Spencer Baird and the Foundations of American Marine Science

Spencer Fullerton Baird and the Foundations of American Marine Science DEAN C. ALLARD In 1863, Spencer Fullerton Baird period prior to the establishment of the study of the oceans had special signifi blazed a path that would be followed by nation's great graduate schools or most cance since the sea was believed to be thousands of future biologists when he of the other learned institutions that lent the ancestral home of all life. Further, came to Woods Hole, Mass., to under support to American scientists, Baird the flora and fauna of the oceans were take summer research. Until his death was fortunate to have an appointment as remarkably diverse, abundant, and rela in 1887, Baird returned again and again assistant secretary of the Smithsonian tively simple compared with terrestrial to this delightful New England village. Institution, which then was directed by forms. For all of these reasons, marine In the process, he established institu the physicist Joseph Henry. At that insti biology had special appeal to Baird, as tional foundations which deeply influ tution, Baird was especially active in it did to many other naturalists of his enced the future of American marine developing the National Museum large time (Schlee, 1973). science. ly through his skill in obtaining gener It was typical of the Smithsonian's Spencer Baird was one of America's ous Congressional appropriations. That assistant secretary that he could depend preeminent systematic zoologists in the museum would reach its full fruition upon the assistance of the Federal gov mid-19th century. His bibliography in after 1878 when Baird succeeded Henry ernment in undertaking his scientifJc cluded hundreds of contributions on as the Smithsonian's secretary. enterprises. During the summer of 1870, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and espe In addition to this major effort, Baird probably because of the intercession of cially on mammals and birds. In a became increasingly interested in ma Baird's close friend, Senator George rine biology during the decade of the Edmunds of Vermont, who was vaca 1860's as he combined vacations at vari tioning at Woods Hole, a U.S. Revenue ous points along the eastern seashore Service craft was loaned to Baird to with the collection and study of oceanic assist in collecting marine specimens, organisms. By 1870, when he returned including a number of species not pre to Woods Hole for a second summer, viously reported as part of the fauna of Baird was well aware that European Massachusetts. During that summer, biologists were turning to the mysteries Baird also became aware of a long of the oceans with increasing fascina standing dispute in the Vineyard Sound tion. At that time, Anton Dohm was and Buzzards Bay area, and for that laying the foundations for his famed re matter along much of the rest of the search station at Naples, Italy, and with northeast coast, which seemed to invite in 2 years the HMS Challenger would solution by cool scientific reason. Baird embark C. Wyville Thomson and his seized upon that controversy to establish scientific team upon an historic oceano a Federal agency that would be dedi graphic cruise throughout the world's cated to the solution of practical prob major oceans. In a more general sense, lems, but also promised to support fun biological activity in the marine envi damental research in American waters. ronment was promoted by Darwin's The issue which was reaching a crisis "Origin of Species," which had been in that summer of 1870 involved a classic published in 1859. For evolutionists, the conflict between competing groups seeking to use the nation's natural re Dean C. Allard is with the U.S. Naval Historical sources. On one side of the dispute were Center, Washington Navy Yard, 8th and M St., S.E., Washington, DC 20374. This article was first relatively well capitalized groups of men published by the International Association of who erected fixed coastal nets and bar Marine Science Libraries and Infonnation Centers riers, known as traps or pounds and a in their 10th annual conference proceedings "Year of the oceans: Science of information handling," variety of other names, which made Spencer F. Baird R. L. Grundy and R. T. Ford, editors. enormous catches of fish. On the other 124 Marine Fisheries Review side were small-scale fishermen who weather, water temperature, salinity, and the Fish Commission's first annual typically fished by line from small currents upon fish population. report in 1873 and represents an impor boats, often for their personal subsis Baird's study confirmed that there had tant landmark in the history of Ameri tence, and the growing number of sport been a decline in the numbers of fish off can marine biology. There was, of fishermen who came to the seashore for southern New England. He also con course, a practical rationale for this recreation. The latter groups were in cluded, much too hastily as it turned study, due to the importance of these creasingly alarmed by the decline of out, that man's intervention through the forms as a food source for commercial such coastal species as the scup, sea use of traps and pounds, especially by fishes. Nevertheless, Verrill's research bass, tautog, and striped bass, and soon interfering with the spring spawning also demonstrated that Baird's vision of concluded that their problem stemmed process, was one important factor in this using the Fish Commission as a foun from the massive catches taken by fixed decline. His recommended solution, dation for broad investigations in the nets and barriers. The solution, in the however, was that these devices should marine sciences was being fulfilled. opinion of the boat and sport fishermen, be prohibited during only a portion of Despite the disappointing practical was simple. Fish traps and pounds the spawning season rather than abol results of the Fish Commission's first should simply be outlawed by state law. ished outright. year of operation, Congress showed no As the politicians in southern New Despite the crafty compromise devel inclination to halt annual appropriations England contended with these demands oped by Baird between the outright elinl for this new agency. Under these cir and the vigorous counter arguments of ination and unhindered use of traps and cumstances, there was a prospect that the owners of the traps and pounds, pounds, the state legislatures in Rhode nlany additional contributions, perhaps Spencer Baird volunteered to undertake Island and Massachusetts were not in similar in importance to Verrill's study, a scientific study of the coastal fisheries clined to enact the regulations that he would continue to appear. These con provided that Congress would appropri suggested. To add to Baird's distress, it ditions were reminiscent of A. Hunter ate the necessary funds. Baird's skill as also became evident in the following year Dupree's assessment of the characteris a lobbyist and the influence of his many that an enormous new year-class of the tics of nluch government science in the friends in Congress led in 1871 to an act scup was present in the waters of New 19th century. Certainly, Dupree's (1957) authorizing the United States Commis England, despite the failure to control observations that "practical problems sion of Fish and Fisheries. That body the catches taken by fixed nets and bar tended to reach out in ever-widening was charged with determining whether riers. It is not surprising that, after 1872, circles of theoretical considerations," American fish stocks had, in fact, de Baird was convinced that an understand and "ad hoc organizations tended to be clined. If such a decline were estab ing of the dynamics of oceanic popula come permanent" apply remarkbly well lished, the Commission was to detennine tions was a much more complex nlatter to the Fish Commission. its cause and to propose corrective than he had imagined when he began his One reason for the permanence of the measures. An initial appropriation of work as the U.S. Fish Commissioner. Fish Commission (it counts as one of $5,000 was allocated for these purposes Insofar as Baird's scientific interests its direct successors the National Ma and Spencer Baird agreed to serve as the were concerned, the results of the Fish rine Fisheries Service) was Baird's will director of the new agency for no addi Commission's early operations were ingness to undertake a highly utilitarian tional salary beyond that received in his nlore promising. From his station in program involving the hatching and capacity as a Smithsonian official. Woods Hole, Baird and his scientific redistribution of desirable species to In 1871, Baird returned to Woods associates received the enormous col replenish America's increasingly barren Hole, accompanied by a small group of lections of marine life taken in the area waters. To some extent, this new empha scientific volunteers, and established his and used these materials as the basis for sis upon multiplying resources super headquarters at a Light House Service a number of papers and monographs. seded Baird's interest in conserving building in Little Harbor. Taking advan Among these were life histories of the these populations through regulation, a tage of provisions in the enabling legis scup and a new catalog of coastal fishes very difficult task due to the large num lation which encouraged other govern prepared by Theodore Gill. William G. ber of states involved and the uncertainty mental agencies to render assistance, he Farlow (1873), who expressed thanks to of Federal authority in coastal and inter obtained the services of three small Baird for "opportunities for collect state waters. Baird did continue to rec Revenue Service and U.S.

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