and to categorize cell populations on the basis of their characteristics. In the current review, we summarize the Flow Cytometry methodologies that have been used to study different phenotypic aspects of CNSMs. These include DNA content analysis for the determination of malignancy status and phenotypic characterization, as well as the methodologies used during the development of novel therapeutic agents. We conclude with the historical and current utility of Flow Cytometry in the field, and we propose how we can exploit current and possible future methodologies in the battle against this dreadful type of malignancy. Citation: Vartholomatos, E.; Keywords: central nervous system malignancies; flow cytometry; glioblastoma; intraoperative flow Vartholomatos, G.; Alexiou, G.A.; cytometry; phenotypic analysis; DNA content analysis Markopoulos, G.S. The Past, Present and Future of Flow Cytometry in Central Nervous System Malignancies. Methods Protoc. 2021, 4, 1. Introduction 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Carcinogenesis is the step-by-step process through which normal cells acquire genetic mps4010011 and epigenetic alterations and transform into malignant cells that form a tumor mass. Cancer is among the leading causes of human mortality worldwide, with 18.1 million new Received: 9 January 2021 cases and 9.5 million deaths in 2018 [1]. Among them, central nervous system malignancies Accepted: 22 January 2021 (CNSMs), including brain tumors (ICD codes C70-72) account for ~308,000 new cases and Published: 26 January 2021 ~251,000 deaths, making it one of the deadliest types of cancer per case [1]. Central nervous system tumors have been historically classified on the basis of the histology parameters, Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral mainly as a result of the occurrence of malignancy from different brain tissues [2]. However, with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- the latest classification of CNSMs, the 2016 update from the World Health Organization, iations. takes into account more advanced molecular characteristics, that are now available in the post-genomic era, providing a more comprehensive catalog with usefulness in clinical management and treatment [3]. Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant primary brain tumor. Despite intensive clinical investigation and several novel therapeutic approaches, the patient’s Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. median survival remains poor, in the range of 15 months [4]. The standard treatment Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. approach involves surgical resection followed by radiotherapy with concurrent and ad- This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and juvant chemotherapy [5]. Many chemotherapeutic agents have been used against GBM conditions of the Creative Commons including, among others, temozolomide (TMZ) [6]. However, the genetic heterogeneity and Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the diverse molecular pathology make it difficult to successfully treat the GBMs, and cells creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ that are not eradicated eventually grow, and virtually all recurring tumors are resistant to 4.0/). both chemotherapy and radiotherapy [7]. Methods Protoc. 2021, 4, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps4010011 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mps Methods Protoc. 2021, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 that are not eradicated eventually grow, and virtually all recurring tumors are resistant to Methods Protoc. 2021, 4, 11 both chemotherapy and radiotherapy [7]. 2 of 13 Treatment of CNSMs pose many challenges. First, the central role of the brain in body homeostasis is a major obstacle for surgical removal, since the removal of healthy tissue may resultTreatment in serious of CNSMs side poseeffects. many In other challenges. words, First, a brain the centralsurgery role should of the be brain performed in body withhomeostasis removal isof athe major tumor, obstacle without for affecting surgical removal,the adjacent since normal the removal tissue. Second, of healthy the tissuesame ismay true result for radiotherapy. in serious side Third, effects. commonly In other used words, chemotherapeutics a brain surgery shouldoften do be not performed pass the bloodwith removal-brain-barrier, of the tumor,which renders without t affectinghem inefficient the adjacent for treatment normal tissue.of CNSMs. Second, the same is trueFlow for Cytometry radiotherapy. (FC) Third, is a powerful commonly analytical used chemotherapeutics technique with several often doapplications not pass the in phenotypicblood-brain-barrier, analysis and which the renders quantification them inefficient of cellular for processes, treatment such of CNSMs. as proliferation and cell deathFlow [8] Cytometry. The quantification (FC) is a powerfulof state/phenotype analytical of technique a cell population with several is among applications the main advantagesin phenotypic of FC analysis over other and the methods, quantification such as ofmicroscopy. cellular processes, Among suchthe main as proliferation limitations ofand the cell methodology death [8]. Theis the quantification spectral overlap ofstate/phenotype of fluorochromes ofand a cellthe inability population to detect is among the intracellularthe main advantages localization of of FC labeled over other targets. methods, New advances such as microscopy.in the field, such Among as the the devel- main opmentlimitations of mass of the cytometry methodology [9,10] is and the spectral overlapFlow Cytometry of fluorochromes [11] allow and the the simultane- inability ousto detect analysis the of intracellular several parameters localization in a of single labeled cell, targets. overcoming New advances spectral overlap in the field, of tradi- such tionalas the cytometry. development In addition, of mass Imaging cytometry Flow [9 ,Cytometry10] and spectral [12,13] Flow and more Cytometry recently [11 imaging] allow massthe simultaneous cytometry [14] analysis combine of the several analytical parameters potential in of a cytometry single cell, with overcoming the imaging spectral abil- itiesoverlap of a ofmi traditionalcroscope. cytometry. In addition, Imaging Flow Cytometry [12,13] and more recentlyIn the imaging following mass sections cytometry we discuss [14] combine the utility the analytical of Flow Cytometry potential of in cytometry diagnosis withand treatmentthe imaging of abilitiesCNSMs. of In a microscope.each section, a summary of past and present methods is pre- sented,In thefollowed following by a sections perspective we discuss of possible the utility future of applications. Flow Cytometry The inconcepts diagnosis of andthe studytreatment are summarized of CNSMs. In in each Figure section, 1. a summary of past and present methods is presented, followed by a perspective of possible future applications. The concepts of the study are summarized in Figure1. Figure 1. Utility of Flow Cytometry in central nervous system malignancy (CNSM) analysis. CNSM cells can be directly Figureanalyzed 1. Utility intraoperatively of Flow Cytometry or post-surgical in central for nervous DNA content system (redmalignancy arrow), offering(CNSM) informationanalysis. CNSM on ploidy,cells can tumor be directly index, analyzedand tumor intraoperatively margins. CNSM or analysis post-surgical for Cluster for DNA of Differentiation content (red arrow), (CD) markers offering (green information arrow) on can ploidy, provide tumor information index, and on tumortumor phenotypemargins. CNSM and possibly analysis on for the Cluster clinical of outcome. Differentiation Analysis (CD) of in markers vitro CNSM (green cultures arrow) (blue can arrow)provide may information offer insights on tumor phenotype and possibly on the clinical outcome. Analysis of in vitro CNSM cultures (blue arrow) may offer insights on drug efficacy. Created with BioRender.com. on drug efficacy. Created with BioRender.com. 2. DNA Content Analysis by Flow Cytometry in Brain Malignancies 2.1. History and Early Analysis DNA analysis is among the first widely used applications of FC, even in the era before the development of methodologies for monoclonal antibodies [15]. Early studies Methods Protoc. 2021, 4, 11 3 of 13 in the field of FC and DNA-content analysis, in particular, demonstrated the ability to quickly characterize cell populations of human tumors with FC and suggested the possible usefulness for clinical management of cancer. Importantly, cell cycle phase distribution and cell ploidy by DNA content analysis of CNSMs has been established more than 40 years ago. Frederiksen et
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