Composing for the Screen: ’s Infuence on Non-Diegetic Musical Underscoring

TARA SURI

Tara Suri is a fourth year student pursuing a Specialist in Cinema Studies, a Major in Anthropology, and a Minor in Human Geography. Tara’s passions for law, music, and flm collaborate in her research on legal documentary, Old Hollywood, and musical underscoring in flm.

36 “Really good music is playing a more important part in audience screen enjoyment with each new picture.”1 Leo Forbstein offered this happy assessment in 1942, a little over a decade after the challenges posed by the transition from silent to sound had been resolved. There were several fundamental obstacles in adaptating music to the needs of the changing film medium; primarily, a reluctance to set non-diegetic music to the soundtrack, stemming from the conventions of the silent era where music had been a visible component of theatrical presentations. Not until some composers were tasked with writing music for soundtracks did non- diegetic underscoring take on importance. These composers established a musical tradition that demanded new techniques and technologies which would govern music’s placement in the classical Hollywood cinema. Max Steiner, in particular, developed a method of underscoring so effectively that both audiences and filmmakers became almost immediately reliant on it. An examination of this period of transition, including sample analyses of Steiner’s scoring during the early classical period demonstrate how this composer influenced the development of musical soundtracks. The concept of non-diegetic music in sound film presented problems because audiences had been accustomed to live music accompanying films. The performances made film viewing an exciting and immersive experience.2 Given these ingrained conventions, if music were to be added to the soundtrack, it might confuse the audience’s perceptions of the diegetic world. Did the music emenate from the diegesis like dialogue did? Or was it a non-diegetic supplement as live music had been? While these questions were unresolved, in the period 1926-1932, feature films adhered to either “pure” silent film practices (silent film with external musical accompaniment), or moved towards a “100% talking” model without musical accompaniment of any kind—or, a hybrid of these two approaches known as the “synchronized” film.3 The Vitaphone played a vital role in this “hybrid” approach to sound in film.4 It would eventually suggest a structure in which non-diegetic soundtrack music could replace the live external musical accompaniment in the form of dialogue underscoring.5 Hollywood then began to hire composers in an experimental stage of dialogue underscoring. Technological developments created more opportunity to set existing pieces of music to small portions of a film; most often these were love scenes. The first generation of composers brought to

1. Leo Forbstein, “Music: Screen’s Own Music Gains Stature.” In Variety 145(5). Los Angeles, California: Penske Business Media, 07 January 1942. 2. James Buhler and David Neumeyer. “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film: The Classical Hol- lywood System.” In The Oxford Handbook of Film Music Studies. Austin, Texas: Oxford University Press, November 2013. 3. Buhler and Neumeyer, “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film.” 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 37 Composing for the Screen

Hollywood had established careers composing for world-class symphonies. They wanted to write their own music and to collaborate in setting their scores to the film image.6 In working to gain this leverage, the composers were forced to demonstrate the benefits of their work independent from the studio system. Those whose work was revolutionary enough to negate the problem of a visual connection to the source of the music might be allowed further agency within the filmmaking process. Until then, Rudolf Arnheim’s question remained, “Since recorded music not synchronized to the image was neither of the theatre nor of the world screened, where precisely is its place in the film?”7 In 1931, Max Steiner expressed deep skepticism about music that came from “some mysterious source.”8 In his his role as music director at RKO, he committed the studio to producing music which had “logical” motivation from the filmic image.9 Steiner declared that this music “would be secondary to the plot action and would assist in providing the movement of the story itself…It would be largely incidental, and often atmospheric. It [would] not come into a picture from some mysterious source but by some logical means.”10 Steiner was determined to prove that non-diegetic music serving a narrative purpose belonged in cinema and should be accepted as such. Steiner further eliminated the narrative absurdity of motivating music by having musicians wandering around scenes. His conceptualization included the necessity for a new score unique to each film, and for composers to write according to a film’s narrative design and moods rather than the previous practice of attaching excerpts from stock symphonies.11 The consensus on Steiner’s concept was precarious in the early 1930’s. Nevertheless, Steiner rose to the challenge by developing techniques which would persuade both audiences and filmmakers. In order to function with the purpose that Steiner had in mind, music had to be transcendent.12 In executing this concept, Steiner developed a hierarchy of synchronization. He outlined three very separate techniques of tight synchronization (“mickey-mousing”, naming), general “overall” synchronization (mood, harmony), and “unsynchronized” musical numbers.13 Steiner developed his own mode of synchronization by combining all three, mainly tight and general synchronization, to form “close synchronization.”14 In this

6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Myrl A. Schreibman, “Memories of Max: An Archival Interview with Max Steiner.” In Film Score Monthly 10(1). Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts: Vineyard Haven LLC, January 2005. 11. Buhler and Neumeyer, “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film.” 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 38 Tara Suri musical practice, music moves fluidly between tight and general functions based on diegetic cues, and is carefully scattered to associate sonic signals with the visual action, whether physical, emotional, or dramatic. Close synchronization is the technique which enabled dialogue-specific underscoring. In developing this practice, Steiner looked to Wagner’s work on theatrical models for melodramas. In these compositions, “structural spotting” is used to determine entry, exit, and temporal durations along the strict timing required for recorded soundtracks.15 Steiner also insisted on covering a large portion of the films with music, in a manner that “evoked the deluxe theatre orchestral performances of the 1920’s” (where almost the entire film is accompanied by music).16 The films for which Steiner composed were said to have read like concerts with images accompanying them. Competing films of the time contained scores ranging from twenty to forty minutes in length; Steiner’s first film of the 1930’s included a seventy-four minute musical score. Films such as King Kong,17 set music to every aspect of the narrative. These pieces were comprised of “ominous themes, weird chords, dissonant ascents and descents, creakings and heavings—the kind of music no one had ever heard before—or since.”18 RKO claimed that Steiner’s score was responsible for at least twenty-five percent of the film’s unprecedented success. Another tactic which Steiner regularly employed is that of diegetic withdrawal. An example of this concept is when the score begins with diegetically ambiguous music. Before the audience has visually identified the narrative world, the initial music is the first indicator of the reality within the opening scene to be set.19 Steiner often accomplished diegetic withdrawal by indicating through sonic techniques a shift from the music within the undisclosed diegesis to the non-diegesis once the establishing shot appeared. Other occurrences of drifting from diegetic to non-diegetic terrain within the musical track had previously been discouraged because it was assumed this would cause audience confusion. Steiner was the first composer to enable the music to “emerge organically from the diegesis and blend into a non-diegetic narrational force.”20 Steiner’s score would pick up on a tune that a character might be whistling or humming within the film and gradually adapt the location of the music into the non-diegesis. For example, Casablanca’s21 soundtrack brings diegetic music and non-diegetic

15. Buhler and Neumeyer, “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film.” 16. Ibid. 17. Merian C. Cooper & Ernest B. Schoedsack, King Kong (1933: Radio Pictures). 18. Paul F. Boller, “Music by Max Steiner.” In Southwest Review 51(3). Southern Methodist University, 1966. 19. Michael James Slowik, Hollywood Film Music in the Early Sound Era, 1926-1934. University of Iowa, May 2012. 20. Slowik, Hollywood Film Music. 21. , Casablanca (1942: Warner Bros. Pictures). 39 Composing for the Screen

music together throughout the film, giving the score a feel similar to that of musical theatre. Steiner simply transforms these songs into a musical soundtrack by coordinating them with a recurring leitmotif structure once they have transitioned to the non-diegetic track.22 Steiner often employed this technique to serve as a delivery device for popular tunes to be blended into the wider soundtrack to contribute to forming repeated musical themes known as leitmotifs.23 By the 1940’s, Hollywood entered the third phase in the development of musical underscoring. Producers began to admit musical underscoring into non-musical pictures following the unexpected successes of films such as King Kong. Steiner would often be called in at the last minute to add musical commentary to an already compiled soundtrack, with very little time to do so.24 Once again, Steiner made unprecedented demands in the name of improving the product. He wanted to compose leitmotifs which could be identified with some of the Classical era’s greatest stars, including , Errol Flynn, James Cagney, Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, and Randall Scott. Steiner believed that this development would encourage audience investment in their characters and further integrate the musical soundtrack with the narrative.25 For him to do so, Steiner had to be brought in at the beginning of a film’s preparations so that he could work with the filmmaking team to produce a soundtrack that would be tailored to a film’s individual components. Steiner’s process even involved recording the pitches of the actors’ voices and replaying them while selecting keying and instrumentation for the scores. Into the mid-1940’s, Steiner began to collaborate with directors to determine the best use for music before shooting began. Steiner was breaking ground on musical scoring practices which would enable soundtracks to stand on their own with maximum impact.26 Sometimes Steiner was able to prolong scenes by a few seconds while his musical idea was completed. In some cases, his piano compositions and symphonic tone poems, running seven to eight minutes, played uninterrupted and were matched by long takes. Production companies began to sponsor the early release of filmic albums to promote engagement with the musical aspect of a film.27 Steiner wanted to establish the importance of the soundtrack as an element which had been carefully crafted to support the film. Steiner, however, was under

22. Timothy, E. Scheurer, “You Know What I Want to Hear”: The Music of Casablanca.” In Journal of Popu- lar Film and Television 32(2). 2004. 23. Michael lowik, “Diegetic Withdrawal and Other Worlds: Film Music Strategies Before King Kong, 1927- 1933.” In Cinema Journal, 53(1). University of Texas Press, 2013. 24. Paul F. Boller, “Music by Max Steiner.” In Southwest Review 51(3). Southern Methodist University, 1966. 25. Boller, “Music by Max Steiner.” 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 40 Tara Suri no illusion regarding the dependent role his music played and he stressed, “Film music cannot be compared to the symphonic works that are written for concert performance… I permit myself to be dominated by the story and the characters, and synchronize the music to them which inevitably creates a stronger and more dynamic score.”28 Steiner’s sound psychology stated, “[The] ear must see what the eye sees, or else it is disturbing.”29 Steiner’s psychology governed his musical scores, which accumulated to four hundred over the course of the Classical era. He would always begin by asking himself, “What does this picture sound like?,” followed by conducting a “cold-blooded analysis of the story and the characters…devis[ing] themes for the characters, for things, for incidents.”30 Steiner became known for “translating the visual image into sound,” as is transparent in each of his most iconic film scores.31 Steiner’s most lauded film score belongs to the 1939 film adaptation of author Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind.32 Of this film’s 222 minutes, ninety percent is scored; Steiner accomplished this task in just over eleven weeks. Despite being asked to compile stock music and add a little of his own to string it together, Steiner insisted on composing an entirely original score, arguing that this would be more effective for the emotionally-driven story.33 These massive musical requirements prompted him to enlist the help of five other composers, who wrote the main titles and prologue cues to complement the main leitmotif melodies (previewed at six to eight lines each) that Steiner composed first. Steiner also composed all of the dialogue underscoring himself.34 The final composition consisted of sixteen main themes and had almost three hundred individual musical segments which were presented to the recording orchestra on ninety-nine separate scores. It was the longest film score that had been written to date, totaling two hours and thirty-six minutes of music.35 In addition to featuring diegetic and non-diegetic interpretations of Civil War-era songs like “Dixie,” the score to Gone with the Wind is also characterized by two love themes, one for the sweet and innocent love between Ashley and his wife Melanie, and the other, more passionate theme for Scarlett’s desire for Ashley.36 A third theme is common to Scarlett and

28. Max Steiner, “Setting Emotions to Music.” In Variety, 139(8). Los Angeles, California: Penske Business Media, 31 July 1940. 29. Max Steiner, “Setting Emotions to Music.” 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. , Gone With The Wind (1939: Loew’s Inc). 33. Sarah Margaret Weinzetl, Motivic Development in Max Steiner’s Score for Gone with the Wind. Fullerton, California: California State University, 2016. 34. Buhler and Neumeyer, “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film.” 35. Weinzetl, Motivic Development in Max Steiner’s Score for Gone with the Wind. 36. Ibid. 41 Composing for the Screen

Rhett’s love. The score to Gone with the Wind contains musical motifs for all of its principal characters. These strengthen the storyline and the audience’s emotional connection to the characters. The romantic motifs explore a different aspect of love demonstrated by each relationship. For example, Melanie’s personal motif connotes her goodness and sweetness; it is played at her death with the intention to “break every heart in the audience.”37 The D major, 12/8 time motif with three-note pickup lines is rhythmically predictable and symmetrical. “The final three notes form an appoggiatura that emphasizes tonic harmony on a fourth, shifting to a third in the manner of a plagal cadence, thus resolving it as it decrescendos.”38 Melanie and Ashley’s motif, including this same structure, then similarly indicates the wholesomeness and innocence of their commitment to each other. Their theme also includes traditional Southern themes, as their relationship is associated with the values of this space and time. On the other hand, Scarlett and Rhett’s musical theme – not its own motif – is more dialogue-driven; this theme is simply comprised of their own individual motifs intertwining in various ways at different stages of their relationship.39 Steiner chose this because both characters exist individually, and it is clear that neither is meant to be in a relationship with the other. When their personal leitmotifs do intertwine, it is often with chromatic dissonance, like their characters.40 Known to be one of the most recognizable leitmotifs in American film history, the musical trope “Tara,” is set for the narrative of the plantation.41 The Tara motif is generally meant to sound positive; it opens and closes each main musical sequence and the purpose of the film at large, like many dramas of the Classical Hollywood era, and is implemented to uplift the mood of the Depression-era viewing population.42 Thus, Tara’s motif uses conventional musical techniques including octave leaps, internal repetition, and stable harmonic structure along the basis of an Irish melody evocative of the Old South. Tara’s leitmotif is distinctive but not discursive like its associated character’s theme; it is meant to be consistent and reliable, playing in F major on a steady 2/2 tempo, switching only to the parallel minor when Scarlett is experiencing emotional dissonance, such as during a scene in which she slaps her sister. The score, however, returns quickly to the major, because the personality of Tara is dependable and comforting. The theme appears throughout the film in an A-B-A formation; the first A is associated with home and Scarlett’s sense of comfort and happiness at Tara.

37. Weinzetl, Motivic Development. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid. 40. Schreibman, “Memories of Max: An Archival Interview with Max Steiner.” 41. Victor Fleming, Gone with the Wind. Perf. Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Leslie Howard, Olivia de Havilland. United States of America: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, 1939. 42. Weinzetl, Motivic Development. 42 Tara Suri

The B variation plays throughout the centre of the film while Scarlett yearns for that home during the war, and the second A signifies the resolution of the film’s drama and Scarlett’s realization that Tara is the only figure where her identity lies.43 After an emotionally draining three and a half hours, Scarlett finally declares, “I know what I am going to do tomorrow…I am going back to Tara and everything is going to be all right.”44 Tara’s theme, which has appeared as a motivator to Scarlett to persevere while she has been longing for her old carefree way of life, plays with a sense of renewed hope and relief an octave higher, as the audience realizes along with Scarlett that the land is enduring and she can always return home. When asked why this leitmotif was so integral to motivating the musical narrative, Steiner explained, “Tara’s the whole story. The whole thing revolves around Tara. She never wanted to leave Tara. It was her whole life.”45 The effectiveness of Steiner’s musical motifs stems from their repetition against the rest of the musical backdrop. Audiences experience stronger empathetic responses with the leitmotifs than they would without them. Critics identified that “Steiner’s scoring techniques of melodic layering, symbolic instrumentation, distinctive rhythmic figures, varying dynamics and tempi, shifting tonal centers, and intervallic modification work consistently throughout a score to develop themes which connect to the narrative.”46 Thus, Steiner’s non-diegetic music provides its own justification for its presence within a film. Like Gone with the Wind, Steiner’s 1945 score for Mildred Pierce47 “assigns themes to characters and settings allowing for easy recognition and draws on clichés of orchestration, tonal, and rhythmic aspects of music to delineate, evoke, and support feelings in conjunction with the drama…the intrusiveness of the music has to do with the ‘reality level’ it aims to inflect.”48 For instance, at various junctures an augmented fourth interval will elicit tension (typical of Western classical music), the piccolo and flute will connote happiness and cheer, and operatic sequences are set to more visually stylized portions of the film. Likewise, Mildred Pierce’s “lush symphonic style” contains a musical motif for the protagonist which is repeated almost a hundred times, often unnoticeably to the audience.49 The score’s five major themes are easy to identify based on their associations within the diegesis, elevated far beyond the original leitmotifs of the pre-Classical period which signified only

43. Weinzetl, Motivic Development. 44. Schreibman, “Memories of Max: An Archival Interview with Max Steiner.” 45. Ibid. 46. Weinzetl, Motivic Development in Max Steiner’s Score for Gone with the Wind. 47. Michael Curtiz. Mildred Pierce (1945: Warner Bros. Inc). 48. Claudia Gorbman, “The Drama’s Melos: Max Steiner and Mildred Pierce.” In The Velvet Light Trap 19. University of Texas Press, 01 January 1982. 49. Gorbman, “The Drama’s Melos: Max Steiner and Mildred Pierce.” 43 Composing for the Screen

when to respond with pleasure to a romantic resolution. The protagonist’s theme, written in E flat major and in 6/8 time, is heard when her name is mentioned for the first time, and continues to play in its relative minor key during a police investigation and several flashbacks, returning to its major key when the character experiences emotional fulfillment. The main male character’s theme is set in the complementary key of A flat major, and establishes a sense of association between the two characters within the score, as it sounds right after hers is played for the first time when his character is visually introduced. These five themes are linked through the implementation of “referents,” a concept which Steiner introduced more regularly within his films of the 1940’s; in shifting between motifs, notes indicative that the key or tempo will be changing (as linked to another character) appear a couple of beats before the transition.50 These integrated referents enable the continuing soundtrack to make sense and avoid a more jarring shift of the audience’s focus—which would have been detrimental to Steiner’s ongoing case for the positive impacts of the non-diegetic musical soundtrack. Furthermore, in implementing these themes to connect with a film’s image, Steiner later discovered a method by which the physical sense of a space within a film could be improved through musical enhancement. By the early 1940’s, Steiner was altering such spatially-oriented motifs to match the camera movements for expressing or establishing that particular setting.51 The music set to physical spaces of locations, such as the familial home in Now, Voyager52 could be played in a loud dynamic as the opening shot presents a close-up of a headstone. Then, as the camera pans upward to reveal the larger setting of the homestead in the background, that same musical motif can be repeated, yet softer and one octave higher as the camera shifts and settles to establish the new frame. Here, music and image work in physical tandem to establish the setting which will reappear both visually and through variations of this leitmotif throughout the rest of the film. Creating non-diegetic musical accompaniment enhanced filmic narratives and viewing experiences of the Classical and into the New Hollywood periods. In establishing techniques to underscore cinematic dramas, Max Steiner contributed significantly to the development of production practices in sound film. Through these practices, “Musical correspondences [to] voice and bodily movement [allow for] an analogue in the image without having an image source for the sound; music in this

50. Gorbman, “The Drama’s Melos: Max Steiner and Mildred Pierce.” 51. Edward Green, “Steiner, Korngold and the Musical Expression of Physical Space – A Preliminary Note.” In International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 42(1). Croatian Musicological Society, June 2011. 52. , Now Voyager (1942: Warner Bros. Inc). 44 Tara Suri way becomes symbolic; it grants insight into what must otherwise remain unseen and unsaid.”53 Establishing a musical component of the narrative redefines the concept of the “art of film” as well as the give-take relationship between the audience and the filmmakers as the film gains more influence over the audience’s responses.54 At a time when the conceptual dilemma presented by non-diegetic underscoring of the early sound era threatened its implementation entirely, Steiner used musical techniques to persuade American filmmakers and their audiences that films could only be enhanced by containing a soundtrack which included non-diegetic underscoring. These influences endured almost unaltered in Hollywood throughout the next sixty years, and have only been improved by new developments in the technology of modern cinema, rightfully earning Steiner his title as “the father of film music.”55

53. Buhler and Neumeyer, “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film.” 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 45 Composing for the Screen Works Cited

Boller, Paul F. “Music by Max Steiner.” In Southwest Review 51(3). Southern Methodist University, 1966. Buhler, James and Neumeyer, David. “Music and the Ontology of the Sound Film: The Classical Hollywood System.” In The Oxford Handbook of Film Music Studies. Austin, Texas: Oxford University Press, November 2013. Fleming, Victor. Gone with the Wind. Perf. Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Leslie Howard, Olivia de Havilland. United States of America: Metro- Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, 1939. Forbstein, Leo. “Music: Screen’s Own Music Gains Stature.” In Variety 145(5). Los Angeles, California: Penske Business Media, 07 January 1942. Gorbman, Claudia. “The Drama’s Melos: Max Steiner and Mildred Pierce.” In The Velvet Light Trap 19. University of Texas Press, 01 January 1982. Green, Edward. “Steiner, Korngold and the Musical Expression of Physical Space – A Preliminary Note.” In International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 42(1). Croatian Musicological Society, June 2011. Scheurer, Timothy, E. “You Know What I Want to Hear”: The Music of Casablanca.” In Journal of Popular Film and Television 32(2). 2004. Schreibman, Myrl A. “Memories of Max: An Archival Interview with Max Steiner.” In Film Score Monthly 10(1). Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts: Vineyard Haven LLC, January 2005. Schreibman, Myrl A. “Memories of Max: Part Two.” In Film Score Monthly, 10(2). Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts: Vineyard Haven LLC, March 2005. Slowik, Michael. “Diegetic Withdrawal and Other Worlds: Film Music Strategies Before King Kong, 1927-1933.” In Cinema Journal, 53(1). University of Texas Press, 2013. Steiner, Max. “Setting Emotions to Music.” In Variety, 139(8). Los Angeles, California: Penske Business Media, 31 July 1940. Weinzetl, Sarah Margaret. Motivic Development in Max Steiner’s Score for Gone with the Wind. Fullerton, California: California State University, 2016.

46 Tara Suri

Filmography

Cooper, Merian C & Ernest B. Schoedsack, dir. King Kong. 1933; New York, USA: Radio Pictures. Curtiz, Michael, dir. Casablanca. 1942; USA: Warner Bros Pictures. Curtiz, Michael, dir. Mildred Pierce. 1945; New York, USA: Warner Bros. Inc. Fleming, Victor, dir. Gone with the Wind. 1939; Atlanta, USA: Loew’s Inc. Rapper, Irving, dir. Now Voyager. 1942; New York; USA: Warner Bros. Inc.

47 Composing for the Screen

Works Consulted

Buhler, James. (Ch. 7) “From 1932 to 1950: Music and the Sound Track in the Classical Studio Era.” In Hearing the Movies: Music and Sound in Film History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. “Golden Age Film Music Glitters Again.” In Orange County Register. Vancouver, Washington: Columbian Publishing Company, 16 July 1995. Heldt, Guido. “Music and Mildred Pierce, 1945-2011.” In Screen, 54(3). Oxford University Press, 2013. “Music: Capitol Pacts Max Steiner.” In The Billboard, 61(38). Cincinnati: Prometheus Global Media, 1949 September 2017. “Music: Max Steiner Exits Warner.” In The Billboard, 65(10). Cincinnati: Prometheus Global Media, 1953 July 25. Neumeyer, David. “Sound Films: Source Music, Background Music, and the Integrated Soundtrack.” In Contemporary Music Review, 19(1). Malaysia: Overseas Publishers Association, 2000. Platte, Nathan. “Before Kong was King: Competing Methods in Hollywood Underscore.” In Journal of the Society for American Music, 8(3). The Society for American Music, 2014. Schreibman, Myrl A. “On Gone with the Wind, Selznick, and the Art of ‘Mickey Mousing’: An Interview with Max Steiner.” In Journal of Film and Video, 56(1). Performing Arts Periodicals Database, 2004. Slowik, Michael James. Hollywood Film Music in the Early Sound Era, 1926- 1934. University of Iowa, May 2012. Stanley, John. “Music to the Max/Steiner’s Many Movie Scores Works of Art All Their Own/Hollywood’s Hottest Composer.” In San Francisco Chronicle, 31(27), San Francisco, California: Hearst Communications Inc., 31 March 1991.

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