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Exploring Persuasive Effects of Guilt and Shame on Information Processing from Two Novel Dimensions

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Exploring Persuasive Effects of Guilt and Shame on Information Processing from Two Novel Dimensions ARE GUILT AND SHAME DISTINGUISHABLE? –EXPLORING PERSUASIVE EFFECTS OF GUILT AND SHAME ON INFORMATION PROCESSING FROM TWO NOVEL DIMENSIONS By Jie Zhuang A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Communication—Doctor of Philosophy 2014 ABSTRACT ARE GUILT AND SHAME DISTINGUISHABLE? –EXPLORING PERSUASIVE EFFECTS OF GUILT AND SHAME ON INFORMATION PROCESSING FROM TWO NOVEL DIMENSIONS By Jie Zhuang This dissertation aims at distinguishing guilt from shame and examining their persuasive effects on information processing and attitude change. Two studies are conducted to investigate the extent to which controllability separates guilt from shame and whether guilt and shame vary in their effects on information processing and attitude change. The first study is grounded in the Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion (Weiner, 1985). In study 1, 173 participants recalled a failure or transgression experience and content analysis was performed to determine the controllability of the experience and participants’ feelings of guilt and shame. In study 2 which is framed under the Cognitive Functional Model (CFM, Nabi, 1999), the level of controllability, causal agency, and argument strength were manipulate and tested with 403 participants. The effects of guilt and shame on information processing and attitude change were assessed. Both studies indicate that controllability had only limited power in distinguishing guilt from shame. Guilt overlapped with shame when self was the causal agency for a transgression whereas the conceptual overlap decreased when the other person was the causal agency. Guilt and shame differed from one another in their effects on information processing, and motivation tendencies were found to mediate the relationship between emotion and information processing. Guilt and shame also varied in their impacts on attitude change. This study provides support for the proposed emotionmotivation tendency information processing causal chain and the proposed distinctive functions of guilt and shame in changing attitudes. Theoretical implications of this study for conceptualizing the effects of emotion on information processing and attitude change are discussed, and practical implications for campaign designs are provided. Copyright by JIE ZHUANG 2014 First of all, I want to dedicate this dissertation to God, who sustained me through the graduate school and the process of dissertation writing. There are many times in the process when I felt a lack of wisdom and wanted to give up. Nevertheless, God says “If any of you lacks wisdom, he should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to him” (James, 1:5), and “Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for men” (Colossians, 3:23). With the encouragement in mind, I grew in confidence with my ability to finish this project, my passion to improve my intellectual capacity, and my talent in conducting cutting-edge research. Secondly, I want to dedicate this dissertation to my supportive and loving husband, Qiang Xue. Qiang has confirmed me my ability to complete my Ph.D. education while raising two young children. My husband’s support and encouragement established the foundation for my successful completion of this project. Also, I want to dedicate this dissertation to my parents, who devoted their life raising me. Especially during my graduate school, they sacrificed a lot to support me. Their selfless care and love enabled me to focus on my work without worrying much about the children. Lastly, I want to dedicate this dissertation to my advisor, Dr. Mary Bresnahan. She was an excellent model of wisdom, passion, and intelligence. She was an incredible advisor for my M.A. and Ph.D. program. She encouraged me throughout my Ph.D. education, especially when I had difficulties making right decisions. Her precious advice and long-lasting commitment to my academic success enabled me to complete my degree within a reasonable timeline and to grow in confidence and capacity to become a competing scholar. Moreover, her mentoring style allows me to envision an ideal mentor-mentee relationship. Throughout the seven years, I learned not only how to conduct good research from Dr. Mary Bresnahan, but also how to become a respectful teacher who cares students wholeheartedly. For all these, I cannot cease giving thanks. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the contribution made by my four other committee members to this project. Dr. Maria Lapinski provided conceptual insights and made valuable comments to make this project more meaningful. She is also a great colleague to work with who approaches research projects with innovative ideas and critical views. Dr. Steve Lacy asked conceptual and theoretical questions. Dr. Lacy has asked many questions that challenged me to think more critically and creatively in this endeavor. His questions inspired me to explore new ways to pursue this line of research. Dr. Lacy is also a great leader how provides great advice to graduate students. Dr. Stan Kaplowitz provided conceptual, methodological, and analytical insights to this project. As a matter of fact, the conceptual foundation for this dissertation project was developed in Dr. Kaplowitz’s class of Social Attitude. When I carried out this project, Dr. Kaplowitz continued to provide valuable suggestions making this project finer. Dr. Kaplowitz also challenged me to think deeply and critically about my results. Dr. Lourdes Martinez asked analytical questions that pushed me to investigate a new data analysis skill and made the interpretation about the meaning of the results clearer. The committee was a great group of outstanding scholars who made the entire process not only smooth but also enjoyable. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………...………………………………………... ix INTRODUCTION ...……………………………………………………………………………… 1 CHAPTER1: ANTECEDENTS OF GUILT AND SHAME.…………………………………….. 4 Discrete and Dimensional Perspectives of Emotion ……………………………………... 4 Distinction in Antecedents of Guilt and Shame ………………………………………….. 5 Approach I: Public-Private exposure of transgressions ………………………….. 5 Approach II: Locus on Self vs. Behavior ………………………………………… 6 An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion (ATAME)…. 9 Locus of causality ………………………………………………………… 9 Stability…………………………………………………………………… 10 Controllability…………………………………………………………….. 11 Method …………………………………………………………………………………… 18 Study Design …………………………………………………………………….. 19 Coding Scheme Development, Pretests, and Inter-coder Reliability…………….. 19 Main Study Participants, Survey Instrument, and Procedure……………………. 20 Results ……………………………………………………………………………………. 21 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………… 25 CHAPTER 2: GUILT, SHAME, MOTIVATION TENDENCY, AND THEIR PERSUASIVE IMPACTS…………………………………………………………………………………………. 27 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. 27 The Cognitive Functional Model………………………………………………………… 28 Motivation Tendency Distinction between Guilt and Shame……………………………. 33 The Role of Causal Agency in the Relationship between Guilt and Shame…………….. 36 Guilt, Shame, Information Processing, and Attitude Change……………………………. 39 Guilt, Approach Motivation, Information Processing, and Attitude Change……………. 43 Shame, Avoidance Motivation, Information Processing, and Attitude Change…………. 46 Negative Emotions, Approach-Avoidance Motivation, Information Processing and Attitude change………………………………………………………………………….. 49 Method…………………………………………………………………………………… 50 Study Design……………………………………………………………………... 50 Pretests and Modification of Message Inductions……………………………….. 50 Main Study Participants and Procedure………………………………………….. 52 Stimuli……………………………………………………………………………. 53 Key Measures…………………………………………………………………….. 55 Results…………………………………………………………………………………..... 58 Random Assignment Success Check…………………………………………….. 58 Manipulation Check……………………………………………………………… 58 Covariate Determination………………………………………………………..... 59 Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………….. 60 vii Discussion………………………………………………………………………………... 70 Goal 1: Are controllability and causal agency sufficient to distinguish guilt from shame?.................................................................................................................. 70 Goal 2: How do guilt and shame affect information processing through motivation tendencies?........................................................................................ 73 Goal 3: Putting pieces together: Emotion, motivation tendency, information processing, and attitude change………………………………………………….. 77 CHAPTER 3: RECAP OF STUDY 1 AND STUDY 2 ………………………………………….. 79 General Discussion………………………………………………………………………. 79 Limitations, Implications, and Future Directions………………………………………... 83 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………… 85 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………. 87 Appendix A: CODING SCHEME FOR STUDY 1……………………………………... 88 Appendix B: MESSAGE INDUCTIONS FOR STUDY 2……………………………… 91 Appendix C: MEASUREMENT SCALES FOR STUDY 2……………………………. 95 Appendix D: CODING INSTRUCTIONS FOR STUDY 2…………………………….. 98 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………… 119 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Study 1 Inter-coder reliabilities…………………………………………………….. 104 Table 2. Study 1 Distribution of key coding categories……………………………………... 105 Table 3. Study 1 Descriptive statistics for variables ………………………………………... 106 Table 4. Study 2 Participants’ guilt and shame feeling pretest (N=108)……………………. 107 Table 5. Study
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