Spencer Fullerton Baird and the Foundations of American Marine Science

DEAN C. ALLARD

In 1863, Spencer Fullerton Baird period prior to the establishment of the study of the oceans had special signifi­ blazed a path that would be followed by nation's great graduate schools or most cance since the sea was believed to be thousands of future biologists when he of the other learned institutions that lent the ancestral home of all life. Further, came to Woods Hole, Mass., to under­ support to American scientists, Baird the flora and fauna of the oceans were take summer research. Until his death was fortunate to have an appointment as remarkably diverse, abundant, and rela­ in 1887, Baird returned again and again assistant secretary of the Smithsonian tively simple compared with terrestrial to this delightful New England village. Institution, which then was directed by forms. For all of these reasons, marine In the process, he established institu­ the physicist Joseph Henry. At that insti­ biology had special appeal to Baird, as tional foundations which deeply influ­ tution, Baird was especially active in it did to many other naturalists of his enced the future of American marine developing the National Museum large­ time (Schlee, 1973). science. ly through his skill in obtaining gener­ It was typical of the Smithsonian's Spencer Baird was one of America's ous Congressional appropriations. That assistant secretary that he could depend preeminent systematic zoologists in the museum would reach its full fruition upon the assistance of the Federal gov­ mid-19th century. His bibliography in­ after 1878 when Baird succeeded Henry ernment in undertaking his scientifJc cluded hundreds of contributions on as the Smithsonian's secretary. enterprises. During the summer of 1870, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and espe­ In addition to this major effort, Baird probably because of the intercession of cially on mammals and birds. In a became increasingly interested in ma­ Baird's close friend, Senator George rine biology during the decade of the Edmunds of Vermont, who was vaca­ 1860's as he combined vacations at vari­ tioning at Woods Hole, a U.S. Revenue ous points along the eastern seashore Service craft was loaned to Baird to with the collection and study of oceanic assist in collecting marine specimens, organisms. By 1870, when he returned including a number of species not pre­ to Woods Hole for a second summer, viously reported as part of the fauna of Baird was well aware that European Massachusetts. During that summer, biologists were turning to the mysteries Baird also became aware of a long­ of the oceans with increasing fascina­ standing dispute in the Vineyard Sound tion. At that time, Anton Dohm was and Buzzards Bay area, and for that laying the foundations for his famed re­ matter along much of the rest of the search station at Naples, Italy, and with­ northeast coast, which seemed to invite in 2 years the HMS Challenger would solution by cool scientific reason. Baird embark C. Wyville Thomson and his seized upon that controversy to establish scientific team upon an historic oceano­ a Federal agency that would be dedi­ graphic cruise throughout the world's cated to the solution of practical prob­ major oceans. In a more general sense, lems, but also promised to support fun­ biological activity in the marine envi­ damental research in American waters. ronment was promoted by Darwin's The issue which was reaching a crisis "Origin of Species," which had been in that summer of 1870 involved a classic published in 1859. For evolutionists, the conflict between competing groups seeking to use the nation's natural re­ Dean C. Allard is with the U.S. Naval Historical sources. On one side of the dispute were Center, Washington Navy Yard, 8th and M St., S.E., Washington, DC 20374. This article was first relatively well capitalized groups of men published by the International Association of who erected fixed coastal nets and bar­ Marine Science Libraries and Infonnation Centers riers, known as traps or pounds and a in their 10th annual conference proceedings "Year of the oceans: Science of information handling," variety of other names, which made Spencer F. Baird R. L. Grundy and R. T. Ford, editors. enormous catches of fish. On the other

124 Marine Fisheries Review side were small-scale fishermen who weather, water temperature, salinity, and the Fish Commission's first annual typically fished by line from small currents upon fish population. report in 1873 and represents an impor­ boats, often for their personal subsis­ Baird's study confirmed that there had tant landmark in the history of Ameri­ tence, and the growing number of sport been a decline in the numbers of fish off can marine biology. There was, of fishermen who came to the seashore for southern New England. He also con­ course, a practical rationale for this recreation. The latter groups were in­ cluded, much too hastily as it turned study, due to the importance of these creasingly alarmed by the decline of out, that man's intervention through the forms as a food source for commercial such coastal species as the scup, sea use of traps and pounds, especially by fishes. Nevertheless, Verrill's research bass, tautog, and striped bass, and soon interfering with the spring spawning also demonstrated that Baird's vision of concluded that their problem stemmed process, was one important factor in this using the Fish Commission as a foun­ from the massive catches taken by fixed decline. His recommended solution, dation for broad investigations in the nets and barriers. The solution, in the however, was that these devices should marine sciences was being fulfilled. opinion of the boat and sport fishermen, be prohibited during only a portion of Despite the disappointing practical was simple. Fish traps and pounds the spawning season rather than abol­ results of the Fish Commission's first should simply be outlawed by state law. ished outright. year of operation, Congress showed no As the politicians in southern New Despite the crafty compromise devel­ inclination to halt annual appropriations England contended with these demands oped by Baird between the outright elinl­ for this new agency. Under these cir­ and the vigorous counter arguments of ination and unhindered use of traps and cumstances, there was a prospect that the owners of the traps and pounds, pounds, the state legislatures in Rhode nlany additional contributions, perhaps Spencer Baird volunteered to undertake Island and Massachusetts were not in­ similar in importance to Verrill's study, a scientific study of the coastal fisheries clined to enact the regulations that he would continue to appear. These con­ provided that Congress would appropri­ suggested. To add to Baird's distress, it ditions were reminiscent of A. Hunter ate the necessary funds. Baird's skill as also became evident in the following year Dupree's assessment of the characteris­ a lobbyist and the influence of his many that an enormous new year-class of the tics of nluch government science in the friends in Congress led in 1871 to an act scup was present in the waters of New 19th century. Certainly, Dupree's (1957) authorizing the United States Commis­ England, despite the failure to control observations that "practical problems sion of Fish and Fisheries. That body the catches taken by fixed nets and bar­ tended to reach out in ever-widening was charged with determining whether riers. It is not surprising that, after 1872, circles of theoretical considerations," American fish stocks had, in fact, de­ Baird was convinced that an understand­ and "ad hoc organizations tended to be­ clined. If such a decline were estab­ ing of the dynamics of oceanic popula­ come permanent" apply remarkbly well lished, the Commission was to detennine tions was a much more complex nlatter to the Fish Commission. its cause and to propose corrective than he had imagined when he began his One reason for the permanence of the measures. An initial appropriation of work as the U.S. Fish Commissioner. Fish Commission (it counts as one of $5,000 was allocated for these purposes Insofar as Baird's scientific interests its direct successors the National Ma­ and Spencer Baird agreed to serve as the were concerned, the results of the Fish rine Fisheries Service) was Baird's will­ director of the new agency for no addi­ Commission's early operations were ingness to undertake a highly utilitarian tional salary beyond that received in his nlore promising. From his station in program involving the hatching and capacity as a Smithsonian official. Woods Hole, Baird and his scientific redistribution of desirable species to In 1871, Baird returned to Woods associates received the enormous col­ replenish America's increasingly barren Hole, accompanied by a small group of lections of marine life taken in the area waters. To some extent, this new empha­ scientific volunteers, and established his and used these materials as the basis for sis upon multiplying resources super­ headquarters at a Light House Service a number of papers and monographs. seded Baird's interest in conserving building in Little Harbor. Taking advan­ Among these were life histories of the these populations through regulation, a tage of provisions in the enabling legis­ scup and a new catalog of coastal fishes very difficult task due to the large num­ lation which encouraged other govern­ prepared by Theodore Gill. William G. ber of states involved and the uncertainty mental agencies to render assistance, he Farlow (1873), who expressed thanks to of Federal authority in coastal and inter­ obtained the services of three small Baird for "opportunities for collect­ state waters. Baird did continue to rec­ Revenue Service and U.S. Navy craft to ing ...such as no American algologist ommend that states enact laws to pro­ take scientific collections off the south­ has ever before enjoyed,'" assessed sea­ tect the spawning process, restrict the ern coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode weeds in the area. An even larger series taking of undersized fish, halt pollution, Island. The approach defmed by the new of invertebrate forms fell under the ob­ and build fishways on major rivers that Commissioner was broad in nature, in­ servant eyes of Addison E. Verrill of would allow anadromous fish to reach volving not only an examination of the Yale. Verrill's 500-page monograph, their spawning grounds. But, despite the quantity and location of marine species, "Report Upon Invertebrate Animals of enactment of a number of measures but also the availability of their food Vineyard Sound and Adjacent Waters along that line, basic inconsistencies supplies, the possible impact of para­ With an Account of the Physical Char­ between state regulations and a contin­ sites or diseases, and the influence of acters of the Region," was published in uing problem of enforcement plagued

50(4), 1988 125 Baird's regulatory efforts to the end of Further, the carp, having escaped from Congress, Woods Hole was an ideal his life. their ponds, were considered by most location due to its relatively mild The seemingly more feasible solution observers to be a trash species that winters, and pure, saline, and clear of supplementing natural populations of crowded out more desirable fish, a prob­ waters. The closeness of the village to fish with a hatchery program was be­ lem that persists to the present day. New England's major fishing grounds ing pursued by several eastern states in Baird also sought to replenish other was an added advantage. By 1885, two the 1870's, especially as a result of polit­ inland fisheries in conjunction with state imposing buildings were completed, one ical pressure from the sport fishing agencies. For example, the rainbow of which housed fish culture apparatus community. These efforts, however, trout, originally found on the west coast, and scientific laboratory facilities. The needed to be augmented by the Federal was established in other areas of the other was a residence for the Fish Com­ government, and it was not long before United States. Additionally, the Fish mission's staff. At the time of Baird's contact was made with Spencer Baird. Commission pioneered the introduction death in 1887, major cod hatching oper­ Largely as a result of his typically quiet of the German brown trout into this ations had been underway at Woods but effective efforts on Capitol Hill, country. There also was a continuing but Hole for only a short time. Neverthe­ Congress appropriated the sum of unsuccessful effort to halt the decline less, there were reports that for the first $15,000 in 1872 and directed the Fish of the Great Lakes whitefish through time in many years, cod were being Commission to introduce desirable spe­ hatchery operations. taken close inshore at Woods Hole, a cies into the waters of the United States. So far as anadromous species were happy circumstance that appeared to The appropriation act specifically men­ concerned, the Fish Commission con­ have resulted from the Commission's tioned the propagation of salmon and centrated much attention on hatching artificial propagation activity. In the whitefish and, remarkably enough, re­ Pacific and Atlantic salmon. In addition longer run, however, it became evident quired that an effort be made to estab­ to supplementing the runs in their local that the effort to replenish coastal cod lish the Atlantic shad in the Gulf Coast regions, Baird undertook the transplan­ stocks was a failure (Bigelow, 1931). and Mississippi Valley regions. tation of Pacific species to the east coast. Another major utilitarian program of Working in close cooperation with But, despite initial signs of success, the Fish Commission grew out of a dip­ state commissions, Baird undertook this these efforts were outright failures or at lomatic settlement in 1877 by which the new program with considerable enthu­ best yielded dubious results in maintain­ United States paid Canada $5.5 million siasm. In fact, fish culture soon became ing salmon populations. for use of the Dominion's inshore fish­ the single most important activity of his In accordance with Congressional eries. Baird had been the chief Ameri­ organization. By Baird's death in 1887, directions, Baird worked with the Atlan­ can scientific witness at the arbitration annual appropriations for artificial prop­ tic shad. Again, however, the results in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which granted agation had grown to $200,000 per year, were uneven. Baird may have helped to this award, but he was convinced that out of the agency's total budget of maintain their runs on some rivers along it was an exorbitant judgement that over­ $268,000. The great majority of Baird's the east coast, but the effort to establish valued the Canadian fisheries. In his 105 employees in 1887 were engaged in the shad in the Gulf Coast and Missis­ opinion, it also failed to take into ac­ fish culture at various locations in the sippi Valley regions was an outright count the countervailing value of Ameri­ United States. Also available to the com­ failure. On the other hand, shad were can waters which were available to the mission was a ship built in the late introduced successfully on the west Canadians on a reciprocal basis. This 1870's, the Fish Hawk, that was specially coast. In a related program, the striped conclusion and the prospect of further designed as a floating hatchery. bass also were transplanted to Pacific diplomatic negotiations after the Halifax This program was exceedingly popu­ waters. settlement expired in the mid-1880's, led lar, especially since Baird assured that Baird was not naive enough to believe to Baird's interest in compiling detailed young fish or impregnated ova were dis­ that artificial propagation could have a statistics and other information on the tributed to the entire nation, preferably general effect on oceanic species. But, fisheries of the North Atlantic. In light through individual applications to the in the 1870's he held forth the hope of the Canadian-American controversy local congressman. In this way, he as­ of using hatcheries to establish local over fishing rights, which was hardly sured political support for an activity schools of cod and other species in the unique to the late 19th century, Baird that was widely perceived as a humani­ coastal waters of New England. Starting also resolved to offer aid to American tarian effort to improve the nation's food in 1878, the Commissioner established commercial fishermen that to some ex­ supply. A classic example was Baird's such a facility at Gloucester, Mass., tent would offset the generous subsidies effort to introduce the German carp for which was given credit for improved offered to the Canadian industry by its pond culture on the nation's farms. The fishing in that area. Building upon that government. He also shared the hope of carp thrived in American waters and ini­ experience, the Commissioner then ob­ many American politicians and diplo­ tially were received with enthusiasm. tained a series of Federal appropriations mats to make the United States indepen­ But, at the time of Baird's death it was between 1882 and 1885 to erect a hatch­ dent of the Canadian inshore fisheries. evident that Americans did not share the ery, originally for cod, at Woods Hole. One of Baird's initial achievements European culinary taste for this species. As Baird noted in his approaches to was to plan a comprehensive survey,

126 Marine Fisheries Review prepared under the direction of his was true for the Gulf of Mexico, then first sustained scientific study of Ameri­ Smithsonian colleague, George Brown was an area little used by American fish­ can waters. Goode, and entitled "The Fisheries and ermen. But, as will be noted, the Alba­ This aspect of the Fish Commission's Fishery Industries of the United States." tross' contributions to economic ichthy­ program primarily was associated with Baird arranged for this work to be spon­ ology were limited by Baird's obvious its summer laboratories. Between 1872 sored by the U.S. Census Bureau and preference to use the vessel for scien­ and 1880, those stations were established some of Goode's findings appeared in tific surveys of the North Atlantic. One at various points along the northeastern the Tenth Census of the United States. observer noted in 1891, for example, that coast, ranging from Noank, Conn., to The total data collected, however, in­ the great majority of the ship's stations Halifax, N.S. Woods Hole, however, cluded insights into the social history of had been on the outer edge of the con­ continued to hold a special attraction for American fishermen, information on tinental shelf "outside the ordinary Baird. He returned there in the summer virtually every major fishing port in the range of fishing grounds" (U.S. Con­ of 1875 and then, in 1881, announced United States, scientific descriptions of gress, 1891). that henceforth Woods Hole would be hundreds of species of fish, and prac­ The Fish Commission also sought, his permanent base of operations. It was tical details on fishing methods and after the Halifax arbitration of 1877, to at that time that the Fish Commissioner grounds. Since this material was too ex­ improve the equipment used by Anler­ began his campaign to obtain Congres­ tensive for inclusion in the census, Baird ican fishermen. For example, Baird sional appropriations for facilities to obtained a special Congressional ap­ demonstrated the value of gill nets, hatch oceanic species at Woods Hole. propriation in 1882 to print Goode's which had been developed in Europe, rrhat fine, deep-water port also would study as a separate seven-volume publi­ and laid the basis for a modest winter serve as a base for the Commission's cation. cod fishery off the New England coast. vessels. Also of significance to the history of These nets were of particular interest Both at Woods Hole and at the other American marine science was Baird's since, through their use, it was possi­ locations used by Baird prior to 1881, search for new fishing areas, preferably ble to avoid the expense and difficulty simple laboratories were established for in waters as far removed from Canada of purchasing bait, much of which came the Commission's use. Into these facil­ as possible. In 1879, a commercial from Canadian waters. The Fish Com­ ities came large collections of marine schooner out of Gloucester discovered mission also introduced the beam trawl, specimens originally collected by ves­ off the coast of Massachusetts large another European device. This net sels of the Navy, Coastal Survey, and quantities of a species, the tilefish, that proved its effectiveness, but it was little Revenue Service that were on loan to the seemed to have all of the merits of cod. used by the American commercial fish­ agency. After the late 1870's, the Fish Although it later was learned that this ing industry until after the turn of the Commission's own ships, including Fish fish fluctuated widely in its abundance century. Finally, Baird's agency pro­ Hawk and Albatross, also were used for and hence was not always a viable com­ moted a new type of schooner to replace this purpose. To study these collections, mercial catch, Baird used the tilefish as the speedy but dangerously unstable Baird continued to invite volunteer sci­ a prime example of the benefits of a sys­ vessels used in the offshore fisheries. entists to join him for the summer. In tematic exploratory program. On this Baird's staff specifically designed a ves­ the decade of the 1880's, the visiting in­ basis, he was successful in 1881-82 in sel named Grampus featuring a deeper vestigators averaged about 15 in number. obtaining from Congress appropriations hull and improved sail plan. Grampus Aside from offering rich research of $190,000 for a famous ship, the Alba­ was one of several prototypes that influ­ materials for these biologists, Baird ex­ tross, that nlay have been the first espe­ enced the development of improved tended other inducements, including the cially designed oceanic research vessel schooners after the mid-1880's. opportunity to retain duplicate speci­ built anywhere in the world. This 234­ Spencer Baird had no hesitation in mens and the prospect of publishing foot steamer was delivered to the Fish applying science to the practical ends scientific papers in the annual reports Commission in 1883 and continued to specified in the expanding appropria­ and bulletins that were printed for the make notable contributions to the ocean­ tions received by the Fish Commission Fish Commission at government ex­ ographic sciences over the next 38 years between 1871 and 1887. But, Baird's pense. A few of these scientists, who (Hedgpeth, 1945). close associates knew that his most fun­ were considered temporary government As promised by Baird, Albatross did damental interest was in using that agen­ employees, received small salaries for undertake surveys with direct relevance cy as an engine for basic research in the their summer work. to America's fishing industry. These marine sciences. In fact, taking what The central figure in Baird's scientific included studies of the migrations of one friend (Goode, 1884) termed a corps was Addison E. Verrill of Yale mackerel and menhaden and a pioneer­ "liberal and philosophical interpretation University, a well-known specialist in ing investigation of the Gulf of Mexico, of the law," and recognizing that prac­ marine invertebrates. The Fish Com­ including the red snapper and shrimp tical ends would be served by a "series mission also secured the services of a fisheries. At the time of Baird's death, of thorough inquiries into the general number of Verrill's students, including the ship also was preparing for a voy­ physical and natural history of the seas," such men as Edmund B. Wilson and C. age to the Pacific Northwest, which, as Baird (1874) proceeded to undertake the Hart Merriam who were destined for

50(4), 1988 127 scientific fame. Another dominant fig­ that after 1880 Baird began his cam­ Baird's overall plan was spelled out ure was George Brown Goode, who paign to obtain funding for Albatross. in 1882 in a personal letter to Daniel C. directed the Wesleyan College museum Although this steamer was justified to Gilman, the President of Johns Hopkins until 1877 when he joined Baird at the Congress for use in developing commer­ University (Baird, 1882). The Fish Smithsonian. Goode was the specialist cial fishing grounds, Albatross was Commissioner proposed to make avail­ in charge of the fishes collected by the specially designed and equipped for able excess land in the vicinity of his Commission. deep-sea scientific research. Her first buildings to universities or colleges In the 1870's, the primary focus of dredging station, occupied in 1883, was desiring to erect special laboratories or Baird's scientific effort was on the con­ in waters with a depth of 1,400 fathoms, summer schools of natural history for tinental shelf. Here enormous collec­ a most unpromising area for species of their students. As a further inducement, tions were taken by the Fish Commis­ commercial importance. he suggested that the occupants of the sion, including hundreds of species that The task of studying the rich collec­ tables in the Fish Commission's labor­ were new to science. The systematic tions of deep-water specimens taken in atory would offer a series of lectures to zoologists associated with the Fish the 1880's was divided between Addison combined classes of these students. Commission categorized and described E. Verrill and his students, who handled Additionally, Baird offered to construct these specimens in numerous scientific the invertebrates, and George Brown a common mess. Presumably, the rich papers. Such investigators as A. S. Goode, who worked with the fishes. scientific collections brought in by the Packard of the Peabody Academy of Eventually, Verrill wrote almost 100 commission's vessels also would be Sciences also prepared papers on the papers based on the Fish Commission's available for this informal university of distribution of marine life, including its collections. Goode collaborated with marine biology. relationship to physical oceanography, Tarleton H. Bean, who had access to the The Fish Commissioner's vision was that were important contributions to the more modest collections of deep-sea not fulfilled during his lifetime. To a ecological literature on New England's fishes obtained by Alexander Agassiz large extent, this was due to an embar­ waters. Other notable contributions in­ during his private cruises in the steamer rassing dispute that began in 1885 when cluded writings on marine botany by Blake. In 1896, Goode and Bean pub­ an official of the new Administration of William G. Farlow of Harvard and a lished their results in "Oceanic Ichthy­ Grover Cleveland charged that the Fish large number of papers by John Ryder, ology." With a degree of chauvinism the Commission's rather elaborate facilities who was the Commission's full-time authors noted that the 49 new genera at Woods Hole, which included a resi­ embryologist between 1880 and 1886. and the 147 species of deep-sea fishes dence building and scientific labora­ In the late 1870's, however, the Fish covered in their monograph represented tories, far exceeded the intent of Con­ Commission's attention increasingly a greater number than had been ob­ gress in making funds available for a turned to the deep waters of the con­ tained by Challenger in her famous marine fish hatchery. Baird's friends in tinental slope and the oceanic basin, oceanographic cruise. Congress soon forced this investigation which at that time were areas little Aside from these fundamental contri­ to be dropped, but in the 2 years re­ known to marine scientists. Some sense butions to marine biology, Baird also maining in his life, Baird was very cau­ of the excitement felt by the Commis­ developed in the 1880's an ambitious tious about undertaking any activity that sion's investigators was conveyed by plan to use his base at Woods Hole as might be questioned. That certainly in­ Goode's reaction to the organisms taken the nucleus for a much broader program cluded the establishment at Woods Hole from 160 fathoms in the summer of 1877 of research and education. In constluct­ of a summer university under the in­ at a station 44 miles off Cape Ann, ing this facility, Baird obtained advice spiration and guidance of a government Mass. Goode (Osborn, 1901) noted: from Anton Dohrn whose marine sta­ agency. "It seems incredible that American tion at Naples was already famous in the Nevertheless, it also needs to be noted naturalists should not then have known world of science. One of Dohrn's prac­ that a significant part of Baird's dream that a few miles away there was a fauna tices that was followed at Woods Hole would be realized in 1888-89 when his as unlike that of our coast as could be was to sell research tables to other insti­ long-time friend and summer laboratory found in the Indian Ocean or the seas tutions, which in the case of Baird's associate, Alpheus Hyatt, took a lead­ of China." laboratory included four universities ing role in establishing the Marine Bio­ Three years later, Baird diverted his and colleges: Johns Hopkins, Harvard, logical Laboratory (MBL). Although newly completed hatchery vessel, the Princeton, and Williams. In addition, that institution was entirely separate Fish Hawk, from her normal duties and the Fish Commissioner controlled, from the Fish Commission, Hyatt (1888) directed her to another station on the through wealthy friends, a quantity of suggested that the MBL was a direct out­ Gulf Stream slope. The Fish Hawk, in land that was adjacent to his own build­ growth of Baird's educational scheme. the Commissioner's words (Baird, 1881), ing. Baird's benefactors were willing to Of course, in the longer run, the MBL returned with examples of a "most donate or lease these lots to other sci­ was joined by other scientific institu­ wonderful fauna, vastly exceeding in entific institutions that might be willing tions, including the Woods Hole Ocean­ richness and extent anything known to to join the Fish Commissioner at Woods .ographic Institution. One can only con­ science." It probably is no coincidence Hole. clude that, if Spencer Baird were alive

128 Marine Fisheries Review today, he would be pleased, but not en­ government agencies to support and en­ 22, U.S. Nat!' Archives. tirely surprised, by the distinguished courage an American scientific commu­ Bigelow, H. B. 1931. Oceanography: Its scope, problems, and economic importance. Hough­ research and educational enterprises that nity that was then in its infancy. The ton Mifflin Co., Bost., p. 201. are located in this area. foundations laid by such men as Spencer Dupree, A. H. 1957. Science in the Federal gov­ ernment. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, p. In looking back at Baird's stewardship Fullerton Baird were the essential pre­ 64. of the Fish Commission through the first condition for the thriving marine scien­ Farlow, W. G. 1873. List of sea-weeds or marine 16 years of its existence, one must be tific community that is so visible in the algae of the south coast of New England. In S. F. Baird (Commissioner), Report of the impressed by the continuities between Woods Hole of today. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 1871-72. the late 19th century and our own time. (Note: Unless otherwise indicated, Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C., p. 281. After all, the issues that his agency ad­ this paper is based upon the author's Goode, G. B. 1884. A review of the fishery in­ dustries of the United States. The Fisheries Ex­ dressed are familiar ones, including the "Spencer Fullerton Baird and the U.S. hibition Literature, vol. V. William Clowes and dynamics of marine populations, efforts Fish Commission: A Study in the His­ Sons, Lond., p. 56. to maintain and enhance the productiv­ tory of American Science." Amo Press, Hedgpeth, J. W. 1945. The United States Fish Commission Steamer Albatross. The Am. Nep­ ity of commercial fisheries, direct aid N.Y., 1978.) tune 5(1):5-26. to the fishing industry through improved Hyatt, A. 1888. Sketch of the life and services Literature Cited to science of Professor Spencer F. Baird. Proc. techniques and exploratory fishing, and Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 13(4):564. finally a vigorous program of basic re­ Baird, S. F. (Commissioner). 1874. Report of the Osborn, H. F. 1901. Goode as naturalist. In A search. But, in the largest context, Baird Commissioner, 1872-73. U.S. Commiss. Fish memoral to George Brown Goode. Wash., Fish., p. ix. D.C., p. 22. perhaps can best be remembered as one ____ . 1881. Letter to George P. Marsh, Schlee, S. 1973. The edge of an unfamiliar world: of the able institution builders of a cen­ 31 October. USFC letters sent, Record group A history ofoceanography. E. P. Dutton, N.Y. tury ago who recognized the essential 22, U.S. Nat!. Archives. U.S. Congress. 1891. Testimony ...in the inves­ ____ . 1882. Letter to Daniel C. Gilman, tigation of the U.S. Fish Commission. 51st need for universities, museums, and 22 December. USFC letters sent. Record group Congr., 2nd Sess. Sen. Miscell. Doc. 77, p. 492.

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