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Marine Surface Microlayer As a Source of Enteric Viruses

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Marine Surface Microlayer As a Source of Enteric Viruses MARINE SURFACE MICROLAYER AS A SOURCE OF ENTERIC VIRUSES Ana Catarina Bispo Prata Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências do Mar e do Ambiente 2014 Ana Catarina Bispo Prata MARINE SURFACE MICROLAYER AS A SOURCE OF ENTERIC VIRUSES Tese de Candidatura ao grau de Doutor em Ciências do Mar e do Ambiente Especialidade em Oceanografia e Ecossistemas Marinhos submetida ao Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar da Universidade do Porto. Programa Doutoral da Universidade do Porto (Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar e Faculdade de Ciências) e da Universidade de Aveiro. Orientador – Doutor Adelaide Almeida Categoria – Professora Auxiliar Afiliação – Departamento de Biologia da Universidade de Aveiro Co-orientador – Doutor Newton Carlos Marcial Gomes Categoria – Investigador Principal do CESAM Afiliação – Departamento de Biologia da Universidade de Aveiro LEGAL DETAILS In compliance with what is stated in the legislation in vigor, it is hereby declared that the author of this thesis participated in the creation and execution of the experimental work leading to the results here stated, as well as in their interpretation and writing of the respective manuscripts. This thesis includes one scientific paper published in an international journal and three articles in preparation originated from part of the results obtained in the experimental work referenced as: • Prata C, Ribeiro A, Cunha A , Gomes NCM, Almeida A, 2012, Ultracentrifugation as a direct method to concentrate viruses in environmental waters: virus-like particles enumeration as a new approach to determine the efficiency of recovery, Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 14 (1), 64-70. • Prata C, Cunha A, Gomes N, Almeida A, Surface Microlayer as a source of health relevant enteric viruses in Ria de Aveiro. • Prata C, Cunha A, Gomes N,Nunes, T, Almeida A, Marine aerosols as a source of health relevant virus. • Prata C, Coelho F, Ladeiro B, Cunha A, Gomes N, Almeida A, Influence of UV light exposure on viral abundance. i Table of Contents Agradecimentos v Figures Index vii Tables Index ix Abreviations list xi Resumo xiii Abstract xv Thesis outline xvii Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 1.1. Enteric virus in the aquatic system 4 1.2. Factors affecting viral survival in the marine environment 9 1.3. Enteric virus transmission from the marine environment 11 1.3.1. Role of Surface Microlayer in viral transmission 12 1.3.2. Transmition of human virus by aerosols 14 1.4. Detection of enteric virus in the aquatic system 20 1.4.1. Viral concentration methods 20 1.4.2. Identification and quantification methods 24 Chapter 2 - Ultracentrifugation as a direct method to concentrate virus in environmental waters: virus-like particle enumeration 51 as a new approach to determine the efficiency of recovery Chapter 3 - Surface microlayer as a source of health relevant enteric 71 viruses in Ria de Aveiro Chapter 4 - Marine aerosols as a source of health relevant virus 91 Chapter 5 - Influence of UltraViolet light exposure on viral abundance 109 Chapt er 6 – Final Considerations 125 iii Agradecimentos Esta viagem termina agora e surge o momento de agradecer aos que passaram pelo meu caminho, durante estes cinco anos, contribuindo de algum modo para a realização deste trabalho. A todos o meu mais sincero obrigada. Começo por agradecer à minha orientadora, Dra Adelaide Almeida e ao co-orientador, Newton Gomes, pela disponibilidade mostrada ao longo de todo o trabalho, pela ajuda na resolução de problemas e pela opinião crítica relativamente a todas as questões de trabalho. Aos colegas de laboratório, pela ajuda dada em campo, no laboratório, ou simplesmente por descontraírem o ambiente quando era necessário. Aos amigos promarianos que desde o primeiro dia se mostraram disponíveis para ajudar em tudo o que fosse necessário. Juntos inicámos esta viagem e juntos estamos a terminá-la (uns mais cedo do que outros). Muito obrigada por estarem sempre presentes: Allan Souza, Fátima Pinto, Helena Oliveira, Inês Rosa, Joana Rocha, Martina Ilarri, Rita Polónia, Rosa Reboreda, Rute Pinto e Sérgio Prats. Agradeço aos melhores pais do mundo, os meus, por acreditarem em mim, por me terem apoiado em mais esta jornada da minha vida e por estarem lá, sempre que preciso. A todos os meus amigos, mas em especial à Sónia, ao Francisco, ao João e à Inês, por me terem apoiado, ouvido os desabafos e dado força nos momentos difíceis, para seguir em frente. À Mariana, ao André e à família Antunes, por terem entrado na minha vida e marcado a diferença. Obrigada do fundo do coração. Ao Henrique, por teres reaparecido na minha vida, por me fazeres acreditar que há algo melhor. Obrigada por seres assim, perfeito para mim. v Figures Index 1.1. Inputs, outputs and processes within aquatic surfasse microlayer. 13 1.2. Mesh screen and membrane microlayer sampler in use. Glass 13 plates surface microlayer sampler in use. 1.3. Different bioaresol samplers. 17 2.1. a) Recovery rate of VLP, for both concentration methods, in sewage waters, for two sampling dates. 60 b) Recovery rate of VLP, for both concentration methods, in recreational waters, for two sampling dates. 2.2. Quantification of adenovirus in recreational water samples, after concentration by flocculation and ultracentrifugation, for two 61 sampling dates. 3.1. The estuarine system Ria de Aveiro with indication of the 75 sampling stations. 3.2. Enteric viruses abundance, for four sampling dates (two in cold months: January and February and two in warm months: June 82 and July), in the marine and brackish water zone. 4.1. The estuarine system Ria de Aveiro with indication of the 96 sampling stations. 4.2. Abundance of VLP for UW, SML and aerosols in a marine and a 101 brackish water zone of Ria de Aveiro, for three sampling dates. 4.3. Abundance of enteric viruses for UW, SML and aerosols in a marine and a brackish water zone of Ria de Aveiro, for three 103 sampling dates. 5.1. Representation of experimental life support system (ELSS) used 114 in the UVR experimets. 5.2. Reduction of enteric viruses abundance, after UV exposure. 117 vii Tables Index 3.1. Physical data in cold and warm months in the marine and 80 brackish water zone. 3.2. Average values of the three samples and standard deviation for seston and chlorophyll a data, in cold and warm months, in the 80 marine and brackish water zone. 3.3. Nutrients data in cold and warm months, in the merine and 81 brackish water zone. 3.4. Enrichment factors for rotavirus, enterovirus and HAV, in four 83 sampling dates, in the marine and brackish water zone. 3.5 . Regression equations for viral abundance, obtained from 83 multiple-regression analysis, for marine and brackish water zone. 4.1. Filter efficiency in removing virus from the air in three sampling 101 dates. 4.2. Enrichment factors for rotavirus, enterovirus and HAV, in three 102 sampling dates, in the marine and brackish water zone. ix Abreviations List AGI All glass impingers BWZ Brackish water zone CPE Cytophatyc effects DNA Deoxiribonucleic acid ds Double strand ELISA Enzime-linked immunocorbent assay ELSS Experimental life support system HAV Hepatitis A virus ICC Integrated cell culture ICTV International Committee of Taxonomy of virus IFA Immunofluorescence assay MZ Marine zone NCBI National Center for Biotechnology Information ORF Open reading frame PAR Photosynthetically active radiation PCR Polimerase chain reaction PEG Polyethyleneglycol precipitation qPCR Quantitative Polimerase chain reaction RNA Ribonucleic acid SML Surface microlayer ss Single strand TFF Tangencial Flow Filtration UVR Ultra Violet Radiation UW Under water UVA Ultra Violet Radiation A UVB Ultra Violet Radiation B UVC Ultra Violet Radiation C VFF Vortex Flow Filtration xi Resumo Os vírus entéricos são um importante grupo de agentes patogéncicos, responsáveis por um grande número de doenças no Homem. Podem existir naturalmente no ambiente aquático ou ser transportados até lá. Alguns destes vírus são considerados emergentes no ambiente aquático, representando um elevado risco para a saúde pública, economia e ecologia. Assim, é de extrema importância, conhecer os seus reservatórios naturais, bem como o modo como podem ser transferidos a partir do ambiente aquático para a atmosfera, a fim de minimizar os riscos por eles provocados. Apesar do elevado número de vírus presente no ambiente aquático, apenas uma pequena parte causa infeções no Homem, mesmo quando presentes em baixa concentração, uma vez que apresentam uma baixa dose infeciosa. A concentração das amostras de água representa um importante passo aquando da deteção dos vírus entéricos. No entanto, não existe um método ideal para concentrar vírus em amostras de água, dependendo sempre do objetivo do trabalho em questão. Com este trabalho, verificou-se que o método da ultracentrifugação é um bom método para a concentração de águas ambientais uma vez que foram obtidas taxas de recuperação entre 66 e 76%. Por outro lado, este método não adiciona compostos químicos, o que permite usá-lo para detetar posteriormente vírus usando métodos moleculares. A microcamada superficial (SML) constitui a interface entre a água e o ar, acumulando microrganismos e partículas. Sabe-se que constitui um reservatório natural para vários microrganismos, a partir do qual são libertados aerossóis para a atmosfera, levando assim os materiais acumulados na SML, incluindo vírus. Foram obtidos neste trabalho valores de enriquecimento de vírus entéricos na SML, relativamente à água subjacente (UW), superiores a 2, tanto na zona marinha como na zona salobra. Comparando esses valores para a SML, relativamente aos aerossóis, o enriquecimento é de cerca de 26 na zona marinha e cerca de 30 na zona salobra, mostrando assim que a SML funciona como reservatório para os vírus entéricos e que estes são transmitidos, do ambiente aquático para a atmosfera, através dos aerossóis. Relativamente à abundância dos vírus entéricos estudados, observou-se que rotavirus e enterovirus são mais abundante nos meses mais frios e que HAV apresenta abundância semelhante nos meses quentes e frios.
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