HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES From the Light and into the Dark: The Transformation to the Early Middle Ages Arrush Choudhary College of Arts and Science, Vanderbilt University From a historic perspective, the period of Roman rule and the following Middle Ages are po- lar opposites. For most, the city of Rome and the Western Roman Empire represent a time of advancement for the Mediterranean world while the Middle Ages are viewed as a regression of sorts for Europe. The reasons explaining the underlying cause of this transition from the West- ern Roman Empire to the Middle Ages are numerous but this paper will specifically focus on the practices started by the Romans themselves and how they contributed to the rise of the Early Middle Ages on the Italian Peninsula. More specifically, economic turmoil and urbanization fol- lowing the 3rd century crisis in the city of Rome laid the groundwork for social, legislative, and political changes that thread the path to the fundamental characteristics of the Middle Ages. Changing views of the city and the countryside, the construction of latifundia and villas, and the passing of legislation that restricted the rights of laborers, in addition to other transformations in late Rome, all contributed to the decentralized governance, rural life, and serfdom that are characteristic of the Middle Ages. Ultimately, the goal of this paper is to illustrate that despite the major differences that exist between the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the practices of the late Western Roman Empire were often directly carried over into the Middle Ages and, as a result, for one to truly understand the origins of the Middle Ages, it is essential to comprehend the traditions started by the late Romans. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in the LATIFUNDIA AND URBANIZATION late fifth century CE and the subsequent shift to the It is important to introduce and highlight villas Middle Ages in Western Europe is one of the most and latifundia here as major causes of urbanization dramatic and seemingly unexpected transitions in and thus the urban problems that arose in the city of European history. This paper will examine how the Rome during late antiquity. Villas in Roman times changes to the landscape of the Italian countryside, were essentially luxurious country houses consist- which was heavily influenced by the economic and ing of farmland and residential buildings surrounding political situation in the city of Rome, account for, at a central courtyard. The definition of latifundium, least in part, this transition to the Middle Ages. For in contrast, was often something along the lines of one, urbanization in the wake of the expansion of “a large, centrally managed agricultural enterprise, latifundia played a key role in shifting the city/country measuring 1,000 or more iugera (= to 250 ha), using duality in such a way that the countryside was viewed mostly slave labor.”The major distinction between a more positively than the city. Secondly, villas and villa and a latifundium is size; in general, latifundia latifundia constructed under Roman rule on the Italian are much larger than villas. Before the first century Peninsula served as possible precedents and models CE, the rural landscape of the Italian Peninsula was for medieval manors. Third, the conditions under dominated by villas but latifundia became more which the Romans treated coloni during late antiquity prevalent at the turn of the century. In fact, the expo- played a role in the transition to Middle Age serfdom. nential growth of latifundia and their subsequent dis- Ultimately, I hope that this paper will make clear that placement of smaller villas was such a concern for the the transition from the Roman Empire to the Middle senators of the city of Rome that many eyewitnesses Ages, though dramatic, was not unpredictable, due of the time spoke about the possible negative reper- to the fact that many of the practices started by the cussions related to the expansion of latifundia. For late Romans in the city of Rome paved the way to the instance, Seneca the Younger, a philosopher, adviser realities of the Middle Ages on the Italian Peninsula. to Nero, and one of the richest statesmen in the city of Rome during the first century, warned others about Fall 2015 | Volume 10 | © 2015 • Vanderbilt University Board of Trust 1 VANDERBILT UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL their unnecessarily expansive tracts of land, asking “How already high unemployment. According to Frank Bourne’s far will you extend the bounds of your possessions? A estimates, thousands of farmers left the countryside and large tract of land, sufficient heretofore for a whole nation, migrated to the city. The second consequence of latifundia is scarce wide enough for a single lord.” Likewise, Cicero, was a decrease in the Western Roman Empire’s economic another influential Roman who lived almost a century be- performance. Latifundia, during the first and second cen- fore Seneca, noted that the whole Italian Peninsula had no tury CE, were able to produce huge amounts of agricultur- more than two thousand landowners. The fact that ancient al produce but, starting in the early third century, exten- sources were aware of the problems associated with the sive farming, which was a staple of latifundia, exhausted rise of latifundia reveals that latifundia caused immense, the soil of the Italian countryside. As a result, by the late and possibly negative, changes in the Roman way of life. third century, the economy of the Italian countryside and, On top of these primary sources, modern analysis in turn, the city of Rome began to deteriorate. These two supports the expansion and significance of latifundia. For phenomena play a key role in shifting the country/city instance, modern archeological studies reveal that prop- duality in the late Western Roman Empire. erty was consolidated in Italy during the first and second century CE. According to Alexandra Arnau, based on SHIFTING CITY/COUNTRY DUALITY DUE TO URBANIZATION the exhaustive documentary analysis done by Domenico AND ECONOMIC DECLINE Vera on the villas of the Italian countryside, “there is… a Before I begin this discussion of the landscape in general consensus that from the second century CE on- the city and countryside and how it changed, it is impor- wards there existed a tendency towards a concentration of tant to define what landscape is exactly. For the purposes rural property ownership.”5 This concentration of land in of this paper, I will define landscape rather simply as the the hands of a few individuals directly supports the rise geographical and manmade factors that characterize a of latifundia. Furthermore, like ancient sources, modern given location. During the first and second century, as a authors agree that latifundia played a critical role in alter- result of latifundia displacing smaller farms, the landscape ing the city of Rome as well as the Italian countryside. For of the countryside began to change. Later, as displaced example, Simkhovitch and Bourne strongly attest to the farmers moved to the city, the landscape of the city shifted consequences associated with the rise of latifundia play- as well. Ultimately, the changing landscape of both the ing a crucial role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. city and the countryside resulted in fundamental paradigm These specific consequences will be discussed shortly. In shifts of the average citizen’s view of the countryside, the essence, however, looking at ancient sources as well as city, and their relationship. More specifically, as a result of modern archeological findings and views reveals that the latifundia in the countryside and urbanization in the city, expansion of latifundia caused substantial disruptions in the city/country duality changed such that the country- the Roman way of life and played an important part in the side was favored over the city - a key characteristic of the city of Rome’s decline. Middle Ages. The rise of large latifundia in first and second The first important aspect to notice about the city/ century CE Italy is important in two ways. One, as a country duality in the city of Rome is the fact that it ex- consequence of the growing size of latifundia, many isted prior to late antiquity. As James Ackerman so effec- ancient literary sources attest to the fact that small and tively articulates, the countryside was viewed in a positive medium sized villas were taken over by large latifundia light by the most Romans; it was: and, as a result, farmers were often forced off their lands. This dispersal of farmers, who were traditionally consid- Defined as an antithesis to urban life, its essential ered the backbone of Roman society, astonished many elements were the simplicity and the informality of ancient authors, some of whom lamented the changing country living, the healthfulness of the air and the of Roman values. For example, Horace, a Roman poet, opportunity for exercise, the scope for undisturbed stated that the great deeds of the Romans stemmed from intellectual and creative activities, leisurely conver- the farmer class and since the farmers no longer existed, sations with friends, and the delights of contemplat- Roman society would fundamentally change in a nega- ing the natural and cultivated landscape in different tive way.7 Moreover, because these farmers no longer had seasons and conditions. reason to remain in the countryside, they moved to the city, especially Rome, where there were no new jobs and Drawing from several ancient sources of the first century, 2 Fall 2015 | Volume 10 | © 2015 • Vanderbilt University Board of Trust FROM THE LIGHT AND INTO THE DARK: THE TRANSFORMATION TO THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES like Horace, Pliny the Younger, and Maecenas, a political began to lose their appeal.” In other words, the combined advisor to Augustus, Ackerman makes it quite clear that effect of the economic downturn and decreased political even prior to the severe urban problems that arose in the interest among the elite shifted the country/city duality in city of Rome during late antiquity, there seems to have such a way that the popularity of the city declined.