DOCSLIB.ORG

The Transformation to the Early Middle Ages

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Transformation to the Early Middle Ages HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES From the Light and into the Dark: The Transformation to the Early Middle Ages Arrush Choudhary College of Arts and Science, Vanderbilt University From a historic perspective, the period of Roman rule and the following Middle Ages are po- lar opposites. For most, the city of Rome and the Western Roman Empire represent a time of advancement for the Mediterranean world while the Middle Ages are viewed as a regression of sorts for Europe. The reasons explaining the underlying cause of this transition from the West- ern Roman Empire to the Middle Ages are numerous but this paper will specifically focus on the practices started by the Romans themselves and how they contributed to the rise of the Early Middle Ages on the Italian Peninsula. More specifically, economic turmoil and urbanization fol- lowing the 3rd century crisis in the city of Rome laid the groundwork for social, legislative, and political changes that thread the path to the fundamental characteristics of the Middle Ages. Changing views of the city and the countryside, the construction of latifundia and villas, and the passing of legislation that restricted the rights of laborers, in addition to other transformations in late Rome, all contributed to the decentralized governance, rural life, and serfdom that are characteristic of the Middle Ages. Ultimately, the goal of this paper is to illustrate that despite the major differences that exist between the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the practices of the late Western Roman Empire were often directly carried over into the Middle Ages and, as a result, for one to truly understand the origins of the Middle Ages, it is essential to comprehend the traditions started by the late Romans. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in the LATIFUNDIA AND URBANIZATION late fifth century CE and the subsequent shift to the It is important to introduce and highlight villas Middle Ages in Western Europe is one of the most and latifundia here as major causes of urbanization dramatic and seemingly unexpected transitions in and thus the urban problems that arose in the city of European history. This paper will examine how the Rome during late antiquity. Villas in Roman times changes to the landscape of the Italian countryside, were essentially luxurious country houses consist- which was heavily influenced by the economic and ing of farmland and residential buildings surrounding political situation in the city of Rome, account for, at a central courtyard. The definition of latifundium, least in part, this transition to the Middle Ages. For in contrast, was often something along the lines of one, urbanization in the wake of the expansion of “a large, centrally managed agricultural enterprise, latifundia played a key role in shifting the city/country measuring 1,000 or more iugera (= to 250 ha), using duality in such a way that the countryside was viewed mostly slave labor.”The major distinction between a more positively than the city. Secondly, villas and villa and a latifundium is size; in general, latifundia latifundia constructed under Roman rule on the Italian are much larger than villas. Before the first century Peninsula served as possible precedents and models CE, the rural landscape of the Italian Peninsula was for medieval manors. Third, the conditions under dominated by villas but latifundia became more which the Romans treated coloni during late antiquity prevalent at the turn of the century. In fact, the expo- played a role in the transition to Middle Age serfdom. nential growth of latifundia and their subsequent dis- Ultimately, I hope that this paper will make clear that placement of smaller villas was such a concern for the the transition from the Roman Empire to the Middle senators of the city of Rome that many eyewitnesses Ages, though dramatic, was not unpredictable, due of the time spoke about the possible negative reper- to the fact that many of the practices started by the cussions related to the expansion of latifundia. For late Romans in the city of Rome paved the way to the instance, Seneca the Younger, a philosopher, adviser realities of the Middle Ages on the Italian Peninsula. to Nero, and one of the richest statesmen in the city of Rome during the first century, warned others about Fall 2015 | Volume 10 | © 2015 • Vanderbilt University Board of Trust 1 VANDERBILT UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL their unnecessarily expansive tracts of land, asking “How already high unemployment. According to Frank Bourne’s far will you extend the bounds of your possessions? A estimates, thousands of farmers left the countryside and large tract of land, sufficient heretofore for a whole nation, migrated to the city. The second consequence of latifundia is scarce wide enough for a single lord.” Likewise, Cicero, was a decrease in the Western Roman Empire’s economic another influential Roman who lived almost a century be- performance. Latifundia, during the first and second cen- fore Seneca, noted that the whole Italian Peninsula had no tury CE, were able to produce huge amounts of agricultur- more than two thousand landowners. The fact that ancient al produce but, starting in the early third century, exten- sources were aware of the problems associated with the sive farming, which was a staple of latifundia, exhausted rise of latifundia reveals that latifundia caused immense, the soil of the Italian countryside. As a result, by the late and possibly negative, changes in the Roman way of life. third century, the economy of the Italian countryside and, On top of these primary sources, modern analysis in turn, the city of Rome began to deteriorate. These two supports the expansion and significance of latifundia. For phenomena play a key role in shifting the country/city instance, modern archeological studies reveal that prop- duality in the late Western Roman Empire. erty was consolidated in Italy during the first and second century CE. According to Alexandra Arnau, based on SHIFTING CITY/COUNTRY DUALITY DUE TO URBANIZATION the exhaustive documentary analysis done by Domenico AND ECONOMIC DECLINE Vera on the villas of the Italian countryside, “there is… a Before I begin this discussion of the landscape in general consensus that from the second century CE on- the city and countryside and how it changed, it is impor- wards there existed a tendency towards a concentration of tant to define what landscape is exactly. For the purposes rural property ownership.”5 This concentration of land in of this paper, I will define landscape rather simply as the the hands of a few individuals directly supports the rise geographical and manmade factors that characterize a of latifundia. Furthermore, like ancient sources, modern given location. During the first and second century, as a authors agree that latifundia played a critical role in alter- result of latifundia displacing smaller farms, the landscape ing the city of Rome as well as the Italian countryside. For of the countryside began to change. Later, as displaced example, Simkhovitch and Bourne strongly attest to the farmers moved to the city, the landscape of the city shifted consequences associated with the rise of latifundia play- as well. Ultimately, the changing landscape of both the ing a crucial role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. city and the countryside resulted in fundamental paradigm These specific consequences will be discussed shortly. In shifts of the average citizen’s view of the countryside, the essence, however, looking at ancient sources as well as city, and their relationship. More specifically, as a result of modern archeological findings and views reveals that the latifundia in the countryside and urbanization in the city, expansion of latifundia caused substantial disruptions in the city/country duality changed such that the country- the Roman way of life and played an important part in the side was favored over the city - a key characteristic of the city of Rome’s decline. Middle Ages. The rise of large latifundia in first and second The first important aspect to notice about the city/ century CE Italy is important in two ways. One, as a country duality in the city of Rome is the fact that it ex- consequence of the growing size of latifundia, many isted prior to late antiquity. As James Ackerman so effec- ancient literary sources attest to the fact that small and tively articulates, the countryside was viewed in a positive medium sized villas were taken over by large latifundia light by the most Romans; it was: and, as a result, farmers were often forced off their lands. This dispersal of farmers, who were traditionally consid- Defined as an antithesis to urban life, its essential ered the backbone of Roman society, astonished many elements were the simplicity and the informality of ancient authors, some of whom lamented the changing country living, the healthfulness of the air and the of Roman values. For example, Horace, a Roman poet, opportunity for exercise, the scope for undisturbed stated that the great deeds of the Romans stemmed from intellectual and creative activities, leisurely conver- the farmer class and since the farmers no longer existed, sations with friends, and the delights of contemplat- Roman society would fundamentally change in a nega- ing the natural and cultivated landscape in different tive way.7 Moreover, because these farmers no longer had seasons and conditions. reason to remain in the countryside, they moved to the city, especially Rome, where there were no new jobs and Drawing from several ancient sources of the first century, 2 Fall 2015 | Volume 10 | © 2015 • Vanderbilt University Board of Trust FROM THE LIGHT AND INTO THE DARK: THE TRANSFORMATION TO THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES like Horace, Pliny the Younger, and Maecenas, a political began to lose their appeal.” In other words, the combined advisor to Augustus, Ackerman makes it quite clear that effect of the economic downturn and decreased political even prior to the severe urban problems that arose in the interest among the elite shifted the country/city duality in city of Rome during late antiquity, there seems to have such a way that the popularity of the city declined.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Exploring Agro-Towns and Inequality in Southern Italy Through a Collective
    A new Mezzogiorno? Exploring agro-towns and inequality in Southern Italy through a collective agricultural system in Apulia, 1600-1900 “What do people do here? I once asked at a little town between Rome and Naples; and the man with whom I talked, shrugging his shoulders, answered curtly, „c‟è miseria‟, there‟s nothing but poverty… I have seen poverty enough, and squalid conditions of life, but the most ugly and repulsive collection of houses I ever came upon was the town of Squillace”.1 George Gissing’s ‘rambles’ through Southern Italy at the turn of the twentieth century led him to remark extensively on the topography. In particular, he frequently mentioned the miserable living conditions of the people he encountered who tended to live huddled together in large impoverished towns. His account is made all the more interesting by the fact that (a) Southern Italy is today more economically disadvantaged than Northern Italy with some of the poorest social and economic infrastructures in Western Europe,2 and (b) this habitation pattern within large towns has been retained in large parts of modern Southern Italy. While alternative settlement patterns do exist in Southern Italy including small villages and isolated farms, it is undeniable that the distribution of large concentrated towns is prolific.a It is also a settlement structure often seen in other areas of the Mediterranean such as in central and southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula, regions of mainland Greece, and in parts of Northern Africa. These large agglomerated settlements are often referred to as ‘agro-towns’, pointing to their essentially agricultural function.
    [Show full text]
  • The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity
    The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Wilkinson, Ryan Hayes. 2015. The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:17467211 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity A dissertation presented by Ryan Hayes Wilkinson to The Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of History Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts May 2015 © 2015 Ryan Hayes Wilkinson All rights reserved. Dissertation Advisor: Professor Michael McCormick Ryan Hayes Wilkinson The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity Abstract In the fifth and sixth centuries CE, the Roman Empire fragmented, along with its network of political, cultural, and socio-economic connections. How did that network’s collapse reshape the social and mental horizons of communities in one part of the Roman world, now eastern France? Did new political frontiers between barbarian kingdoms redirect those communities’ external connections, and if so, how? To address these questions, this dissertation focuses on the cities of two Gallo-Roman tribal groups.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC – AD 476)
    Impact of Empire 6 IMEM-6-deBlois_CS2.indd i 5-4-2007 8:35:52 Impact of Empire Editorial Board of the series Impact of Empire (= Management Team of the Network Impact of Empire) Lukas de Blois, Angelos Chaniotis Ségolène Demougin, Olivier Hekster, Gerda de Kleijn Luuk de Ligt, Elio Lo Cascio, Michael Peachin John Rich, and Christian Witschel Executive Secretariat of the Series and the Network Lukas de Blois, Olivier Hekster Gerda de Kleijn and John Rich Radboud University of Nijmegen, Erasmusplein 1, P.O. Box 9103, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands E-mail addresses: [email protected] and [email protected] Academic Board of the International Network Impact of Empire geza alföldy – stéphane benoist – anthony birley christer bruun – john drinkwater – werner eck – peter funke andrea giardina – johannes hahn – fik meijer – onno van nijf marie-thérèse raepsaet-charlier – john richardson bert van der spek – richard talbert – willem zwalve VOLUME 6 IMEM-6-deBlois_CS2.indd ii 5-4-2007 8:35:52 The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC – AD 476) Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 200 B.C. – A.D. 476) Capri, March 29 – April 2, 2005 Edited by Lukas de Blois & Elio Lo Cascio With the Aid of Olivier Hekster & Gerda de Kleijn LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
    [Show full text]
  • The Monumental Villa at Palazzi Di Casignana and the Roman Elite in Calabria (Italy) During the Fourth Century AD
    The Monumental Villa at Palazzi di Casignana and the Roman Elite in Calabria (Italy) during the Fourth Century AD. by Maria Gabriella Bruni A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Classical Archaeology in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Committee in Charge Professor Christopher H. Hallett, Chair Professor Ronald S. Stroud Professor Anthony W. Bulloch Professor Carlos F. Noreña Fall 2009 The Monumental Villa at Palazzi di Casignana and the Roman Elite in Calabria (Italy) during the Fourth Century AD. Copyright 2009 Maria Gabriella Bruni Dedication To my parents, Ken and my children. i AKNOWLEDGMENTS I am extremely grateful to my advisor Professor Christopher H. Hallett and to the other members of my dissertation committee. Their excellent guidance and encouragement during the major developments of this dissertation, and the whole course of my graduate studies, were crucial and precious. I am also thankful to the Superintendence of the Archaeological Treasures of Reggio Calabria for granting me access to the site of the Villa at Palazzi di Casignana and its archaeological archives. A heartfelt thank you to the Superintendent of Locri Claudio Sabbione and to Eleonora Grillo who have introduced me to the villa and guided me through its marvelous structures. Lastly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my husband Ken, my sister Sonia, Michael Maldonado, my children, my family and friends. Their love and support were essential during my graduate
    [Show full text]
  • Circumscribing European Crusading Violence Susanna A
    Ursinus College Digital Commons @ Ursinus College History Faculty Publications History Department 2018 'Not Cruelty But Piety': Circumscribing European Crusading Violence Susanna A. Throop Ursinus College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.ursinus.edu/history_fac Part of the Christianity Commons, Ethics in Religion Commons, European History Commons, History of Christianity Commons, History of Religion Commons, Islamic Studies Commons, Islamic World and Near East History Commons, Medieval History Commons, and the Medieval Studies Commons Click here to let us know how access to this document benefits oy u. Recommended Citation Throop, Susanna A., "'Not Cruelty But Piety': Circumscribing European Crusading Violence" (2018). History Faculty Publications. 8. https://digitalcommons.ursinus.edu/history_fac/8 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the History Department at Digital Commons @ Ursinus College. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Ursinus College. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 1 ‘Not Cruelty but Piety’: Circumscribing European Crusading Violence Susanna A. Throop Traditionally the crusading movement has been distinguished from other forms of Christian violence motivated or justified in religious terms. In the western world, innumerable books and articles discuss ‘the crusades’ or ‘the crusading movement’ as discrete entities. The crusades, so the narrative goes, began firmly in 1096 when an armed, penitential expedition set out to Jerusalem in response to the 1095 appeal of Pope Urban II, and ended less conclusively at some point before the onset of modernity. Meanwhile, in a broader global context and across a wider range of media, some continue to invoke the crusades as explanation for ongoing geopolitical conflict.
    [Show full text]
  • Quod Omnium Nationum Exterarum Princeps Sicilia
    Quod omnium nationum exterarum princeps Sicilia A reappraisal of the socio-economic history of Sicily under the Roman Republic, 241-44 B.C. Master’s thesis Tom Grijspaardt 4012658 RMA Ancient, Medieval and Renaissance Studies Track: Ancient Studies Utrecht University Thesis presented: June 20th 2017 Supervisor: prof. dr. L.V. Rutgers Second reader: dr. R. Strootman Contents Introduction 4 Aims and Motivation 4 Structure 6 Chapter I: Establishing a methodological and interpretative framework 7 I.1. Historiography, problems and critical analysis 7 I.1a.The study of ancient economies 7 I.1b. The study of Republican Sicily 17 I.1c. Recent developments 19 I.2. Methodological framework 22 I.2a. Balance of the sources 22 I.2b. Re-embedding the economy 24 I.3. Interpretative framework 26 I.3a. Food and ideology 27 I.3b. Mechanisms of non-market exchange 29 I.3c. The plurality of ancient economies 32 I.4. Conclusion 38 Chapter II. Archaeology of the Economy 40 II.1. Preliminaries 40 II.1a. On survey archaeology 40 II.1b. Selection of case-studies 41 II.2. The Carthaginian West 43 II.2a. Segesta 43 II.2b. Iatas 45 II.2c. Heraclea Minoa 47 II.2d. Lilybaeum 50 II.3. The Greek East 53 II.3a. Centuripe 53 II.3b. Tyndaris 56 II.3c. Morgantina 60 II.3d. Halasea 61 II.4. Agriculture 64 II.4a. Climate and agricultural stability 64 II.4b. On crops and yields 67 II.4c. On productivity and animals 70 II.5. Non-agricultural production and commerce 72 II.6. Conclusion 74 Chapter III.
    [Show full text]
  • City of Demons: Violence, Ritual and Christian Power in Late Antiquity
    Book Reviews 325 theological issues raised by the LXX. That leads me to point out an obvious limitation of this excellent book. Discussions of issues such as textual criticism, the history of the transmission of the LXX text, or differences in translation technique in different parts of the LXX are sparse and short. However, Jobes cannot be faulted for this brevity, since this book is primarily designed as an introductory LXX reader. Rather, she deals with such important matters more extensively in another excellent book, which she co-authored with Moisés Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2015). Hence, for a full introduction to the LXX, I recommend that students acquire both books. All in all, Discovering the Septuagint is a wonderful way to introduce students of New Testament Greek to the language of the LXX, and by extension to the wider world of Koine Greek. It fills an important gap, and promises to be very useful. Oakwood University Tarsee Li Huntsville, Alabama Kalleres, Dayna S. City of Demons: Violence, Ritual, and Christian Power in Late Antiquity. Oakland: University of California Press, 2015. xvi + 374 pp. Hardcover. USD 95.00. Stories about demon possession and the interference of evil in the life of Christians were a part of my experience growing up in Brazil. I never underestimated the power of the devil; it is quite the opposite. My world was inhabited by supernatural forces, and I was taught that I needed to be constantly aware of them. Influenced by African religiosity and Roman Catholicism, Brazilian culture is permeated by the belief that supernatural beings are not only real, but physical, and part of the natural world.
    [Show full text]
  • Slaves, Coloni, and Status Confusion in the Late Roman Empire Hannah Basta Georgia State University, [email protected]
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council - National Collegiate Honors Council -Online Archive Spring 2017 Slaves, Coloni, and Status Confusion in the Late Roman Empire Hannah Basta Georgia State University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nchcjournal Part of the Curriculum and Instruction Commons, Educational Methods Commons, Higher Education Commons, Higher Education Administration Commons, and the Liberal Studies Commons Basta, Hannah, "Slaves, Coloni, and Status Confusion in the Late Roman Empire" (2017). Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council --Online Archive. 558. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nchcjournal/558 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the National Collegiate Honors Council at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council --Online Archive by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Journal OF THE National Collegiate Honors Council PORTZ-PRIZE-WINNING ESSAY, 2016 Slaves, Coloni, and Status Confusion in the Late Roman Empire Hannah Basta Georgia State University INTRODUCTION rom the dawn of the Roman Empire, slavery played a major and essen- tial role in Roman society . While slavery never completely disappeared fromF ancient Roman society, its position in the Roman economy shifted at the beginning of the period called Late Antiquity (14 CE–500 CE) . At this time, the slave system of the Roman world adjusted to a new category of labor . Overall, the numbers of slaves declined, an event that historian Ramsey MacMullen, drawing from legal debates and legislation of the period, attri- butes to the accumulation of debt and poverty among Roman citizens in the third century CE .
    [Show full text]
  • Ostia Antica from the Republic Through Late Antiquity
    excerpt ACTA INSTITUTI ROMANI FINLANDIAE ACTA ACTA INSTITUTI ROMANI FINLANDIAE VOL. 47 IRF 1. Sylloge inscriptionum Christianarum veterum Musei Vaticani 23. The Roman Middle Republic 47 Ediderunt commentariisque instruxerunt sodales Instituti Romani Politics, religion, and historiography c. 400 - 133 B.C. Finlandiae curante HENRICO ZILLIACUS, 1-2, 1963. edited by CHRISTER BRUUN, 2000. [Out of print] 2. 1. Onomastic Studies in the Early Christian Inscriptions of Rome 24. Magistrates and Assemblies. A Study of Legislative Practice in and Carthage by IIRO KAJANTO, 1963. [Out of print] Republican Rome by KAJ SANDBERG, 2001. 2. Biometrical Notes by HENRIK NORDBERG, 1963. [Out of print] 3. A Study of the Greek Epitaphs of Rome 25. Women, Wealth and Power in the Roman Empire by IIRO KAJANTO, 1963. [Out of print] by PÄIVI SETÄLÄ, RIA BERG et al., 2002. HARBOUR CITY: MULTICULTURAL A IN AND DEATH LIFE 3-4. Graffiti del Palatino 26. Vettius Agorius Praetextatus. A senatorial Life in Between raccolti ed editi sotto la direzione di VEIKKO VÄÄNÄNEN. by MAIJASTINA KAHLOS, 2002. 3. Paedagogium a cura di HEIKKI SOLIN e MARJA ITKONEN-KAILA, 1966. 27. Ostia e Portus nelle loro relazioni con Roma 4. Domus Tiberiana a cura di CHRISTER BRUUN e ANNA GALLINA ZEVI, 2002. LIFE AND DEATH IN A MULTICULTURAL a cura di PAAVO CASTRÉN e HENRIK LILIUS, 1970. 28. The Roman Curia, the Apostolic Penitentiary and the Partes in 5. Studies in the Romanization of Etruria the Later Middle Ages ATRICK RUUN HARBOUR CITY: by P B et al., 1975. [Out of print] KIRSI SALONEN and CHRISTIAN KRÖTZL, 2003.
    [Show full text]
  • Intro to the Dark and Middle Ages Effects of the Fall of Rome
    Intro to the Dark and Middle Ages Effects of the Fall of Rome Germanic tribes took over Roman lands. Hundreds of little kingdoms took the place of the Western Roman Empire in Europe. Initially, there was no system for collecting taxes. Kingdoms were always at war with one another. People lost interest in learning. Warfare increased. Trade decreased. The “Dark Ages” began. The “Dark Ages” Historians call the period following the fall of Rome the “Dark Ages.” Formally, this period is known as the beginning of the Middle Ages. It was a time of increased warfare, decreased trade, and a decline in learning. Disruption of Trade Merchants’ businesses were destroyed by barbarians Unsafe to trade No Trade = No Cultural Diffusion Downfall of Cities People retreat to countryside to evade invaders Lack of central government administration More people live in rural areas than urban centers Decline of Learning Germanic tribes were illiterate and had no written language Illiteracy + Lack of Written Language = NO VALUE ON EDUCATION Loss of Common Language Germanic invaders did not speak Latin Various dialects form from mixing Latin and Germanic languages By the 800s, French and Spanish had evolved No Common Language = NO UNITY Germanic-style Government Allegiance to family tribes as opposed to a state No central authority; lack of an emperor No loyalty to a king; no “Hail Caesar” The Rise of Europe The Early Middle Ages During the early Middle Ages, Europe was a relatively backward region cut off from the advanced civilizations of Byzantium, the Middle East, China and India. Between 700 and 1000, Europe was battered by invaders.
    [Show full text]
  • Late Antiquity in Modern Eyes
    Originalveröffentlichung in: Philipp Rousseau (Hrsg.), A companion to Late Antiquity, Malden, Mass. 2009, St. 77-92 CHAPTER SIX Late Antiquity in Modern Eyes Stefan Rebenich On September 12, 1921, during an autumn colloquium on the arts and sciences, Ernst Kornemann (1868-1946) gave a lecture in Kiel on the decline of the ancient world. He described the topic of his address as “the problem of problems ” in historiography. Then he proposed a possible solution: he suggested that the prosper ­ ity at the time of imperial rule had generated decadence everywhere, paralyzed social cohesion, destroyed the military masculine morale that had once made Rome great, and led the emperors to pursue an illusory policy of peace. In consequence, cultural life had come under the detrimental influence of a collectivist religiosity of eastern provenance (Kornemann 1922). That was not an original view. In the humanities, the problem formulated by Kornemann had been an enigma for centuries - and it still is. The discussion centered on two questions: why did the Roman Empire decline; and when did this decline occur? Let us first address the associated division of history into periods. Italian scholars of the Renaissance thought in terms of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern age - a model still familiar today. This model, which displaced the universal historical periodization characteristic of the Christian tradition - especially the theory of the four empires - was based on the assumption that the so-called Middle Ages had been a 1,000-year-long period of decline. That decline had to be overcome by bringing about a new epoch, one that would be connected to the period these scholars regarded as their norm: pagan and Christian antiquity.
    [Show full text]
  • The Christianization of Marriage Ritual in Late Antiquity: Ecclesiastical Rites at the Bridal Chamber*
    Gabriel Radle THe Christianization of Marriage Ritual in Late Antiquity: Ecclesiastical Rites at the Bridal Chamber* Ancient literary works suggest that rites for marriage are as old as human civi- lization.1 Anthropologists claim this is because marriage is a true “life crisis” moment.2 THat is to say, in traditional societies, participating in marriage results in a dramatic alteration of an individual’s identity – their family ties, sexual norms, social responsibilities, etc. Across ancient societies, marriage was a rite of passage that was generally accomplished in multiple stages, including match-making arrangements, formal betrothal, and publicly-recognized cohabitation – usually carried out in that order and often with some amount of time (whether great or small) between each step. Each one of these stages tended to employ rituals rich in symbolism and social significance.3 Any discussion of early Christian marriage rites must attend to this simple fact: marriage, together with its ritual formation, is a human activity that existed long before the Church. THus, while early Christian authors identified marriage as a mysterion, or sacramentum,4 it must be underscored that this was primarily a theological claim applied to an old human social institution. What patristic authors declared about the sacramentality of marriage was precisely a soterio- logical and eschatological conviction: God’s action through his incarnation in Jesus Christ brought about a new creation that perfected and went beyond Eden, * I would like to thank the organizers and participants of the conference “Marriage and/as Metaphor in Christian and Jewish Traditions”, especially Aldegonde Brenninkmeijer-Werhahn and Oded Irshai, for the fruitful exchange of research and scholarly fellowship that this opportunity provided, and which the present article has benefited from.
    [Show full text]