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Tulip Time, U TULIP TIME, U. S. A.: STAGING MEMORY, IDENTITY AND ETHNICITY IN DUTCH-AMERICAN COMMUNITY FESTIVALS DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Terence Guy Schoone-Jongen, M. A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2007 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Thomas Postlewait, Advisor Professor Dorothy Noyes Professor Alan Woods Adviser Theatre Graduate Program ABSTRACT Throughout the United States, thousands of festivals, like St. Patrick’s Day in New York City or the Greek Festival and Oktoberfest in Columbus, annually celebrate the ethnic heritages, values, and identities of the communities that stage them. Combining elements of ethnic pride, nostalgia, sentimentality, cultural memory, religous values, political positions, economic motive, and the spirit of celebration, these festivals are well-organized performances that promote a community’s special identity and heritage. At the same time, these festivals usually reach out to the larger community in an attempt to place the ethnic community within the American fabric. These festivals have a complex history tied to the “melting pot” history of America. Since the twentieth century many communities and ethnic groups have struggled to hold onto or reclaim a past that gradually slips away. Ethnic heritage festivals are one prevalent way to maintain this receding past. And yet such ii festivals can serve radically different aims, socially and politically. In this dissertation I will investigate how these festivals are presented and why they are significant for both participants and spectators. I wish to determine what such festivals do and mean. I will examine five Dutch American festivals, three of which are among the oldest ethnic heritage festivals in the United States. My approach to this topic is interdisciplinary. Drawing upon research methods in several disciplines--theatre history, performance studies, theatre semiotics, ethnography and anthropology, folklore, and American history--I will describe and analyze how the social, political, and ethical values of the communities get expressed (performed, acted out, represented, costumed and displayed) in these various festivals. Instead of relying upon the familiar ideas of “the Midwest,” “rural America,” “conservative America,” etc. that are often used in political commentary today, I want to show just how complex and often contradictory the festivals are in the ways they represent each community. At the same time, by placing these community festivals in the context of American history, I also intend to show how and why each festival serves as a microcosm of particular cultural, social, and political developments in modern America. iii Dedicated to the memory of Louise Schoone-Jongen 1909-2005 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I want to thank my advisor, Thomas Postlewait, for his encouragement, support, feedback, and enthusiasm for this project, as well as for his unflagging confidence in my ability to bring this project to fruition. I want to thank Dorry Noyes for being particularly helpful in offering feedback, insight, and encouragement during the research and writing process. Special thanks are also due to Alan Woods, Jill Lane, Joe Roach, and Harry Vredeveld for supporting this project in a myriad of ways. I owe particular debts of gratitude to Janet Sjaarda Sheeres, Robert Swierenga, Ellen Van’t Hof, Sue Ten Hoeve, Janie Van Dyke, Eric Walhof, Don and Nelva Schreur, Marlys Hop, Phyllis Zylstra, Lisa Jaarsma Zylstra, Margaret De Jager, and Carol Van Klompenburg, all of whom graciously supplied me with advice and documents I otherwise would not have been able to obtain. I would like to thank all of the archivists who assisted me at the Holland Museum, the Joint Archives of Holland, the Pella Historical Society, Central College, and Northwestern College; special thanks in this regard go to Deborah Postema-George, Bill Sause, and Dan Daily. I would also like to give a special message of thanks to Iris Vander Wal at the Pella Historical Society, who v provided much appreciated logistical support during my research trips to Pella, and to Don and Nelva Schreur who provided invaluable help and advice while I was in Orange City. I would like to thank the offices of the Chronicle, Edgerton Enterprise, and Sioux County Capital-Democrat for allowing me to rummage through back issues on busy work days. All of the individuals who consented to be interviewed for this project also have my deepest gratitude for candid conversation, entertaining anecdotes, and a willingness to sit down with me for what often was an hour or more. I feel that I have made many new friends across the Midwest as a result of these interviews. I owe debts of hospitality to Mel and Liz De Boer, Brett and Anita Gaul, Grandpa and Grandma Lefever, and Ralph and Elaine Jaarsma. Special thanks to Robert Hubbard, Debra Freeburg, and Teresa Ter Haar for encouragement and moral support during this process. Thanks to the good people at Café Apropos for keeping me well stocked with coffee, biscotti, and wine. Thanks to all of my many friends for providing the distractions necessary to maintaining a somewhat balanced life while writing a dissertation; special thanks in this regard to Lise, The Salo(o)ners, Blueforms Theatre Group, Tom D., Gina, Gib, and Sarah. vi I would not have been able to concentrate without the aid of the music of Richard Wagner, Richard Strauss, Gustav Holst, Miles Davis, Ornette Coleman, Dave Brubeck, Hong Ting, and Mike Doughty. Finally, a huge thank you to mom, dad, and Brendan for all their love and support during the many ups and downs that have been part of this process. The completion of this project was made possible by the generous support of The Ohio State University Department of Theatre Morrow Fund. The completion of this project was also possible thanks to an Ohio State University Presidential Fellowship. vii VITA August 24, 1978………………………….Born – Pipestone, Minnesota 2001………………………………………B.A., Communications Arts and Sciences, Calvin College, Grand Rapids, Michigan 2003………………………………………M.A., Theatre History, Literature, and Criticism, The Ohio State University 2001-2002………………………………..University Fellow, The Ohio State University 2002-2005………………………………...Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University 2006-present………………………………Presidential Fellow, The Ohio State University FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Theatre viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract………………………………………………………………………….ii Dedication……………………………………………………………………….iv Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………….v Vita……………………………………………………………………………..viii Chapters: 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………1 2. Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Community Celebration, Commemoration and Festivity………………………………………….. 45 2.1 Community-Oriented Festivals………………………………………46 2.2 Ethnically-Oriented Festivals………………………………………..59 3. Immigration and Settlement Patterns of the Dutch in the United States: A Brief Overview………………………………………..73 3.1 Antecedents………………………………………………………….73 3.1.1 New Netherland…………………………………………...73 3.1.2 From 1664-1847…………………………………….…….78 3.2 The New Immigration……………………………………………….79 3.2.1 Economic and Religious Backdrop……………….……….79 3.2.1.1 Economic Factors………………………………..80 3.2.1.2 Religious Factors………………………………...82 3.2.2 The Afscheiding of 1834…………………………………..84 3.2.3 Towards Emigration……………………………………….89 3.2.4 Dutch Emigration/Immigration after 1850………………...95 3.2.5 Immigration vs. Settlement.………………………………106 3.3 The Dutch-American Community……………………………..…...111 4. Dutch Ethnic Heritage Celebrations: Antecedents, Emergence, And Proliferation……………………………………………………….135 4.1 Antecedents…………………………………………………………136 4.2 The Emergence of Holland, Pella, and Orange City………………..155 4.2.1 Tulip Time in Holland, Michigan………………………...155 4.2.2 Tulip Time in Pella, Iowa………………………………...166 4.2.3 Tulip Festival In Orange City, Iowa…………………...…188 4.2.4 Hollandmania……………………………………………..200 ix 4.3 Proliferation………………………………………………………...226 5. The Quest for Authenticity: Costumes…………………………………233 5.1 The Rhetoric of Authenticity……………………………………….233 5.1.1 Quotes on Holland’s Tulip Time…………………………233 5.1.2 Quotes on Pella’s Tulip Time……………………………233 5.1.3 Quotes on Orange City’s Tulip Festival…………………234 5.1.4 Quotes on Edgerton’s Dutch Festival…………………….234 5.1.5 Quotes on Fulton’s Dutch Days………………………….235 5.2 Authenticity Issues………………………………………………….235 5.3 Costuming Practices…………………….………………………….238 5.3.1 Costumes in Holland, Michigan…..……………………...238 5.3.2 Costumes in Pella, Iowa………………………………….244 5.3.3 Costumes in Orange City, Iowa…………………………..251 5.3.4 Costumes in Fulton, Illinois...……………………………257 5.3.5 Costumes in Edgerton, Minnesota………………………..261 5.4 Authenticity: What It Means, What It Does…….………………….267 6. Stories We Tell To And About Ourselves……………………...………290 6.1 Stories and Narratives in Press and Promotional Coverage………..291 6.2 Town Tours…………………………………… ………………..…326 6.3 Parades, Programs, Pageants, and Plays…………………………....338 6.3.1 Parades…………………………………………...……….339 6.3.2 Programs………………………………………………….351 6.3.3 Pageants and Plays……………………………………….360 7. Other Stories; or, Stories We Tell In Spite of Ourselves……………….382 7.1 Disagreements………………………………………………..……..383 7.2 Demographics… …………………………………………………...394 7.3 Denominational Factionalism………………………………………408 8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...429 Appendix A…………………………………………………………………….441 Appendix B…………………………………………………………………….443 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………445
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