Politics and Education

1 POLITICS AND EDUCATION: THE DEMOCRATISATION OF THE GREEK EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM by Apostolos Markopoulos Thesis Submitted to the Institute of Education, University of London for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 1986 CONTENTS ABSTRACT ABBREVIATIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 CHAPTER I DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION 8 CHAPTER II GREEK EDUCATION 1828-1949 17 Section 1 Greek Education 1828-1832 17 Section 2 Greek Education 1832-1862 18 Section 3 Greek Education 1863-1909 26 Section 4 Greek Education 1910-1935 29 Section 5 Greek Education 1936-1940 40 Section 6 Greek Education 1941-1943 41 Section 7 Greek Education 1944-1949 44 Section 8 Summary 48 CHAPTER III EDUCATION AND STABILITY 50 Section 1 The Liberal Parties in Power (1950-1952) 50 Section 2 The Conservative Party in Power (1953-1963) 53 Section 3 The Ideology and Programmes of the Political Parties 59 Section 4 Politics in Education 63 Section 5 Summary 95 CHAPTER IV THE LIGHT OF RENAISSANCE: THE REFORM OF 1964 97 Section 1 Introduction 97 Section 2 The Socio-econirnic Situation in Greek Society 97 Section 3 Political Conflicts: The Liberal Party in Power 100 Section 4 Debates Outside Parliament on the Educationan Reform of 1964 103 Section 5 Debates Inside Parliament on the Educationan Reform of 1964 110 Section 6 The Education Act of 1964 113 Section 7 Description of the Educational System after the Reforms of 1964 114 Section 8 Responses to the Implementation of the Reform 116 Section 9 Evaluation of the 1964 Reform 123 CHAPTER V EDUCATION ON A BACKWARD COURSE: THE PERIOD OF DICTATORSHIP 1967-1974 127 Section 1 Greece under the Military Junta 127 Section 2 Educational Policy of the Regime 132 Section 3 The Reform of 1967 136 Section 4 Supporters of the Reform 137 Section 5 The Reform of 1970 139 Section 6 A Reversion to the Situation Prior to the Reform of 1964 141 Section 7 A Critical Assessment of the Reforms of 1967 and 1970 143 Section 8 Educationasl Plan for Reform of 1973 146 Section 9 A Commentary on the Reform Plan 150 Section 10 The Students' Movement 152 CHAPTER VI EDUCATION IN A HOPEFUL LAY: THE RESTORATIOR OF DEMOCRACY 1974-1981 158 Section 1 The restoration of Democroy 158 Section 2 The Reforms of 1975-1977 165 Section 3 Debates Outside Parliament on the Educationan Reforms of 1975-1977 166 Section 4 Debates Inside Parliament on the Educationan Reforms of 1975-77 179 Section 5 The Proposals for the Reform of Vocational Education of 1977 189 Section 6 A The Education System of 1977 194 Section 7 Other Legal Measures on Education 198 Section 8 A Critical Assessment of the Reforms 198 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION 204 Notes 210 Appendix Extracts from Constitutions dealing with Education 235 Statistical Tables on the Greek Educational System 240 Bibiography 244 Legal Documents relating to Greek Education 254 Lit ABSTRACT This thesis is a study of the developLent of tne Greek educational system, from the foundation of the modern Greek State in 1828 to 1981. In that period, Greece underwent a series of changes in political organisation. Greece was a monarchy, a republic, a democracy and a dictatorship, was occupied by foreign powers and suffered a civil war. These political changes were of great significance for the educational system of Greece, and the development of education in each period must be seen as closely related to the peculiar political situation in each period. The thesis traces the increasing polarisation of educational politics in Greece which was linked to the violent shifts in political power in the country as a whole. It gives detail of the debates on education which centred on the question of which form of the Greek language to use as the medium of instruction in schools, and the structure and method of selection for the secondary cycle of education. However, the history of Greek education also illustrates the failure to implement important reforms. While education has been an important issue in Greek politics, exercising both politicians and the general public, many areas, especially rural areas, have remained without adequate educational provision, insufficient resources have been provided for education, and illiteracy rates have remained disturbingly high. This thesis also reveals an increasing convergence on the part of politicians from different parts oi the political spectrum with regard to educational policy. Despite the vigorous debates, the areas about which there now exis s , conoensus are considerable. The only conclusion which can be drawn from this is that if education were removed from some of the political pressures to which it has been subject in the past, and if adequate resources were to be made available, substantial improvements could be made in educational provision on the basis of broad agreement. Since education and political development are closely linked, this is also a possible way of securing the future of democratic Greece. 6 ABBREVIATIONS DOE 'Didaskalike Omospondia Hellados' Primary School Teachers' Union DOLME 'Deltion Omospondias Leitourgon Meses Ekpaedeuseos' Bulletin of the Secondary School Teachers' Union EA 'Enomene Aristera' United Left EAM National Liberation Front EDA 'Eniaia Demokratike Aristera' Left-wing Party EDE Workers' International Union EDES Greek Democratic National League EK 'Ephemeris tes Kyverneseos tes Hellenikes Democratias' Gazette of the Government of Greek Democracy EK 'Enosis Kentrou' Liberal Centre Party EKKE Greek Communist Revolt Party EK-ND Centre Union Party ELAS National People's Liberation Army ERE 'Ethnike Rizospastike Enosis' Conservative Party KEDE 'Kentro Erevnon kai Demosieuseon' Research and Publicity Centre KKE Greek Communist Parties (Interior and Exterior) LDE Popular Democratic Union ND New Democracy (Centre Right Party) replaced ERE OLME 'Omospondias Leitourgon Meses Ekpaedeus.os' Secondary School Teachers' Union PASOK 'Panellenio Socialistiko Kinema' All Greek Socialist Movement 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Brian Holmes, Head of the Department of Comparative Education for his methodical and successive encouragement, assistance, advice, and the unfailing support which he offered me at all times during the preparation of this thesis. His wisdom, scientific research and experience gave new orientation to my way of thinking, and a better understanding of educational problems. I wish also to express my gratitude to Dr.David Turner, Lecturer in the Department of Comparative Education, for his considerable assistance and advice. His scholarly and critical comments on my work helped me to reconsider and complete some points, and he made a great contribution to my work. In addition, I would like to thank Miss Dorothy Vernon, Secretary of the Department of Comparative Education, and Miss Barbara White, for their consideration and help during my period of study. Lastly, thanks are due to my colleagues, all the M.Phil./Ph.D. students of the Department of Comparative Education, for their works and discussion, which helped me to reach a better understanding of the educational problems of their countries. 8 CHAPTER I DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION J.S.Mill on one occasion remarked that, "the Greeks were the beginners of nearly everything") This is certainly the case of democracy, which was first established in the city state of Athens. The Greeks were also the first in the Western world to undertake the task of education systematically, and no history of education would be complete without them. The Greeks also saw that there was a link between their aspirations for education, and their aspirations for democracy.2 Both systems aim at the development of the citizens of the state. In spite of the early recognition of the importance of education and democracy in Greek society, the history of Greece does not represent a uniform progress towards either an enlightened political system or a universal educational system. When the modern state of Greece was established in 1828, education was underdeveloped, and the majority of the population were illiterate.3 The first rulers of the new state were autocrats, although they were not always without a vision of society which incorporated a universal, free and compulsory system of education. However, in spite of many attempts to introduce legislation which would reform education in Greece, the actual level of provision remained disappointing.4 During the Second World War, and in the Civil War which followed, the division between those who wanted to see Greece move towards egalitarian socialism and those who wanted to preserve the traditional Christian culture of Greece hardened. Both sides in 9 this dispute saw education as forming an important part of their programme. But disagreements over what constituted an appropriate education meant that while there was considerable debate on issues connected with education, not enough was done to increase provision, or to make the educational system available to all, whether they came from the town or the country, or whether they came from the families of the wealthy or the the families of workers and peasants.5 This thesis traces the history of education in Greece, from the foundation of the modern state in 1828 to 1981, and demonstrates a mixture of high ideals and inactivity in practice. Having given the world the concepts of democracy and education, ideas which are now widely accepted and embodied in the constitutions of nations such as France or the USA, or in the charter of the United Nations, Greece has attempted to recover them and put them into practice in the last one hundred and sixty years.6 On the one hand, many Greeks have looked to the ideas of democracy and education to guide the radical transformation of their country into a modern state. On the other, many have retained the old ideas with a renewed conservatism in an attempt to preserve as much as possible of their ancient heritage.

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