Advanced Certification in Science - Level I

Advanced Certification in Science - Level I

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About CASI Global

CASI New York CASI Global is the apex body dedicated to promoting the knowledge & cause of CSR & Sustainability. We work on this agenda through certifications, regional chapters, corporate chapters, student chapters, research and alliances. CASI is basically from New York and now has a presence across 52 countries.

World Class Certifications CASI is usually referred to as one of the BIG FOUR in education, CASI is also referred to as the global certification body CASI offers world class certifications across multiple subjects and caters to a vast audience across primary school to management school to CXO level students. Many universities & colleges offer CASI programs as credit based programs. CASI also offers joint / cobranded certifications in alliances with various institutes and universities. www.casiglobal.us

CASI India CASI India has alliances with hundreds of institutes in India where students of these institutes are eligible to enroll for world class certifications offered by CASI. The reach through such alliances is over 2 million citizens CASI India also offers cobranded programs with Government Polytechnic and many other institutes of higher learning.

CASI India has multiple franchises across India to promote certifications especially for school students. www.casi-india.com

Volunteering @ CASI NY CASI India / CSR Diary also provide volunteering opportunities and organizes mega format events where in citizens at large can also volunteer for various causes. These are behavoural change events and further details on such events are available on www.csrdiary.com / www.mahawalkathon.com / www.copforaday.com

Value Proposition Universities and institutes incorporate & adopt CASI programs within their core curriculum; this gives their students and edge in knowledge and placements. Further with corporates keen to inculcate CSR & Sustainability across their value chain, most corporate prefer to recruit employees with a basic knowledge of CSR & Sustainability.

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Finally, given the wide range of online / offline / MDP programs at CASI NY, Corporates, institutes of higher learning and senior management professionals globally rely on CASI programs to develop cutting edge knowledge.

Student Chapters This is a grass root level representation and collaboration towards promoting the cause of sustainability. Institutes / Colleges / Universities / Schools are encouraged to form a chapter / council of students headed by a faculty to promote knowledge, networking and participate in behavioral change events. This is complimentary to every education institute across the world. For further details www.casi-india.com

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About the Program

This reading material is suggested for students keen to pursue a career in science and related education / career streams. This is an open enrolment program

The Advanced Certification in Science program aims at preparing the student to understand implications & applications in science other than their regular text books. This program primarily aims at enabling youngsters think in different directions.

Our pattern does not follow the regular physics, chemistry biology divisions but is created on natural themes which make it far more interesting for everyone, regardless of the chosen education / career path.

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Dear Students,

It gives us great pleasure to welcome you to the CASI Global Community. Congratulations on successfully applying to this program.

CASI Global, New York has been educating responsible citizens and citizen-leaders for our society. When you join the CASI community, you are embarking on a journey that is meant to be transformative – academically, socially, and personally.

While at school we learn the basics of language, sciences and math, the educational system be it main stream or vocational is directed towards creating a better understanding of possibilities in life and career; & then as time progresses, the school children grow to college levels and then finally have a career…again main stream or vocational. Similarly learning the concepts of CSR and sustainable development alongside the basics helps them develop a holistic view of the world.

Just like it is important for children to prepare themselves for life by undergoing training and education in mainstream; it is even more important that children have an exposure to societal concepts of CSR and elementary sustainable development information.

Such an elementary knowledge or exposure to CSR & Sustainability concepts at a young age not only helps them be better citizens but lays a very strong foundation for higher education, be it sciences or engineering or management.

The foundation has to be laid at a young age, a very young age. Each enrolled for the Global certification embarks on a journey to excel in life as a model citizen and is a brand ambassador for CASI Global New York.

If there is anything we at the CASI Secretariats office can do to help you better navigate through this program, we hope you will let us know. We want you to feel a part of the rich and varied community that is CASI. We wish you a happy, healthy, and a fruitful year. We welcome you once again, to CASI, The Global Certification body.

Warm Regards

Sd/ For the Secretariat CASI Global, New York www.casi-india.com | www.casiglobal.us

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Table of Contents

About CASI Global 2

About the Program 4

Basics 15

Chapter 1 22

Ancient Sciences & Advancement 22 PROTOSCIENCE 22 Mathematics: 23 Astronomy: 24 Linguistics: 24 Medicine: 24 Metallurgy: 25 Scientific Revolution 25 Institutionalization 26 New ideas 26 Astronomy 26 Gravitation 28 Chemistry 29 Physical 30 New mechanical devices 32 Calculating devices 32 Industrial machines 33

Chapter 2 34

Weapons & Defence Technology 34 Military science 34 Military technology 35 Military systems 35 Military intelligence 35 Military logistics 35 Military technology and equipment 35 Military inventions with civilian uses (Partial List) 36 Military technology 38 Modern technology 38 Armies 38 Naval 38 www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 6 of 391

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Postmodern technology 39 Space 39 Mobilization 40

Chapter 3 41

Mysteries of Space 41 3.1 Oh-My-God particle 41 3.2 Higgs boson 42 3.2.1 The Standard Model 42 3.2.2 Higgs mechanism 43 3.2.3 Higgs field 44 3.3 Higgs boson 45 3.3. Cosmology 47 Inflaton 47 3.4. Nature of the universe, and its possible fates 47 Vacuum energy and the cosmological constant 48 DARK MATTER 50 Galaxy rotation curves 51 Galaxy clusters 52 Gravitational lensing 52 Structure formation 53 Cold dark matter 53 Warm dark matter 54 Hot dark matter 54 Detection of dark matter particles 55 Direct detection 55 Indirect detection 56

Chapter 4 59

NASA Deep Space Network 59 Management 62 Antennas 62 List of astronomical observatories 63 TELESCOPE 78 Radio telescopes 81 X-ray telescopes 82 Gamma-ray telescopes 82 High-energy particle telescopes 83 Other types of telescopes 83

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SPACE CRAFTS 87 SPACE CRAFTS 87 Spacecraft types 87 Crewed spacecraft 88 Space planes 88 Subsystems 89 Life support 89 Attitude control 90 GNC 90 Command and data handling 90 Communications 90 Power 90 Thermal control 91 Spacecraft propulsion 91 Structures 91 Payload 92 Ground segment 92 Launch vehicle 92 More about Ground Segments 92 Ground stations 93 Transmission and reception 93 Passes 94 Tracking and ranging 94 Mission control centers 94 Telemetry processing 94 Commanding 95 Staffing 95 Analysis and support 96 Ground networks 96 Remote terminals 96 Integration and test facilities 97 Launch facilities 97 Costs 97

Chapter 6 98

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Under Sea 98 What is Tectonic Shift? 98 What is geodesy? 99 What is the most common form of ocean litter? 100 Did you know? 100 What is the intertidal zone? 100 What is a lagoon? 101 How do hurricanes affect sea life? 102 Did you know? 103 What is a thermocline? 103 What is a glass sponge? 104 What species live in and around coral reefs? 106 Did you know? 106 What is a watershed? 107 What is eutrophication? 108 What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean? 109 What is nutrient pollution? 110 How does backscatter help us understand the sea floor? 111 Did you know? 113 What is a ghost forest? 113 What is a maritime forest? 114 How does sand form? 115 Did you know? 117 What is a living shoreline? 117 Living Shorelines Support Resilient Communities 119 What does the ocean have to do with human health? 119 Ocean in Distress 120 Closing the Safety Gap 120 Emerging Health Threats 120 Cures from the Deep 121 What are brain corals? 121 Did you know? 123 Are corals animals or plants? 123 So what exactly are corals? 123 Did you know? 124 What is a catcher beach? 125

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What causes a sea turtle to be born male or female? 127 What is the largest sea turtle? 128 What are the oldest living animals in the world? 129 Are all fish cold-blooded? 130 Where do fish go when it freezes outside? 131 Have you ever wondered how fish survive in cold winter weather, or where they go when lakes and ponds freeze over? 131 What is ocean noise? 132 How far does sound travel in the ocean? 133 How are satellites used to observe the ocean? 134 Sea Surface Temperatures 135 Weather 138 Tracking 138 What is remote sensing? 139 Remote sensing has a wide range of applications in many different fields: 139 What is a sea lamprey? 140 Did you know? 141 What is an oil seep? 142 Did you know? 143 What is coral spawning? 143 What is marine telemetry? 144 What are beach advisories and beach closures? 145 Common Culprits Leading to Beach Closures and Advisories 147 What are microplastics? 147 Did you know? 148 How does land-based pollution threaten coral reefs? 149 What is an oil spill trajectory? 151 What is a pocosin? 152 What are barnacles? 153 What color is an iceberg? 154 The vampire squid and the vampire fish 155 What is a Portuguese Man o’ War? 157 What is a wetland? 158 What is a marsh organ? 159 What is Blue Carbon? 160

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A carbon sink 160 What is spat? 161 Did you know? 162 What is an anchialine pool? 163 What is an artificial reef? 164 What is a fish ladder? 165 What is shoreline armoring? 166 What is the difference between a threatened and endangered species? 168 Why are scientists concerned about Asian tiger shrimp in East Coast waters? 169 What is the Sargasso Sea? 170 What is a turkeyfish? 172 Did you know? 172 What is ghostfishing? 173 Are sea cucumbers vegetables? 173 Why are aquatic plants so important? 174 What is seaweed? 175 What is a kelp forest? 177 How did the Hawaiian Islands form? 178 Do the Great Lakes have tides? 179 What is a marine national monument? 180 What is a salt marsh? 181 What threats do seabirds face? 182 What is NERRS? 183 What ocean basin has the most corals? 184 Are corals animals or plants? 184 So what exactly are corals? 185 What is a seamount? 186 How does oil impact marine life? 187 How does a sanctuary protect marine life? 187 What lives in a kelp forest 188 Kelp Forests - a Description 190 Conditions Required for Growth 190 Unique Characteristics of Kelp Plants 191 Life histories 191 The Kelp Forest Ecosystem 192

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The Importance of the Keystone 192 What is the difference between land cover and land use? 193 What is ecosystem science? 194 Ocean Observations: 195 What is a heat dome? 195 Did you know? 197 What do leeward and windward mean? 197 Did you know? 197 How many high tides are there per day? 198 What is SOFAR? 198 How does SOFAR work? 199 What is the bloop? 200 How do hurricanes form? 200 Recipe for a Hurricane 202 What is a hydrophone? 202 Did you know? 203

Chapter 7 204

Evolution 204 Biased mutation 205 Genetic drift 206 Adaptation 207 The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky: 207 Role of extinction 209 Origin of life 210 Common descent 211 Universal Darwinism 213 Gene-based Darwinian extensions 213 Timeline of the evolutionary history of life 214 Extinction event 214

Chapter 8 215

Pyramids 215 What is a pyramid? 215

Chapter 9 217

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Dinosaurs 217 Dinosaur 217 Distinguishing anatomical features 217 Origins and early evolution 218

Chapter 10 220

Snippets 220 Digital Revolution 220 Post-Fordism 220 Post-industrial society 220 Quantum mechanics 221

Chapter 11 223

Timelines of Computing 223

Chapter 12 258

Career Possibilities in Science and Related Fields 258 Earth scientist 278 ii Life Science 301 III. Social science 332

Test your Knowledge of ScienceQ&A format 352

College Program Brochure 383

Disclaimer 384

Franchise Development for School Student 385

Programs @ CASI 385

CASI Global Fellow Program 386

Other certification programs by CASI Global New York 386 For School Students 386 For College Students 387 For Academicians 388

CASI - Government Polytechnic Mumbai co-branded certificate 389 For School Students 389

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For College Students 389 For Working Professional 389

Mahawalkathon 391

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Basics

1. Energy producers such as plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use the energy from sunlight to make organic matter from carbon dioxide and water. This establishes the beginning of energy flow through almost all food webs –  True  False

2. Generation of electricity with the use of water is called:  Hydro-power  Nuclear-power  Horse-power

3. As on 2010, Hydro-power produced around 15% of world's electricity -  True  False

4. As of 2014, the wind provides for 2% of World electricity  True  False

5. As of 2014, Nuclear energy generates almost 15% of world electricity  True  False

6. As of 2014, Solar provides for less than 1% of world electricity  True  False

7. World data as on 2010, suggests that more than 1.3 billion people on earth with no access to electricity-  True  False

8. Toxic waste should be dumped into the sea-water for risk mitigation–  True  False

9. CSR for environment would entail the following: - i. Sorting waste ii. Utilisation of waste iii. Double sided printing and copying www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 15 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) iv. Use of environmentally clean fuel v. Gentle handling of electricity and water  None of the above  i, ii and iii only  iii, iv and v only  All of the above options

10. CSR and Sustainability simply means 'giving out donations'  True  False

11. CSR for local community would entail the following: i. Corporate giving ii. Volunteering hours for social cause iii. Community education-  i and iii only  only ii  All of the above

12. How can School students contribute towards Social Responsibility? i. Volunteer their time for a cause ii. save electricity iii. Help create awareness amongst people (Home, school, building, etc.) iv. Donate to NGO-  Only iii  All of the above  Only i  None of the above

13. Volunteering means to donate ones time for the good of other. An activity intended to promote goodness. There is no financial gain involved for the individual. –  True  False

14. Humans are modifying the energy balance of earth's ecosytem. –  True  False

15. The chemical elements that make-up the molecules of living things are passed through food chains and are combined and recombined in different ways–  True  False

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16. Food is a biofuel used by organisms to acquire energy for internal living processes.  True  False 17. All primary source fuels except bio-mass are renewable  True  False

18. Fossil fuels and bio fuels are organic matters that contain energy captured from sunlight.  True  False

19. Electricity is not a primary source of energy, but a carrier of energy  False  True

20. When a magnet moves or magnetic field changes relative to coil of wire, electrons are induced to flow in the wire. Most human generation of electricity happens in this way. Electrons can also be induced to flow through direct interaction with light particles -- This is the basis upon which a solar cell operates.  True  False

21. Humans intentionally store energy for later use in a number of different ways.  True  False

22. Different sources of energy and different ways energy can be transported, transformed - each have same benefits and drawback and adverse impact to our climate  True  False

23. The Energy Conservation Act (EC Act) set with the goal of reducing energy intensity of Indian economy was enacted in the year  2001  2010  2014

24. The primary energy demand in India has grown from about 450 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2000 to about 770 million toe in 2012. This is expected to increase to about 1250 (estimated by International Energy Agency) to 1500 (estimated in the Integrated Energy Policy Report) million toe in 2030.  True  False

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25. Power is measured in J/s (joules/second), which is known as watt (W). Thus, J/s = W and 1000 W = 1 kilowatt.  True  False

26. Electrical energy is measured in kWh (kilowatt hour). ! One kWh is the electrical energy used or supplied when one kW of power is used or supplied for one hour.  True  False

27. If dead plants are buried in swampy land, then oxidizing action of air cannot take place. The oxygen and hydrogen of the dead plant gradually escape into the air. The residue becomes rich in carbon and since it is under water, it becomes soggy. This is called peat, the first stage in the formation of coal.  True  False

28. Carbon footprint is the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the activities undertaken by an organization, company or individual.  True  False

29. What is the most common and effective method to offset carbon emissions?  Plant trees  Drink more water  Eat more fruits

30. Best and most common method to save fuel is:  Car-pool (travel together to School / Office)  Drive fast on the roads  Do not halt on signals 31. Which of the following consumes less energy?  Electric choke  Traditional choke 32. Which of the following consumes more energy for the same output of light?  Tube light  Incandescent Bulb

33. What does CFL stand for?  Compact Fluorescent Light  Continuous Falling Light

34. Which of the following lightening appliances have longer life?

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Tube Light

 Halogen lamp  Incandescent Bulb

35. If a bulb of 60 W glows for 10 hours per day, what will be its energy consumption a day?  1 KW  6 KW  0.6 KW

36. One unit of electricity is equal to  1 KW  1 HP  1 WH

37. The energy consumption by 20 KW equipment in 60 minutes is  20 Units  3 Units  2 Units

38. The supply voltage for domestic purpose is  220 volts  440 volts  880 volts

39. Major fraction of power generated in India is by:  Thermal power plants  Hydro power plants  Nuclear power plants

40. CSR for environment would entail the following: i. Sorting waste ii. Utilisation of waste iii. Double sided printing and copying iv. Use of environmentally clean fuel v. Gentle handling of electricity and water  None of the above  i, ii and iii only  iii, iv and v only  All of the above options

41. CSR and Sustainability simply means 'giving out donations'  True

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 False

 CSR for local community would entail the following: i. Corporate giving ii. Volunteering hours for social cause iii. Community educationi and iii only  only ii  All of the above 42. Energy producers such as plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use the energy from sunlight to make organic matter from carbon dioxide and water. This establishes the beginning of energy flow through almost all food webs  True  False

43. If you shade your home windows and walls and plant trees and shrubs, you may reduce air- conditioning energy use by how many percent?  40 percentage (approximately)  30 percentage (approximately)  18 percentage (approximately)

44. Setting computers, monitors and copiers to sleep-mode when not in use helps cut energy costs by approximately __%  10%  60%  40%

45. Best and most common method to save fuel is:  Car-pool (travel together to School / Office)  Drive fast on the roads  Do not halt on signals

46. Which of the following consumes more energy for the same output of light?  Tube light  Incandescent Bulb

47. Major fraction of power generated in India is by:  Thermal power plants  Hydro power plants  Nuclear power plants

48. It saves fuel to shut down the car and restart, if the car halts for more than __ seconds on a signal as it would consume fuel if kept idle on signal halt

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 10 seconds  30 seconds  50 seconds

49. Where does India rank globally in terms of total electricity generation?  Third place  Sixth place

50. What is 'making good use of Garbage' called?  Vermicomposting  Waste management  Waste Disposal

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Chapter 1 Ancient Sciences & Advancement

PROTOSCIENCE Its simplest meaning (most closely reflecting its roots of proto- + science) involves the earliest eras of the history of science, when the scientific method was still nascent. Thus, in the late 17th century and early 18th century, Isaac Newton contributed to the dawning sciences of chemistry and physics, even though he was also an alchemist who sought chrysopoeia in various ways including some that were unscientific.

The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real- world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science.

The English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, investigators of nature called themselves "natural philosophers"

The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c.2112 BC – c. 2004 BC). The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BC).

In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an āšipu. The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard

Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an asu, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily folk remedies composed of various herbs, animal products, and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 22 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent the spread of disease

The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing. Metallurgy required scientific knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. Animal physiology was studied extensively for the purpose of divination; the anatomy of the liver, which was seen as an important organ in haruspicy, was studied in particularly intensive detail. Animal behaviour was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived. The Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322, dating to the eighteenth-century BC, records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the Pythagorean theorem over a millennium before Pythagoras

Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favourable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-Daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-Daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.

Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine) trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 A.D Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction.He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. During the 14th– 16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis"

Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month." The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Nilakantha Somayaji's astronomical treatise the Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had been the most accurate astronomical model until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.

Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520–460 BC), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root.

Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto- dentistry among an early farming culture.Ayurveda is a system of traditional www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 24 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported in Classic Mediterranean world. It was known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Roman Empire, was often considered to be the best. After in Middle Age it was imported in Syria to produce with special techniques the "Damascus steel" by the year 1000.

―The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world.‖ —Henry Yule quoted the 12th-century Arab Edrizi.

Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.

The Scientific Revolution took place in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are debated, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.

The concept of a scientific revolution taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century in the work of Jean Sylvain Bailly, who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new.

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The beginning of the Scientific Revolution, the Scientific Renaissance, was focused on the recovery of the knowledge of the ancients; this is generally considered to have ended in 1632 with publication of Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.

The completion of the Scientific Revolution is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of Isaac Newton's 1687 Principia. The work formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation thereby completing the synthesis of a new cosmology.

By the end of the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment that followed Scientific Revolution had given way to the "Age of Reflection.

Institutionalization The Royal Society had its origins in Gresham College, and was the first scientific society in the world.

The first moves towards the institutionalization of scientific investigation and dissemination took the form of the establishment of societies, where new discoveries were aired, discussed and published. The first scientific society to be established was the Royal Society of London. This grew out of an earlier group, centred around Gresham College in the 1640s and 1650s. According to a history of the College:

The scientific network which centred on Gresham College played a crucial part in the meetings which led to the formation of the Royal Society.

New ideas As the Scientific Revolution was not marked by any single change, the following new ideas contributed to what is called the Scientific Revolution. Many of them were revolutions in their own fields.

Astronomy

Heliocentrism For almost five millennia, the geocentric model of the Earth as the center of the universe had been accepted by all but a few astronomers. In Aristotle's cosmology, Earth's central location was perhaps less significant than its identification as a realm of imperfection, inconstancy, irregularity and change, as opposed to the "heavens" (Moon, Sun, planets, stars), which were regarded as perfect, permanent,

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The heliocentric model that replaced it involved not only the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around the sun, but it sharing a placement with the other planets implied a universe of heavenly components made from the same changeable substances as the Earth. Heavenly motions no longer needed to be governed by a theoretical perfection, confined to circular orbits.

Copernicus' 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the universe. Few were bothered by this suggestion, and the pope and several archbishops were interested enough by it to want more detail.

His model was later used to create the calendar of Pope Gregory XIII. However, the idea that the earth moved around the sun was doubted by most of Copernicus' contemporaries. It contradicted not only empirical observation, due to the absence of an observable stellar parallax, but more significantly at the time, the authority of Aristotle.

The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility. Kepler was an astronomer who, using the accurate observations of Tycho Brahe, proposed that the planets move around the sun not in circular orbits, but in elliptical ones. Together with his other laws of planetary motion, this allowed him to create a model of the solar system that was an improvement over Copernicus' original system. Galileo's main contributions to the acceptance of the heliocentric system were his mechanics, the observations he made with his telescope, as well as his detailed presentation of the case for the system. Using an early theory of inertia, Galileo could explain why rocks dropped from a tower fall straight down even if the earth rotates. His observations of the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the spots on the sun, and mountains on the moon all helped to discredit the Aristotelian philosophy and the Ptolemaic theory of the solar system. Through their combined discoveries, the heliocentric system gained support, and at the end of the 17th century it was generally accepted by astronomers.

This work culminated in the work of Isaac Newton. Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 27 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. His prediction that the Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by other scientists. His laws of motion were to be the solid foundation of mechanics; his law of universal gravitation combined terrestrial and celestial mechanics into one great system that seemed to be able to describe the whole world in mathematical formulae.

Gravitation Isaac Newton's Principia, developed the first set of unified scientific laws.

As well as proving the heliocentric model, Newton also developed the theory of gravitation. In 1679, Newton began to consider gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Robert Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.

Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, in 1684. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.

The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation.

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Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science. Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "hypotheses non fingo".

Chemistry Chemistry, and its antecedent alchemy, became an increasingly important aspect of scientific thought in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. The importance of chemistry is indicated by the range of important scholars who actively engaged in chemical research. Among them were the astronomer Tycho Brahe, the chemical physician Paracelsus, Robert Boyle, Thomas Browne and Isaac Newton.

Unlike the mechanical philosophy, the chemical philosophy stressed the active powers of matter, which alchemists frequently expressed in terms of vital or active principles—of spirits operating in nature.

Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals were an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them Georg Agricola (1494–1555), who published his great work De re metallica in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build.

English chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered to have refined the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. Although Boyle was not the original discover, he is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662: the law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.

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Boyle is also credited for his landmark publication The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, which is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. In the work, Boyle presents his hypothesis that every phenomenon was the result of collisions of particles in motion. Boyle appealed to chemists to experiment and asserted that experiments denied the limiting of chemical elements to only the classic four: earth, fire, air, and water. He also pleaded that chemistry should cease to be subservient to medicine or to alchemy, and rise to the status of a science. Importantly, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experiment: he believed all theories must be tested experimentally before being regarded as true. The work contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry.

Physical

Optics Important work was done in the field of optics. Johannes Kepler published Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) in 1604. In it, he described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).

Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626) found the mathematical law of refraction, now known as Snell's law, in 1621. Subsequently René Descartes (1596–1650) showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow's centre is 42°). He also independently discovered the law of reflection, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law.

Isaac Newton investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour. From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 30 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) the dispersion of light into colours. The interest of the Royal Society encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour (later expanded into Opticks). Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles and were refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light.

In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?

Electricity Dr. William Gilbert, in De Magnete, invented the New Latin word electricus from ἤιεθηξνλ (elektron), the Greek word for "amber". Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc., were capable of manifesting electrical properties. Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the electrification of all bodies, due to the now well-known fact that moisture impaired the insulation of such bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned for Gilbert the title of founder of the electrical science.

By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies, and found also that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric phenomena—an observation liable to misconception until the difference between conductor and insulator was understood.

Robert Boyle also worked frequently at the new science of electricity, and added several substances to Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the title of Experiments on the Origin of Electricity. Boyle, in 1675, stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract light

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This was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented an early electrostatic generator. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica. In 1729 Stephen Gray (1666–1736) demonstrated that electricity could be "transmitted" through metal filaments.

New mechanical devices As an aid to scientific investigation, various tools, measuring aids and calculating devices were developed in this period.

Calculating devices John Napier introduced logarithms as a powerful mathematical tool. With the help of the prominent mathematician Henry Briggs their logarithmic tables embodied a computational advance that made calculations by hand much quicker. His Napier's bones used a set of numbered rods as a multiplication tool using the system of lattice multiplication. The way was opened to later scientific advances, particularly in astronomy and dynamics.

At Oxford University, Edmund Gunter built the first analog device to aid computation. The 'Gunter's scale' was a large plane scale, engraved with various scales, or lines. Natural lines, such as the line of chords, the line of sines and tangents are placed on one side of the scale and the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones were on the other side. This calculating aid was a predecessor of the slide rule. It was William Oughtred (1575–1660) who first used two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct multiplication and division, and thus is credited as the inventor of the slide rule in 1622.

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. The introduction of his Pascaline in 1645 launched the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then all over the world. Gottfried Leibniz (1646–

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1716), building on Pascal's work, became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators; he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator, in 1685, and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass- produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures.

John Hadley (1682–1744) was the inventor of the octant, the precursor to the sextant (invented by John Bird), which greatly improved the science of navigation.

Industrial machines The 1698 Savery Engine was the first successful steam engine

Denis Papin (1647–1712) was best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine. The first working steam engine was patented in 1698 by the inventor Thomas Savery, as a "...new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefit of water nor constant windes." The invention was demonstrated to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699 and the machine was described by Savery in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire (1702), in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines. Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729) perfected the practical steam engine for pumping water, the Newcomen steam engine. Consequently, Thomas Newcomen can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution.

Abraham Darby I (1678–1717) was the first, and most famous, of three generations of the Darby family who played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. He developed a method of producing high-grade iron in a blast furnace fueled by coke rather than charcoal. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution.

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Chapter 2 Weapons & Defence Technology

Military science Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force.

It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing military capability in a manner consistent with national defense policy. Military science serves to identify the strategic, political, economic, psychological, social, operational, technological, and tactical elements necessary to sustain relative advantage of military force; and to increase the likelihood and favorable outcomes of victory in peace or during a war.

Military scientists include theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and other military personnel.

Military personnel obtain weapons, equipment, and training to achieve specific strategic goals. Military science is also used to establish enemy capability as part of technical intelligence.

In military history, military science had been used during the period of Industrial Revolution as a general term to refer to all matters of military theory and technology application as a single academic discipline, including that of the deployment and employment of troops in peacetime or in battle.

In military education, military science is often the name of the department in the education institution that administers officer candidate education. However, this education usually focuses on the officer leadership training and basic information about employment of military theories, concepts, methods and systems, and graduates are not military scientists on completion of studies, but rather junior military officers

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Military technology

Military systems How effectively and efficiently militaries accomplish their operations, missions and tasks is closely related not only to the methods they use, but the equipment and weapons they use.

Military intelligence Military intelligence supports the combat commanders' decision making process by providing intelligence analysis of available data from a wide range of sources. To provide that informed analysis the commanders information requirements are identified and input to a process of gathering, analysis, protection, and dissemination of information about the operational environment, hostile, friendly and neutral forces and the civilian population in an area of combat operations, and broader area of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels from tactical to strategic, in peacetime, the period of transition to war, and during the war.

Most militaries maintain a military intelligence capability to provide analytical and information collection personnel in both specialist units and from other arms and services. Personnel selected for intelligence duties, whether specialist intelligence officers and enlisted soldiers or non-specialist assigned to intelligence may be selected for their analytical abilities and intelligence before receiving formal training.

Military intelligence serves to identify the threat, and provide information on understanding best methods and weapons to use in deterring or defeating it.

Military logistics The art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with the design, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of material; the movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel; the acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and the acquisition or furnishing of services.

Military technology and equipment Military technology is not just the study of various technologies and applicable physical sciences used to increase military power. It may also extend to the study of production methods of military equipment, and ways to improve performance and

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Military technology is unique only in its application, not in its use of basic scientific and technological achievements. Because of the uniqueness of use, military technological studies strive to incorporate evolutionary, as well as the rare revolutionary technologies, into their proper place of military application.

Military inventions with civilian uses (Partial List)

Date Original Name invente Civilian uses purpose d Submarine ASDIC 1910s Sonar detection Early warning Aircraft mid- radar, air Air traffic control systems, microwave tracking rad 1930s defence oven ar systems Portable two- way radio Portable radio communications – business, Walkie- 1930s communicati public safety, marine, amateur radio, CB talkie ons system radio for military Visibility for military Night 1939 - personnel in Low light photography, surveillance vision 1940s low light situations Sealing Duct tape 1942 ammunition Multiple uses cases Ballistic Long range Space exploration, launch 1940s missiles attack of communication, weather and global

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Date Original Name invente Civilian uses purpose d positioning satellites Nuclear Nuclear weapons, 1940s Nuclear medicine, nuclear power technology large scale destruction Jet fighters, Jet engine 1940s Airliners jet bombers Spy satellites, eliminated the Digital need to photograph 1960s Cameras recover y deorbited film canisters Led to invention of the World Wide Reliable Web by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee; 1960s - Internet computer subsequently widespread availability 1970s networking of information, telecommunication and ele ctronic commerce Nuclear weapons forc e multiplier, increased Satellite 1970s warhead Navigation, personal tracking navigation accuracy through precise navigation Prevent bleeding British & American nurses picked up the Sanitary 1920s using bandages and started using them as Napkins cellulose in Sanitary Napkins. bandages.

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Military technology Military technology is the application of technology for use in warfare. It comprises the kinds of technology that are distinctly military in nature and not civilian in application, usually because they lack useful or legal civilian applications, or are dangerous to use without appropriate military training.

Military technology is often researched and developed by scientists and engineers specifically for use in battle by the armed forces. Many new technologies came as a result of the military funding of science. Weapons engineering is the design, development, testing and lifecycle management of military weapons and systems. It draws on the knowledge of several traditional engineering disciplines, including mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, mechatronics, electro-optics, aerospace engineering, materials engineering, and chemical engineering.

The line is porous; military inventions have been brought into civilian use throughout history, with sometimes minor modification if any, and civilian innovations have similarly been put to military use.

Modern technology

Armies Rapid development in military technology had a dramatic impact on armies and navies in the industrialized world in 1840-1914. For land warfare, cavalry faded in importance, while infantry became transformed by the use of highly accurate more rapidly loading rifles, and the use of smokeless powder. Machine guns were developed in the 1860s. Artillery became more powerful as new high explosives (based on nitroglycerin) arrived after 1860, and the French introduced much more accurate rapid-fire field artillery. Logistics and communications support for land warfare dramatically improved with use of railways and telegraphs. Industrialization provided a base of factories that could be converted to produce munitions, as well as uniforms, tents, wagons and essential supplies. Medical facilities were enlarged and reorganized based on improved hospitals and the creation of modern nursing, typified by Florence Nightingale in Britain during the Crimean War of 1854-56.

Naval Naval warfare was transformed by many innovations, most notably the coal-based steam engine, highly accurate long-range naval guns, heavy steel armour for battleships, mines, and the introduction of the torpedo, followed by the torpedo boat and the destroyer. Coal after 1900 was eventually displaced by more efficient oil, www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 38 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) but meanwhile navies with an international scope had to depend on a network of coaling stations to refuel. The British Empire provided them in abundance, as did the French Empire to a lesser extent. War colleges developed, as military theory became a specialty; cadets and senior commanders were taught the theories of Jomini, Clausewitz and Mahan, And engaged in tabletop war games. Around 1900, entirely new innovations such as submarines and airplanes appeared, and were quickly adapted to warfare by 1914. The British HMS Dreadnought (1906) incorporated so much of the latest technology in weapons, propulsion and armour that it at a stroke made all other battleships obsolescent

Postmodern technology The postmodern stage of military technology emerged in the 1940s, And one with recognition thanks to the high priority given during the war to scientific and engineering research and development regarding nuclear weapons, radar, jet engines, proximity fuses, advanced submarines, aircraft carriers, and other weapons. The high-priority continues into the 21st century. It involves the military application of advanced scientific research regarding nuclear weapons, jet engines, ballistic and guided missiles, radar, biological warfare, and the use of electronics, computers and software. Space During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers — the Soviet Union and the United States of America — spent large proportions of their GDP on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started the Space Race. In 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1.

By the end of the 1960s, both countries regularly deployed satellites. Spy satellites were used by militaries to take accurate pictures of their rivals' military installations. As time passed the resolution and accuracy of orbital reconnaissance alarmed both sides of the iron curtain. Both the United States and the Soviet Union began to develop anti-satellite weapons to blind or destroy each other's satellites. Laser weapons, kamikaze style satellites, as well as orbital nuclear explosion were researched with varying levels of success. Spy satellites were, and continue to be, used to monitor the dismantling of military assets in accordance with arms control treaties signed between the two superpowers. To use spy satellites in such a manner is often referred to in treaties as "national technical means of verification".

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The superpowers developed ballistic missiles to enable them to use nuclear weaponry across great distances. As rocket science developed, the range of missiles increased and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) were created, which could strike virtually any target on Earth in a timeframe measured in minutes rather than hours or days. In order to cover large distances ballistic missiles are usually launched into sub-orbital spaceflight

As soon as intercontinental missiles were developed, military planners began programmes and strategies to counter their effectiveness.

Mobilization A significant portion of military technology is about transportation, allowing troops and weaponry to be moved from their origins to the front. Land transport has historically been mainly by foot, land vehicles have usually been used as well, from chariots to tanks.

When conducting a battle over a body of water, ships are used. There are historically two main categories of ships: those for transporting troops, and those for attacking other ships.

Soon after the invention of aeroplanes, military aviation became a significant component of warfare, though usually as a supplementary role. The two main types of military aircraft are bombers, which attack land- or sea-based targets, and fighters, which attack other aircraft.

Military vehicles are land combat or transportation vehicles, excluding rail-based, which are designed for or in significant use by military forces.

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Chapter 3 Mysteries of Space

3.1 Oh-My-God particle

Not to be confused with the "God Particle", the Higgs boson.

The Oh-My-God particle was an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray detected on the evening of 15 October 1991 over Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, by the University of Utah's Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector.

Its observation was a shock to astrophysicists (hence the name), who estimated its energy to be approximately 3×1020 eV or 3×108 TeV. This is 20000000 times more energetic than the highest energy measured in electromagnetic radiation emitted by an extragalactic object And 1020 (100 quintillion) times the photon energy of visible light. The particle had a kinetic energy of 48 joules, equivalent to a 142-gram (5 oz) baseball travelling at about 26 m/s (94 km/h; 58 mph).

This particle had so much kinetic energy for its size because it was travelling at 99.99999999999999999999951% of the speed of light. As a result, its Lorentz factor was 3.2×1011. This is so near the speed of light that if a photon were travelling with the particle, it would take over 215,000 years for the photon to gain a 1 cm lead as seen in Earth's reference frame.

The energy of this particle is some 40000000 times that of the highest energy protons that have been produced in any terrestrial particle accelerator. However, only a small fraction of this energy would be available for an interaction with a proton or neutron on Earth, with most of the energy remaining in the form of kinetic energy of the products of the interaction. The effective energy available for such a collision is √2Emc2,[citation needed] where E is the particle's energy and mc2 is the mass energy of the proton. For the Oh-My-God particle, this gives 7.5×1014 eV, roughly 60 times the collision energy of the Large Hadron Collider.

While the particle's energy was higher than anything achieved in terrestrial accelerators, it was still about 40000000 times lower than the Planck energy. Particles of such energy would be required in order to explore the Planck scale. A proton with that much energy would travel 1.665×1015 times closer to the speed of light than the Oh-My-God particle. As viewed from Earth it would take about www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 41 of 391

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3.579×1020 years, or 2.59×1010 times the current age of the universe, for a photon to gain a 1 cm lead over a Planck energy proton as observed in Earth's reference frame.

Since the first observation, at least 72 similar (energy > 5.7×1019 eV) events have been recorded, confirming the phenomenon. These ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particles are very rare; the energy of most cosmic ray particles is between 10 MeV and 10 GeV. More recent studies using the Telescope Array have suggested a source for the particles within a 20-degree radius "warm spot" in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major.

3.2 Higgs boson The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics, produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, one of the fields in particle physics theory. It is named after physicist Peter Higgs, who in 1964, along with five other scientists, proposed the mechanism, which suggested the existence of such a particle. Its existence was confirmed by the ATLAS and CMS collaborations based on collisions in the LHC at CERN.

On December 10, 2013, two of the physicists, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their theoretical predictions. Although Higgs's name has come to be associated with this theory (the Higgs mechanism), several researchers between about 1960 and 1972 independently developed different parts of it.

In mainstream media the Higgs boson has often been called the "God particle", from a 1993 book on the topic.

3.2.1 The Standard Model Physicists explain the properties of and forces between elementary particles in terms of the Standard Model – a widely accepted framework for understanding almost everything in the known universe, other than gravity. (A separate theory, general relativity, is used for gravity.) In this model, the fundamental forces in nature arise from properties of our universe called gauge invariance and symmetries. The forces are transmitted by particles known as gauge bosons.

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In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with spin zero, no electric charge and no colour charge. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. The Higgs field is a scalar field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry. The Higgs field has a "Mexican hat-shaped" potential. In its ground state, this causes the field to have a nonzero value everywhere (including otherwise empty space), and as a result, below a very high energy it breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction. (Technically the non-zero expectation value converts the Lagrangian's Yukawa coupling terms into mass terms.) When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are "absorbed" by the SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons (the "Higgs mechanism") to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or may couple separately to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well.

3.2.2 Higgs mechanism Following the 1962 and 1963 papers, three groups of researchers independently published the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers with similar conclusions: that the conditions for electroweak symmetry would be "broken" if an unusual type of field existed throughout the universe, and indeed, some fundamental particles would acquire mass. The field required for this to happen (which was purely hypothetical at the time) became known as the Higgs field (after Peter Higgs, one of the researchers) and the mechanism by which it led to symmetry breaking, known as the Higgs mechanism. A key feature of the necessary field is that it would take less energy for the field to have a non-zero value than a zero value, unlike all other known fields, therefore, the Higgs field has a non-zero value (or vacuum expectation) everywhere. It was the first proposal capable of showing how the weak force gauge bosons could have mass despite their governing symmetry, within a gauge invariant theory.

Although these ideas did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972 they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and proved capable of giving "sensible" results that accurately described particles known at the time, and which, with exceptional accuracy, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years. During the 1970s these theories rapidly became the Standard Model of particle physics. There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s the question of whether or not the Higgs field existed, and therefore whether or not the entire Standard

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Model was correct, had come to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered questions in particle physics.

3.2.3 Higgs field According to the Standard Model, a field of the necessary kind (the Higgs field) exists throughout space and breaks certain symmetry laws of the electroweak interaction. Via the Higgs mechanism, this field causes the gauge bosons of the weak force to be massive at all temperatures below an extreme high value. When the weak force bosons acquire mass, this affects their range, which becomes very small. Furthermore, it was later realised that the same field would also explain, in a different way, why other fundamental constituents of matter (including electrons and quarks) have mass.

For many decades, scientists had no way to determine whether or not the Higgs field existed, because the technology needed for its detection did not exist at that time. If the Higgs field did exist, then it would be unlike any other known fundamental field, but it also was possible that these key ideas, or even the entire Standard Model, were somehow incorrect. Only discovering that the Higgs boson and therefore the Higgs field existed solved the problem.

Unlike other known fields such as the electromagnetic field, the Higgs field is scalar and has a non-zero constant value in vacuum. The existence of the Higgs field became the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics, and for several decades, was considered "the central problem in particle physics".

The presence of the field, now confirmed by experimental investigation, explains why some fundamental particles have mass, despite the symmetries controlling their interactions implying that they should be massless. It also resolves several other long-standing puzzles, such as the reason for the extremely short range of the weak force.

Although the Higgs field is non-zero everywhere and its effects are ubiquitous, proving its existence was far from easy. In principle, it can be proved to exist by detecting its excitations, which manifest as Higgs particles (the Higgs boson), but these are extremely difficult to produce and detect. The importance of this fundamental question led to a 40-year search, and the construction of one of the world's most expensive and complex experimental facilities to date, CERN's Large Hadron Collider, in an attempt to create Higgs bosons and other particles for observation and study.

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On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced; physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson. Since then, the particle has been shown to behave, interact, and decay in many of the ways predicted for Higgs particles by the Standard Model, as well as having even parity and zero spin, two fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature. As of 2018, in-depth research shows the particle continuing to behave in line with predictions for the Standard Model Higgs boson. More studies are needed to verify with higher precision that the discovered particle has all of the properties predicted, or whether, as described by some theories, multiple Higgs bosons exist.

3.3 Higgs boson The hypothesised Higgs mechanism made several accurate predictions, however to confirm its existence there was an extensive search for a matching particle associated with it — the "Higgs boson". Detecting Higgs bosons was difficult due to the energy required to produce them and their very rare production even if the energy is sufficient. It was therefore several decades before the first evidence of the Higgs boson was found. Particle colliders, detectors, and computers capable of looking for Higgs bosons took more than 30 years (c. 1980–2010) to develop.

By March 2013, the existence of the Higgs boson was confirmed, and therefore, the concept of some type of Higgs field throughout space is strongly supported. The nature and properties of this field are now being investigated further, using more data collected at the LHC.

Interpretation Various analogies have been used to describe the Higgs field and boson, including analogies with well-known symmetry-breaking effects such as the rainbow and prism, electric fields, ripples, and resistance of macro objects moving through media (such as people moving through crowds or some objects moving through syrup or molasses). However, analogies based on simple resistance to motion are inaccurate, as the Higgs field does not work by resisting motion

Particle physics Validation of the Standard Model The Higgs boson validates the Standard Model through the mechanism of mass generation. As more precise measurements of its properties are made, more www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 45 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) advanced extensions may be suggested or excluded. As experimental means to measure the field's behaviours and interactions are developed, this fundamental field may be better understood. If the Higgs field had not been discovered, the Standard Model would have needed to be modified or superseded.

Related to this, a belief generally exists among physicists that there is likely to be "new" physics beyond the Standard Model, and the Standard Model will at some point be extended or superseded. The Higgs discovery, as well as the many measured collisions occurring at the LHC, provide physicists a sensitive tool to parse data for where the Standard Model fails, and could provide considerable evidence guiding researchers into future theoretical developments.

Symmetry breaking of the electroweak interaction Below an extremely high temperature, electroweak symmetry breaking causes the electroweak interaction to manifest in part as the short-ranged weak force, which is carried by massive gauge bosons. This symmetry breaking is required for atoms and other structures to form, as well as for nuclear reactions in stars, such as our Sun. The Higgs field is responsible for this symmetry breaking.

Particle mass acquisition The Higgs field is pivotal in generating the masses of quarks and charged leptons (through Yukawa coupling) and the W and Z gauge bosons (through the Higgs mechanism).

It is worth noting that the Higgs field does not "create" mass out of nothing (which would violate the law of conservation of energy), nor is the Higgs field responsible for the mass of all particles. For example, approximately 99% of the mass of baryons (composite particles such as the proton and neutron), is due instead to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which is the sum of the kinetic energies of quarks and the energies of the massless gluons mediating the strong interaction inside the baryons. In Higgs-based theories, the property of "mass" is a manifestation of potential energy transferred to fundamental particles when they interact ("couple") with the Higgs field, which had contained that mass in the form of energy.

Scalar fields and extension of the Standard Model The Higgs field is the only scalar (spin 0) field to be detected; all the other fields in the Standard Model are spin ½ fermions or spin 1 bosons. According to Rolf-Dieter Heuer, director general of CERN when the Higgs boson was discovered, this www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 46 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) existence proof of a scalar field is almost as important as the Higgs's role in determining the mass of other particles. It suggests that other hypothetical scalar fields suggested by other theories, from the inflaton to quintessence, could perhaps exist as well.

3.3. Cosmology

Inflaton There has been considerable scientific research on possible links between the Higgs field and the inflaton – a hypothetical field suggested as the explanation for the expansion of space during the first fraction of a second of the universe (known as the "inflationary epoch"). Some theories suggest that a fundamental scalar field might be responsible for this phenomenon; the Higgs field is such a field, and its existence has led to papers analysing whether it could also be the inflaton responsible for this exponential expansion of the universe during the Big Bang. Such theories are highly tentative and face significant problems related to unitarity, but may be viable if combined with additional features such as large non-minimal coupling, a Brans– Dicke scalar, or other "new" physics, and they have received treatments suggesting that Higgs inflation models are still of interest theoretically.

3.4. Nature of the universe, and its possible fates

Diagram showing the Higgs boson and top quark masses, which could indicate whether our universe is stable, or a long-lived 'bubble'. As of 2012, the 2ζ ellipse based on Tevatron and LHC data still allows for both possibilities.

In the Standard Model, there exists the possibility that the underlying state of our universe -known as the "vacuum" - is long-lived, but not completely stable. In this scenario, the universe as we know it could effectively be destroyed by collapsing into a more stable vacuum state. This was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson "ending" the universe. If the masses of the Higgs boson and top quark are known more precisely, and the Standard Model provides an accurate description of particle physics up to extreme energies of the Planck scale, then it is possible to calculate whether the vacuum is stable or merely long-lived. A 125 – 127 GeV Higgs mass seems to be extremely close to the boundary for stability, but a definitive answer requires much more precise measurements of the pole mass of the top quark. New physics can change this picture.

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If measurements of the Higgs boson suggest that our universe lies within a false vacuum of this kind, then it would imply – more than likely in many billions of years – that the universe's forces, particles, and structures could cease to exist as we know them (and be replaced by different ones), if a true vacuum happened to nucleate. It also suggests that the Higgs self-coupling ι and its βι function could be very close to zero at the Planck scale, with "intriguing" implications, including theories of gravity and Higgs-based inflation. A future electron–positron collider would be able to provide the precise measurements of the top quark needed for such calculations.

Vacuum energy and the cosmological constant More speculatively, the Higgs field has also been proposed as the energy of the vacuum, which at the extreme energies of the first moments of the Big Bang caused the universe to be a kind of featureless symmetry of undifferentiated, extremely high energy. In this kind of speculation, the single unified field of a Grand Unified Theory is identified as (or modelled upon) the Higgs field, and it is through successive symmetry breakings of the Higgs field, or some similar field, at phase transitions that the presently known forces and fields of the universe arise.

The relationship (if any) between the Higgs field and the presently observed vacuum energy density of the universe has also come under scientific study. As observed, the present vacuum energy density is extremely close to zero, but the energy density expected from the Higgs field, supersymmetry, and other current theories are typically many orders of magnitude larger. It is unclear how these should be reconciled. This cosmological constant problem remains a further major unanswered problem in physics.

Practical and technological impact As yet, there are no known immediate technological benefits of finding the Higgs particle. However, a common pattern for fundamental discoveries is for practical applications to follow later, and once the discovery has been explored further, perhaps becoming the basis for new technologies of importance to society.

The challenges in particle physics have furthered major technological progress of widespread importance. For example, the World Wide Web began as a project to improve CERN's communication system. CERN's requirement to process massive amounts of data produced by the Large Hadron Collider also led to contributions to the fields of distributed and cloud computing

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Nickname The Higgs boson is often referred to as the "God particle" in popular media outside the scientific community. The nickname comes from the title of the 1993 book on the Higgs boson and particle physics, The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? by Physics Nobel Prize winner and Fermilab director Leon Lederman. Lederman wrote it in the context of failing US government support for the Superconducting Super Collider, a part-constructed titanic competitor to the Large Hadron Collider with planned collision energies of 2 × 20 TeV that was championed by Lederman since its 1983 inception and shut down in 1993. The book sought in part to promote awareness of the significance and need for such a project in the face of its possible loss of funding. Lederman, a leading researcher in the field, writes that he wanted to title his book The Goddamn Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question? Lederman's editor decided that the title was too controversial and convinced him to change the title to The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?

While media use of this term may have contributed to wider awareness and interest, many scientists feel the name is inappropriate since it is sensational hyperbole and misleads readers; the particle also has nothing to do with God, leaves open numerous questions in fundamental physics, and does not explain the ultimate origin of the universe. Higgs, an atheist, was reported to be displeased and stated in a 2008 interview that he found it "embarrassing" because it was "the kind of misuse... which I think might offend some people". The nickname has been satirised in mainstream media as well. Science writer Ian Sample stated in his 2010 book on the search that the nickname is "universally hate" by physicists and perhaps the "worst derided" in the history of physics, but that (according to Lederman) the publisher rejected all titles mentioning "Higgs" as unimaginative and too unknown.

Lederman begins with a review of the long human search for knowledge, and explains that his tongue-in-cheek title draws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs field on the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interactions that resulted and shaped our present universe, with the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial single language of early Genesis was fragmented into many disparate languages and cultures.

Today ... we have the standard model, which reduces all of reality to a dozen or so particles and four forces. ... It's a hard-won simplicity [...and...] remarkably accurate.

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But it is also incomplete and, in fact, internally inconsistent... This boson is so central to the state of physics today, so crucial to our final understanding of the structure of matter, yet so elusive, that I have given it a nickname: the God Particle. Why God Particle? Two reasons. One, the publisher wouldn't let us call it the Goddamn Particle, though that might be a more appropriate title, given its villainous nature and the expense it is causing. And two, there is a connection, of sorts, to another book, a much older one...

— Leon M. Lederman and Dick Teresi, The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question

Lederman asks whether the Higgs boson was added just to perplex and confound those seeking knowledge of the universe, and whether physicists will be confounded by it as recounted in that story, or ultimately surmount the challenge and understand "how beautiful is the universe [God has] made

DARK MATTER Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe, and about a quarter of its total energy density. The majority of dark matter is thought to be non-baryonic in nature, possibly being composed of some as-yet undiscovered subatomic particles. Its presence is implied in a variety of astrophysical observations, including gravitational effects that cannot be explained unless more matter is present than can be seen. For this reason, most experts think dark matter to be ubiquitous in the universe and to have had a strong influence on its structure and evolution. The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not appear to interact with observable electromagnetic radiation, such as light, and is thus invisible (or 'dark') to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely difficult to detect using usual astronomical equipment.

The primary evidence for dark matter is that calculations show that many galaxies would fly apart instead of rotating, or would not have formed or move as they do, if they did not contain a large amount of unseen matter. Other lines of evidence include observations in gravitational lensing, from the cosmic microwave background, from astronomical observations of the observable universe's current structure, from the formation and evolution of galaxies, from mass location during galactic collisions, and from the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters. In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the total mass–energy of the universe contains 5% ordinary matter and energy, 27% dark matter and 68% www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 50 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) of an unknown form of energy known as dark energy. Thus, dark matter constitutes 85% of total mass, while dark energy plus dark matter constitute 95% of total mass– energy content.

Because dark matter has not yet been observed directly, it must barely interact with ordinary baryonic matter and radiation. The primary candidate for dark matter is some new kind of elementary particle that has not yet been discovered, in particular, weakly-interacting massive particles (WIMPs), or gravitationally-interacting massive particles (GIMPs). Many experiments to directly detect and study dark matter particles are being actively undertaken, but none has yet succeeded.

Dark matter is classified as cold, warm, or hot according to its velocity (more precisely, its free streaming length). Current models favor a cold dark matter scenario, in which structures emerge by gradual accumulation of particles.

Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the scientific community, some astrophysicists, intrigued by certain observations that do not fit the dark matter theory, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity, such as modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental non-baryonic matter.

Galaxy rotation curves Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). Dark matter can explain the 'flat' appearance of the velocity curve out to a large radius.

Models of rotating disc galaxies in the present day and ten billion years ago. In the present-day galaxy, dark matter—is more concentrated near the center and it rotates more rapidly

The arms of spiral galaxies rotate around the galactic center. The luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the center to the outskirts. If luminous mass were all the matter, then we can model the galaxy as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting around it, similar to the Solar System. From Kepler's Second Law, it is expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the center, similar to the Solar System. This is not observed. Instead, the galaxy rotation curve remains flat as distance from the center increases.

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If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this discrepancy is to conclude that the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not similar to that of the Solar System. In particular, there is a lot of non-luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy

Galaxy clusters Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three independent ways:

From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile. Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity). Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approximately 5 to 1

Gravitational lensing One of the consequences of general relativity is that massive objects (such as a cluster of galaxies) lying between a more distant source (such as a quasar) and an observer should act as a lens to bend the light from this source. The more massive an object, the more lensing is observed.

Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many distant clusters including Abell 1689. By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening cluster can be obtained. In the dozens of cases where this has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters. Lensing can lead to multiple copies of an image. By analyzing the distribution of multiple image copies, scientists have been able to deduce and map the distribution of dark matter around the MACS J0416.1-2403 galaxy cluster.

Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions of galaxies, using statistical analyses from vast galaxy surveys. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. Dark matter does not bend light itself; mass (in this case the mass of the dark matter) bends spacetime. Light follows the curvature of spacetime, resulting in the lensing effect

Structure formation Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters. Prior to structure formation, the Friedmann solutions to general relativity describe a homogeneous universe. Later, small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger structures. Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the dominant element of the universe at very early times. As a result, its density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into structure. If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into the galaxies and clusters currently seen.

Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected by radiation. Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first. The resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive potential well for ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation process

Cold dark matter Cold dark matter offers the simplest explanation for most cosmological observations. It is dark matter composed of constituents with an FSL much smaller than a protogalaxy. This is the focus for dark matter research, as hot dark matter does not seem capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle candidates slowed early.

The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown. Possibilities range from large objects like MACHOs (such as black holes and Preon stars or RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown dwarfs), to new particles such as WIMPs and axions.

Studies of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and gravitational lensing convinced most cosmologists that MACHOs cannot make up more than a small fraction of dark matter. According to A. Peter: "... the only really plausible dark-matter candidates are new particles." Specifically, Jamie Farnes proposes a particle with negative mass.

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The 1997 DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor DAMA/LIBRA in 2013, claimed to directly detect dark matter particles passing through the Earth, but many researchers remain skeptical, as negative results from similar experiments seem incompatible with the DAMA results.

Many supersymmetric models offer dark matter candidates in the form of the WIMPy Lightest Supersymmetric Particle (LSP). Separately, heavy sterile neutrinos exist in non-supersymmetric extensions to the standard model that explain the small neutrino mass through the seesaw mechanism.

Warm dark matter Warm dark matter comprises particles with an FSL comparable to the size of a protogalaxy. Predictions based on warm dark matter are similar to those for cold dark matter on large scales, but with less small-scale density perturbations. This reduces the predicted abundance of dwarf galaxies and may lead to lower density of dark matter in the central parts of large galaxies. Some researchers consider this a better fit to observations. A challenge for this model is the lack of particle candidates with the required mass

No known particles can be categorized as warm dark matter. A postulated candidate is the sterile neutrino: a heavier, slower form of neutrino that does not interact through the weak force, unlike other neutrinos. Some modified gravity theories, such as scalar–tensor–vector gravity, require "warm" dark matter to make their equations work.

Hot dark matter Hot dark matter consists of particles whose FSL is much larger than the size of a protogalaxy. The neutrino qualifies as such particle. They were discovered independently, long before the hunt for dark matter: they were postulated in 1930, and detected in 1956. Neutrinos' mass is less than 10−6 that of an electron. Neutrinos interact with normal matter only via gravity and the weak force, making them difficult to detect (the weak force only works over a small distance, thus a neutrino triggers a weak force event only if it hits a nucleus head-on). This makes them 'weakly interacting light particles' (WILPs), as opposed to WIMPs.

The three known flavours of neutrinos are the electron, muon, and tau. Their masses are slightly different. Neutrinos oscillate among the flavours as they move. It is hard to determine an exact upper bound on the collective average mass of the three neutrinos (or for any of the three individually). For example, if the average neutrino www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 54 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) mass were over 50 eV/c2 (less than 10−5 of the mass of an electron), the universe would collapse. CMB data and other methods indicate that their average mass probably does not exceed 0.3 eV/c2. Thus, observed neutrinos cannot explain dark matter.

Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies that the first objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies. Deep-field observations show instead that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together.

Detection of dark matter particles If dark matter is made up of sub-atomic particles, then millions, possibly billions, of such particles must pass through every square centimeter of the Earth each second. Many experiments aim to test this hypothesis. Although WIMPs are popular search candidates, the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) searches for axions. Another candidate is heavy hidden sector particles that only interact with ordinary matter via gravity.

These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct detection experiments, which search for the scattering of dark matter particles off atomic nuclei within a detector; and indirect detection, which look for the products of dark matter particle annihilations or decays.

Direct detection Direct detection experiments aim to observe low-energy recoils (typically a few keVs) of nuclei induced by interactions with particles of dark matter, which (in theory) are passing through the Earth. After such a recoil the nucleus will emit energy as, e.g., scintillation light or phonons, which is then detected by sensitive apparatus. To do this effectively, it is crucial to maintain a low background, and so such experiments operate deep underground to reduce the interference from cosmic rays. Examples of underground laboratories with direct detection experiments include the Stawell mine, the Soudan mine, the SNOLAB underground laboratory at Sudbury, the Gran Sasso National Laboratory, the Canfranc Underground Laboratory, the Boulby Underground Laboratory, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory and the China Jinping Underground Laboratory.

These experiments mostly use either cryogenic or noble liquid detector technologies. Cryogenic detectors operating at temperatures below 100 mK, detect the heat www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 55 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) produced when a particle hits an atom in a crystal absorber such as germanium. Noble liquid detectors detect scintillation produced by a particle collision in liquid xenon or argon. Cryogenic detector experiments include: CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, EURECA. Noble liquid experiments include ZEPLIN, XENON, DEAP, ArDM, WARP, DarkSide, PandaX, and LUX, the Large Underground Xenon experiment. Both of these techniques focus strongly on their ability to distinguish background particles (which predominantly scatter off electrons) from dark matter particles (that scatter off nuclei). Other experiments include SIMPLE and PICASSO.

Currently there has been no well-established claim of dark matter detection from a direct detection experiment, leading instead to strong upper limits on the mass and interaction cross section with nucleons of such dark matter particles. The DAMA/NaI and more recent DAMA/LIBRA experimental collaborations have detected an annual modulation in the rate of events in their detectors, which they claim is due to dark matter. This results from the expectation that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector relative to the dark matter halo will vary by a small amount. This claim is so far unconfirmed and in contradiction with negative results from other experiments such as LUX and SuperCDMS.

A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity. This is a search strategy based on the motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center. A low-pressure time projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain WIMP-nucleus kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun travels (approximately towards Cygnus) may then be separated from background, which should be isotropic. Directional dark matter experiments include DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC

Indirect detection Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space. For example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the centre of our galaxy) two dark matter particles could annihilate to produce gamma rays or Standard Model particle-antiparticle pairs. Alternatively if the dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into standard model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons emanating from high density regions in our galaxy or others. A major difficulty inherent in such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for a conclusive discovery.

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A few of the dark matter particles passing through the Sun or Earth may scatter off atoms and lose energy. Thus dark matter may accumulate at the center of these bodies, increasing the chance of collision/annihilation. This could produce a distinctive signal in the form of high-energy neutrinos. Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP dark matter. High-energy neutrino telescopes such as AMANDA, IceCube and ANTARES are searching for this signal. The detection by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves, opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of primordial black holes.

Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow. The Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded that this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's sensitivity.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays. In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from its Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way. WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation.

At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf spheroidal galaxies and in clusters of galaxies.

The PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess positrons. They could be from dark matter annihilation or from pulsars. No excess antiprotons were observed.

In 2013 results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess high-energy cosmic rays that could be due to dark matter annihilation

Collider searches for dark matter An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory. Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in collisions of the LHC proton beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 57 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) collision products are detected. Constraints on dark matter also exist from the LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter particles with electrons rather than quarks. It is important to note that any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, the dark matter of our Universe.

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Chapter 4 NASA Deep Space Network

The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication facilities, located in the United States (California), Spain (Madrid), and Australia (Canberra), that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft missions. It also performs radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the Solar System and the universe, and supports selected Earth-orbiting missions. DSN is part of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Similar networks are run by Russia, China, India, Japan and the European Space Agency.

DSN currently consists of three deep-space communications facilities placed approximately 120 degrees apart around the Earth.[1][2]They are:  The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (35°25′36″N 116°53′24″W) outside Barstow, California. For details of Goldstone's contribution to the early days of space probe tracking, see Project Space Track;  The Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex (40°25′53″N 4°14′53″W), 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of Madrid, Spain; and  The Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex (CDSCC) in the Australian Capital Territory (35°24′05″S 148°58′54″E), 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Canberra, Australia near the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve.

Each facility is situated in semi-mountainous, bowl-shaped terrain to help shield against radio frequency interference. The strategic placement with nearly 120-degree separation permits constant observation of spacecraft as the Earth rotates, which helps to make the DSN the largest and most sensitive scientific telecommunications system in the world.

The DSN supports NASA's contribution to the scientific investigation of the Solar System: It provides a two-way communications link that guides and controls various NASA unmanned interplanetary space probes, and brings back the images and new scientific information these probes collect. All DSN antennas are steerable, high- gain, parabolic reflector antennas. The antennas and data delivery systems make it possible to:  acquire telemetry data from spacecraft.  transmit commands to spacecraft.  upload software modifications to spacecraft. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 59 of 391

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 track spacecraft position and velocity.  perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations.  measure variations in radio waves for radio science experiments.  gather science data.  monitor and control the performance of the network

View from the Earth's north pole, showing the field of view of the main DSN antenna locations. Once a mission gets more than 30,000 km from earth, it is always in view of at least one of the stations.

Field of view of the Deep Space Network antennas, looking down from the North Pole. Illustrates that missions > 30,000 km from Earth are always in view of at least one station.

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70 m antenna at Goldstone, California.

Tracking vehicles in deep space is quite different from tracking missions in low Earth orbit (LEO). Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of the Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN has only three main sites). These few stations, however, require huge antennas, ultra-sensitive receivers, and powerful transmitters in order to transmit and receive over the vast distances involved.

Deep space is defined in several different ways. According to a 1975 NASA report, the DSN was designed to communicate with "spacecraft traveling approximately 16,000 km (10,000 miles) from Earth to the farthest planets of the solar system." JPL diagrams[8] state that at an altitude of 30,000 km, a spacecraft is always in the field of view of one of the tracking stations.

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The International Telecommunications Union, which sets aside various frequency bands for deep space and near Earth use, defines "deep space" to start at a distance of 2 million km from the Earth's surface.

This definition means that missions to the Moon, and the Earth–Sun Lagrangian points L1 and L2, are considered near space and cannot use the ITU's deep space bands. Other Lagrangian points may or may not be subject to this rule due to distance.

Management The network is a NASA facility and is managed and operated for NASA by JPL, which is part of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Interplanetary Network Directorate (IND) manages the program within JPL and is charged with the development and operation of it. The IND is considered to be JPL's focal point for all matters relating to telecommunications, interplanetary navigation, information systems, information technology, computing, software engineering, and other relevant technologies. While the IND is best known for its duties relating to the Deep Space Network, the organization also maintains the JPL Advanced Multi- Mission Operations System (AMMOS) and JPL's Institutional Computing and Information Services (ICIS).

Harris Corporation is under a 5-year contract to JPL for the DSN's operations and maintenance. Harris has responsibility for managing the Goldstone complex, operating the DSOC, and for DSN operations, mission planning, operations engineering, and logistics.

Antennas

70 m antenna at Goldstone, California.

Each complex consists of at least four deep space terminals equipped with ultra-sensitive receiving systems and large parabolic-dish antennas. There are:  One 34-meter (112 ft) diameter High Efficiency antenna (HEF).

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 Two or more 34-meter (112 ft) Beam waveguide antennas (BWG) (three operational at the Goldstone Complex, two at the Robledo de Chavela complex (near Madrid), and two at the Canberra Complex).  One 26-meter (85 ft) antenna.  One 70-meter (230 ft) antenna.

Five of the 34-meter (112 ft) beam waveguide antennas were added to the system in the late 1990s. Three were located at Goldstone, and one each at Canberra and Madrid. A second 34-meter (112 ft) beam waveguide antenna (the network's sixth) was completed at the Madrid complex in 2004. In order to meet the current and future needs of deep space communication services, a number of new Deep Space Station antennas need to be built at the existing Deep Space Network sites. At the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex the first of these was completed October 2014 (DSS35), with a second becoming operational in October 2016 (DSS36).[21]Construction has also begun on an additional antenna at the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex. By 2025, the 70 meter antennas at all three locations will be decommissioned and replaced with 34 meter BWG antennas that will be arrayed. All systems will be upgraded to have X-band uplink capabilities and both X and Ka-band downlink capabilities

List of astronomical observatories

Legend Space observatory Gravitational-wave detector Antimatter observatory Airborne observatory Radio observatory Microwave observatory Ground-based observatory Solar observatory Neutrino detector Cosmic-ray observatory

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This is a list of astronomical observatories ordered by name, along with initial dates of operation (where an accurate date is available) and location. The list also includes a final year of operation for many observatories that are no longer in operation. While other sciences, such as volcanology and meteorology, also use facilities called observatories for research and observations, this list is limited to observatories that are used to observe celestial objects.

Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based.

Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrumthat cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. Being above the atmosphere, these space observatories can also avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground based telescopes, although new generations of adaptive optics telescopes have since then dramatically improved the situation on the ground. The space high vacuum environment also frees the detectors from the ancestral diurnal cycle due to the atmospheric blue light background of the sky, thereby increasing significantly the observation time.

An intermediate variant is the airborne observatory, specialised in the infrared wavelengths of the EM spectrum, that conduct observations above the part of the atmosphere containing water vapor that absorbs them, in the stratosphere.

Historically, astronomical observatories consisted generally in a building or group of buildings where observations of astronomical objects such as sunspots, planets, asteroids, comets, stars, nebulae, and galaxies in the visible wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum were conducted. At first, for millennia, astronomical observations have been made with naked eyes. Then with the discovery of optics, with the help of different types of refractor telescopes and later with reflector telescopes. Their use allowed to dramatically increase both the collecting power and limit of resolution, thus the brightness, level of detail and apparent angular size of distant celestial objects allowing them to be better studied and understood. Following the development of modern physics, new ground based facilities have been constructed to conduct research in the radio and microwave wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, with radio telescopes and dedicated microwave telescopes.

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Modern astrophysics has extended the field of study of celestial bodies to non electromagnetic vectors, such as neutrinos, neutrons and cosmic-rays or gravitational waves. Thus new types of observatories have been developed. Interferometers are at the core of gravitational wave detectors. In order to limit the natural or artificial background noise, most particle detector based observatories are built deep underground

Sr. Legend No Space A space telescope or space observatory is an instrument observatory located in outer space to observe distant planets, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid many of the problems of ground- based observatories, such as light pollution and distortion of electromagnetic radiation (scintillation). In addition, ultraviolet frequencies, X-rays and gamma rays are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere, so they can only be observed from space. Theorized by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational space telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory OAO-2 launched in 1968 and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971.

Space telescopes are distinct from other imaging satellites pointed toward Earth for purposes of espionage, weather analysis and other types of information gathering

Gravitational- A gravitational-wave observatory (or gravitational-wave wave detector) is any device designed to measure gravitational observatory waves, tiny distortions of spacetime that were first predicted by Einstein in 1916.Gravitational waves are perturbations in the theoretical curvature of spacetime caused by accelerated masses. The existence of gravitational radiation is a specific prediction of general relativity, but is a feature of all theories of gravity that obey special relativity.Since the 1960s, gravitational-wave detectors have been built and constantly improved. The present-day generation of resonant mass antennas and laser interferometers has reached the necessary sensitivity to detect gravitational waves from sources in

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the Milky Way. Gravitational-wave observatories are the primary tool of gravitational-wave astronomy. A number of experiments have provided indirect evidence, notably the observation of binary pulsars, the orbits of which evolve precisely matching the predictions of energy loss through general relativistic gravitational-wave emission. The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for this work. In February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger.The 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for this work.

Antimatter observatory Airborne An airborne observatory is an airplane, airship, observatory or balloon with an astronomical telescope. By carrying the telescope to a sufficiently high altitude, the telescope can avoid cloud cover, pollution, and carry out observations in the infrared spectrum, above water vapor in the atmosphere which absorbs infrared radiation. Some drawbacks to this approach are the instability of the lifting platform, the weight restrictions on the instrument, the need to safely recover the gear afterward, and the cost compared to a comparable ground-based observatory Radio A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio observatory receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy.[1][2][3] Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy, which studies the radio frequencyportion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects, just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ("dish") antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes. They may be used singly or linked together electronically in an array. Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night.

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Since astronomical radio sources such as planets, stars, nebulas and galaxies are very far away, the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak, so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them, and extremely sensitive receiving equipment. Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, television, radar, motor vehicles, and other manmade electronic devices. Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers. The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937. The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy.

Microwave Submillimetre astronomy or submillimeter observatory astronomy (see spelling differences) is the branch of observational astronomy that is conducted at submillimetre wavelengths (i.e., terahertz radiation) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Astronomers place the submillimetre waveband between the far- infrared and microwave wavebands, typically taken to be between a few hundred micrometres and a millimetre. It is still common in submillimetre astronomy to quote wavelengths in 'microns', the old name for micrometre. Using submillimetre observations, astronomers examine molecular clouds and dark cloud cores with a goal of clarifying the process of star formation from earliest collapse to stellar birth. Submillimetre observations of these dark clouds can be used to determine chemical abundances and cooling mechanisms for the molecules which comprise them. In addition, submillimetre observations give information on the mechanisms for the formation and evolution of galaxies.

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Ground-based Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, observatory are used to make observations in the radio and visible lightportions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes. For optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a large percentage of clear nights per year, dry air, and are at high elevations. At high elevations, the Earth's atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical "seeing". Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. A newly emerging site which should be added to this list is Mount Gargash. With an elevation of 3600 m above sea level, it is the home to the Iranian National Observatory and its 3.4m INO340 telescope. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory and Calar Alto Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile.

Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility

Solar A solar telescope is a special purpose telescope used to

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) observatory observe the Sun. Solar telescopes usually detect light with wavelengths in, or not far outside, the visible spectrum. Obsolete names for sun telescopes include heliograph and photoheliograph Professional solar telescopes Solar telescopes need optics large enough to achieve the best possible diffraction limit but less so for the associated light- collecting power of other astronomical telescopes. However, recently newer narrower filters and higher framerates have also driven solar telescopes towards photon-starved operations. Both the European Solar Telescope (EST) as well as the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (ATST) have larger apertures not only to increase the resolution, but also to increase the light-collecting power. Because solar telescopes operate during the day, seeing is generally worse than for night-time telescopes, because the ground around the telescope is heated which causes turbulence and degrades the resolution. To alleviate this, solar telescopes are usually built on towers and the structures are painted white. The Dutch Open Telescope is built on an open framework to allow the wind to pass through the complete structure and provide cooling around the telescope's main mirror. Another solar telescope-specific problem is the heat generated by the tightly-focused sunlight. For this reason, a heat stop is an integral part of the design of solar telescopes. For the upcoming ATST, the heat load is 2.5 MW/m2, with peak powers of 11.4 kW. The goal of such a heat stop is not only to survive this heat load, but also to remain cool enough not to induce any additional turbulence inside the telescope's dome. Professional solar observatories may have main optical elements with very long focal lengths (although not always, Dutch Open Telescope) and light paths operating in a vacuum or helium to eliminate air motion due to convection inside the telescope. However, this is not possible for apertures over 1 meter, at which the pressure difference at the entrance window of the vacuum tube becomes too large. Therefore, the EST and ATST have

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active cooling of the dome to minimize the temperature difference between the air inside and outside the telescope. Because the Sun travels on a narrow fixed path across the sky, some solar telescopes are fixed in position (and are sometimes buried underground), with the only moving part being a heliostat to track the Sun. One example of this is the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope

Neutrino A neutrino detector is a physics apparatus which is detector designed to study neutrinos. Because neutrinos only weakly interact with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground, to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation.[1] The field of neutrino astronomy is still very much in its infancy – the only confirmed extraterrestrial sources so far as of 2018 are the Sun, the supernova 1987A in the nearby Large Magellenic Cloud, and the blazar TXS 0506+056 about 3.7 billion light years away. Neutrino observatories will "give astronomers fresh eyes with which to study the universe." Various detection methods have been used. Super Kamiokande is a large volume of water surrounded by phototubes that watch for the Cherenkov radiation emitted when an incoming neutrino creates an electron or muon in the water. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is similar, but uses heavy water as the detecting medium. Other detectors have consisted of large volumes of chlorine or gallium which are periodically checked for excesses of argon or germanium, respectively, which are created by neutrinos interacting with the original substance. MINOS uses a solid plastic scintillator watched by phototubes; Borexino uses a liquid pseudocumene scintillator also watched by phototubes; and the NOλA detector uses a liquid scintillator watched by avalanche photodiodes. The proposed acoustic detection of neutrinos via the thermoacoustic effect is the subject of dedicated studies done by the ANTARES, IceCube,

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and KM3NeT collaborations

Detection techniques Scintillators Antineutrinos were first detected near the Savannah River nuclear reactor by the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment in 1956. Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan used two targets containing a solution of cadmium chloride in water. Two scintillation detectors were placed next to the cadmium targets. Antineutrinos with an energy above the threshold of 1.8 MeVcaused charged current "inverse beta-decay" interactions with the protons in the water, producing positrons and neutrons. The resulting positron annihilations with electrons created pairs of coincident photons with an energy of about 0.5 MeV each, which could be detected by the two scintillation detectors above and below the target. The neutrons were captured by cadmium nuclei resulting in delayed gamma rays of about 8 MeV that were detected a few microseconds after the photons from a positron annihilation event. This experiment was designed by Cowan and Reines to give a unique signature for antineutrinos, to prove the existence of these particles. It was not the experimental goal to measure the total antineutrino flux. The detected antineutrinos thus all carried an energy greater 1.8 MeV, which is the threshold for the reaction channel used (1.8 MeV is the energy needed to create a positron and a neutron from a proton). Only about 3% of the antineutrinos from a nuclear reactor carry enough energy for the reaction to occur. A more recently built and much larger KamLAND detector used similar techniques to study oscillations of antineutrinos from 53 Japanese nuclear power plants. A smaller, but more radiopure Borexino detector was able to measure the most important components of the neutrino spectrum from the Sun, as well as antineutrinos from Earth and nuclear reactors.

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Radiochemical methods Chlorine detectors, based on the method suggested by Bruno Pontecorvo, consist of a tank filled with a chlorine containing fluid such as tetrachloroethylene. A neutrino converts a chlorine-37 atom into one of argon-37 via the charged current interaction. The threshold neutrino energy for this reaction is 0.814 MeV. The fluid is periodically purged with helium gas which would remove the argon. The helium is then cooled to separate out the argon, and the argon atoms are counted based on their electron capture radioactive decays. A chlorine detector in the former Homestake Mine near Lead, South Dakota, containing 520 short tons (470 metric tons) of fluid, was the first to detect the solar neutrinos, and made the first measurement of the deficit of electron neutrinos from the sun (see Solar neutrino problem). A similar detector design, with a much lower detection threshold of 0.233 MeV, uses a gallium → germanium transformation which is sensitive to lower-energy neutrinos. A neutrino is able to react with an atom of gallium-71, converting it into an atom of the unstable isotope germanium-71. The germanium was then chemically extracted and concentrated. Neutrinos were thus detected by measuring the radioactive decay of germanium. This latter method is nicknamed the "Alsace-Lorraine" technique because of the reaction sequence (gallium- germanium-gallium) involved. Gallium and germanium are named after France and Germany, respectively, and ownership of the Alsace-Lorraine territory has historically been a point of contention between France and Germany, thus the nickname of the technique. These radiochemical detection methods are useful only for counting neutrinos; no neutrino direction or energy information is available. The SAGE experiment in Russia used about 50 tons, and the GALLEX/GNO experiments in Italy about 30 tons, of gallium as reaction mass. This experiment is difficult to scale up due to the prohibitive cost of gallium. Larger experiments have therefore turned to a cheaper reaction mass.

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Cherenkov detectors "Ring-imaging" Cherenkov detectors take advantage of a phenomenon called Cherenkov light. Cherenkov radiation is produced whenever charged particles such as electrons or muons are moving through a given detector medium somewhat faster than the speed of light in that medium. In a Cherenkov detector, a large volume of clear material such as water or ice is surrounded by light- sensitive photomultiplier tubes. A charged lepton produced with sufficient energy and moving through such a detector does travel somewhat faster than the speed of light in the detector medium (although somewhat slower than the speed of light in a vacuum). The charged lepton generates a visible "optical shockwave" of Cherenkov radiation. This radiation is detected by the photomultiplier tubes and shows up as a characteristic ring-like pattern of activity in the array of photomultiplier tubes. As neutrinos can interact with atomic nuclei to produce charged leptons which emit Cherenkov radiation, this pattern can be used to infer direction, energy, and (sometimes) flavor information about incident neutrinos. Two water-filled detectors of this type (Kamiokande and IMB) recorded a neutrino burst from supernova SN 1987A. Scientists detected 19 neutrinos from an explosion of a star inside the Large Magellanic Cloud—only 19 out of the billion trillion trillion trillion trillion neutrinos emitted by the supernova. The Kamiokande detector was able to detect the burst of neutrinos associated with this supernova, and in 1988 it was used to directly confirm the production of solar neutrinos. The largest such detector is the water- filled Super-Kamiokande. This detector uses 50,000 tons of pure water surrounded by 11,000 photomultiplier tubes buried 1 km underground.

The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) uses 1,000 tonnes of ultrapure heavy water contained in a 12-metre-diameter vessel made of acrylic plastic surrounded by a cylinder of ultrapure ordinary water 22 metres in diameter and 34 metres high. In addition to the neutrino interactions visible

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in a regular water detector, a neutrino can break up the deuterium in heavy water. The resulting free neutron is subsequently captured, releasing a burst of gamma rays that can be detected. All three neutrino flavors participate equally in this dissociation reaction. The MiniBooNE detector employs pure mineral oil as its detection medium. Mineral oil is a natural scintillator, so charged particles without sufficient energy to produce Cherenkov light still produce scintillation light. Low-energy muons and protons, invisible in water, can be detected.

An illustration of the Antares neutrino detector deployed under water.

Located at a depth of about 2.5 km in the Mediterranean Sea, the ANTARES (Astronomy with a Neutrino Telescope and Abyss environmental RESearch) is fully operational since May 30, 2008. Consisting of an array of twelve separate 350-meter-long vertical detector strings 70 meters apart, each with 75 photomultiplier optical modules, this detector uses the surrounding sea water as the detector medium. The next generation deep sea neutrino telescope KM3NeT will have a total instrumented volume of about 5 km3. The detector will be distributed over three installation sites in the Mediterranean. Implementation of the first phase of the telescope was started in 2013.

The Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA) operated from 1996 to 2004. This detector used photomultiplier tubes mounted in strings buried deep (1.5–2 km) inside Antarctic glacial ice near the South Pole. The ice itself is the detector medium. The www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 74 of 391

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direction of incident neutrinos is determined by recording the arrival time of individual photons using a three- dimensional array of detector modules each containing one photomultiplier tube. This method allows detection of neutrinos above 50 GeV with a spatial resolution of approximately 2 degrees. AMANDA was used to generate neutrino maps of the northern sky to search for extraterrestrial neutrino sources and to search for dark matter. AMANDA has been upgraded to the IceCube observatory, eventually increasing the volume of the detector array to one cubic kilometer.

Radio detectors The Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment uses antennas to detect Cherenkov radiation from high-energy neutrinos in Antarctica. The Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna (ANITA) is a balloon-borne device flying over Antarctica and detecting Askaryan radiation produced by ultra-high-energy neutrinos interacting with the ice below.

Tracking calorimeters Tracking calorimeters such as the MINOS detectors use alternating planes of absorber material and detector material. The absorber planes provide detector mass while the detector planes provide the tracking information. Steel is a popular absorber choice, being relatively dense and inexpensive and having the advantage that it can be magnetised. The NOλAproposal suggests eliminating the absorber planes in favor of using a very large active detector volume. The active detector is often liquid or plastic scintillator, read out with photomultiplier tubes, although various kinds of ionisation chambers have also been used.

Tracking calorimeters are only useful for high-energy (GeV range) neutrinos. At these energies, neutral current interactions appear as a shower of hadronic debris and charged current interactions are identified by the presence of the charged lepton's track (possibly alongside some form of hadronic debris.) A muon produced in a charged current

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interaction leaves a long penetrating track and is easy to spot. The length of this muon track and its curvature in the magnetic field provide energy and charge ( κ− versus κ+) information. An electron in the detector produces an electromagnetic shower which can be distinguished from hadronic showers if the granularity of the active detector is small compared to the physical extent of the shower. Tau leptons decay essentially immediately to either pions or another charged lepton and cannot be observed directly in this kind of detector. (To directly observe taus, one typically looks for a kink in tracks in photographic emulsion.)

Coherent Recoil Detector At low energies, a neutrino can scatter from the entire nucleus of an atom, rather than the individual nucleons, in a process known as "Coherent Neutral Current Neutrino- Nucleus Elastic Scattering". This effect has been used to make an extremely small neutrino detector. Unlike most other detection methods, coherent scattering does not depend on the flavor of the neutrino.

Background suppression Most neutrino experiments must address the flux of cosmic rays that bombard the Earth's surface. The higher-energy (>50 MeV or so) neutrino experiments often cover or surround the primary detector with a "veto" detector which reveals when a cosmic ray passes into the primary detector, allowing the corresponding activity in the primary detector to be ignored ("vetoed"). For lower-energy experiments, the cosmic rays are not directly the problem. Instead, the spallation neutrons and radioisotopes produced by the cosmic rays may mimic the desired signals. For these experiments, the solution is to place the detector deep underground so that the earth above can reduce the cosmic ray rate to acceptable levels.

Cosmic-ray A cosmic-ray observatory is a scientific installation built to

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) observatory detect high-energy-particles coming from space called cosmic rays. This typically includes photons (high- energy light), electrons, protons, and some heavier nuclei, as well as antimatter particles. About 90% of cosmic rays are protons, 9% are alpha particles, and the remaining ~1% are other particles.

It is not yet possible to build image forming optics for cosmic rays, like a Wolter telescope for lower energy X- rays, although some cosmic-ray observatories also look for high energy gamma rays and x-rays. Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHEC) pose further detection problems. One way of learning about cosmic rays is using different detectors to observe aspects of a cosmic ray air shower. Methods of detection for gamma-rays:  Scintillation detectors  Solid state detectors  Compton scattering  Pair telescopes  Air Cerenkov detectors For example, while a visible light photon may have an energy of a few eV, a cosmic gamma ray may exceed a TeV (1,000,000,000,000 eV).[3] Sometimes cosmic gamma rays (photons) are not grouped with nuclei cosmic rays.

Cosmic rays were studied aboard the space station Mir in the late 20th century, such as with the SilEye experiment. This studied the relationship between flashes seen by astronauts in space and cosmic rays, the cosmic ray visual phenomena.

In December 1993, an observatory named the Akeno Giant Air Shower Array (abbreviated AGASA) recorded one of the highest energy cosmic ray events ever observed.

In October 2003, the Pierre Augur Observatory completed construction on its 100th surface detector and became the largest cosmic-ray array in the world. It detects cosmic rays through the use of two different methods: watching high- energy particles interact with water, and observing

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ultraviolet light emitted in the earth's atmosphere.

In 2010, an expanded version of AMANDA named IceCube was completed. IceCube measures Cherenkov light in a cubic kilometer of transparent ice. It is estimated to detect 275 million cosmic rays every day.

Space shuttle Endeavor transported the Alphamagnetic Spectrometer (AMS) to the International Space Station on May 16, 2011. In just over one year of operating, the AMS collected data on 17 billion cosmic-ray events

The Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex in 2008

TELESCOPE Telescopes are optical instruments that make distant objects appear magnified by using an arrangement of lenses or curved mirrors and lenses, or various devices used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation.The first known practical telescopes were refracting telescopes invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, by using glass lenses. They found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 78 of 391

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The reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors to collect and focus light, was invented within a few decades of the first refracting telescope. In the 20th century, many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.

The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are major differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light (electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands.

Telescopes may be classified by the wavelengths of light they detect:  X-ray telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light  Ultraviolet telescopes, using shorter wavelengths than visible light  Optical telescopes, using visible light  Infrared telescopes, using longer wavelengths than visible light  Submillimetre telescopes, using longer wavelengths than infrared light  Fresnel Imager, an optical lens technology  X-ray optics, optics for certain X-ray wavelengths

As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light, however in the far-infrared and sub millimetre range, telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 κm (0.003 mm) to 2000 κm (2 mm), but uses a parabolic aluminum antenna.[11] On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 κm (0.003 mm) to 180 κm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the frequency range from about 0.2 κm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 κm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to infrared light).

With photons of the shorter wavelengths, with the higher frequencies, glancing- incident optics, rather than fully reflecting optics are used. Telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO use special mirrors to reflect Extreme ultraviolet, producing higher resolution and brighter images than are otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not just mean that more light is collected, it also enables a finer angular resolution.

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Telescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, space telescope, or flying telescope. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by professional astronomers or amateur astronomers. A vehicle or permanent campus containing one or more telescopes or other instruments is called an observatory.

Modern telescopes typically use CCDs instead of film for recording images. This is the sensor array in the Kepler spacecraft.

Light Comparison Photon Energy Name Wavelength Frequency (Hz) (eV) Gamma less than 100 keV – 300+ more than 10 EHZ X ray 0.01 nm GeV X-Ray 0.01 to 10 nm 30 EHz – 30 PHZ 120 eV to 120 keV X

Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 nm 30 PHZ – 790 THz 3 eV to 124 eV

390 nm – Visible 790 THz – 405 THz 1.7 eV – 3.3 eV X 750 nm Infrared 750 nm – 1 mm 405 THz – 300 GHz 1.24 meV – 1.7 eV X

300 GHz – 1.24 meV – Microwave 1 mm – 1 meter 300 MHz 1.24 µeV 1.24 meV – Radio 1 mm – km 300 GHz – 3 Hz 12.4 feV Optical telescopes

50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory.

An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (although some work in the infrared and ultraviolet). Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects as well as their apparent brightness. In order for the image to be observed,

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) photographed, studied, and sent to a computer, telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements, usually made from glass lenses and/or mirrors, to gather light and other electromagnetic radiation to bring that light or radiation to a focal point. Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments, including; theodolites, (including transits), Spotting scopes, monoculars, binoculars,camera lenses, and spyglasses.

There are three main optical types:  The refracting telescope which uses lenses to form an image.  The reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image.  The catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors combined with lenses to form an image.

Beyond these basic optical types there are many sub-types of varying optical design classified by the task they perform such as astrographs, comet seekers and solar telescopes.

Radio telescopes

The Very Large Array at Socorro, New Mexico, United States.

Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas used for radio astronomy. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large 'virtual' apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some radio telescopes are used by

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X-ray telescopes

Einstein Observatory was a space-based focusing optical X-ray telescope from 1978.

X-ray telescopes can use X-ray optics, such as a Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped 'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse. In 1952, Hans Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror. Examples of an observatory using this type of telescope are the Einstein Observatory, ROSAT, and the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. By 2010, Wolter focusing X-ray telescopes are possible up to 79 keV.

Gamma-ray telescopes Higher energy X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image.

X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high- flying balloons since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, high energy X-rays and gamma-rays do not form an image in the same way as telescopes at visible wavelengths. An example of this type of telescope is the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The detection of very high energy gamma rays, with shorter wavelength and higher frequency than regular gamma rays, requires further specialization. An example of this type of observatory is VERITAS. Very high energy gamma-rays are still photons, like visible light, whereas cosmic rays includes particles like electrons, protons, and heavier nuclei.

A discovery in 2012 may allow focusing gamma-ray telescopes.At photon energies greater than 700 keV, the index of refraction starts to increase again.

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High-energy particle telescopes High-energy astronomy requires specialized telescopes to make observations since most of these particles go through most metals and glasses. In other types of high energy particle telescopes there is no image-forming optical system. Cosmic-ray telescopes usually consist of an array of different detector types spread out over a large area. A Neutrino telescope consists of a large mass of water or ice, surrounded by an array of sensitive light detectors known as photomultiplier tubes. Originating direction of the neutrinos is determined by reconstructing the path of secondary particles scattered by neutrino impacts, from their interaction with multiple detectors. Energetic neutral atom observatories like Interstellar Boundary Explorer detect particles traveling at certain energies.

Other types of telescopes

Equatorial-mounted Keplerian telescope

Astronomy is not limited to using electromagnetic radiation. Additional information can be obtained using other media. The detectors used to observe the Universe are analogous to telescopes. These are:  Gravitational-wave detector, the equivalent of a gravitational wave telescope, used for gravitational-wave astronomy.  Neutrino detector, the equivalent of a neutrino telescope, used for neutrino astronomy.

Types of mount A telescope mount is a mechanical structure which supports a telescope. Telescope mounts are designed to support the mass of the telescope and allow for accurate pointing of the instrument. Many sorts of mounts have been developed over the

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Atmospheric electromagnetic opacity Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near- infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to astronomical seeing.

A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.

Telescopic image from different telescope types Different types of telescope, operating in different wavelength bands, provide different information about the same object. Together they provide a more comprehensive understanding.

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A 6′ wide view of the Crab nebula supernova remnant, viewed at different wavelengths of light by various telescopes

By spectrum Telescopes that operate in the electromagnetic spectrum:

Name Telescope Astronomy Wavelength Radio astronomy Radio Radio telescope more than 1 mm (Radar astronomy) Submillimetre Submillimetre Submillimetre 0.1 mm – 1 mm telescopes* astronomy 30 µm – Far Infrared – Far-infrared astronomy 450 µm Infrared Infrared telescope Infrared astronomy 700 nm – 1 mm Visible Visible spectrum Visible-light 400 nm –

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telescopes astronomy 700 nm Ultraviolet Ultraviolet telescopes* Ultraviolet astronomy 10 nm – 400 nm 0.01 nm – X-ray X-ray telescope X-ray astronomy 10 nm less than Gamma-ray – Gamma-ray astronomy 0.01 nm *Links to categories.

Selected solar telescopes  The Einstein Tower (Einsteinturm) became operational in 1924  McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope (1.6 m diameter, 1961–)  McMath-Hulbert Observatory (24"/61 cm diameter, 1941–1979)  Swedish Vacuum Solar Telescope (47.5 cm diameter, 1985–2000)  Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope (1 m diameter, 2002–)  Richard B. Dunn Solar Telescope (1.63 m diameter, 1969–)  Mount Wilson Observatory  Dutch Open Telescope (45 cm diameter, 1997–)  The Teide Observatory hosts multiple solar telescopes, including  the 70 cm Vacuum Tower Telescope (1989–) and  the 1.5 m GREGOR Solar Telescope (2012–, webcam).  Advanced Technology Solar Telescope, a planned telescope with 4m aperture.  European Solar Telescope, a future 4-meter class aperture telescope.  National Large Solar Telescope (NLST), is a Gregorian multi-purpose open telescope proposed to be built and Installed in India and aims to study the sun's microscopic structure.  WISPR, is double solar telescope on the Parker Solar Probe designed to image the corona close to the Sun from space

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Chapter 5 SPACE CRAFTS

SPACE CRAFTS A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, and transportation of humans and cargo. All spacecraft except single-stage-to-orbit vehicles cannot get into space on their own, and require a launch vehicle (carrier rocket)

On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a space vehicle enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies.

Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only, whereas those used for robotic space missions operate either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body are artificial satellites.

Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, and New Horizons, are on trajectories that leave the Solar System.

Orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules and winged spaceplanes

Spacecraft types i. Crewed spacecraft ii. Space planes iii. Unmanned spacecraft iv. Designed as manned but flown as unmanned only spacecraft v. Semi-manned – manned as space stations or part of space stations vi. Earth-orbit satellites vii. Lunar probes www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 87 of 391

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Crewed spacecraft As of 2016, only three nations have flown crewed spacecraft: USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first crewed spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, and completed a full Earth orbit. There were five other crewed missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second crewed spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers (116 mi). There were five other crewed missions using Mercury spacecraft.

Other Soviet crewed spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown un crewed as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, and the Salyut and Mir crewed space stations. Other American crewed spacecraft include the Gemini spacecraft, Apollo spacecraft, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle with undetached European Spacelab and private US Spacehab space stations-modules. China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou (its first crewed mission was in 2003

Except for the space shuttle, all of the recoverable crewed orbital spacecraft were space capsules.

The International Space Station, crewed since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries.

Space planes Some reusable vehicles have been designed only for crewed spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X- 15 spaceplane, which conducted two crewed flights which reached an altitude of over 100 km in the 1960s. The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963.

The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 SCA and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space

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Shuttle to fly into space was Columbia, followed by Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Endeavour was built to replace Challenger when it was lost in January 1986. Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.

The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran-class shuttle, launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight and this was uncrewed. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran. The Space Shuttle was subsequently modified to allow for autonomous re-entry in case of necessity.

Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by SpaceX's Dragon V2 and Boeing's CST-100 Starliner no later than 2017. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Space Launch System and SpaceX's Falcon Heavy.

Scaled Composites' SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company will build its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic was planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers in 2014, but was delayed after the crash of VSS Enterprise.

Subsystems A spacecraft system comprises various subsystems, depending on the mission profile. Spacecraft subsystems comprise the spacecraft's "bus" and may include attitude determination and control (variously called ADAC, ADC, or ACS), guidance, navigation and control (GNC or GN&C), communications (comms), command and data handling (CDH or C&DH), power (EPS), thermal control (TCS), propulsion, and structures. Attached to the bus are typically payloads.

Life support Spacecraft intended for human spaceflight must also include a life support system for the crew.

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Attitude control A Spacecraft needs an attitude control subsystem to be correctly oriented in space and respond to external torques and forces properly. The attitude control subsystem consists of sensors and actuators, together with controlling algorithms. The attitude- control subsystem permits proper pointing for the science objective, sun pointing for power to the solar arrays and earth pointing for communications.

GNC Guidance refers to the calculation of the commands (usually done by the CDH subsystem) needed to steer the spacecraft where it is desired to be. Navigation means determining a spacecraft's orbital elements or position. Control means adjusting the path of the spacecraft to meet mission requirements.

Command and data handling The CDH subsystem receives commands from the communications subsystem, performs validation and decoding of the commands, and distributes the commands to the appropriate spacecraft subsystems and components. The CDH also receives housekeeping data and science data from the other spacecraft subsystems and components, and packages the data for storage on a data recorder or transmission to the ground via the communications subsystem. Other functions of the CDH include maintaining the spacecraft clock and state-of-health monitoring.

Communications Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, utilize various communications systems for communication with terrestrial stations as well as for communication between spacecraft in space. Technologies utilized include RF and optical communication. In addition, some spacecraft payloads are explicitly for the purpose of ground–ground communication using receiver/retransmitter electronic technologies.

Power Spacecraft need an electrical power generation and distribution subsystem for powering the various spacecraft subsystems. For spacecraft near the Sun, solar panels are frequently used to generate electrical power. Spacecraft designed to operate in more distant locations, for example Jupiter, might employ a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) to generate electrical power. Electrical power is sent

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Thermal control Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand transit through Earth's atmosphere and the space environment. They must operate in a vacuum with temperatures potentially ranging across hundreds of degrees Celsius as well as (if subject to reentry) in the presence of plasmas. Material requirements are such that either high melting temperature, low density materials such as beryllium and reinforced carbon–carbon or (possibly due to the lower thickness requirements despite its high density) tungsten or ablative carbon–carbon composites are used. Depending on mission profile, spacecraft may also need to operate on the surface of another planetary body. The thermal control subsystem can be passive, dependent on the selection of materials with specific radiative properties. Active thermal control makes use of electrical heaters and certain actuators such as louvers to control temperature ranges of equipments within specific ranges.

Spacecraft propulsion Spacecraft may or may not have a propulsion subsystem, depending on whether or not the mission profile calls for propulsion. The Swift spacecraft is an example of a spacecraft that does not have a propulsion subsystem. Typically though, LEO spacecraft include a propulsion subsystem for altitude adjustments (drag make-up maneuvers) and inclination adjustment maneuvers. A propulsion system is also needed for spacecraft that perform momentum management maneuvers. Components of a conventional propulsion subsystem include fuel, tankage, valves, pipes, and thrusters. The thermal control system interfaces with the propulsion subsystem by monitoring the temperature of those components, and by preheating tanks and thrusters in preparation for a spacecraft maneuver.

Structures Spacecraft must be engineered to withstand launch loads imparted by the launch vehicle, and must have a point of attachment for all the other subsystems. Depending on mission profile, the structural subsystem might need to withstand loads imparted

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Payload The payload depends on the mission of the spacecraft, and is typically regarded as the part of the spacecraft "that pays the bills". Typical payloads could include scientific instruments (cameras, telescopes, or particle detectors, for example), cargo, or a human crew.

Ground segment The ground segment, though not technically part of the spacecraft, is vital to the operation of the spacecraft. Typical components of a ground segment in use during normal operations include a mission operations facility where the flight operations team conducts the operations of the spacecraft, a data processing and storage facility, ground stations to radiate signals to and receive signals from the spacecraft, and a voice and data communications network to connect all mission elements

Launch vehicle The launch vehicle propels the spacecraft from Earth's surface, through the atmosphere, and into an orbit, the exact orbit being dependent on the mission configuration. The launch vehicle may be expendable or reusable

More about Ground Segments A ground segment consists of all the ground-based elements of a spacecraft system used by operators and support personnel, as opposed to the space segment and user segment.

The ground segment enables management of a spacecraft, and distribution of payload data and telemetry among interested parties on the ground. The primary elements of a ground segment include:

1. Ground (or Earth) stations, which provide radio interfaces with spacecraft 2. Mission (or flight) control (or operations) centers, from which spacecraft are managed 3. Ground networks, which connect the other ground elements to one another 4. Remote terminals, used by support personnel www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 92 of 391

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5. Spacecraft integration and test facilities 6. Launch facilities

These elements are present in nearly all space missions, whether commercial, military, or scientific. They may be located together or separated geographically, and they may be operated by different parties. Some elements may support multiple spacecraft simultaneously

Ground stations Ground stations provide radio interfaces between the space and ground segments for telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C), as well as payload data transmission and reception. Tracking networks, such as NASA's Near Earth Network and Space Network, may handle communications with multiple spacecraft through time- sharing.

Ground station equipment may be monitored and controlled remotely, often via serial and/or IP interfaces. There are typically backup stations from which radio contact can be maintained if there is a problem at the primary ground station which renders it unable to operate, such as a natural disaster. Such contingencies are considered in a Continuity of Operations plan

Transmission and reception Signals to be uplinked to a spacecraft must first be extracted from ground network packets, encoded to baseband, and modulated, typically onto an intermediate frequency (IF) carrier, before being up-converted to the assigned radio frequency (RF) band. The RF signal is then amplified to high power and carried via waveguide to an antenna for transmission. In colder climates, electric heaters or hot air blowers may be necessary to prevent ice or snow buildup on the parabolic dish.

Received ("downlinked") signals are passed through a low-noise amplifier (often located in the antenna hub to minimize the distance the signal must travel) before being down-converted to IF; these two functions may be combined in a low-noise block downconverter. The IF signal is then demodulated, and the data stream extracted via bit and frame synchronization and decoding. Data errors, such as those caused by signal degradation, are identified and corrected where possible. The decoded data stream is then packetized or saved to files for transmission on the

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A single spacecraft may make use of multiple RF bands for different telemetry, command, and payload data streams, depending on bandwidth and other requirements.

Passes The timing of passes, when a line of sight exists to the spacecraft, is determined by the location of ground stations, and by the characteristics of the spacecraft orbit or trajectory. The Space Network uses geostationary relay satellites to extend pass opportunities over the horizon.

Tracking and ranging Ground stations must track spacecraft in order to point their antennas properly, and must account for Doppler shifting of RF frequencies due to the motion of the spacecraft. Ground stations may also perform automated ranging; ranging tones may be multiplexed with command and telemetry signals. Ground station tracking and ranging data are passed to the control center along with spacecraft telemetry

Mission control centers Mission control centers issue commands, data uploads, and software updates to spacecraft, and process, analyze, and distribute telemetry. For manned spacecraft, mission control manages voice and video communications with the crew. Control centers may also be responsible for configuration management and data archival. As with ground stations, there are typically backup control facilities available to support continuity of operations.

Telemetry processing Control centers use telemetry to determine the status of a spacecraft and its systems. Housekeeping, diagnostic, science, and other types of telemetry may be carried on separate virtual channels. Flight control software performs the initial processing of received telemetry, including:

1. Separation and distribution of virtual channels

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2. Time-ordering and gap-checking of received frames (gaps may be filled by commanding a re-transmission) 3. Decommutation of parameter values, and association of these values with mnemonics 4. Conversion of raw data to calibrated (engineering) values, and calculation of derived parameters 5. Limit and constraint checking (which may generate alert notifications)

A spacecraft database is called on to provide information on telemetry frame formatting, the positions and frequencies of parameters within frames, and their associated mnemonics, calibrations, and soft and hard limits. The contents of this database—especially calibrations and limits—may be updated periodically to maintain consistency with flight software and operating procedures; these can change during the life of a mission in response to upgrades, hardware degradation in the space environment, and changes to mission parameters.

Commanding Commands sent to spacecraft are formatted according to the spacecraft database, and are validated against the database before being transmitted via a ground station. Commands may be issued manually in real time, or they may be part of automated or semi-automated procedures. Typically, commands successfully received by the spacecraft are acknowledged in telemetry, and a command counter is maintained on the spacecraft and at the ground to ensure synchronization. In certain cases, closed- loop control may be performed. Commanded activities may pertain directly to mission objectives, or they may be part of housekeeping. Commands (and telemetry) may be encrypted to prevent unauthorized access to the spacecraft or its data.

Spacecraft procedures are often developed and tested against a spacecraft simulator prior to use with the actual spacecraft.

Staffing Control centers may be continuously or regularly staffed by flight controllers. Staffing is typically greatest during the early phases of a mission, and during critical procedures and periods. Increasingly commonly, control centers for unmanned spacecraft may be set up for "lights-out" (or automated) operation, as a means of controlling costs. Flight control software will typically generate alerts regarding significant events – both planned and unplanned – in the ground or space segment that may require operator action.

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Analysis and support Mission control centers may rely on "offline" (i.e., non-real-time) data processing subsystems to handle analytical tasks such as:

1. Orbit determination and maneuver planning 2. Conjunction assessment and collision avoidance planning 3. On-board memory management 4. Mission planning and scheduling 5. Path planning, in the case of planetary rovers 6. Short- and long-term trend analysis

Dedicated physical spaces may be provided in the control center for certain mission support roles, such as flight dynamics and network control, or these roles may be handled via remote terminals outside the control center. As on-board computing power and flight software complexity have increased, there is a trend toward performing more automated data processing on board the spacecraft.

Ground networks Ground networks handle data transfer and voice communication between different elements of the ground segment. These networks often combine LAN and WAN elements, for which different parties may be responsible. Geographically separated elements may be connected via leased lines or virtual private networks. The design of ground networks is driven by requirements on reliability, bandwidth, and security.

Reliability is a particularly important consideration for critical systems, with uptime and mean time to recovery being of paramount concern. As with other aspects of the spacecraft system, redundancy of network components is the primary means of achieving the required system reliability.

Security considerations are vital to protect space resources and sensitive data. WAN links often incorporate encryption protocols and firewalls to provide information and network security. Antivirus software and intrusion detection systems provide additional security at network endpoints.

Remote terminals Remote terminals are interfaces on ground networks, separate from the mission control center, which may be accessed by payload controllers, telemetry analysts, www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 96 of 391

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Satellite terminals used by service customers, including ISPs and end users, are collectively called the "user segment", and are typically distinguished from the ground segment.

Integration and test facilities Space vehicles and their interfaces are assembled and tested at integration and test (I&T) facilities. I&T provides an opportunity to fully test communications with, and behavior of, the spacecraft prior to launch.

Launch facilities Vehicles are delivered to space via launch facilities, which handle the logistics of rocket launches. Launch facilities are typically connected to the ground network to relay telemetry prior to and during launch. The launch vehicle itself is sometimes said to constitute a "transfer segment", which may be considered distinct from both the space and ground segments.

Costs Costs associated with the establishment and operation of a ground segment are highly variable, and depend on accounting methods. According to a study by Delft University of Technology, the ground segment contributes approximately 5% to the total cost of a space system. According to a report by the RAND Corporation on NASA small spacecraft missions, operation costs alone contribute 8% to the lifetime cost of a typical mission, with integration and testing making up a further 3.2%, ground facilities 2.6%, and ground systems engineering 1.1%.

Ground segment cost drivers include requirements placed on facilities, hardware, software, network connectivity, security, and staffing. Ground station costs in particular depend largely on the required transmission power, RF band(s), and the suitability of preexisting facilities. Control centers may be highly automated as a means of controlling staffing costs.

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Chapter 6 Under Sea

What is Tectonic Shift? Tectonic shift is the movement of the plates that make up Earth‘s crust. Map of tectonic plates from National Park Service; source:

http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/education_graphics.cfm (Modified by NPS from: R. J. Lillie. 2005. Parks and Plates.) The Earth is made up of roughly a dozen major plates and several minor plates.

The Earth is in a constant state of change. Earth‘s crust, called the lithosphere, consists of 15 to 20 moving tectonic plates. The plates can be thought of like pieces of a cracked shell that rest on the hot, molten rock of Earth‘s mantle and fit snugly against one another. The heat from radioactive processes within the planet‘s interior causes the plates to move, sometimes toward and sometimes away from each other. This movement is called plate motion, or tectonic shift.

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Our planet looks very different from the way it did 250 million years ago, when there was only one continent, called Pangaea, and one ocean, called Panthalassa. As Earth‘s mantle heated and cooled over many millennia, the outer crust broke up and commenced the plate motion that continues today.

The huge continent eventually broke apart, creating new and ever-changing land masses and oceans. Have you ever noticed how the east coast of South America looks like it would fit neatly into the west coast of Africa? That‘s because it did, millions of years before tectonic shift separated the two great continents.

Earth‘s land masses move toward and away from each other at an average rate of about 0.6 inch a year. That‘s about the rate that human toenails grow! Some regions, such as coastal California, move quite fast in geological terms — almost two inches a year — relative to the more stable interior of the continental United States. At the ―seams‖ where tectonic plates come in contact, the crustal rocks may grind violently against each other, causing earthquakes and volcano eruptions. The relatively fast movement of the tectonic plates under California explains the frequent earthquakes that occur there.

What is geodesy? Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding the Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding three fundamental properties of the Earth: its geometric shape, its orientation in space, and its gravity field— as well as the changes of these properties with time. By using GPS, geodesists can monitor the movement of a site 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

Many organizations use geodesy to map the U.S. shoreline, determine land boundaries, and improve transportation and navigation safety. To measure points on the Earth‘s surface, geodesists assign coordinates (similar to a unique address) to points all over the Earth. In the past, geodesists determined the coordinates of points by using Earth-based surveying tools to measure the distances between points. Today, geodesists use space-based tools like the Global Positioning System (GPS) to measure points on the Earth‘s surface.

Geodesists must accurately define the coordinates of points on the surface of the Earth in a consistent manner. A set of accurately measured points is the basis for the

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National Spatial Reference System, which allows different kinds of maps to be consistent with one another.

To measure the Earth, geodesists build simple mathematical models of the Earth which capture the largest, most obvious features. Geodesists have adopted the ellipsoid as the most basic model of the Earth. Because the ellipsoid is based on a very simple mathematical model, it can be completely smooth and does not include any mountains or valleys. When additional detail of the Earth is needed, geodesists use the geoid. A geoid has a shape very similar to global mean sea level, but this exists over the whole globe, not just over the oceans.

What is the most common form of ocean litter? Broken bottles, plastic toys, food wrappers ... during a walk along the coast one finds any of these items, and more. In all that litter, there is one item more common than any other: cigarette butts.

Cigarette butts are a pervasive, long-lasting, and a toxic form of marine debris. They primarily reach our waterways through improper disposal on beaches, rivers, and anywhere on land, transported to our coasts by runoff and stormwater. Once butts reach the beach, they may impact marine organisms and habitats.

Most cigarette filters are made out of cellulose acetate, a plastic-like material that‘s easy to manufacture, but not easy to degrade. The fibers in cigarette filters behave just like plastics in our oceans, the UV rays from our sun may break the fibers down into smaller pieces, but they don‘t disappear. One solid filter ends up being thousands of tiny microplastics

Did you know? Cigarette butts continue to rank among the most common types of marine debris found. The Ocean Conservancy’s 2018 International Coastal Cleanup Report stated that 2,412,151 cigarette butts were collected worldwide in 2017. This is an increase from the 1,863,838 butts collected around the world in 2016.

What is the intertidal zone? The intertidal zone is the area where the ocean meets the land between high and low tides.

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Intertidal zones exist anywhere the ocean meets the land, from steep, rocky ledges to long, sloping sandy beaches and mudflats that can extend for hundreds of meters. Four physical divisions, each with distinct characteristics and ecological differences, divide the intertidal zone. They are the:  Spray zone: dampened by ocean spray and high waves and is submerged only during very high tides or severe storms.  High intertidal zone: floods during the peaks of daily high tides but remains dry for long stretches between high tides. It is inhabited by hardy sea life that can withstand pounding waves, such as barnacles, marine snails, mussels, limpets, shore crabs, and hermit crabs.  Middle intertidal zone: over which the tides ebb and flow twice a day, and which is inhabited by a greater variety of both plants and animals, including sea stars and anemones.  Low intertidal zone: virtually always underwater except during the lowest of spring tides. Life is more abundant there because of the protection provided by the water.

Sea creatures arrange themselves vertically in the intertidal zone depending on their abilities to compete for space, avoid predators from above and below, and resist drying out. Residents of the higher intertidal zones can either close themselves up in their shells to remain moist and ward off predators, or are mobile enough to retreat to a submerged zone when the tide goes out. In the lower parts of the intertidal zone, many plants and animals attach themselves in place and are very sturdy, very flexible, or otherwise well suited to stand up to wave energy.

Larger marine life, such as seals, sea lions, and fish, find foraging for food ideal at high tide in the intertidal zone, while a large variety of shorebirds, looking for their meals, stroll hungrily over the intertidal zone at low tide.

What is a lagoon? A lagoon is a body of water separated from larger bodies of water by a natural barrier.

This NASA satellite image shows the lagoons www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 101 of 391

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Lagoons are separated from larger bodies of water by sandbars, barrier reefs, coral reefs, or other natural barriers. The word "lagoon" derives from the Italian word laguna, which means "pond" or "lake."

Although lagoons are well defined geographically, the word ―lagoon‖ is sometimes used as a name for a larger region that contains one or more lagoons. For example, Laguna Madre on the Texas Gulf Coast is actually made up of smaller bays and lagoons, while Laguna Beach in Southern California is actually a beach and not a lagoon at all.

There are two types of lagoons: atoll and coastal. Atoll lagoons form when an island completely subsides beneath the water, leaving a ring of coral that continues to grow upwards. At the center of the ring is a body of water that is often deep. The combination of coral growth and water creates a lagoon. It may take as long as 300,000 years for an atoll formation to occur.

Coastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts. They are generally shallower than atoll lagoons and tend to be separated from the ocean by an island, reef, or sand bank. Most of the time, coastal lagoons are connected to the ocean by an inlet. Sea level rise, the amount of existing sediment, and tidal range all contribute to the formation of coastal lagoons. Younger and more dynamic than atoll lagoons, coastal lagoons may have shorter ―lifespans‖ due to their exposed locations on the shore.

How do hurricanes affect sea life? Hurricanes generate high waves, rough undercurrents, and shifting sands, all of which may harm sea life

When a storm churns across the ocean, the warm surface waters provide additional moisture and can fuel the storm into a hurricane. As the hurricane grows larger and more potent, it can generate waves as high as 18.3 meters, tossing and mixing warmer surface waters with the colder, saltier water below. The resulting currents can extend as far as 91.5 meters below the surface, wreaking deadly havoc on marine life.

If the wild currents fail to break up coral reefs in their path, the rain-infused water they bring reduces salt levels and otherwise stresses corals. As the hurricane moves www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 102 of 391

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Slow-moving fish and turtles and shellfish beds are often decimated by the rough undercurrents and rapid changes in water temperature and salinity wrought by a hurricane. Sharks, whales, and other large animals swiftly move to calmer waters, however, and, generally speaking, are not overly affected by hurricanes.

Did you know? Delicate branching corals, like staghorn and elkhorn species, are among the most vulnerable to breakage and can be reduced to rubble during hurricanes or even less severe storms. Sometimes, though, the breaking of coral into pieces may actually help a coral colony reproduce through a process called fragmentation. If conditions are favorable and the coral fragments come to rest where they can reattach to the seafloor, fragmentation can result in colonies flourishing in new locations. In other instances, corals that reproduce through broadcast spawning may get a little extra help from late summer storms, which help the coral larvae disburse to uncolonized areas.

What is a thermocline? A thermocline is the transition layer between warmer mixed water at the ocean's surface and cooler deep water below.

The red line in this illustration shows a typical seawater temperature profile. In the thermocline, temperature decreases rapidly from the mixed upper layer of the ocean (called the epipelagic zone) to much colder deep water in the thermocline

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(mesopelagic zone). Below 3,300 feet to a depth of about 13,100 feet, water temperature remains constant. At depths below 13,100 feet, the temperature ranges from near freezing to just above the freezing point of water as depth increases.

Bodies of water are made up of layers, determined by temperature. The top surface layer is called the epipelagic zone, and is sometimes referred to as the "ocean skin" or "sunlight zone." This layer interacts with the wind and waves, which mixes the water and distributes the warmth. At the base of this layer is the thermocline. A thermocline is the transition layer between the warmer mixed water at the surface and the cooler deep water below. It is relatively easy to tell when you have reached the thermocline in a body of water because there is a sudden change in temperature. In the thermocline, the temperature decreases rapidly from the mixed layer temperature to the much colder deep water temperature.

In the ocean, the depth and strength of the thermocline vary from season to season and year to year. It is semi-permanent in the tropics, variable in temperate regions (often deepest during the summer), and shallow to nonexistent in the polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom.

Thermoclines also play a role in meteorological forecasting. For example, hurricane forecasters must consider not just the temperature of the ocean's skin (the sea surface temperature), but also the depth of warm water above the thermocline. Water vapor evaporated from the ocean is a hurricane's primary fuel. The depth of the thermocline is the measure of the size of the "fuel tank" and helps to predict the risk of hurricane formation.

What is a glass sponge? The glass sponge is a deep-dwelling animal named for its intricate glass-like skeletal structure.

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The most famous glass sponge is a species of Euplectella, shown here in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Commonly called the ―Venus flower basket,‖ this sponge builds its skeleton in a way that entraps a certain species of crustacean inside for life.

Glass sponges in the class Hexactinellida are animals commonly found in the deep ocean. Their tissues contain glass-like structural particles, called spicules, that are made of silica (hence their name). Some species of glass sponges produce extremely large spicules that fuse together in beautiful patterns to form a ―glass house‖—a complex skeleton that often remains intact even after the sponge itself dies. The skeleton of the glass sponge, together with various chemicals, provides defense against many predators. Nonetheless, some starfish are known to feed on these rare creatures of the deep.

Most glass sponges live attached to hard surfaces and consume small bacteria and plankton that they filter from the surrounding water. Their intricate skeletons provide many other animals with a home.

The most famous glass sponge is a species of Euplectella, known as the ―Venus flower basket,‖ which builds its skeleton in a way that entraps a certain species of crustacean inside for life. This sponge often houses two small, shrimp-like Stenopodidea, a male and a female, who live out their lives inside the sponge. The crustaceans breed, and when their offspring are tiny, they escape to find a new Venus flower basket of their own. The pair inside the basket clean it and, in return, the basket provides food for the crustaceans through its waste. The animals www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 105 of 391

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What species live in and around coral reefs? Millions of species live in and around coral reefs

Coral reefs are home to millions of species. Hidden beneath the ocean waters, coral reefs teem with life. Fish, corals, lobsters, clams, seahorses, sponges, and sea turtles are only a few of the thousands of creatures that rely on reefs for their survival. Coral reefs are also living museums and reflect thousands of years of history. Many U.S. coral reefs were alive and thriving centuries before the European colonization of the nearby shores. Some reefs are even older than our old-growth redwood forests. They are an integral part of many cultures and our natural heritage.

Today, these important habitats are threatened by a range of human activities. Many of the world‘s reefs have already been destroyed or severely damaged by water pollution, overfishing and destructive fishing practices, disease, global climate change, and ship groundings. However, we can still protect and preserve our remaining reefs by acting now

Did you know? Glass sponge reefs were thought to have gone extinct about 40 million years ago, leaving behind giant fossil cliffs that stretch across parts of Spain, France, Germany, and Romania. In 1987, however, a team of Canadian scientists discovered 9,000- year-old living glass sponge reefs on British Columbia‘s northern coast. To date, these are the only such reefs known to exist.

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What is a watershed? It‘s a land area that channels rainfall and snowmelt to creeks, streams, and rivers, and eventually to outflow points such as reservoirs, bays, and the ocean.

While some watersheds are relatively small, others encompass thousands of square miles and may contain streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and underlying groundwater that are hundreds of miles inland. Shown here: an aerial view of Drakes Bay, part of California's Tomales-Drake watershed The size of a watershed (also called a drainage basin or catchment) is defined on several scales—referred to as its Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC)—based on the geography that is most relevant to its specific area. A watershed can be small, such as a modest inland lake or a single county.

Conversely, some watersheds encompass thousands of square miles and may contain streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and underlying groundwater that are hundreds of miles inland. The largest watershed in the United States is the Mississippi River Watershed, which drains 1.15 million square miles from all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces stretching from the Rockies to the Appalachians!

Water from hundreds, and often thousands, of creeks and streams flow from higher ground to rivers that eventually wind up in a larger waterbody. As the water flows, it often picks up pollutants, which may have sinister effects on the ecology of the watershed and, ultimately, on the reservoir, bay, or ocean where it ends up.

Not all water flows directly to the sea, however. When rain falls on dry ground, it can soak into, or infiltrate, the ground. This groundwater remains in the soil, where it will eventually seep into the nearest stream. Some water infiltrates much deeper, into underground reservoirs called aquifers. In other areas, where the soil contains a lot of hard clay, very little water may infiltrate. Instead, it quickly runs off to lower ground.

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Rain and snowmelt from watersheds travel via many routes to the sea. During periods of heavy rain and snowfall, water may run onto and off of impervious surfaces such as parking lots, roads, buildings, and other structures because it has nowhere else to go. These surfaces act as "fast lanes" that transport the water directly into storm drains. The excess water volume can quickly overwhelm streams and rivers, causing them to overflow and possibly result in floods.

What is eutrophication? Harmful algal blooms, dead zones, and fish kills are the results of a process called eutrophication—which begins with the increased load of nutrients to estuaries and coastal waters.

Eutrophication is a big word that describes a big problem in the nation's estuaries. Harmful algal blooms, dead zones, and fish kills are the results of a process called eutrophication—which begins with the increased load of nutrients to estuaries and coastal waters.

Sixty-five percent of U.S. estuaries and coastal water bodies are moderately to severely degraded by excessive nutrient inputs, which lead to algal blooms and low- oxygen (hypoxic) waters that can kill fish and seagrass and reduce essential fish habitats. Many of these estuaries also support bivalve mollusk populations (e.g., oysters, clams, scallops), which naturally reduce nutrients through their filter- feeding activities.

The primary culprits in eutrophication appear to be excess nitrogen and phosphorus—from sources including fertilizer runoff and septic system effluent to atmospheric fallout from burning fossil fuels—which enter waterbodies and fuel the overgrowth of algae, which, in turn, reduces water quality and degrades estuarine and coastal ecosystems.

Eutrophication can also produce carbon dioxide, which lowers the PH of seawater (ocean acidification). This slows the growth of fish and shellfish, may prevent shell formation in bivalve mollusks, and reduces the catch of commercial and recreational fisheries, leading to smaller harvests and more expensive seafood. In recent years, NOAA's National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), in collaboration with NOAA's Northeast Fisheries Science Center, has enlisted estuaries' indigenous residents, namely, bivalve mollusks, to help slow and, in some cases, reverse the process of eutrophication, since they efficiently remove nutrients from the water as they feed on phytoplankton and detritus. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 108 of 391

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A groundbreaking modeling project in Long Island Sound showed that the oyster aquaculture industry in Connecticut provides $8.5 – $23 million annually in nutrient reduction benefits. The project also showed that reasonable expansion of oyster aquaculture could provide as much nutrient reduction as the comparable investment of $470 million in traditional nutrient-reduction measures, such as wastewater treatment improvements and agricultural best management practices.

The NOAA scientists used aquaculture modeling tools to demonstrate that shellfish aquaculture compares favorably to existing nutrient management strategies in terms of efficiency of nutrient removal and implementation cost. Documenting the water quality benefits provided by shellfish aquaculture has increased both communities' and regulators' acceptance of shellfish farming, not only in Connecticut but across the nation. In Chesapeake Bay, for example, nutrient removal policies include the harvesting of oyster tissue as an approved method, and in Mashpee Bay, Massachusetts, cultivation and harvest of oysters and clams are part of the official nutrient management plan.

What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean? Most ocean pollution begins on land

When large tracts of land are plowed, the exposed soil can erode during rainstorms. Much of this runoff flows to the sea, carrying with it agricultural fertilizers and pesticides.

Eighty percent of pollution to the marine environment comes from the land. One of the biggest sources is called nonpoint source pollution, which occurs as a result of runoff. Nonpoint source pollution includes many small sources, like septic tanks, www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 109 of 391

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Some water pollution actually starts as air pollution, which settles into waterways and oceans. Dirt can be a pollutant. Top soil or silt from fields or construction sites can run off into waterways, harming fish and wildlife habitats.

Nonpoint source pollution can make river and ocean water unsafe for humans and wildlife. In some areas, this pollution is so bad that it causes beaches to be closed after rainstorms.

More than one-third of the shellfish-growing waters of the United States are adversely affected by coastal pollution.

Correcting the harmful effects of nonpoint source pollution is costly. Each year, millions of dollars are spent to restore and protect areas damaged or endangered by nonpoint source pollutants. NOAA works with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Agriculture, and other federal and state agencies to develop ways to control nonpoint source pollution. These agencies work together to monitor, assess, and limit nonpoint source pollution that may result naturally and by human actions.

What is nutrient pollution? Nutrient pollution is the process where too many nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, are added to bodies of water and can act like fertilizer, causing excessive growth of algae.

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Nutrients can run off of land in urban areas where lawn fertilizers are used. Pet and wildlife wastes are also sources of nutrients. To see how this happens, consider this visualization of the Chesapeake Bay, part of the largest watershed in the Northeast. This illustration shows the amount of suspended matter (e.g., silt, mud, debris) in waterways before (left) and after (right) areas in this region received exceptionally heavy rainfall in 2011. All of this rain and runoff eventually made its way into the Chesapeake Bay.

This process is also known as eutrophication. Excessive amounts of nutrients can lead to more serious problems such as low levels of oxygen dissolved in the water. Severe algal growth blocks light that is needed for plants, such as seagrasses, to grow. When the algae and seagrass die, they decay. In the process of decay, the oxygen in the water is used up and this leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water. This, in turn, can kill fish, crabs, oysters, and other aquatic animals.

Nutrients come from a variety of different sources. They can occur naturally as a result of weathering of rocks and soil in the watershed and they can also come from the ocean due to mixing of water currents. Scientists are most interested in the nutrients that are related to people living in the coastal zone because human-related inputs are much greater than natural inputs. Because there are increasingly more people living in coastal areas, there are more nutrients entering our coastal waters from wastewater treatment facilities, runoff from land in urban areas during rains, and from farming.

All of these factors can lead to increased nutrient pollution.

How does backscatter help us understand the sea floor? Intensity of sound reflected off the sea floor indicates the bottom type.

Backscatter is the reflection of a signal (such as sound waves or light) back in the direction from where it originated. Backscatter is commonly used in medical ultrasounds to understand characteristics of the human body, but in the world of hydrography and marine science, backscatter from soundwaves helps us understand characteristics of the sea floor.

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A backscatter mosaic, which records the strength of the sonar return from the ocean floor, is overlaid on a nautical chart.

NOAA ships equipped with multibeam echo sounders use beams of sound to map the ocean floor. These sonar systems collect two types of 3D data: sea floor depth and backscatter. The sea floor depth, or bathymetry, is computed by measuring the time it takes for the sound to leave the sonar, hit the sea floor, and return to the sonar. Backscatter is computed by measuring the amount of sound that is reflected by the sea floor and received by the sonar.

Different bottom types ―scatter‖ sound energy differently, telling scientists about their relative hardness and roughness. Harder bottom types (like rock) reflect more sound than softer bottom types (like mud), and smoother bottom types (like pavement) reflect more sound than bumpier bottom types (like coral reef).

Combining bathymetry and backscatter data collected by multibeam echo sounders allows scientists to create very detailed 3D maps of the sea floor and the habitats present there. The information is used for multiple purposes, including marine ecosystem protection, coastal hazard preparedness, and navigation safety.

Backscatter—measure of sound that is reflected by the sea floor and received by the sonar. A stronger return signal indicates a hard bottom such as coral or rocks. A weaker return signal indicates a soft bottom such as mud. Scientists use this information to create detailed 3D maps of the sea floor and the habitats present on

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Did you know? A 3D map of the ocean floor can tell scientists and resource managers important details, such as the distribution and health of a coral reef ecosystem or which areas certain species of fish prefer for spawning. This helps us better conserve and protect our ocean and all the creatures that live there.

What is a ghost forest? A ghost forest is the watery remains of a once verdant woodland.

A ghost forest on Capers Island, South Carolina.

As sea level rises, more and more saltwater encroaches on the land. Along the world‘s coasts and estuaries, invading seawater advances and overtakes the fresh water that deciduous trees rely upon for sustenance. The salty water slowly poisons living trees, leaving a haunted ghost forest of dead and dying timber. Still standing in or near brackish water, the decaying trees of a ghost forest resemble giant graying pillars that protrude into the air.

Researchers report that the rapid increase in ghost forests represents a dramatic visual picture of environmental changes along coastal plains located at or near sea level. In many areas, rising sea levels combine with land sinking from the last ice age, as is currently happening in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

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The Mississippi Delta region of Louisiana is undergoing changes due to rising waters, the sinking of Earth's crust, and sediments compacting along the Mississippi River. With land and water constantly shifting, woodlands die and are buried in open water. This is apparent along North Carolina‘s maritime forests, where only a glimpse of once peaceful and verdant groves, now ghost forests, remain.

What is a maritime forest? Maritime forests protect our shorelines from ongoing movement of the coast.

These stumps are evidence that trees once grew here, but due to a constantly changing shoreline, they are now mostly submerged in the ocean.

Maritime forests are shoreline estuaries that grow along coastal barrier islands that support a great diversity of plants and animals. Many maritime forests in the United States remain largely untouched by commercial development and closely resemble the woodlands where Native Americans lived and early colonists settled hundreds of years ago. Trees, bushes, and other plants in maritime forests and estuaries withstand strong winds, periodic flooding, and salt spray. Many species of mammals and reptiles make the forests their home, and thousands of birds migrate to maritime forests each year.

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Currituck Banks Reserve, on North Carolina's Outer Banks, is a maritime forest.

A good example of a maritime forest is the Currituck Banks Reserve, located on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The western, ocean side of Currituck consists of sand dunes of beach grass and sea oats, which front a tightly woven canopy of shrub-like thickets of wax myrtle, holly, and stunted oaks. The canopy acts as a windscreen to protect the forest's less tolerant interior trees, often consisting of American holly, beach olive, ironwood, loblolly pine, red maple, and live oak. On the other side of the barrier island's maritime forest lies the estuary of Currituck Sound, where fresh water meets the ocean's salt water. This shallow intertidal area is home to the estuary's abundant flora and fauna.

Like all barrier islands, maritime forests are constantly changing and on the move. On Currituck, for example, one can see stumps of deciduous trees along the sandy beach. These trees were once in the center of the island, but due to the constantly changing shoreline, they are now mostly submerged in the ocean. Maritime forests, like all estuaries, are essential for storm protection. They also conserve important nutrients and groundwater.

How does sand form? Sand is the end product of many things, including decomposed rocks, organic by- products, and even parrotfish poop.

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The giant bumphead parrotfish is an amazing fish that can live to be 40 years old, growing up to four feet long and 100 pounds. They use their large head bumps to literally bump heads during competitive displays, when large numbers of fish aggregate to spawn on a lunar cycle. The bumphead parrotfish excretes white sand, which it may produce at the rate of several hundred pounds a year!

The environmentalist Rachel Carson wrote, "In every curving beach, in every grain of sand, there is a story of the Earth."

Sand comes from many locations, sources, and environments. Sand forms when rocks break down from weathering and eroding over thousands and even millions of years. Rocks take time to decompose, especially quartz (silica) and feldspar. Often starting thousands of miles from the ocean, rocks slowly travel down rivers and streams, constantly breaking down along the way. Once they make it to the ocean, they further erode from the constant action of waves and tides.

The tan color of most sand beaches is the result of iron oxide, which tints quartz a light brown, and feldspar, which is brown to tan in its original form. Black sand comes from eroded volcanic material such as lava, basalt rocks, and other dark- colored rocks and minerals, and is typically found on beaches near volcanic activity. Black-sand beaches are common in Hawaii, the Canary Islands, and the Aleutians.

The by-products of living things also play an important part in creating sandy beaches. Bermuda's preponderance of pleasantly pink beaches results from the www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 116 of 391

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Less common but no less inviting beaches, devoid of quartz as a source of sand, rely on an entirely different ecologic process. The famous white-sand beaches of Hawaii, for example, actually come from the poop of parrotfish. The fish bite and scrape algae off of rocks and dead corals with their parrot-like beaks, grind up the inedible calcium-carbonate reef material (made mostly of coral skeletons) in their guts, and then excrete it as sand. At the same time that it helps to maintain a diverse coral-reef ecosystem, parrotfish can produce hundreds of pounds of white sand each year!

So the next time you unfurl your beach towel down by the shore, ponder the sand beneath you, which, as Rachel Carson said, is telling you a story about the Earth. You may be about to comfortably nestle down in the remains of million-year-old rocks. Then again, you may soon come to rest upon an endless heap of parrotfish poop.

Did you know? Sand is measured according to specific parameters. If more than 50 percent of the material is larger in diameter than 75 microns (.03 inches) but smaller than .18 inches, it is said to be sand. If the average particle size is smaller, it is considered to be silt or clay, and if the average particle size is larger, it is garden-variety gravel.

What is a living shoreline? A protected and stabilized shoreline that is made of natural materials such as plants, sand, or rock.

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Living shorelines use plants or other natural elements to stabilize estuarine coasts, bays, or tributaries.

Living shorelines are a green infrastructure technique using native vegetation alone or in combination with offshore sills to stabilize the shoreline. Living shorelines provide a natural alternative to ‗hard‘ shoreline stabilization methods like stone sills or bulkheads, and provide numerous benefits including nutrient pollution remediation, essential fish habitat provision, and buffering of shoreline from waves and storms.

Living shorelines are known to store carbon (known as carbon sequestration), which keeps carbon out of the atmosphere. Continued use of this approach to coastal resilience will result in increased carbon sequestration and storage, potentially mitigating the effects of climate change.

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Living Shorelines Support Resilient Communities Living shorelines use plants or other natural elements—sometimes in combination with harder shoreline structures—to stabilize estuarine coasts, bays, and tributaries.  One square mile of salt marsh stores the carbon equivalent of 76,000 gal of gas annually.  Marshes trap sediments from tidal waters, allowing them to grow in elevation as sea level rises.  Living shorelines improve water quality, provide fisheries habitat, increase biodiversity, and promote recreation.  Marshes and oyster reefs act as natural barriers to waves. 15 ft of marsh can absorb 50% of incoming wave energy.  Living shorelines are more resilient against storms than bulkheads.  33% of shorelines in the U.S. will be hardened by 2100, decreasing fisheries habitat and biodiversity.  Hard shoreline structures like bulkheads prevent natural marsh migration and may create seaward erosion.

What does the ocean have to do with human health? The ocean is closely tied to human health.

Our ocean and coasts affect us all!

Our ocean and coasts affect us all—even those of us who don't live near the shoreline. Consider the economy. Through the fishing and boating industry, tourism and recreation, and ocean transport, one in six U.S. jobs is marine-related. Coastal and marine waters support over 28 million jobs. U.S. consumers spend over $55 billion annually for fishery products. Then there's travel and tourism. Our beaches are a top destination, attracting about 90 million people a year. Our coastal areas generate 85 percent of all U.S. tourism revenues. And let's not forget about the Great www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 119 of 391

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Lakes—these vast bodies of water supply more than 40 million people with drinking water. Our ocean, coasts, and Great Lakes serve other critical needs, too—needs that are harder to measure, but no less important—such as climate regulation, nutrient recycling, and maritime heritage. Last but not least, a healthy ocean and coasts provide us with resources we rely on every day, ranging from food, to medicines, to compounds that make our peanut butter easier to spread! So what does all of this have to do with human health?

Ocean in Distress When we think of public health risks, we may not think of the ocean as a factor. But increasingly, the health of the ocean is intimately tied to our health. One sign of an ocean in distress is an increase in beach or shellfish harvesting closures across the U.S. Intensive use of our ocean and runoff from land-based pollution sources are just two of many factors that stress our fragile ecosystems—and increasingly lead to human health concerns. Waterborne infectious diseases, harmful algal bloom toxins, contaminated seafood, and chemical pollutants are other signals. Just as we can threaten the health of our ocean, so, too, can our ocean threaten our health.. And it is not public health alone that may be threatened; our coastal economies, too, could be at significant risk.

Closing the Safety Gap Throughout the U.S., there are thousands of beach and shellfish closures or advisories each year due to the presence of harmful marine organisms, chemical pollutants, or algal toxins. To address public health threats and benefits from the sea, NOAA scientists and partners are developing and delivering useful tools, technologies, and environmental information to public health and natural resource managers, decision-makers, and the public. These products and services include predictions for harmful algal blooms and harmful microbes to reduce exposure to contaminated seafood, and early warning systems for contaminated beaches and drinking water sources to protect and prevent human illness.

Emerging Health Threats Whales, dolphins, and other marine mammals eat much of the same seafood that we consume, and we swim in shared coastal waters. Unlike us, however, they are exposed to potential ocean health threats such as toxic algae or poor water quality 24 hours a day, seven days a week. These mammals, and other sentinel species, can shed important light on how the condition of ocean environments may affect human health now and in the future. As the principal stewardship agency responsible for www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 120 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) protecting marine mammals in the wild, NOAA's Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program supports a network of national and international projects aimed at investigating health concerns. One projects is an assessment of the health conditions of dolphins in coastal waters in areas where contaminants may be of concern. These assessments involve a veterinary examination, medical sampling, and attachment of radio transmitters that track dolphin movements and help determine contaminant sources. This research can not only warn us about potential public health risks and lead to improved management of the protected species, but may also lead to new medical discoveries.

Cures from the Deep Keeping our ocean healthy is about more than protecting human health—it's also about finding new ways to save lives. The diversity of species found in our ocean offers great promise for a treasure chest of pharmaceuticals and natural products to combat illness and improve our quality of life. Many new marine-based drugs have already been discovered that treat some types of cancer, antibiotic resistant staph infections, pain, asthma, and inflammation. For example, NOAA and U.S. Department of Agriculture researchers recently found that a fish-killing toxin has the potential to kill or slow the growth of cancer cells, even at very low concentrations. Preliminary studies have demonstrated the toxin to be highly effective against renal cancer, one of the most challenging cancers to treat. NOAA and its partners are involved in many studies like this to seek out potential new benefits to make us healthier. What are brain corals? Brain corals, a slow-growing species of coral, often act as foundations for reefs.

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Brain coral in the Dry Tortugas, Florida.

The cerebral-looking organisms known as brain corals do not have brains, but they can grow six feet tall and live for up to 900 years! Found in the Caribbean, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, brain corals display what is known as Meandroid tissue integration. This means that the polyps, which are the basic living unit of corals, are highly associated to one another. Their tissues are more closely connected than those of other corals and are not separated by skeletal structures. Many researchers think that the more integrated a coral's polyp tissue is, the more advanced the coral species.

Tissue integration is advantageous because the coral polyps are able to transfer molecules such as nutrients, hormones, and oxygen—making it easier for the brain coral colony to communicate. In some cases, however, this can lead to vulnerability, because if even one polyp gets sick, the pathogen can quickly spread to the rest of the colony. Some species of brain corals suffer mass mortalities due to diseases such as black band disease, white plague, and thermal bleaching.

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Did you know? The ecological importance of brain corals is enormous. Brain corals grow very slowly, but they build super strong structures that act as the foundations of coral reefs. They are known as massive growth type corals. Massive corals take a long time to get big, but once they do, they offer outstanding protection to marine life and coastlines. Coral reefs can absorb up to 97 percent of the wave energy during storm events, and brain corals play an important role in that function

Are corals animals or plants? Coral, a sessile animal, relies on its relationship with plant-like algae to build the largest structures of biological origin on Earth.

Corals are sessile animals that "take root" on the ocean floor. It's no wonder that many people think corals are plants!

Corals are sessile, which means that they permanently attach themselves to the ocean floor, essentially "taking root" like most plants do. We certainly cannot recognize them by their faces or other distinct body parts, as we can most other animals. So what exactly are corals? Corals actually comprise an ancient and unique partnership, called symbiosis, that benefits both animal and plant life in the ocean. Corals are animals, though, because they do not make their own food, as plants do. Corals have tiny, tentacle-like arms that they use to capture their food from the water and sweep into their inscrutable mouths.

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Most structures that we call "coral" are, in fact, made up of hundreds to thousands of tiny coral creatures called polyps. Each soft-bodied polyp—most no thicker than a nickel—secretes a hard outer skeleton of limestone (calcium carbonate) that attaches either to rock or the dead skeletons of other polyps.

In the case of stony or hard corals, these polyp conglomerates grow, die, and endlessly repeat the cycle over time, slowly laying the limestone foundation for coral reefs and giving shape to the familiar corals that reside there. Because of this cycle of growth, death, and regeneration among individual polyps, many coral colonies can live for a very long time.

Most corals contain algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-UH-zan-thuh-lay), which are plant-like organisms. Residing within the coral's tissues, the microscopic algae are well protected and make use of the coral's metabolic waste products for photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food.

The corals benefit, in turn, as the algae produce oxygen, remove wastes, and supply the organic products of photosynthesis that corals need to grow, thrive, and build up the reef.

More than merely a clever collaboration that has endured between some of the tiniest ocean animals and plants for some 25 million years, this mutual exchange is the reason why coral reefs are the largest structures of biological origin on Earth, and rival old-growth forests in the longevity of their ecological communities

Did you know? When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white. When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can survive a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to mortality. Coral bleaching is of particular concern today as our climate changes and temperatures rise.

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A classic example of a catcher beach along the shores of Hawaii.

Not to be confused with a dumping ground or heavily trashed public beach, a catcher beach typically receives its accumulations of debris due to its shape and location in combination with high-energy waves, storms, or winds. Awareness and common knowledge of these types of areas vary significantly by state, although many states have a good understanding of where catcher beaches are located. In many cases, catcher beaches are found in remote areas that are difficult to access and can be challenging in terms of debris cleanup and removal.

A specific example of a catcher beach can be found along the shores of Gore Point, Alaska. The geography of this location makes it a very high-density catcher beach, as it sticks out like a hook into the Gulf of Alaska current. Scientists and community groups have been monitoring and cleaning this catcher beach for over nine years because a lot of debris ends up there each year. Most notably in 2007-2008, a cleanup effort in Gore Point removed more than 20 tons of debris from less than a mile of shoreline! The debris included piles of logs reaching 10-15 feet high— evidence of the force of the winter storms that bring debris ashore in that part of Alaska.

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This map shows debris concentrations from an aerial survey done in Alaska in 2012. The map points to two known catcher areas, along Kruzof Island and Gore Point.

What causes a sea turtle to be born male or female? Most turtles are subject to temperature-dependent sex determination.

A Green turtle hatchling heads to sea

In most species, gender is determined during fertilization. However, the sex of most turtles, alligators, and crocodiles is determined after fertilization. The temperature of the developing eggs is what decides whether the offspring will be male or female. This is called temperature- dependent sex determination, or TSD.

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Research shows that if a turtle's eggs incubate below 81.86 Fahrenheit, the turtle hatchlings will be male. If the eggs incubate above 87.8° Fahrenheit, however, the hatchlings will be female. Temperatures that fluctuate between the two extremes will produce a mix of male and female baby turtles.

Researchers have also noted that the warmer the sand, the higher the ratio of female turtles. As the Earth experiences climate change, increased temperatures could result in skewed and even lethal incubation conditions, which would impact turtle species and other reptiles.

What is the largest sea turtle? The leatherback is the largest living sea turtle.

Leatherback turtle consuming a jellyfish off Cape Cod.

Weighing in at between 550 and 2,000 pounds with lengths of up to six feet, the leatherback is a big turtle! Leatherback sea turtles can be distinguished from other species of sea turtle by its lack of a hard shell or scales. Instead, leatherbacks are covered with a firm, rubbery skin.

You can find leatherback sea turtles as far north as Canada and the northern Pacific Ocean. They tend to nest in the tropics, however. Within the United States, the leatherback is known to nest in southeast Florida, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

The leatherback sea turtle feeds primarily on jellyfish.

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The U.S. federal government has listed the leatherback as endangered worldwide. Primary threats to the turtles include incidental take in commercial fisheries and marine pollution, as well as the harvest of eggs.

What are the oldest living animals in the world? Studies show that some corals can live for up to 5,000 years, making them the longest living animals on Earth.

Some corals can live for up to 5,000 years, making them the longest living animals on Earth.

Scientific studies of elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) in the Caribbean and off the coast of Florida show that coral genotypes can survive longer than expected. Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism.

Scientists are now using a genetic approach to estimate the ages of corals. The method determines when a coral egg and sperm originally met to form the genome of a coral colony. The researchers then track the number of mutations that have accumulated in the genome since that time. Because mutations tend to arise at a relatively constant rate, researchers can estimate the approximate age of the coral genomes in their study.

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These studies can help clarify how corals will respond to current and future environmental changes. Though corals can be resilient and live for thousands of years, elkhorn corals are listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The corals have suffered recent population declines, indicating that there are limits to how much change even these resilient creatures can handle.

Are all fish cold-blooded? The opah is the only known fully warm-blooded fish that circulates heated blood throughout its body.

Fisheries biologist Nicholas Wegner of NOAA Fisheries' Southwest Fisheries Science Center in La Jolla, California, lead author of the a 2015 research paper that discovered the unique warm-blooded characteristics of the opah (shown here).

Not all fish are cold- blooded. In 2015, researchers with the NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center revealed the opah, or moonfish, as the first fully warm-blooded fish. Although not as warm as mammals and birds, the opah circulates heated blood throughout its body, giving it a competitive advantage in the cold ocean depths from 150 to 1,300 feet below the surface. Its body temperature isn‘t the only thing that makes this fish stand out from the rest in its environment. Most fish living in the dark and chilly depths rely on ambush to catch their prey, but the agile opah is fast and efficient, flapping its bright red pectoral fins to race through the water. The constant flapping of its fins heats the opah‘s body, speeding its metabolism, movement, and reaction times.

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About the same size as a large automobile tire, the opah is equipped with specialized blood vessels that carry warm blood to its gills to rewarm the blood that cools as the fish breathes and absorbs oxygen from the water. These heat-exchanging blood vessels minimize the loss of body heat to the opah‘s cold environment, ensuring a warm core body temperature, increasing muscle output and swimming capacity, and boosting eye and brain function. The opah is also able to stay in deep water longer without risking reduced function to its heart and other organs because the fatty tissue surrounding its gills, heart, and muscle tissue acts as insulation against icy waters.

The opah is one of the most colorful of the commercial fish species, and is particularly popular in Hawaii. It is overall red with white spots and turns a silvery- grey when it dies. Its fins are crimson, and its large eyes are encircled with gold. The fish‘s large, round profile is thought to be the origin of its ―moonfish‖ nickname. These combined characteristics certainly make this ―warm-blooded fish‖ unique among the many wondrous creatures of the ocean.

Where do fish go when it freezes outside? Most fish slow down and "rest" near the bottom during cold winter months.

White Shoal Lighthouse in northern Lake Michigan.

Have you ever wondered how fish survive in cold winter weather, or where they go when lakes and ponds freeze over? Like many people, fish tend to be less active in the cold. As cold-blooded creatures, their metabolism dips when temperatures take a dive.

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The layer of ice that forms on top of a lake, pond, river, or stream provides some insulation that helps the waterbody retain its heat. Because warm water sinks in very cold freshwater, fish in these water bodies often gather in groups near the bottom. Some species, like koi and gobies, may burrow into soft sediments and go dormant like frogs and other amphibians, but most fish simply school in the deepest pools and take a "winter rest."

In this resting state, fishes' hearts slow down, their needs for food and oxygen decrease, and they move about very little. If you've ever gone ice fishing, you know that a long line, a slow, colorful lure, and a hearty portion of patience are often required to land this quiet quarry! Popular ice-fishing species include walleye, northern pike, yellow perch, and rainbow trout

What is ocean noise? Ocean noise refers to sounds made by human activities that can interfere with or obscure the ability of marine animals to hear natural sounds in the ocean.

Humpback whales swimming underwater.

Many marine organisms rely on their ability to hear for their survival. Sound is the most efficient means of communication underwater and is the primary way that many marine species gather and understand information about their environment. Many aquatic animals use sound to find prey, locate mates and offspring, avoid predators, guide their navigation and locate habitat, and listen and communicate with each other.

Over the last century, human activities such as shipping, recreational boating, and energy exploration have increased along our coasts, offshore, and deep ocean environments. Noise from these activities travel long distances underwater, leading to increases and changes in ocean noise levels. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 132 of 391

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Rising noise levels can negatively impact ocean animals and ecosystems. These higher noise levels can reduce the ability of animals to communicate with potential mates, other group members, their offspring, or feeding partners. Noise can also reduce an ocean animal's ability to hear environmental cues that are vital for survival, including those key to avoiding predators, finding food, and navigating to preferred habitats.

How far does sound travel in the ocean? The distance that sound travels in the ocean varies greatly, depending primarily upon water temperature and pressure.

Water temperature and pressure determine how far sound travels in the ocean.

While sound moves at a much faster speed in the water than in air, the distance that sound waves travel is primarily dependant upon ocean temperature and pressure. While pressure continues to increase as ocean depth increases, the temperature of the ocean only decreases up to a certain point, after which it remains relatively stable. These factors have a curious effect on how (and how far) sound waves travel.

Imagine a whale is swimming through the ocean and calls out to its pod. The whale produces sound waves that move like ripples in the water. As the whale‘s sound waves travel through the water, their speed decreases with increasing depth (as the temperature drops), causing the sound waves to refract downward. Once the sound waves reach the bottom of what is known as the thermocline layer, the speed of sound reaches its minimum. The thermocline is a region characterized by rapid change in temperature and pressure which occurs at different depths around the world. Below the thermocline "layer," the temperature remains constant, but www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 133 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) pressure continues to increase. This causes the speed of sound to increase and makes the sound waves refract upward.

The area in the ocean where sound waves refract up and down is known as the "sound channel." The channeling of sound waves allows sound to travel thousands of miles without the signal losing considerable energy. In fact, hydrophones, or underwater microphones, if placed at the proper depth, can pick up whale songs and manmade noises from many kilometers away.

How are satellites used to observe the ocean? Satellites can "see the sea" in ways that are otherwise impossible.

The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-16 (GOES-16) is the first of NOAA's next generation of geostationary weather satellites. Among the many missions of this satellite, it will collect ocean and climate data.

Satellites are amazing tools for observing the Earth and the big blue ocean that covers more than 70 percent of our planet. By remotely sensingfrom their orbits high above the Earth, satellites provide us much more information than would be possible to obtain solely from the surface.

Using satellites, NOAA researchers closely study the ocean. Information gathered by satellites can tell us about ocean bathymetry, sea surface temperature, ocean color, coral reefs, and sea and lake ice. Scientists also use data collection systems on satellites to relay signals from transmitters on the ground to researchers in the field—used in applications such as measuring tidal heights and the migration of

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Sea Surface Temperatures

A simulation of sea-surface temperatures from the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.

Knowing the temperature of the sea surface can tell scientists a lot about what's happening in and around the ocean. Temperature changes influence the behavior of fish, can cause the bleaching of corals, and affect weather along the coast. Satellite images of sea surface temperature also show patterns of water circulation. Examples include locations of upwelling, characterized by cold waters that rise up from the depths, often near the coasts; and warm water currents, such as the Gulf Stream. The most commonly used instrument to collect sea surface temperatures is the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) instrument aboard the NOAA/NASA Suomi NPP satellite. This sensor captures new data every day, allowing scientists to piece together series of maps that show sea surface temperature variations over time for different regions around the globe. Sea Surface Color

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Satellites also provide information about the color of the ocean. For example, color data helps researchers determine the impact of floods along the coast, detect river plumes, and locate blooms of harmful algae that can contaminate shellfish and kill other fish and marine mammals. Ocean color data from satellites allows us not only to identify where an algal bloom is forming, but also to predict where it might drift in the future. Treatment plants also use algal bloom forecasts created by NOAA to decide when to change their water treatment formula to handle the algae. Sea Level Change

A map of total sea level change since 1993.

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One of the most significant potential impacts of climate change is sea level rise, which can cause inundation of coastal areas and islands, shoreline erosion, and destruction of important ecosystems such as wetlands and mangroves. Satellite altimeter radar measurements can be combined with precisely known spacecraft orbits to measure sea level on a global basis with unprecedented accuracy. The measurement of long-term changes in global mean sea level provides a way to test climate models' predictions of global warming. Mapping

The surface of the ocean bulges outward and inward, mimicking the topography of the ocean floor. The bumps, too small to be seen, can be measured by a radar altimeter aboard a satellite.

Satellite imagery may also be used to map features in the water, such as coral reefs. Sea floor geology is far simpler than the geology of the continents because erosion rates are lower, and also because the continents have suffered multiple collisions associated with the opening and closing of ocean basins. Despite its relative youth and geologic simplicity, most of this deep seafloor has remained poorly understood because it is masked by the ocean. To date, ships have charted only a small fraction of the seafloor. But thanks to gravity, the ocean surface has broad bumps and dips that mimic the topography of the ocean floor. These bumps and dips can be mapped using a very accurate radar altimeter mounted on a satellite.

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Weather

Hurricane Ivan on September 15, 2004, before it slammed into the U.S. Gulf Coast.

The ocean plays a major role in regulating the planet's weather and climate. Weather data is perhaps the most well known application of satellite technology. NOAA's operational weather satellite system is composed of two types of satellites: geostationary operational environmental satellites (GOES) for short-range forecasts, warnings, and observations; and polar-orbiting satellites for longer-term forecasting. Both types of satellite are necessary to provide a complete global weather- monitoring system.

Tracking

NOAA Fisheries scientists maneuver a tagged sea turtle toward the end of the boat ramp.

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Satellites providing environmental imagery may also be used jointly with other organizations that receive data from various sensors. For example, marine animals, such as sea turtles and manatees, can be fitted with transmitters that relay information about their locations to orbiting satellites. Similar technology is also used for human search and rescue.

What is remote sensing? Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, typically from aircraft or satellites.

A LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) image created with data collected by NOAA's National Geodetic Survey.

Remote sensors collect data by detecting the energy that is reflected from Earth. These sensors can be on satellites or mounted on aircraft.

Remote sensors can be either passive or active. Passive sensors respond to external stimuli. They record natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. The most common source of radiation detected by passive sensors is reflected sunlight.

In contrast, active sensors use internal stimuli to collect data about Earth. For example, a laser-beam remote sensing system projects a laser onto the surface of Earth and measures the time that it takes for the laser to reflect back to its sensor.

Remote sensing has a wide range of applications in many different fields:  Coastal applications: Monitor shoreline changes, track sediment transport, and map coastal features. Data can be used for coastal mapping and erosion prevention.

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 Ocean applications: Monitor ocean circulation and current systems, measure ocean temperature and wave heights, and track sea ice. Data can be used to better understand the oceans and how to best manage ocean resources.  Hazard assessment: Track hurricanes, earthquakes, erosion, and flooding. Data can be used to assess the impacts of a natural disaster and create preparedness strategies to be used before and after a hazardous event.  Natural resource management: Monitor land use, map wetlands, and chart wildlife habitats. Data can be used to minimize the damage that urban growth has on the environment and help decide how to best protect natural resources.

What is a sea lamprey? The sea lamprey—an ancient Atlantic fish that wreaked havoc on the Great Lakes— may be America's first destructive invasive species.

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The rasping mouth of the sea lamprey, an infamous Great Lakes invader. Image credit: Ted Lawrence/Great Lakes Fishery Commission

Among the most primitive of all vertebrate species, the sea lamprey is a parasitic fish native to the northern and western Atlantic Ocean. Due to their similar body shapes, lampreys have sometimes inaccurately been called "lamprey eels," but they are actually more closely related to sharks!

Unlike "bony" fishes like trout, cod, and herring, lampreys lack scales, fins, and gill covers. Like sharks, their skeletons are made of cartilage. They breathe through a distinctive row of seven pairs of tiny gill openings located behind their mouths and eyes.

But the anatomical trait that makes the sea lamprey an efficient killer of lake trout and other bony fishes is its disc-shaped, suction-cup mouth, ringed with sharp, horny teeth, with which it latches on to an unfortunate fish. The lamprey then uses its rough tongue to rasp away the fish's flesh so it can feed on its host's blood and body fluids. One lamprey kills about 40 pounds of fish every year.

Sea lampreys invaded the Great Lakes in the 1830s via the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Ontario and Erie and forms a key section of the St. Lawrence Seaway. Within a decade, they had gained access to all five Great Lakes, where they quickly set to work predating on the lakes' commercially important fishes, including trout, whitefish, perch, and sturgeon. Within a century, the trout fishery had collapsed, largely due to the lamprey's unchecked proliferation.

Today, the Great Lakes Fishery Commission coordinates control of sea lampreys in the lakes, which is conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Field biologists set up barriers and traps in the streams that feed the lakes to prevent the lamprey's upstream movements, and apply special chemicals, called lampricides, that target lamprey larvae but are harmless to other aquatic creatures.

New techniques to control sea lampreys are always under development. Since sea lampreys use odors, or pheromones, to communicate, scientists have replicated these odors to increase the efficacy of current control methods.

Did you know? In 1829, when engineers completed the Welland Canal that connects Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, they believed that the new inland navigation route would foster economic

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) growth and prosperity in the upper Midwest of the recently minted United States of America. They never could have known that they were providing passage to a voracious Atlantic predator—the sea lamprey—which, by the 1930s, would destroy the Great Lakes' 10-million-pounds-per-year trout fishery and decimate other commercially valuable species.

What is an oil seep? An oil seep is a natural leak of crude oil and gas that migrates up through the seafloor and ocean depths.

A natural tar seep offshore of Gaviota in Santa Barbara County, California. Credit: Donna Schroeder/U.S. Geological Survey

Did you know that naturally occurring oil seeps from the seafloor are the largest source of oil entering the world ocean? In fact, they account for nearly half of the oil released into the ocean environment every year.

Seeps occur when crude oil leaks from fractures in the seafloor or rises up through seafloor sediments, in much the same way that a freshwater spring brings water to the surface. NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R) is interested in oil seeps because they are predictable places to observe oil behavior. In Santa Barbara, California, where many natural seeps are found, OR&R trains aerial observers,

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When an oil spill occurs in an area with many naturally occurring seeps, responders may have a hard time telling the difference between spilled oil and seep oil. The difference is important because the environmental impacts of oil are determined not only by the amount of oil released into the environment, but also by the type of oil and the speed at which it will disperse. Natural seeps release oil slowly over time, allowing ecosystems to adapt, whereas oil spills from human activities like commercial oil transport can quickly release oil in quantities that overwhelm an ecosystem.

Nonetheless, all oil seeps impact the marine environment. Oil can be toxic to sea life like fish, sea stars, shrimp, and seabirds, with their impacts largely concentrated in the immediate area around a seep.

OR&R tracks naturally occurring oil seeps, helps distinguish oil seeps from production-platform leaks and other spills, and works with partners like the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to enhance techniques like oil fingerprinting to determine where oil originates.

Did you know? The waters off of Southern California are home to hundreds of naturally occurring oil and natural gas seeps. These seeps, which probably have been leaking for thousands of years, contribute about five million gallons of oil to the ocean annually. Slicks from larger seeps are visible by satellite, and have been known to travel as far as 100 miles down the coast. Some are even persistent enough to become features on nautical charts!

What is coral spawning? Hard (or stony) corals reproduce by releasing their eggs and sperm all at the same time. This spawning cycle is one of nature‘s most spectacular events.

Once a year, on cues from the lunar cycle and the water temperature, entire colonies of coral reefs simultaneously release their tiny eggs and sperm, called gametes, into the ocean. The phenomenon brings to mind an underwater blizzard with billions of colorful flakes cascading in white, yellow, red, and orange.

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In ways that scientists still do not fully understand, mature corals release their gametes all at the same time. This synchrony is crucial, because the gametes of most coral species are viable for only a few hours. The ―blizzard‖ makes it more likely that fertilization will occur.

The gametes, full of fatty substances called lipids, rise slowly to the ocean surface, where the process of fertilization begins.

When a coral egg and sperm join together as an embryo, they develop into a coral larva, called a planula. Planulae float in the ocean, some for days and some for weeks, before dropping to the ocean floor. Then, depending on seafloor conditions, the planulae may attach to the substrate and grow into a new coral colony at the slow rate of about .4 inches a yea

What is marine telemetry? Researchers understand the ocean and marine life better by tagging aquatic animals with telemetry devices.

Telemetry tags help researchers discover where marine animals are, where they go, and what their environments are like.

Marine telemetry interprets into data the movements and behavior of animals as they move through oceans, coastal rivers, estuaries, and the Great Lakes. Telemetry devices, called tags, are affixed to a wide range of marine species, from tiny salmon smolts to giant 150-ton whales. Tags are attached to the outside of an animal with clips, straps, or glue, and are sometimes surgically inserted in an animal's body.

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Telemetry tags help researchers discover where marine animals are, where they go, and what their environments are like. The tags, which are registered to enable the sharing of data, allow scientists to pick up their signals via research vessels, buoys, satellites, and other tracking networks. The signals yield detailed information about animals' responses to the water, atmosphere, and physical environments through which they move.

These observations significantly improve our understanding of ecosystem function and dynamics. Sensors carried by animals deliver high-resolution physical oceanographic data at relatively low cost, and often in difficult areas to study, such as the Arctic.

Animals are particularly adept at helping scientists identify critical habitats, spawning locations, and important oceanographic features. For example, both sand tiger sharks tagged off of South Carolina and great white sharks tagged off of Cape Cod were tracked through the Gulf of Maine, and the data were shared with researchers studying the sharks' movements and behavior

To maximize the safety of telemetry harnesses on leatherbacks, NOAA researchers use a system that has a corrodible link that dissolves over time in the sea water, allowing the sea turtle to shed the harness after approximately two years.

What are beach advisories and beach closures? Beach advisories and beach closures occur when water testing reveals the presence of one or more contaminants that exceed healthy standards.

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During a beach closure, water conditions are deemed unsafe for swimmers and other users. A beach advisory leaves it up to users as to whether they wish to risk going into the water. Shown here: Coastal areas within the National Park Service's Golden Gate National Recreational Area in San Francisco Bay, California, were closed to visitors during the Cosco Busan oil spill in 2007.

A beach advisory leaves it up to users as to whether they wish to risk going into the water. In the case of a beach closure, the state and/or local government decides that water conditions are unsafe for swimmers and other users.

How can beach-goers avoid the disappointment of arriving at their summer vacation destination only to find that authorities advise them not to swim there or that the beaches are closed altogether?

Unfortunately, there is no central database that provides information on beach closures and advisories in real time. The best way to find information on the current water quality of a particular beach is to plan ahead.

In some cases, warning signs will be posted to alert people of the potential risk of illness from contact with the water. Signs may be placed for short-term problems or more permanent ones, when, for example, repeated monitoring indicates ongoing contamination.

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Common Culprits Leading to Beach Closures and Advisories Common culprits leading to beach closures and advisories include excessive rainwater that carries pollution from storm drains (like motor oil, pet waste, pesticides, trash, and pathogens) to recreational waters; ―red tides‖ and other harmful algal blooms; and sewage and chemical spills from known sources. It is generally wise to avoid swimming after heavy rains or if the water is an unusual color without first checking with local or state health authorities.

In the Gulf of Mexico, NOAA's Harmful Algal Bloom Operational Forecast System identifies potentially harmful blooms of the toxic alga Karenia brevis, where the blooms are, how big they are, and where they are likely to go. The toxins produced by the algae become airborne when waves break along the beach during a bloom, causing eye, throat, and nose irritation in most beach-goers, but more severe reactions in people with asthma and other respiratory issues.

Forecasts are distributed through conditions reports and bulletins. Conditions reports, which include forecasts of potential levels of respiratory irritation associated with blooms of the alga K. brevis in the near-term, are posted twice a week after confirmation of a HAB, and once weekly during the inactive HAB season. Additional bloom analysis is included in harmful algal bloom bulletins that are emailed to a subscriber list of state and local coastal resource managers, public health officials, and researchers. In many cases, NOAA's harmful algal bloom data contribute to authorities‘ decision to post a beach closure or advisory.

What are microplastics? Microplastics are small plastic pieces less than five millimeters long which can be harmful to our ocean and aquatic life.

Plastic is the most prevalent type of marine debris found in our ocean and Great Lakes. Plastic debris can come in all shapes and sizes, but those that are less than five millimeters in length (or about the size of a sesame seed) are called ―microplastics.‖

Microbeads are tiny pieces of polyethylene plastic added to health and beauty products,

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As an emerging field of study, not a lot is known about microplastics and their impacts yet. The NOAA Marine Debris Program is leading efforts within NOAA to research this topic. Standardized field methods for collecting sediment, sand, and surface-water microplastic samples have been developed and continue to undergo testing. Eventually, field and laboratory protocols will allow for global comparisons of the amount of microplastics released into the environment, which is the first step in determining the final distribution, impacts, and fate of this debris.

Microplastics come from a variety of sources, including from larger plastic debris that degrades into smaller and smaller pieces. In addition, microbeads, a type of microplastic, are very tiny pieces of manufactured polyethylene plastic that are added as exfoliants to health and beauty products, such as some cleansers and toothpastes. These tiny particles easily pass through water filtration systems and end up in the ocean and Great Lakes, posing a potential threat to aquatic life.

Microbeads are not a recent problem. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, plastic microbeads first appeared in personal care products about fifty years ago, with plastics increasingly replacing natural ingredients. As recently as 2012, this issue was still relatively unknown, with an abundance of products containing plastic microbeads on the market and not a lot of awareness on the part of consumers.

On December 28, 2015, President Obama signed the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, banning plastic microbeads in cosmetics and personal care products.

Plastic is everywhere. A lot of it ends up in the ocean. Most plastics in the ocean break up into very small particles. These small plastic bits are called "microplastics." Other plastics are intentionally designed to be small. They're called microbeads and are used in many health and beauty products. They pass unchanged through waterways into the ocean. Aquatic life and birds can mistake microplastics for food. Research is being conducted. But there's still much we don't know. In 2015, the U.S. banned the use of microbeads. But microplastics are still a huge problem. You can help keep plastic out of the ocean. Remember: Reduce. Reuse. Recycle.

Did you know? Microplastics can come from a variety of sources including larger plastic pieces that have broken apart, resin pellets used for plastic manufacturing, or in the form of

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How does land-based pollution threaten coral reefs? Many serious coral reef ecosystem stressors originate from land-based sources, most notably toxicants, sediments, and nutrients.

As human population and development expands in coastal areas, the landscape is altered, increasing land-based sources of pollution and threatening coral reef health.

Impacts from land-based sources of pollution— including coastal development, deforestation, agricultural runoff, and oil and chemical spills—can impede coral growth and reproduction, disrupt overall ecological function, and cause disease and mortality in sensitive species. It is now well accepted that many serious coral reef ecosystem stressors originate from land- based sources, most notably toxicants, sediments, and nutrients.

Within the U.S., there are numerous locations where coral reef ecosystems are highly impacted by watershed alteration, runoff, and coastal development. On U.S. islands in the Pacific and Caribbean, significant changes in the drainage basins due to agriculture, deforestation, grazing of feral animals, fires, road building, and urbanization have increased the volume of land-based pollution released to adjacent coral reef ecosystems.

Many of these issues are made worse because of the geographic and climatic characteristics found in tropical island areas. Together they create unique management challenges.

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Coral reef ecosystems support important commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishery resources in the U.S and its territories. Fishing also plays a central social and cultural role in many island and coastal communities, where it is often a critical source of food and income.

The impacts from unsustainable fishing on coral reef areas can lead to the depletion of key reef species in many locations. Such losses often have a ripple effect, not just on the coral reef ecosystems themselves, but also on the local economies that depend on them. Additionally, certain types of fishing gear can inflict serious physical damage to coral reefs, seagrass beds, and other important marine habitats.

Coral reef fisheries, though often relatively small in scale, may have disproportionately large impacts on the ecosystem if conducted unsustainably. Rapid human population growth, increased demand, use of more efficient fishery technologies, and inadequate management and enforcement have led to the depletion of key reef species and habitat damage in many locations.

What is an oil spill trajectory? A map that shows where spilled oil is likely to travel and which shorelines and other environmentally or culturally sensitive areas might be at risk.

During the threat of an oil spill, responders need to know where that spilled oil will go in order to protect shorelines with containment boom, stage cleanup equipment, or close areas for fishing and boating.

In order to answer these questions, NOAA oceanographers use specialized computer models to predict the movement of spilled oil on the water surface. They predict where the oil is most likely to go and how soon it may arrive there. During a major spill response, trajectory maps are created to show predictions for the path of spilled oil.

Trajectory maps are produced using a NOAA-developed computer model called GNOME (General NOAA Operational Modeling Environment), which helps to predict the movement of oil. GNOME can forecast the effects that currents, winds, and other physical processes have on the movement of oil in the ocean. During an oil spill, this model is updated daily based on field observations, aerial surveys, and new forecasts for ocean currents and winds.

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In addition to showing oiled locations and potential beached oil on a trajectory map, oceanographers will also include an uncertainty boundary on the map to indicate other locations where oil potentially could be located. This uncertainty boundary is necessary to account for differences in models as well as changes in currents and winds.

During the threat of an oil spill, NOAA predicts where the oil might spread. To predict where oil might go, we model how weather, wind, tides and currents affect oil movement. But natural variability in wind, weather and water currents can change the trajectory of a spill in ways difficult to predict. To get the best forecast possible we use aircraft and field observations to monitor the actual course and extent of an oil spill. These observations are then fed back into our computer model to improve the next forecast. Predicting the trajectory of an oil spill is tricky. But having better data and technology helps us show where oil is and where it could spread. NOAA continues to refine both current and emerging techniques in oil spill science. What is a pocosin? A pocosin is a wetland bog with sandy peat soil and woody shrubs throughout.

Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, North Carolina.

Pocosins are generally found along the Atlantic coastal plain of the United States, from southern Virginia to northern Florida. These areas typically occur in broad, low-lying shallow basins that do not drain naturally. Pocosins are formed by the accumulation of organic matter, resembling black muck, which builds up over thousands of years. This accumulation of material causes the soil to be highly acidic and nutrient-deficient.

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At one time, pocosins were prominent ecosystems in the southeastern United States, but they disappeared rapidly due to their perceived low value for the environment and high value for land development. In reality, restoring healthy pocosin wetlands provides important benefits to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as well as human communities: They provide wildlife habitat, lessen the frequency and severity of wildfires, sequester carbon, nitrogen, and mercury (known as a carbon sink), protect the water quality of estuaries, and control flooding in low- elevation coastal areas. Pocosin restoration also plays a key role in the adaption of ecosystems to sea level rise by preventing soil loss and promoting soil formation.

What are barnacles? Barnacles (balanus glandula) are sticky little crustaceans related to crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.

Those aren't dragon claws—they're gooseneck barnacles! These filter feeders are found in the rocky tide pools of Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Their shells are made up of multiple white plates that help protect them from predators and from drying out.

Of the more than 1,400 species of barnacles found in the world‘s waterways, the most common ones are called acorn barnacles. As anyone who‘s ever maintained a vessel knows, removing barnacles requires some elbow grease (or a pressure washer). That's why some boaters call them by their slang name: "crusty foulers."

How do barnacles stick to the undersides of vessels, to other sea life, to each other, and to pretty much anything they come in contact with? They secrete a fast-curing www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 153 of 391

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Barnacles like places with lots of activity, like underwater volcanos and intertidal zones, where they reside on sturdy objects like rocks, pilings, and buoys. Moving objects like boat and ship hulls and whales are particularly vulnerable to the pesky critters. Large barnacle colonies cause ships to drag and burn more fuel, leading to significant economic and environmental costs. The U.S. Navy estimates that heavy barnacle growth on ships increases weight and drag by as much as 60 percent, resulting in as much as a 40 percent increase in fuel consumption! Barnacles feed through feather-like appendages called cirri. As the cirri rapidly extend and retract through the opening at the top of the barnacle, they comb the water for microscopic organisms. They quickly withdraw into their protective shells if they sense a potential threat. Barnacles secrete hard calcium plates that completely encase them. A white cone made up of six calcium plates forms a circle around the crustacean. Four more plates form a "door" that the barnacle can open or close, depending on the tide. When the tide goes out, the barnacle closes up shop to conserve moisture. As the tide comes in, a muscle opens the door so the feathery cirri can sift for food

What color is an iceberg? The colorful hues of icebergs result from the interplay of light with dense ice, ice crystals, and algal growth.

An iceberg (and a few penguins) floating off the coast of Antarctica.

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Most people would say that icebergs are white—and most of them are. But did you know that icebergs can also appear in spectacular shades of blue and green? An iceberg looks white because compressed snow on its surface contains large numbers of tiny air bubbles and crystal edges that equally reflect all wavelengths of visible light.

As more and more heavy snow accumulates atop an iceberg, the air bubbles get compressed, forcing the smaller ice crystals to grow together and merge into larger grains. When the iceberg is underwater, the air bubbles are squeezed out and washed away. Then, when light encounters the dense, compressed ice, much of the light penetrates it. The ice absorbs longer wavelengths of colors, such as red and yellow. Colors of shorter wavelengths, like green and blue, reflect the light. This "leftover" blue-green light is what gives some icebergs their remarkable colors.

Additionally, algae often grow on the underwater sides of icebergs, producing beautiful green stripes in the ice. These are readily seen when an iceberg rolls over and sections that were previously underwater are exposed.

The vampire squid and the vampire fish Two daunting aquatic creatures.

A vampire squid surrounded by marine snow is captured on film during a dive on the E/V Nautilus. Image credit: Ocean Exploration Trust

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The vampire squid is a small ( 12-inch-long ) cephalopod found in deep temperate and tropical seas. Originally thought to be an octopus because it lacks the two long tentacles that usually extend past a squid‘s eight arms, the vampire squid possesses characteristics of both squid and octopi, and occupies its own order in taxonomy (scientific classification).

Its huge, bright blue eyes — proportionally the largest in the animal kingdom — dark color, and the velvety, cloak-like webbing that connects its arms give the vampire squid its common name. Its scientific name, Vampyroteuthis infernalis, literally means ―vampire squid of Hell‖! While it does not suck blood like its mythical namesake, the vampire squid is a ―living relic‖ that evolved from an ancestor of the octopus, and its lineage goes back 165 million years in the fossil record.

The vampire squid is an extremophile, inhabiting the dark ocean depths from 2,000- 3,000 feet . If threatened, this defensive deep-sea Dracula does not eject ink, as do most of its cephalopod cousins. Nor can it change color to confuse intruders the way its shallow-water cousins can; living as it does in the deep ocean, where little light penetrates, color-changing is a pointless strategy. Instead, the vampire squid squirts a copious cloud of sticky, bioluminescent mucus toward would-be predators (and the occasional research ROV)

A payara, commonly referred to as a ―vampire fish.‖ Image credit: Exotic Fish Wikia

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On the freshwater side, the vampire fish is a nickname for the payara, an abundant gamefish found in the Amazon Basin. While this large, 1.5-to-3 foot fish does not suck the blood of its prey, its six-inch-long fangs, which protrude from an undershot jaw, result in a face only a (payara) mother could love.

In recent years, the payara has gained popularity as an occupant in large, ―aggressive‖ freshwater aquariums. Live goldfish are among this fangy predator‘s favorite prey. Consequently, aquarists are advised to select tankmates too big to fit inside this vampire‘s saber-toothed maw

What is a Portuguese Man o’ War? The Man o‘ War is a species of siphonophore, a group of animals that are closely related to jellyfish.

The Portuguese man o‘ war is recognized by its balloon-like float, which may be blue, violet, or pink and rises up to six inches above the water line. Image credit: Elizabeth Condon, National Science Foundation

The Portuguese man o‘ war, (Physalia physalis) is often called a jellyfish, but is actually a species of siphonophore, a group of animals that are closely related to jellyfish. A siphonophore is unusual in that it is comprised of a colony of specialized, genetically identical individuals called zooids — clones — with various www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 157 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) forms and functions, all working together as one. Each of the four specialized parts of a man o‘ war is responsible for a specific task, such as floating, capturing prey, feeding, and reproduction. Found mostly in tropical and subtropical seas, men o' war are propelled by winds and ocean currents alone, and sometimes float in legions of 1,000 or more! Resembling an 18th-century Portuguese warship under full sail, the man o‘ war is recognized by its balloon-like float, which may be blue, violet, or pink and rises up to six inches above the waterline. Lurking below the float are long strands of tentacles and polyps that grow to an average of 30 feet and may extend by as much as 100 feet. The tentacles contain stinging nematocysts, microscopic capsules loaded with coiled, barbed tubes that deliver venom capable of paralyzing and killing small fish and crustaceans. While the man o‘ war‘s sting is rarely deadly to people, it packs a painful punch and causes welts on exposed skin.

What is a wetland? A wetland is an area of land that is saturated with water.

There are many different kinds of wetlands and many ways to categorize them. NOAA classifies wetlands into five general types: marine (ocean), estuarine (estuary), riverine (river), lacustrine (lake), and palustrine (marsh). Common names for wetlands include marshes, estuaries, mangroves, mudflats, mires, ponds, fens, swamps, deltas, coral reefs, billabongs, lagoons, shallow seas, bogs, lakes, and floodplains, to name just a few!

Often found alongside waterways and in floodplains, wetlands vary widely due to differences in soil, topography, climate, water chemistry, and vegetation. Large wetland areas may also be comprised of several smaller wetland types.

Wetland habitats serve essential functions in an ecosystem, including acting as water filters, providing flood and erosion control, and furnishing food and homes for fish and wildlife. They do more than sustain plants and animals in the watershed, however. Many wetlands are not wet year-round because water levels change with the seasons. During periods of excessive rain, wetlands absorb and slow floodwaters, which helps to alleviate property damage and may even save lives.

Wetlands also absorb excess nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants before they reach rivers, lakes, and other waterbodies. They are also great spots for fishing, canoeing, hiking, and bird-watching, and are enjoyable outdoor "classrooms" for people of all ages. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 158 of 391

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Wetlands are found along waterways and in floodplains. They come in all shapes and sizes. Wetlands filter water, providing flood and erosion control. Wetlands were once thought of as useless swamps. But now, we know they are home to abundant fish and wildlife

What is a marsh organ? The "marsh organ" is a simple instrument that helps scientists study sea level rise.

An installed marsh organ at the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve in the Florida Panhandle. A NOS-sponsored project in the Gulf of Mexico employs the marsh organ to mimic sea level rise impacts on marsh vegetation and inform forecast models. Image courtesy of Jim Morris, University of South Carolina.

Scientists are always looking for ways to measure sea-level rise and its long-term effects on coastal processes. To that end, the University of South Carolina and NOAA‘s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science developed a simple device called a ―marsh organ‖ (because its graduated ―pipes‖ resemble those of an organ) to determine how well an estuary may respond to rising sea levels.

Setting up the marsh organ is a very muddy process. Scientists working to install the instrument may find themselves waist-deep in the soft marsh sediments! Once the organ is in place, they fill the tubes with mud and plant marsh grasses in each one. In a year or two, they return to the marsh organ to harvest the grass and measure how much it has grown.

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Each ―pipe‖ of the marsh organ represents a varying water-level "elevation.‖ As the tides ebb and flow, the marsh and the pipes are subject to rising and falling water levels. Depending on the amount of flooding and other factors, the marsh plants grow accordingly. The data is then used to inform a model that helps scientists forecast the future health of the marsh

What is Blue Carbon? Blue carbon is the term for carbon captured by the world's ocean and coastal ecosystems.

Yes, this is an image of a mangrove, but did you know it is also an image of a sink?

A carbon sink. Don‘t know what that is? Read below. Something that has a significant effect on our daily lives and is stored within the largest system of water on our planet must be a household name, right? Not necessarily. Have you ever heard of blue carbon? Chances are the answer is no, but perhaps you know more than you realize. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 160 of 391

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Blue carbon is simply the term for carbon captured by the world's ocean and coastal ecosystems. You have probably heard that human activities emit (or give off) something called carbon dioxide, which contains atmospheric carbon. You have also heard that these gases are changing the world's climate, and not in a good way. What you may not have heard is that our ocean and coasts provide a natural way of reducing the impact of greenhouse gases on our atmosphere, through sequestration (or taking in) of this carbon.

Sea grasses, mangroves, and salt marshes along our coast "capture and hold" carbon, acting as something called a carbon sink. These coastal systems, though much smaller in size than the planet's forests, sequester this carbon at a much faster rate, and can continue to do so for millions of years. Most of the carbon taken up by these ecosystems is stored below ground where we can't see it, but it is still there. The carbon found in coastal soil is often thousands of years old!

The bigger picture of blue carbon is one of coastal habitat conservation. When these systems are damaged, an enormous amount of carbon is emitted back into the atmosphere, where it can then contribute to climate change. So protecting and restoring coastal habitats is a good way to reduce climate change. When we protect the carbon in coastal systems, we protect healthy coastal environments that provide many other benefits to people, such as recreational opportunities, storm protection, and nursery habitat for commercial and recreational fisheries.

One method of slowing climate change impacts is to incorporate coastal wetlands into the carbon market through the buying and selling of carbon offsets. This approach creates a financial incentive for restoration and conservation projects by helping to alleviate federal and state carbon taxes aimed at discouraging the use of fossil fuels. When fewer greenhouse gases are emitted, less pollution is created. When there is less pollution to tax, the process benefits not only the environment but also the financial well-being of the community doing the restoration

What is spat? Once oyster larvae permanently attach to a surface, they are known as spat.

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Once oyster larvae attach to a surface, such as other oyster shells, they are known as spat (shown in inset image). As generation after generation of spat grow into adult oysters, they form dense clusters known as oyster reefs or beds.

Oysters are a type of shellfish that live in brackish and saltwater bays, estuaries, and tidal creeks. When oysters reproduce, they spawn tiny larvae that freely navigate the water column until they find an appropriate habitat with a structure to settle on. Once the larvae permanently attach to a surface, they are known as spat.

Oysters are frequently cultivated for food and pearls. The successful farming of oysters and other shellfish relies upon successful settlement of larvae onto a selected substrate—typically other oyster shells or ceramic tiles—within a hatchery or wild setting. The tiles or shells that hold the spat are secured to frames or in cages and submerged along an intertidal area or suspended from a long line. From this point forward, the oysters are self-sustaining, filtering all the nutrients they need directly from the water in their environment.

Because oysters are filter feeders, they help keep the water clean. This promotes the growth of underwater grasses, such as wild celery, which serve as important habitat for other species. In addition, oyster beds form large, complex structures where many aquatic species, such as fish and crabs, hunt for food and hide from predators

Did you know? Oyster farming is a great way to improve water quality! A NOAA study found that shellfish aquaculture helps to remove excess nutrients and reduce eutrophication from our waterways. Eutrophication—excessive nutrient input into estuarine and coastal environments—can lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, fish kills, and a loss of key habitats.

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What is an anchialine pool? An anchialine pool is an enclosed water body or pond with an underground connection to the ocean.

Anchialine pools form some of the longest submerged caves structures on Earth. (Image courtesy of National Science Foundation)

The word ―anchialine‖ (AN-key-ah-lin) comes from a Greek word meaning ―near the sea." These typically small pools, which form in limestone or volcanic rock, are located throughout the world but are most common in the Hawaiian Islands and on Mexico‘s Yucatán Peninsula.

Anchialine pools have their own unique ecosystems populated by tiny and often rare species of crustaceans, fish, and eels. Among these species is Hawaii‘s legendary red shrimp, the ʻōpaeʻula (oo-PAY-oo-la). Water levels in the pools can fluctuate in response to ocean tides. Due to their subterranean connection to the ocean, anchialine surface waters are often brackish and become more saline (salty) with increasing depth.

Many anchialine pools are found in underground cave systems and are favorite destinations for cave divers seeking to observe unusual cave species. One such creature is the Mexican blind tetra, an albino fish that has lost not only its sight but also its eyes!

More than half of the world‘s known anchialine pools are found in the Hawaiian Islands. On the Big Island of Hawaii, the NOAA Restoration Center funded a two- acre restoration project for the pools, which have fallen victim in recent years to invasive fish species that upset the pools‘ natural balance. To restore the ponds, nearly 400 citizen volunteers helped remove the foreign invaders and reintroduce native vegetation. The restored sites are monitored twice a month to remove algae

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) and maintain the revitalized vegetation. Scientists are learning that the pools‘ fragile natural balance makes them good indicators of overall coastal ecosystem health.

What is an artificial reef? An artificial reef is a manmade structure that may mimic some of the characteristics of a natural reef.

Can you spot the sunken ship?

In June 2002, the retired USS Spiegel Grove was sunk in waters off Key Largo. At 510 feet (155.45 meters) long, the ship was, at the time, the largest vessel ever intentionally scuttled for the purpose of creating an artificial reef.

Submerged shipwrecks are the most common form of artificial reef. Oil and gas platforms, bridges, lighthouses, and other offshore structures often function as artificial reefs. Marine resource managers also create artificial reefs in underwater areas that require a structure to enhance the habitat for reef organisms, including soft and stony corals and the fishes and invertebrates that live among them.

Materials used to construct artificial reefs have included rocks, cinder blocks, and even wood and old tires. Nowadays, several companies specialize in the design, manufacture, and deployment of long-lasting artificial reefs that are typically constructed of limestone, steel, and concrete.

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A good view from inside the Thunderbolt.

In 1986, the Thunderbolt was intentionally sunk in 120 feet (36.6 meters) of water four miles south of Marathon and Key Colony Beach in Florida. The ship‘s superstructure is now home to colorful sponges, corals, and hydroids, providing food and habitat for a variety of sea creatures.

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary contains several decommissioned vessels that were sunk in specific areas for diving or fishing opportunities prior to the area‘s designation as a national marine sanctuary. One of the most famous is the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Duane, which served on the seas for half a century before its final assignment as an underwater haven for sea life.

Planned manmade reefs may provide local economic benefits because they attract fish to a known location and are therefore popular attractions for commercial and recreational fishermen, divers, and snorkelers. However, the increase in illegal dumping for the purpose of creating habitat has led to significant poaching in the Florida Keys and subsequent high-profile arrests by NOAA‘s Office of Law Enforcement. Marine debris continues to be an ongoing problem in these sensitive environmental areas, and NOAA‘s Marine Debris Program has helped provide funding to remove debris in the Florida Keys

What is a fish ladder? A fish ladder is a structure that allows migrating fish passage over or around an obstacle on a river.

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Fish ladder near the south shore of Long Island, where recorded Alewive migration was occurring.

The survival of many fish species depends on migrations up and down rivers. Among anadromous fish such as salmon, shad, and sturgeon, downstream migration is a feature of early life stages, while upstream migration is a feature of adult life. Among catadromous, like the North American eel, the opposite is true. River obstructions such as dams, culverts, and waterfalls have the potential to slow or stop fish migration. Indeed, these impediments to fish migration are often implicated in the decline of certain fish stocks.

A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, provides a detour route for migrating fish past a particular obstruction on the river. Designs vary depending on the obstruction, river flow, and species of fish affected, but the general principle is the same for all fish ladders: the ladder contains a series of ascending pools that are reached by swimming against a stream of water. Fish leap through the cascade of rushing water, rest in a pool, and then repeat the process until they are out of the ladder.

What is shoreline armoring? "Armoring" is the practice of using physical structures to protect shorelines from coastal erosion.

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Shoreline armoring along Wells Beach, Maine. Coastal managers and property owners often attempt to stabilize coastal land and protect residential and commercial infrastructure along the coast by building shoreline armoring structures to hold back the sea and prevent the loss of sediment.

Coastal erosion—the loss of shoreline sediment - is a complex process that continuously reshapes the shoreline and can threaten coastal property. With approximately 350,000 structures located within 500 feet of the nation‘s shoreline, erosion is a problem many U.S. coastal communities must address.

Coastal managers and property owners often attempt to stabilize coastal land and protect residential and commercial infrastructure along the coast by building shoreline armoring structures to hold back the sea and prevent the loss of sediment. Examples of such structures are seawalls, breakwaters, and riprap.

Shoreline armoring has both beneficial and detrimental effects. Armored shorelines can prevent sandy beaches, wetlands, and other intertidal areas from moving inland as the land erodes or sea levels rise, but they also have the potential to eliminate habitat for marine organisms and beach front for the public by restricting the natural movement of sediments. The key to shoreline stabilization, if it is required, is to use a site-specific stabilization method that balances the needs of the public and the needs of the natural system.

While coastal erosion is a natural process, the rate of erosion can be greatly influenced by human activities. Natural factors that contribute to erosion include sediment supply; geologic characteristics; changes in sea level; and the effects of waves, currents, tides, and wind—all of which vary by location. Human activities that can alter natural shoreline processes include beach nourishment (adding sand),

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What is the difference between a threatened and endangered species? Under the Endangered Species Act, a species may be listed as either threatened or endangered depending on their risk for extinction.

A nesting Kemp's ridley turtle, currently listed as an endangered species. The greatest threat to this species is incidental capture in fishing gear, primarily in shrimp trawls, but also in gill nets, longlines, traps and pots, and dredges in the Gulf of Mexico and North Atlantic (photo courtesy: National Park Service.)

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) defines an endangered species as "any species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range." Endangered species are automatically protected by prohibitions of several types of "take," including harming, harassing, collecting, or killing, under Section 9 of the ESA. There are some limited exceptions to these rules listed in Section 10 of the ESA. The Kemp's ridley turtle, considered the smallest marine turtle in the world, is listed as an endangered species throughout its range of the Gulf of Mexico and entire U.S. Atlantic seaboard.

The ESA defines a threatened species as "any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range." Threatened species receive protections through separate regulations issued under Section 4(d) of the ESA. These regulations occur separately from the listing and detail what take prohibitions are in effect. Also called 4(d) rules, they can include the same prohibitions under Section 9. Elkhorn coral – a large, branching coral with thick and sturdy antler-like branches – is listed as a threatened species throughout its range.

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NOAA scientists use the best scientific and commercial information available as the basis for their listing decisions. Scientists may not consider the economic impact of listing a particular species. A species must be listed if it is threatened or endangered due to any of the following five factors:  1. Present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range;  2. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes;  3. Disease or predation;  4. Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; and  5. Other natural or human-made factors affecting its continued existence

Why are scientists concerned about Asian tiger shrimp in East Coast waters? Research is underway to determine if invasive Asian tiger shrimp in U.S. Atlantic waters pose a threat to native species or the environment.

Asian tiger shrimp are native to Pacific waters, but are now found along the southeast and Gulf coasts of the United States. Researchers are currently investigating the origin and possible impact of this invasive species. Asian tiger shrimp are native to Indo-Pacific, Asian, and Australian waters, but are now found along the southeast and Gulf coasts of the United States. While small numbers of this invasive species have been reported in U.S. waters for over a decade, sightings have notably increased over the past few years.

Researchers from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and NOAA are now working with state agencies from North Carolina to Texas to look into whether these shrimp carry disease, compete for the same food source, or prey directly on native shrimp. An investigation is also underway to determine how this transplanted www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 169 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) species reached U.S. waters, and what is behind a recent rise in sightings of the non- native shrimp.

Scientists have not yet officially deemed the Asian tiger shrimp "established" in U.S. waters, and no one is certain what triggered the recent round of increased sightings. The non-native shrimp species may have escaped from aquaculture facilities; however, there are no known Asian tiger shrimp farms presently in operation in the U.S. Ballast water from ships has been suggested as another pathway. Another possibility is that they are arriving on ocean currents from wild populations in the Caribbean or even as far away as Gambia, a west African nation where they are known to be established.

With so many alternative theories about where these shrimp are coming from and only a handful of juveniles reported, it is hard for scientists to conclude whether they are breeding or simply being carried in by currents.

To look for answers, NOAA and USGS scientists are examining shrimp collected from the Gulf and Atlantic coasts to look for subtle differences in their DNA, information which could offer valuable clues to their origins. This is the first look at the genetics of wild caught Asian tiger shrimp populations found in this part of the U.S., and may shed light on whether there are multiple sources.

NOAA scientists are also launching a research effort to understand more about the biology of these shrimp and how they may affect the ecology of native fisheries and coastal ecosystems. As with all non-native species, there are concerns over the potential for novel avenues of disease transmission and competition with native shrimp stocks, especially given the high growth rates and spawning rates compared with other species.

What is the Sargasso Sea? The Sargasso Sea, located entirely within the Atlantic Ocean, is the only sea without a land boundary.

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Mats of free-floating sargassum, a common seaweed found in the Sargasso Sea, provide shelter and habitat to many animals. Image credit: University of Southern Mississippi Gulf Coast Research Laboratory.

The Sargasso Sea is a vast patch of ocean named for a genus of free-floating seaweed called Sargassum. While there are many different types of algae found floating in the ocean all around world, the Sargasso Sea is unique in that it harbors species of sargassum that are 'holopelagi' - this means that the algae not only freely floats around the ocean, but it reproduces vegetatively on the high seas. Other seaweeds reproduce and begin life on the floor of the ocean.

Sargassum provides a home to an amazing variety of marine species. Turtles use sargassum mats as nurseries where hatchlings have food and shelter. Sargassum also provides essential habitat for shrimp, crab, fish, and other marine species that have adapted specifically to this floating algae. The Sargasso Sea is a spawning site for threatened and endangered eels, as well as white marlin, porbeagle shark, and dolphinfish. Humpback whales annually migrate through the Sargasso Sea. Commercial fish, such as tuna, and birds also migrate through the Sargasso Sea and depend on it for food.

While all other seas in the world are defined at least in part by land boundaries, the Sargasso Sea is defined only by ocean currents. It lies within the Northern Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. The Gulf Stream establishes the Sargasso Sea's western boundary, while the Sea is further defined to the north by the North Atlantic Current, to the east by the Canary Current, and to the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current. Since this area is defined by boundary currents, its borders are dynamic, correlating roughly with the Azores High Pressure Center for any particular season

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What is a turkeyfish? 'Turkeyfish' is another name for lionfish.

Lionfish (also known as turkeyfish) have venomous spines that can be very painful.

Viewed from the right angle, the ornate fins of the lionfish resemble turkey plumage. That's why 'turkeyfish' is one of the many imaginative names people use when referring to the lionfish. Depending on where you live, you may also hear the lionfish called a devil fish, red lionfish, scorpion-cod, zebrafish, ornate butterfly- cod, featherfins, butterfly cod, Indian turkeyfish, soldier lionfish, or poisson scorpion!

Lionfish are native to the Indo-Pacific, but are now established along the southeast coast of the U.S., the Caribbean, and in parts of the Gulf of Mexico.

Since lionfish are not native to Atlantic waters, they have very few predators. They are carnivores that feed on small crustaceans and fish, including the young of important commercial fish species such as snapper and grouper.

How lionfish will affect native fish populations and commercial fishing industries has yet to be determined. What is known is that non-native species can dramatically affect native ecosystems and local fishing economies. Experts are carefully studying these invaders to better understand their role in, and threat to, Atlantic Ocean ecosystems.

Did you know? Did you know that lionfish happen to be quite tasty? Once stripped of its venomous spines, cleaned, and filleted like any other fish, the lionfish becomes delectable seafood fare. Avoid consuming lionfish from locations known to be affected by ciguatera toxins. Check with local and state authorities if in doubt

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What is ghostfishing? Ghostfishing is a term that describes what happens when derelict fishing gear 'continues to fish'.

Atlantic croaker trapped within a derelict or "ghost" crab pot pulled from the York River in Virginia.

Derelict fishing gear, sometimes referred to as "ghost gear," is any discarded, lost, or abandoned, fishing gear in the marine environment. This gear continues to fish and trap animals, entangle and potentially kill marine life, smother habitat, and act as a hazard to navigation. Derelict fishing gear, such as nets or traps and pots, is one of the main types of debris impacting the marine environment today. Through the Fishing for Energy partnership, NOAA, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Covanta Energy Corporation, and Schnitzer Steel Industries, Inc. a cost- free solution is provided to fishermen to dispose of old, derelict or unusable fishing gear and to reduce the amount of derelict fishing gear in and around coastal waterways.

The NOAA Marine Debris Program is working with fishermen to provide a place to dispose of fishing gear free of charge and support new, innovative prevention strategies through technological advancements in fishing gear. These solutions will help prevent derelict fishing gear. The program has collected more than 2.1 million pounds of gear from 41 locations across the United States

Are sea cucumbers vegetables? Sea cucumbers are animals, not vegetables.

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Chocolate chip sea cucumber found at Johnston Atoll. Most sea cucumbers are scavengers, moving along the seafloor and feeding on tiny particles of algae or microscopic marine animals collected with tube feet that surround their mouths.

Found only in salt water, more than a thousand species of sea cucumbers exist around the world. These squishy invertebrates are echinoderms, making them distant relatives to starfish and urchins. Unlike starfish or sea urchins, the bodies of sea cucumbers are covered with soft, leathery skin instead of hard spines.

If you ever encounter a sea cuke and it feels threatened, you could be in for a surprise. Some sea cucumbers shoot sticky threads at their enemies, entangling and confusing predators. Others can violently contract their muscles and shoot some of their internal organs out of their rear ends. The missing body parts are quickly regenerated.

Most sea cucumbers are scavengers, moving along the seafloor and feeding on tiny particles of algae or microscopic marine animals collected with tube feet that surround their mouths. The particles they grind down to smaller pieces are further broken down by bacteria and become part of the ocean‘s nutrient cycle. This is a similar role to that which earthworms perform on land.

Sea cucumbers are enjoyed as meals for other critters such as fish and crabs. In some places, especially Asia, sea cucumbers are considered a delicacy and are enjoyed by humans.

Why are aquatic plants so important? Underwater plants provide oxygen, food, and shelter.

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Eel grass, a type of submerged aquatic vegetation, supports the life cycle of many fish and shellfish.

The health of submerged aquatic vegetation is an important environmental indicator of overall ocean and estuary health.

Seagrasses in bays and lagoons, for instance, are vital to the success of small invertebrates and fish. These small creatures are a food source for commercial and recreational fish.

Seagrasses also stabilize sediments, generate organic material needed by small invertebrates, and add oxygen to the surrounding water. Underwater vegetation in shallow coastal waters also supports a wide diversity of marine creatures by providing spawning, nursery, refuge, and foraging grounds for many species.

What is seaweed? "Seaweed" is the common name for countless species of marine plants and algae that grow in the ocean as well as in rivers, lakes, and other water bodies.

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Kelp forest in the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary and National Park.

Some seaweeds are microscopic, such as the phytoplankton that live suspended in the water column and provide the base for most marine food chains. Some are enormous, like the giant kelp that grow in abundant ―forests‖ and tower like underwater redwoods from their roots at the bottom of the sea. Most are medium- sized, come in colors of red, green, brown, and black, and randomly wash up on beaches and shorelines just about everywhere.

The vernacular ―seaweed‖ is a bona-fide misnomer, because a weed is a plant that spreads so profusely it can harm the habitat where it takes hold. (Consider kudzu, the infamous ―mile-a-minute vine‖ that chokes waterways throughout the U.S. Southeast). Not only are the fixed and free-floating ―weeds‖ of the sea utterly essential to innumerable marine creatures, both as food and as habitat, they also provide many benefits to land-dwellers, notably those of the human variety.  Seaweed is chock-full of vitamins, minerals, and fiber, and can be tasty. For at least 1,500 years, the Japanese have enrobed a mixture of raw fish, sticky rice, and other ingredients in a seaweed called nori. The delectable result is a sushi roll.  Many seaweeds contain anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial agents. Their known medicinal effects have been legion for thousands of years; the ancient Romans used them to treat wounds, burns, and rashes. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that the ancient Egyptians may have used them as a treatment for breast cancer.  Certain seaweeds do, in fact, possess powerful cancer-fighting agents that researchers hope will eventually prove effective in the treatment of malignant tumors and leukemia in people. While dietary soy was long credited for the low rate of cancer in Japan, this indicator of robust health is now attributed to dietary seaweed.  These versatile marine plants and algae have also contributed to economic growth. Among their many uses in manufacturing, they are effective binding agents

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(emulsifiers) in such commercial goods as toothpaste and fruit jelly, and popular softeners (emollients) in organic cosmetics and skin-care products.

What is a kelp forest? Kelp forests provide food and shelter for thousands of species

In ideal conditions, kelp can grow up to 18 inches per day, and in stark contrast to the colorful and slow-growing corals, the giant kelp canopies tower above the ocean floor. Like trees in a forest, these giant algae provide food and shelter for many organisms. Also like a terrestrial forest, kelp forests experience seasonal changes. Storms and large weather events, like El Niño, can tear and dislodge the kelp, leaving a tattered winter forest to begin its growth again each spring.

Kelp forests can be seen along much of the west coast of North America. Kelp are large brown algae that live in cool, relatively shallow waters close to the shore. They grow in dense groupings much like a forest on land. These underwater towers of kelp provide food and shelter for thousands of fish, invertebrates, and marine mammal species.

Kelp forests harbor a greater variety and higher diversity of plants and animals than almost any other ocean community. Many organisms use the thick blades as a safe shelter for their young from predators or even rough storms.

Among the many mammals and birds that use kelp forests for protection or feeding are seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters, gulls, terns, snowy egrets, great blue herons, cormorants, and shore birds.

These dense canopies of algae generally occur in cold, nutrient-rich waters. Because of their dependency upon light for photosynthesis, kelp forests form in shallow open waters and are rarely found deeper than 49-131 feet. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 177 of 391

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NOAA scientists study kelp forests by visiting the same locations over and over to assess the presence and abundance of a variety of organisms. Monitoring allows marine scientists to determine if the kelp forest is changing over time and to identify the cause of those changes, whether natural or human.

How did the Hawaiian Islands form? The Hawaiian Islands were formed by volcanic activity.

The Hawaiian Emperor seamount chain is a well-known example of a large seamount and island chain created by hot-spot volcanism. Each island or submerged seamount in the chain is successively older toward the northwest. Near Hawaii, the age progression from island to island can be used to calculate the motion of the Pacific Oceanic plate toward the northwest. The youngest seamount of the Hawaiian chain is Loihi, which presently is erupting from its summit at a depth of 1000 meters. Image courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.

The Earth‘s outer crust is made up of a series of tectonic plates that move over the surface of the planet. In areas where the plates come together, sometimes volcanoes will form. Volcanoes can also form in the middle of a plate, where magma rises upward until it erupts on the seafloor, at what is called a ―hot spot.‖

The Hawaiian Islands were formed by such a hot spot occurring in the middle of the Pacific Plate. While the hot spot itself is fixed, the plate is moving. So, as the plate moved over the hot spot, the string of islands that make up the Hawaiian Island chain were formed.

The Hawaiian Islands form an archipelago that extends over a vast area of the North Pacific Ocean. The archipelago is made up of 132 islands, atolls, reefs, shallow

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Do the Great Lakes have tides? Water levels in the Great Lakes change primarily because of meteorological effects.

View of the Holland, Michigan water level and meteorological station, located at the entrance to Macatawa Bay. Historic water level data has been collected in this vicinity since 1894.

True tides—changes in water level caused by the gravitational forces of the sun and moon—do occur in a semi-diurnal (twice daily) pattern on the Great Lakes. Studies indicate that the Great Lakes spring tide, the largest tides caused by the combined forces of the sun and moon, is less than five centimeters in height.

These minor variations are masked by the greater fluctuations in lake levels produced by wind and barometric pressure changes.

Consequently, the Great Lakes are considered to be non-tidal.

Water levels in the Great Lakes have long-term, annual, and short-term variations. Long-term variations depend on precipitation and water storage over many years. Annual variations occur with the changing seasons. There is an annual high in the late spring and low in the winter. These changes occur at a rate that can be measured in feet per month.

Wind and weather conditions on the Great Lakes may create a seiche, an oscillating wave which can be several feet high. In many of the Great Lakes, the time period between the ―high‖ and ―low‖ of a seiche may be between four and seven hours. As

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) this is very similar to the six-hour time period of the tides on the ocean, it is frequently mistaken for a tide.

What is a marine national monument? Similar to national marine sanctuaries, marine national monuments are designated to protect areas of the marine environment.

Coral and Ulua found in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Coral reefs found in Papahānaumokuākea are home to over 7,000 marine species, one quarter of which are found only in the Hawaiian Archipelago.

Marine monuments and national marine sanctuaries are both types of marine protected areas. The main difference between national marine sanctuaries and marine national monuments is the designation process and the laws under which they are established. Sanctuaries are designated by NOAA or Congress and are managed by NOAA using the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA). The NMSA requires extensive public process, local community engagement, stakeholder involvement, and citizen participation, both prior to and following designation.

The Office of National Marine Sanctuaries serves as the trustee for a network of underwater parks encompassing more than more than 600,000 square miles square miles of marine and Great Lakes waters from Washington state to the Florida Keys, and from Lake Huron to American Samoa. The network includes a system of 13 national marine sanctuaries and Papahānaumokuākea and Rose Atoll marine national monuments.

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What is a salt marsh? Salt marshes are coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained by salt water brought in by the tides.

Salt marsh within Narragansett Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. Salt marshes are coastal wetlands which are flooded and drained by tides.

Salt marshes are coastal wetlands that are flooded and drained by salt water brought in by the tides. They are marshy because the soil may be composed of deep mud and peat. Peat is made of decomposing plant matter that is often several feet thick. Peat is waterlogged, root-filled, and very spongy. Because salt marshes are frequently submerged by the tides and contain a lot of decomposing plant material, oxygen levels in the peat can be extremely low—a condition called hypoxia. Hypoxia is caused by the growth of bacteria which produce the sulfurous rotten-egg smell that is often associated with marshes and mud flats.

Salt marshes occur worldwide, particularly in middle to high latitudes. Thriving along protected shorelines, they are a common habitat in estuaries. In the U.S., salt marshes can be found on every coast. Approximately half of the nation's salt marshes are located along the Gulf Coast.

These intertidal habitats are essential for healthy fisheries, coastlines, and communities—and they are an integral part of our economy and culture. They also provide essential food, refuge, or nursery habitat for more than 75 percent of fisheries species, including shrimp, blue crab, and many finfish.

Salt marshes also protect shorelines from erosion by buffering wave action and trapping sediments. They reduce flooding by slowing and absorbing rainwater and protect water quality by filtering runoff, and by metabolizing excess nutrients

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What threats do seabirds face? Seabirds are impacted by a variety of human-related activities including oil spills, fisheries interactions, contaminants, disturbances, and habitat destruction.

In California, frequent human-caused disturbances to seabirds include low-flying aircraft, close approaches by motorized and non-motorized boats, humans on foot, and general ocean and coastal users. In California, for example, nesting and migrant seabird populations are significant resources with colonies throughout the state. Over time, these populations have been impacted by a variety of man-made sources, including oil spills, gill-net and other fisheries, various contaminants, habitat destruction, introduced predators, and human disturbance.

These disturbances can cause nesting seabirds to flee from and abandon their nests, leaving eggs or chicks exposed to predators, or causing eggs to fall from the nest. In some cases, disturbances can cause complete breeding failure of a seabird colony, and ultimately may cause colony abandonment. These disturbance events can result in a reduction of the long-term health and survival of affected marine species, and when coupled with changing oceanic conditions and other human-induced stressors, cumulative small impacts can impart large-scale harm.

The Seabird Protection Network at Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary addresses human disturbance to breeding seabird colonies along the central California coast. These efforts are accomplished through an organized outreach and education program combined with law enforcement and other seabird management actions. Monitoring of California seabird breeding colonies helps guide outreach, education, and management efforts of the Network

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What is NERRS? The National Estuarine Research Reserve System, or NERRS, is a partnership between NOAA and coastal states to study and protect vital coastal and estuarine resources.

Great Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve is located on the New Hampshire and Maine border.

National Estuarine Research Reserves serve as "living laboratories," with opportunities for both scientists and graduate students to conduct research. Reserves also conduct long-term water quality and habitat monitoring.

The National Estuarine Research Reserve System is a network of 29 areas representing different biogeographic regions of the United States. The reserves are protected for long-term research, water quality and habitat monitoring, education, and coastal stewardship. Each reserve is managed on a daily basis by a lead state agency or university, with input from local partners. NOAA provides funding, national guidance, and technical assistance.

Reserve staff work with local communities and regional groups to address natural resource management issues, such as non-point source pollution, habitat restoration, and invasive species. Through integrated research and education, the reserves help communities develop strategies to deal successfully with their coastal resource issues.

Reserves provide adult audiences with training on estuarine issues of concern in their local communities. They also offer field classes for K-12 students and support teachers through professional development programs in marine education

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What ocean basin has the most corals? The Pacific Ocean has the most coral species.

Generally, there are about twice as many coral species in Pacific Ocean reefs as in Atlantic Ocean reefs.

Reef-building corals are restricted in their geographic distribution by factors such as the temperature and the salinity (salt content) of the water. The water must also be clear to permit high light penetration.

Because of these environmental restrictions, reefs generally are confined to tropical and semitropical waters. The diversity of reef corals (the number of species), decreases in higher latitudes up to about 30° north and south, beyond which reef corals are usually not found.

Generally, there are about twice as many coral species in Pacific Ocean reefs as in Atlantic Ocean reefs

Are corals animals or plants? Coral, a sessile animal, relies on its relationship with plant-like algae to build the largest structures of biological origin on Earth.

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Corals are sessile animals that "take root" on the ocean floor. It's no wonder that many people think corals are plants!

Corals are sessile, which means that they permanently attach themselves to the ocean floor, essentially "taking root" like most plants do. We certainly cannot recognize them by their faces or other distinct body parts, as we can most other animals.

So what exactly are corals? Corals actually comprise an ancient and unique partnership, called symbiosis, that benefits both animal and plant life in the ocean. Corals are animals, though, because they do not make their own food, as plants do. Corals have tiny, tentacle-like arms that they use to capture their food from the water and sweep into their inscrutable mouths.

Most structures that we call "coral" are, in fact, made up of hundreds to thousands of tiny coral creatures called polyps. Each soft-bodied polyp—most no thicker than a nickel—secretes a hard outer skeleton of limestone (calcium carbonate) that attaches either to rock or the dead skeletons of other polyps.

In the case of stony or hard corals, these polyp conglomerates grow, die, and endlessly repeat the cycle over time, slowly laying the limestone foundation for coral reefs and giving shape to the familiar corals that reside there. Because of this cycle of growth, death, and regeneration among individual polyps, many coral colonies can live for a very long time.

Most corals contain algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-UH-zan-thuh-lay), which are plant-like organisms. Residing within the coral's tissues, the microscopic www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 185 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) algae are well protected and make use of the coral's metabolic waste products for photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food.

The corals benefit, in turn, as the algae produce oxygen, remove wastes, and supply the organic products of photosynthesis that corals need to grow, thrive, and build up the reef.

More than merely a clever collaboration that has endured between some of the tiniest ocean animals and plants for some 25 million years, this mutual exchange is the reason why coral reefs are the largest structures of biological origin on Earth, and rival old-growth forests in the longevity of their ecological communities

What is a seamount? Seamount is an underwater mountain formed by volcanic activity.

A map of a seamount in the Arctic Ocean created by NOAA's Office of Coast Survey by gathering data with a multibeam echo sounder.

Seamounts - undersea mountains formed by volcanic activity - were once thought to be little more than hazards to submarine navigation. Today, scientists recognize these structures as biological hotspots that support a dazzling array of marine life.

The biological richness of seamount habitats results from the shape of these undersea mountains. Thanks to the steep slopes of seamounts, nutrients are carried upwards from the depths of the oceans toward the sunlit surface, providing food for creatures ranging from corals to fish to crustaceans.

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New estimates suggest that, taken together, seamounts encompass about 28.8 million square kilometers of the Earth's surface. That's larger than deserts, tundra, or any other single land-based global habitat on the planet.

How does oil impact marine life? Oil spills are harmful to marine birds and mammals as well as fish and shellfish.

Following an oil spill, there are specialists and veterinarians to deal with oiled wildlife. These experts are trained on how to clean oil from animals, rehabilitate them, and return them to the environment.

Oil destroys the insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters, and the water repellency of a bird's feathers, thus exposing these creatures to the harsh elements. Without the ability to repel water and insulate from the cold water, birds and mammals will die from hypothermia. Many birds and animals also ingest oil when they try to clean themselves, which can poison them.

Fish and shellfish may not be exposed immediately, but can come into contact with oil if it is mixed into the water column. When exposed to oil, adult fish may experience reduced growth, enlarged livers, changes in heart and respiration rates, fin erosion, and reproduction impairment. Oil also adversely affects eggs and larval survival

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Our national marine sanctuaries use a variety of mechanisms to understand and protect marine resources. National marine sanctuary staff conduct research and use that science to better understand the marine environment at all 14 sites. This knowledge is necessary to establish an effective strategy for protection.

Public education and appreciation for marine resources is needed for protection. Education programs exist at all sanctuary sites. An educated public understands how to interact in the environment to avoid damaging marine resources and will help to promote the main conservation messages.

The sanctuaries also implement a permit system to regulate and oversee potentially harmful activities in sanctuaries. This framework may be enhanced by the adoption of state and other federal laws and regulations.

Another important tool is ―interpretive enforcement,‖ emphasizing education about responsible behavior as a proactive method to prevent harmful resource impacts from occurring in the first place.

The National Marine Sanctuaries Act, along with site-specific legislation and regulations, provides the legal framework outlining the activities that are allowed or prohibited What lives in a kelp forest Kelp forests provide habitat for a variety of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds

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Many species of fish and marine mammals inhabit kelp forests for protection and food. In kelp forests, the most commonly found invertebrates are bristle worms, scud, prawn, snails, and brittle stars. These animals feed on the holdfasts that keep kelp anchored to the bottom of the ocean and algae that are abundant in kelp forests. Sea urchins will often completely remove kelp plants by eating through their holdfasts. Other invertebrates found in kelp forests are sea stars, anemones, crabs, and jellyfish.

A wide range of fish can be found in kelp forests, many of which are important to commercial fishermen. For example, many types of rockfish such as black rockfish, blue rockfish, olive rockfish, and kelp rockfish are found in kelp forests and are important to fishermen.

A wide range of marine mammals inhabit kelp forests for protection and food. Sea lions and seals feed on the fish that live in kelp forests. Grey whales have also been observed in kelp forests, most likely using the forest as a safe haven from the predatory killer whale. The grey whale will eat the abundant invertebrates and crustaceans in kelp forests. One of the most important mammals in a kelp forest is the sea otter, who takes refuge from sharks and storms in these forests.

The sea otter eats the red sea urchin that can destroy a kelp forest if left to multiply freely.

Kelp forests are a natural buffet for birds such as crows, warblers, starlings, and black phoebes which feed on flies, maggots, and small crustaceans that are abundant in kelp forests. Gulls, terns, egrets, great blue herons, and cormorants dine on the many fish and invertebrates living in the kelp. Kelp forests also provide birds with a refuge from storms. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 189 of 391

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Kelp Forests - a Description

Kelp forests grow predominantly on the Pacific Coast, from Alaska and Canada to the waters of Baja California. Tiered like a terrestrial rainforest with a canopy and several layers below, the kelp forests of the eastern Pacific coast are dominated by two canopy-forming, brown macroalgae species, giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) and bull kelp (Nereocystis leutkeana).

Giant kelp, perhaps the most recognized species of brown macroalgae, forms the more southern kelp forests, from the southern Channel Islands, California to northwestern Baja.

Four national marine sanctuaries harbor kelp forests. Giant kelp inhabits the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary as well as the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, where giant kelp and bull kelp coexist. In the more northern Greater Farallones and Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuaries, kelp forests are comprised of predominantly bull kelp.

Conditions Required for Growth Kelp forests grow along rocky coastlines in depths of about 2 m to more than 30 m (6 to 90+ ft). Kelp favors nutrient-rich, cool waters that range in temperature from 5o to 20o C (42o to 72o F). These brown algae communities live in clear water conditions through which light penetrates easily. Kelp recruits most successfully in regions of upwelling (regions where the ocean layers overturn, bringing cool, nutrient-rich bottom waters to the surface) and regions with continuously cold, high- nutrient waters. Because the amount of dissolved inorganic nitrogen decreases significantly in marine waters warmer than 20oC, kelp experiences reduced or

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) negative growth rates in warm water. This phenomenon is particularly evident in southern California where giant kelp forests deteriorate in the summer months.

Along the central California coast where the distribution of giant kelp and bull kelp overlap, giant kelp out competes bull kelp for light.

Kelp survival is positively correlated with the strength of the substrate. The larger and stronger the rock on which it is anchored, the greater the chance of kelp survival. Winter storms and high-energy environments easily uproot the kelp and can wash entire plants ashore. The kelp forests in Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary are small and localized compared to those in the Channel Islands, Monterey Bay, and Olympic Coast sanctuaries. Conditions influencing kelp forest development in Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary may include: increased wave motion, unsuitable substrate, urchin predation, and turbidity and salinity effects of the San Francisco Bay plume.

Unique Characteristics of Kelp Plants Instead of tree-like roots that extend into the substrate, kelp has "anchors" called holdfasts that grip onto rocky substrates.

From the holdfasts, kelp plants grow toward the water's surface. Gas bladders called pneumatocysts, another unique feature of kelp, keep the upper portions of the algae afloat. A giant kelp plant has a pneumatocyst at the base of each blade. In contrast, a bull kelp plant has only one pneumatocyst that supports several blades near the water's surface.

Life histories Giant kelp found in Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. (Credit: NOAA) Giant kelp is a perennial (i.e. it lives for several years) while bull kelp is an annual (i.e. it completes its life cycle in one year). Both types of kelp have a two-stage life cycle. They exist in their earliest life stages as spores, released with millions of others from the parent kelp, the sporophyte. The spores grow into a tiny male or female plant called a www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 191 of 391

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Giant kelp can live up to seven years. Factors such as the severity of winter storms may affect its life span. Its average growth (in spring) is 27 cm/day (~10 inches/day), yet it may grow up to 61 cm/day (2 ft/day). The average growth of bull kelp is 10 cm/day (~4 inches/day).

The Kelp Forest Ecosystem A host of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds exist in kelp forest environs. From the holdfasts to the surface mats of kelp fronds, the array of habitats on the kelp itself may support thousands of invertebrate individuals, including polychaetes, amphipods, decapods, and ophiuroids.

California sea lions, harbor seals, sea otters, and whales may feed in the kelp or escape storms or predators in the shelter of kelp. On rare occasions gray whales have been spotted seeking refuge in kelp forests from predatory killer whales. All larger marine life, including birds and mammals, may retreat to kelp during storms or high- energy regimes because the kelp helps to weaken currents and waves.

Perhaps the most familiar image of kelp forests is a picture of a sea otter draped in strands of kelp, gripping a sea urchin on its belly. Both sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus spp.) play critical roles in the stable equilibrium ecosystem. Sea urchins graze kelp and may reach population densities large enough to destroy kelp forests at the rate of 30 feet per month. Urchins move in "herds," and enough urchins may remain in the "barrens" of a former kelp forest to negate any attempt at regrowth. Sea otters, playing a critical role in containing the urchin populations, prey on urchins and thus control the numbers of kelp grazers The Importance of the Keystone In nature, all living things are in some way connected. Within each community each species depends on one or more of the others for survival. And at the core of individual ecosystems is a creature, or in some cases a plant, known as a keystone species. This species operates much like a true key stone, which is the stone at the top of an arch that supports the other stones and keeps the whole arch from falling down. When a keystone species is

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In California's Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary the sea otter is a keystone species in the kelp forest ecosystem. Kelp forests provide food and shelter for large numbers of fish and shellfish. Kelp also protect coastlines from damaging wave action. One of the sea otter's favorite delicacies is the sea urchin who in turn loves kelp.

When present in healthy numbers, sea otters keep sea urchin populations in check. But when sea otters decline, urchin numbers explode and grab onto kelp like flies on honey. The urchins chew off the anchors that keep the kelp in place, causing them to die and float away, setting off a chain reaction that depletes the food supply for other marine animals causing their numbers to decline.

By the early 20th century when sea otters were nearly hunted out of existence for their fur, kelp beds disappeared and so did the marine life that depended on kelp. Years later, conservationists moved some remaining otters from Big Sur to Central California. Gradually, their numbers grew, sea urchin numbers declined, and the kelp began to grow again. As the underwater forests grew, other species reappeared.

Protecting keystone species, like sea otters, is a priority for conservationists. Often, the extent of the keystone functions of a species aren't known until the species has been removed from its environment and the ecosystem changes. Rather than wait until it may be too late for the system's health and survival, scientists make every effort to keep an ecosystem working as nature had intended

What is the difference between land cover and land use? Land cover indicates the physical land type such as forest or open water whereas land use documents how people are using the land

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By comparing land cover data and maps over a period of time, coastal managers can document land use trends and changes.

Land cover data documents how much of a region is covered by forests, wetlands, impervious surfaces, agriculture, and other land and water types. Water types include wetlands or open water. Land use shows how people use the landscape – whether for development, conservation, or mixed uses. The different types of land cover can be managed or used quite differently.

Land cover can be determined by analyzing satellite and aerial imagery. Land use cannot be determined from satellite imagery. Land cover maps provide information to help managers best understand the current landscape. To see change over time, land cover maps for several different years are needed. With this information, managers can evaluate past management decisions as well as gain insight into the possible effects of their current decisions before they are implemented. Coastal managers use land cover data and maps to better understand the impacts of natural phenomena and human use of the landscape. Maps can help managers assess urban growth, model water quality issues, predict and assess impacts from floods and storm surges, track wetland losses and potential impacts from sea level rise, prioritize areas for conservation efforts, and compare land cover changes with effects in the environment or to connections in socioeconomic changes such as increasing population

What is ecosystem science? Ecosystem science is the study of inter-relationships among the living organisms, physical features, bio-chemical processes, natural phenomena, and human activities in ecological communities.

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Within any given area, living and nonliving interact with each other. Together, these things form an ecosystem. Because all of the elements within an ecosystem are interrelated, these systems can be quite complex. All ecosystems must maintain a delicate balance between all of their members in order to thrive. Human interference and extreme natural events can tip this balance and threaten an ecosystem's health.

An ecosystem is an ecological community comprised of biological, physical, and chemical components, considered as a unit.

NOS scientists monitor, research, and study ecosystem science on many levels. They may monitor entire ecosystems or they may study the chemistry of a single microbe. This wide range of data is collected into combined assessments that describe current ecosystem health, predict the future state of an ecosystem, and evaluate different management strategies that may improve the health of an ecosystem.

NOS focuses its efforts on ecosystems that are given importance by legislative and executive orders. These areas include coral reefs, estuaries, national marine sanctuaries, national estuarine research reserves, and other ocean ecosystems.

The areas are observed and studied to determine how they are affected by human actions. Strategies are then formed in order to best protect these valuable ecosystems in order to keep them safe and healthy Ocean Observations:

What is a heat dome? A heat dome occurs when the atmosphere traps hot ocean air like a lid or cap.

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A graphic that shows a heat dome cycling above United States

High-pressure circulation in the atmosphere acts like a dome or cap, trapping heat at the surface and favoring the formation of a heat wave.

Summertime means hot weather — sometimes dangerously hot — and extreme heat waves have become more frequent in recent decades. Sometimes, the scorching heat is ensnared in what is called a heat dome. This happens when strong, high-pressure atmospheric conditions combine with influences from La Niña, creating vast areas of sweltering heat that gets trapped under the high-pressure "dome."

A team of scientists funded by the NOAA MAPP Program investigated what triggers heat domes and found the main cause was a strong change (or gradient) in ocean temperatures from west to east in the tropical Pacific Ocean during the preceding winter.

Imagine a swimming pool when the heater is turned on — temperatures rise quickly in the areas surrounding the heater jets, while the rest of the pool takes longer to warm up. If one thinks of the Pacific as a very large pool, the western Pacific‘s temperatures have risen over the past few decades as compared to the eastern Pacific, creating a strong temperature gradient, or pressure differences that drive wind, across the entire ocean in winter. In a process known as convection, the gradient causes more warm air, heated by the ocean surface, to rise over the western Pacific, and decreases convection over the central and eastern Pacific.

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As prevailing winds move the hot air east, the northern shifts of the jet stream trap the air and move it toward land, where it sinks, resulting in heat waves.

Did you know? Studies found an increase in the Pacific Ocean's temperature gradient due to global warming, which suggests the future potential for ever more frequent heat waves. This type of research improves scientists' ecoforecasting capabilities.

What do leeward and windward mean? "Windward" and "leeward" refer to the prevailing winds on opposite sides of an island.

An island‘s windward side faces the prevailing, or trade, winds, whereas the island‘s leeward side faces away from the wind, sheltered from prevailing winds by hills and mountains. As trade winds blow across the ocean, they pick up moist air from the water.

Once the damp air makes landfall on an island, it ascends hills and mountains to form condensation, clouds, and precipitation. As the air moves to the other side of the island, it warms up and dries out. Thus, an island‘s windward side is wetter and more verdant than its drier leeward side. Meteorologists call this contrast the orographic effect.

As an example, the Hawaiian Islands have damp windward sides and drier leeward sides most of the time as a result of the Pacific Ocean‘s northeasterly trade winds. Windward locations are generally lush and green. Famously sunny beaches like Oahu‘s Waikiki and Maui‘s Wailea are found on the islands‘ more sheltered leeward sides

Did you know? In sailing terminology, windward means "upwind," or the direction from which the wind is blowing. A windward vessel refers to one that is upwind of another vessel; a leeward vessel is downwind. In naval warfare during the Age of Sail, windward ships had the advantage due to much greater maneuverability than their leeward (downwind) foes.

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How many high tides are there per day? It depends. Most coastal locations have two unequal high tides a day.

If the Earth were a perfect sphere without large continents, and if the earth-moon- sun system were in perfect alignment, every place would get two equal high and low tides every day. However, the alignment of the moon and sun relative to Earth, the presence of the continents, regional geography and features on the seafloor, among other factors, make tidal patterns more complex

While some places have one high tide and one low tide per day, most coastal locations have two high tides and two low tides a day. These highs and lows typically aren't equal. This is why, in most places, using the phrase "high tide" might be unclear. There's actually high tide and higher high tide (and low and lower low tide).

If the Earth were a perfect sphere without large continents, and if the earth-moon- sun system were in perfect alignment, every place would get two equal high and low tides every day. However, the alignment of the moon and sun relative to Earth, the presence of the continents, regional geography, and features on the seafloor, among other factors, make tidal patterns more complex.

Around the world, there are three basic tidal patterns: semidiurnal, mixed, and diurnal. When both high tides are about equal to each other, and the low tides are also roughly equal, the pattern is called a semidiurnal tide. If the two highs and lows differ substantially, the pattern is called a mixed tide. Where there's only one high and one low tide a day, it's called a diurnal tide. One location can experience different tide patterns throughout the month. What is SOFAR? SOFAR is an ocean ―channel‖ that allows sound to carry great distances.

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At the height of World War II, scientists tested a theory that low-frequency sound could travel long distances in the deep ocean. They deployed a hydrophone from their research vessel, which was anchored off of Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Some 900 miles away, another ship lowered a four-pound explosive to a specific depth below the ocean surface. Once detonated, the explosion propelled pulses of sound that traveled the 900 hundred miles from one ship to the other. That‘s nearly the distance from Washington, DC, to Des Moines, Iowa!

For the first time, researchers heard what they termed SOFAR, or a SOund Fixing And Ranging transmission. As the scientists noted, ―The end of the sound channel transmission was so sharp that it was impossible for the most unskilled observer to miss it.‖

How does SOFAR work?Think of the ocean as consisting of various zones, or layers — sort of like oil and vinegar salad dressing before it‘s shaken up — except that ocean layers occur due to differences in salinity (salt content) and temperature variations. Saltier and colder water lie beneath less salty, warmer water.

Because of SOFAR, sound emitted at a certain depth bounces between these various layers and can travel for hundreds of miles. This up-and-down bending of low- frequency soundwaves allows soundwaves to travel great distances without the signal losing significant energy. By placing hydrophones at the axis of the sound www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 199 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) channel, researchers can record sounds such as whale calls, earthquakes, and manmade noise occurring vast distances from the hydrophones. In some instances, low-frequency sounds can be heard across entire ocean basins.

What is the bloop? The source of a mysterious rumble recorded in the ocean in 1997 is now known to have originated from an icequake.

In 1997, researchers listening for underwater volcanic activity in the southern Pacific recorded a strange, powerful, and extremely loud sound. Using hydrophones, or underwater microphones, that were placed more than 3,219 kilometers apart across the Pacific, they recorded numerous instances of the noise, which was unlike anything they had heard before. Not only was it loud, the sound had a unique characteristic that came to be known as ―the Bloop.‖

Scientists from NOAA‘s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) were eager to discover the sound's origin, but with about 95 percent of the ocean unexplored, theories abounded. Was the Bloop from secret underwater military exercises, ship engines, fishing boat winches, giant squids, whales, or a some sea creature unknown to science?

As the years passed, PMEL researchers continued to deploy hydrophones ever closer to Antarctica in an ongoing effort to study the sounds of sea floor volcanoes and earthquakes. It was there, on Earth‘s lonely southernmost land mass, that they finally discovered the source of those thunderous rumbles from the deep in 2005. The Bloop was the sound of an icequake—an iceberg cracking and breaking away from an Antarctic glacier! With global warming, more and more icequakes occur annually, breaking off glaciers, cracking and eventually melting into the ocean.

How do hurricanes form? Warm ocean waters and thunderstorms fuel power-hungry hurricanes.

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Hurricanes form over the ocean, often beginning as a tropical wave—a low pressure area that moves through the moisture-rich tropics, possibly enhancing shower and thunderstorm activity.

Hurricanes are powerhouse weather events that suck heat from tropical waters to fuel their fury. These violent storms form over the ocean, often beginning as a tropical wave—a low pressure area that moves through the moisture-rich tropics, possibly enhancing shower and thunderstorm activity.

As this weather system moves westward across the tropics, warm ocean air rises into the storm, forming an area of low pressure underneath. This causes more air to rush in. The air then rises and cools, forming clouds and thunderstorms. Up in the clouds, water condenses and forms droplets, releasing even more heat to power the storm.

When wind speeds within such a storm reach 74 mph, it‘s classified as a hurricane. The terms ―hurricane‖ and ―tropical cyclone‖ refer to the same kind of storm: a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters and has closed, low-level circulation.

During just one hurricane, raging winds can churn out about half as much energy as the electrical generating capacity of the entire world, while cloud and rain formation from the same storm might release a staggering 400 times that amount

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Recipe for a Hurricane Whipping up a hurricane calls for a number of ingredients readily available in tropical areas:

A pre-existing weather disturbance: A hurricane often starts out as a tropical wave.

Warm water: Water at least 26.5 degrees Celsius over a depth of 50 meters powers the storm.

Thunderstorm activity: Thunderstorms turn ocean heat into hurricane fuel.

Low wind shear: A large difference in wind speed and direction around or near the storm can weaken it.

Mix it all together, and you‘ve got a hurricane—maybe. Even when all these factors come together, a hurricane doesn‘t always develop.

What is a hydrophone? A hydrophone is an underwater device that detects and records ocean sounds from all directions.

People often think that the underwater world is silent. In fact, numerous marine organisms use sound for communication, reproduction, and to seek prey. The hydrophone pictured here is located within Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary in Georgia. This is one of four locations where hydrophones are used to collect soundscape data within the National Marine Sanctuary system.

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Just as a microphone collects sound in the air, a hydrophone detects acoustic signals under the water. Most hydrophones are based on a special property of certain ceramics that produces a small electrical current when subjected to changes in underwater pressure. When submerged in the ocean, a ceramic hydrophone produces small-voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies as it is exposed to underwater sounds emanating from any direction.

By amplifying and recording these electrical signals, hydrophones measure ocean sounds with great precision. While a single hydrophone can record sounds from any direction, several hydrophones simultaneously positioned in an array, often thousands of miles apart, result in signals that can be manipulated to ―listen‖ with greater sensitivity than a single device. Omni-directional and hemi-directional hydrophones pick up sound from a particular direction and can be used to track fish movements.

In addition to NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA‘s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) also frequently uses hydrophones. PMEL acquires long-term data sets of the global ocean acoustics environment to identify and assess acoustic impacts from both human activities and natural processes, such as underwater volcanoes, earthquakes, and icequakes on the marine environment.

Did you know? ―You would think that the deepest part of the ocean would be one of the quietest places on Earth. Yet there is almost constant noise,‖ says Robert Dziak, NOAA PMEL research oceanographer and scientist. ―The ambient sound field is dominated by the sounds of earthquakes, both near and far, as well as by the distinct moans of baleen whales

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Chapter 7 Evolution

Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given population as a result of mutation, genetic recombination and other sources of genetic variation. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population. It is this process of evolution that has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms and molecules.

The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species (1859). Evolution by natural selection was first demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive. This is followed by three observable facts about living organisms: 1) traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation), 2) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness) and 3) traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness). Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments. In the early 20th century, other competing ideas of evolution such as mutationism and orthogenesis were refuted as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics, which established adaptive evolution as being caused by natural selection acting on Mendelian genetic variation.

All life on Earth shares a last universal common ancestor (LUCA) that lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species (speciation), changes within species (anagenesis) and loss of species (extinction) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 204 of 391

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Morphological and biochemical traits are more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor, and can be used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees.

Evolutionary biologists have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing hypotheses as well as constructing theories based on evidence from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of mathematical and theoretical biology. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of biology but numerous other scientific and industrial fields, including agriculture, medicine and computer science.

Biased mutation In addition to being a major source of variation, mutation may also function as a mechanism of evolution when there are different probabilities at the molecular level for different mutations to occur, a process known as mutation bias. If two genotypes, for example one with the nucleotide G and another with the nucleotide A in the same position, have the same fitness, but mutation from G to

A happens more often than mutation from A to G, then genotypes with A will tend to evolve. Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution. For example, according to the phenotype-first theory of evolution, mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment.

Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes. If selection would favour either one out of two mutations, but there is no extra advantage to having both, then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population. Mutations leading to the loss of function of a gene are much more common than mutations that produce a new, fully functional gene. Most loss of function mutations are selected against. But when selection is weak, mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution. For example, pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost. This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias, and/or because the function had a cost, and once the benefit of the function disappeared, natural selection leads to the loss. Loss of sporulation ability in Bacillus subtilis during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias, rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability. When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size, indicating that it is driven more by mutation www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 205 of 391

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Genetic drift

Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to fixationis more rapid in the smaller population.

Genetic drift is the random fluctuations of allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error. This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles

The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift. Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature. However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Other alternative theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft.

The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 206 of 391

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It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research.

Adaptation

Homologous bones in the limbs of tetrapods. The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been adapted for specific uses.

Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection.

The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky: 1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats. 2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats. 3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.

Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol. An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).

A baleen whale skeleton, a and b label flipper bones, which were adapted from front leg bones: while c indicates vestigial leg bones, suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.

Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.

During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures.Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction. Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth,the coccyx, the vermiform appendix,and other behavioural vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexe

However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 208 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation.Within cells, molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions. Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.

An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.

Role of extinction Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct,and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events.

The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier Permian–Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction. The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years.

Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century. Human activities are now the Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 209 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered. The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the competitive exclusion principle). If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.

Origin of life The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe." In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.

More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.

Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.

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Common descent All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups—similar to a family tree. However, modern research has suggested that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.

The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor.

Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations.For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.

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Evolution of life

Evolutionary tree showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre.The three domains are coloured, with bacteria blue, archaea green and eukaryotes red.

Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.

The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period. The evolution of multicellularityoccurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime mouldsand myxobacteria. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.

Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.

About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like lineages), mammals around 129 million www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 212 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) years ago, homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250,000 years ago.However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.

Universal Darwinism Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory, or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, economics, culture, medicine, computer science and physics.

Gene-based Darwinian extensions a) Evolutionary psychology assumes that our emotions, preferences and cognitive mechanisms are the product of natural selection b) Evolutionary educational psychology applies evolutionary psychology to education c) Evolutionary developmental psychology applies evolutionary psychology to cognitive development d) Darwinian Happiness applies evolutionary psychology to understand the optimal conditions for human well-being e) Darwinian literary studies tries to understand the characters and plots of narrative on the basis of evolutionary psychology f) Evolutionary aesthetics applies evolutionary psychology to explain our sense of beauty, especially for landscapes and human bodies g) Evolutionary musicology applies evolutionary aesthetics to music h) Evolutionary anthropology studies the evolution of human beings i) Sociobiology proposes that social systems in animals and humans are the product of Darwinian biological evolution j) Human behavioral ecology investigates how human behavior has become adapted to its environment via variation and selection k) Evolutionary epistemology of mechanisms studies how our abilities to gather knowledge (perception, cognition) have evolved l) Evolutionary medicine investigates the origin of diseases by looking at the evolution both of the human body and of its parasites

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) m) Paleolithic diet proposes that the most healthy nutrition is the one to which our hunter-gatherer ancestors have adapted over millions of years n) Paleolithic lifestyle generalizes the paleolithic diet to include exercise, behavior and exposure to the environment o) Molecular evolution studies evolution at the level of DNA, RNA and proteins p) Biosocial criminology studies crime using several different approaches that include genetics and evolutionary psychology q) Evolutionary linguistics studies the evolution of language, biologically as well as culturally

Timeline of the evolutionary history of life This timeline of the evolutionary history of life represents the current scientific theory outlining the major events during the development of life on planet Earth. In biology, evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organization, from kingdoms to species, and individual organisms and molecules, such as DNA and proteins. The similarities between all present day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species, living and extinct, have diverged through the process of evolution. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. However, a May 2016 scientific report estimates that 1 trillion species are currently on Earth, with only one-thousandth of one percent described

Extinction event Species go extinct constantly as environments change, as organisms compete for environmental niches, and as genetic mutation leads to the rise of new species from older ones. Occasionally biodiversity on Earth takes a hit in the form of a mass extinction in which the extinction rate is much higher than usual. A large extinction- event often represents an accumulation of smaller extinction- events that take place in a relatively brief period of time. The first known mass extinction in earth's history was the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago. That event led to the loss of most of the planet's obligate anaerobes. Researchers have identified five major extinction events in earth's history since:

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Chapter 8 Pyramids

What is a pyramid? A pyramid is a geometrical solid with a square base and four equilateral triangular sides, the most structurally stable shape for projects involving large amounts of stone or masonry. Pyramids of various types, sizes and complexities were built in many parts of the ancient world (like Central America, Greece, China and Egypt). In the history of Egypt and China, they were primarily tombs and monuments to kings and leaders. The pyramids of the Mayans and Aztecs of Central America were mainly religious temples, though some of them housed burial chambers.

The Central American pyramids were smaller and sometimes wider than their Egyptian counterparts. These pyramids also took longer to finish -- they were often built and modified over hundreds of years, while Egyptian pyramids took a couple of decades to construct. Pyramids in Central America were integrated into Aztec and Mayan cities, whereas Egyptian pyramids were located away from the major cities.

The ancestors of these great structures are the burial tombs found throughout North America and Europe -- simple mounds of earth that covered burial chambers. The first tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were flat, box-shaped buildings called mastabas (Arabic for "bench"). Pharaohs later built grander tombs by adding levels on top of the box to form stepped pyramids. Stepped pyramids are prevalent in Central America. In Mesopotamia, they were called ziggurats.

The Egyptians took pyramid design to new heights, culminating in the construction of the pyramids of Giza in the 26th century B.C. Laborers used 2.3 million blocks of limestone and granite to build the Great Pyramid of Khufu, which stands 146 meters high, has a 230-meter-square base and weighs about 6.5 million tons. A number of pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Khufu, have survived thousands of years of exposure to the elements, a tribute to the ancient architects, engineers and workers who built them.

The Giza pyramid complex, on the west bank of the Nile, is the most famous group of pyramids in the world. This was the grandest pyramid and was built for Sneferu's son, Khufu, in 2540 B.C. The two smaller pyramids nearby were for Khufu's son, Khafre, and his grandson, Menkaure.

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The Great Pyramid of Khufu on the Giza plateau in Egypt is the largest and most elaborately constructed pyramid in existence, representing the most advanced aspects of pyramid construction. Some astonishing facts are  The primary burial chamber, or king's chamber, contains the sarcophagus (tomb) that held Khufu's body, and the walls are adorned with hieroglyphs (writing) depicting various aspects of ancient Egyptian history and religion.  The smaller queen's chamber lies within the pyramid, while another unfinished secondary burial chamber lies underneath the pyramid.  Weight-relieving chambers above the king's chamber distribute the weight of the overlying rock and prevent the king's chamber from collapsing.  The gallery is a large passageway with a vaulted, corbelled ceiling (the walls are layered upward, and each vertical layer sticks out further than the one below to form a primitive arch).  Descending and ascending passageways connect various chambers to each other and to the outside.  Air shafts connect the king's chamber to the outside.  The entrance was sealed after the pharaoh's body was placed inside.  White limestone rocks line the pyramid's exterior, giving it a smooth face.

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Chapter 9 Dinosaurs

Dinosaur Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago, although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago; their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Reverse genetic engineering and the fossil record both demonstrate that birds are modern feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the late Jurassic Period. As such, birds were the only dinosaur lineage to survive the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs, or birds; and non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds

Distinguishing anatomical features While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed- upon list of dinosaurs' distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clear descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications.

Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants. Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the synapomorphies of such a group.

A detailed assessment of archosaur interrelations by Sterling Nesbitt confirmed or found the following twelve unambiguous synapomorphies, some previously known: i. In the skull, a supratemporal fossa (excavation) is present in front of the supratemporal fenestra, the main opening in the rear skull roof ii. Epipophyses, obliquely backward pointing processes on the rear top corners, present in the anterior (front) neck vertebrae behind the atlas and axis, the first two neck vertebrae

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iii. Apex of deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the deltopectoral muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the humerus (upper arm bone) iv. Radius, a lower arm bone, shorter than 80% of humerus length v. Fourth trochanter (projection where the caudofemoralis muscle attaches on the inner rear shaft) on the femur (thighbone) is a sharp flange vi. Fourth trochanter asymmetrical, with distal, lower, margin forming a steeper angle to the shaft vii. On the astragalus and calcaneum, upper ankle bones, the proximal articular facet, the top connecting surface, for the fibula occupies less than 30% of the transverse width of the element viii. Exoccipitals (bones at the back of the skull) do not meet along the midline on the floor of the endocranial cavity, the inner space of the braincase ix. In the pelvis, the proximal articular surfaces of the ischium with the ilium and the pubis are separated by a large concave surface (on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium) x. Cnemial crest on the tibia (protruding part of the top surface of the shinbone) arcs anterolaterally (curves to the front and the outer side) xi. Distinct proximodistally oriented (vertical) ridge present on the posterior face of the distal end of the tibia (the rear surface of the lower end of the shinbone) xii. Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile)

Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies, and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested. Some of these are also present in silesaurids, which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria, including a large anterior trochanter, metatarsals II and IV of subequal length, reduced contact between ischium and pubis, the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus, and many others Origins and early evolution Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the middle to late Triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95% of all life on Earth.

Radiometric dating of the rock formation that contained fossils from the early dinosaur genus Eoraptor at 231.4 million years old establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time.

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Paleontologists think that Eoraptor resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as Marasuchus and Lagerpeton in Argentinian Middle Triassic strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.

Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as 243 million years ago, as evidenced by remains of the genus Nyasasaurus from that period, though known fossils of these animals are too fragmentary to tell if they are dinosaurs or very close dinosaurian relatives.

Recently, it has been determined that Staurikosaurus from the Santa Maria Formation dates to 233.23 Ma, making it older in geologic age than Eoraptor.

When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals. The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of archosauromorphs and therapsids, like cynodonts and rhynchosaurs.

Their main competitors were the pseudosuchia, such as aetosaurs, ornithosuchids and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct.

This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 200 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early-mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian, respectively, and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain.

These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles. The first few lines of early dinosaurs diversified through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct. Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the Carnian Pluvial Event

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Chapter 10 Snippets

Digital Revolution The Digital Revolution, also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day.

Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age.

Central to this revolution is the mass production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone, and the Internet. These technological innovations have transformed traditional production and business techniques

Post-Fordism Post-Fordism is the dominant system of economic production, consumption, and associated socio-economic phenomena in most industrialized countries since the late 20th century. It is contrasted with Fordism, the system formulated in Henry Ford's automotive factories, in which workers work on a production line, performing specialized tasks repetitively, and in which his workers could afford the products they built. Definitions of the nature and scope of post-Fordism vary considerably and are a matter of debate among scholars. Changes in the nature of the workforce include the shift of emphasis to new information technologies and the rise of the service and the white-collar worker.

Post-industrial society In sociology, the post-industrial society is the stage of society's development when the service sector generates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy.

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The term was originated by Alain Touraine and is closely related to similar sociological theoretical constructs such as post-Fordism, information society, knowledge economy, post-industrial economy, liquid modernity, and network society. They all can be used in economics or social science disciplines as a general theoretical backdrop in research design.

As the term has been used, a few common themes, including the ones below have begun to emerge.

1. The economy undergoes a transition from the production of goods to the provision of services. 2. Knowledge becomes a valued form of capital; see Human capital. 3. Producing ideas is the main way to grow the economy. 4. Through processes of globalization and automation, the value and importance to the economy of blue-collar, unionized work, including manual labor (e.g., assembly-line work) decline, and those of professional workers (e.g., scientists, creative-industry professionals, and IT professionals) grow in value and prevalence. 5. Behavioral and information sciences and technologies are developed and implemented. (e.g., behavioral economics, information architecture, cybernetics, game theory and information theory.)

Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.

Quantum mechanics is the science of the very small. It explains the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.

By contrast, classical physics only explains matter and energy on a scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as the Moon. Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to two major revolutions in physics that created a shift in the original scientific paradigm: the theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 221 of 391

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Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Matter—the "stuff" of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms—exhibits wavelike behavior too. Some light sources, such as neon lights, give off only certain frequencies of light. Quantum mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units, called photons, and predicts its energies, colors, and spectral intensities.

A single photon is a quantum, or smallest observable amount, of the electromagnetic field because a partial photon has never been observed. More broadly, quantum mechanics shows that many quantities, such as angular momentum, that appeared continuous in the zoomed-out view of classical mechanics, turn out to be (at the small, zoomed-in scale of quantum mechanics) quantized. Angular momentum is required to take on one of a set of discrete allowable values, and since the gap between these values is so minute, the discontinuity is only apparent at the atomic level.

Many aspects of quantum mechanics are counterintuitive and can seem paradoxical, because they describe behavior quite different from that seen at larger length scales. In the words of quantum physicist Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as She is – absurd". For example, the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics means that the more closely one pins down one measurement (such as the position of a particle), the less accurate another measurement pertaining to the same particle (such as its momentum) must become.

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Chapter 11 Timelines of Computing

Timeline of computing presents events in the history of computing organized by year and grouped into six topic areas: predictions and concepts, first use and inventions, hardware systems and processors, operating systems, programming languages, and new application areas.

1980 Date Place Event January UK Sinclair ZX80 was released for under £100. May Japan On 22 May the game Pac-Man was released. June United Commodore released the VIC-20, which had 3.5 KB of States usable memory and was based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor. Magazines became available which contained the code for various utilities and games. A 5¼" disk drive was available, along with a cassette storage system which used standard audio cassette tapes. Also available were a number of games, a color plotter which printed on 6 in (152 mm) wide paper tape, a graphics tablet (the KoalaPad). A TV screen served as monitor. The VIC-20 became the first computer to sell 1 million units. July United Tandy released the TRS-80 Color Computer, based on the States Motorola 6809E processor and using Microsoft Basic as its programming language. It was the first Tandy computer to support color graphics, and also supported cartridge programs and games, attempting to bridge both the home computing and video gaming markets. October United Development of MS-DOS/PC DOS began. Microsoft States (known mainly for their programming languages) were commissioned to write the Operating System for the PC; Digital Research failed to get the contract (there is much legend as to the real reason for this). DR's Operating System, CP/M-86, was later shipped, but it was actually easier to

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Date Place Event adapt programs to DOS rather than to CP/M-86, and CP/M- 86 cost $495. As Microsoft didn't have an operating system to sell, they bought Seattle Computer Product's 86- DOS which had been written by Tim Paterson earlier that year (86-DOS was also known as QDOS, Quick & Dirty Operating System, it was a more-or-less 16 bit version of CP/M). The rights were actually bought in July 1981. It is reputed that IBM found over 300 bugs in the code when they subjected the operating system to scrutiny and re-wrote much of the code. Tim Paterson's DOS 1.0 was 4000 lines of assembler. ? Netherlands Red Book on Audio CDs was introduced by Sony and Japan Philips. This was the beginning of the Compact disc, it was released in Japan and then in Europe and America a year later.

1981 Date Place Event March UK Sinclair ZX81 was released, for a similar price to the ZX80 (see 1980). April United On April 8 Osborne 1 portable computer introduced; the States company sold many units before filing for bankruptcy only two years later. August United On August 12 IBM announced their open architecture IBM States Personal Computer. 100,000 orders were taken by Christmas. The design becomes far more successful than IBM had anticipated, and becomes the basis for most of the modern personal computer industry. MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter), text only, introduced with IBM PC. MS-DOS 1.0, PC DOS 1.0. Microsoft (known mainly for their programming languages) were commissioned by IBM to write the operating system, they bought a program called 86-DOS from Tim Paterson which was loosely based on CP/M-80. The final program from Microsoft was marketed by IBM as PC DOS and by

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Date Place Event Microsoft as MS-DOS, collaboration on subsequent versions continued until version 5.0 in 1991. Compared to modern versions of DOS, version 1 was very basic. The most notable difference was the presence of just 1 directory, the root directory, on each disk. Subdirectories were not supported until version 2.0 (March 1983). MS-DOS was the main operating system for all IBM-PC compatible computers until Microsoft released Windows 95. According to Microsoft, in 1994, MS-DOS was running on some 100 million computers worldwide. September United The TCP/IP protocol is established. This is the protocol that States carries most of the information across the Internet. RFC 793 United Richard Feynman proposed quantum computers. The main States application he had in mind was the simulation of quantum systems, but he also mentioned the possibility of solving other problems. United The Xerox 8010 ('Star') System, the first commercial system States to use a WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing Devices) graphic user interface. Apple incorporated many of the ideas therein in the development of the interface for the Apple Lisa (see January 1983) United Symbolics introduced the LM-2 workstation, a Lisp-based States workstation based on the MIT CADR architecture.

1982 Date Place Event January UK Introduction of the BBC Micro, announced in December last year. Based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor, it was a very popular computer for British schools up to the development of the Acorn Archimedes (in 1987). In 1984 the government offered to pay half the cost of such computers in an attempt to promote their use in secondary education. January United Commodore unveils the Commodore 64 at the Consumer States Electronics Show in Las Vegas. Built in just two months around the VIC-II Video Integrated Circuit and the SID Sound

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Date Place Event Interface Device chips, the C64 used the 6510 processor to access 64K of RAM plus 16K of switchable ROM. This "epitome of the 8-bit computer" sold up to 22 million units in the next decade. February United On February 1 the 80286 processor was released. It States implements a new mode of operation, protected mode – allowing access to more memory (up to 16 MBcompared to 1 MB for the 8086). At introduction the fastest version ran at 12.5 MHz, achieved 2.7 MIPS and contained 134,000 transistors. March United Compaq released their IBM PC compatible Compaq Portable. States March United MS-DOS 1.25, PC DOS 1.1 States April UK The Sinclair ZX Spectrum was announced, released later in the year. It is based on the Z80 microprocessor from Zilog, running at 3.5 MHz with an 8 color graphics display. The Spectrum sold with two memory options, a 16 KB version for £125 or a 48 KB version for £175. May United IBM launch the double-sided 320 KB floppy disk drive. States July UK Timex/Sinclair introduced the first computer touted to cost United under $100 marketed in the U.S., the Timex Sinclair 1000. In States spite of the flaws in the early versions, half a million units were sold in the first 6 months alone, surpassing the sales of Apple, Tandy, and Commodore combined. August United The Commodore 64 is released, retailing at US$595. The price States rapidly dropped, creating a price war and causing the departure of numerous companies from the home computing market. Total C64 sales during its lifetime (from 1982 to 1994) are estimated at more than 17 million units, making it the best-selling computer model of all time. October United MIDI, Musical Instrument Digital Interface, (pronounced States "middy") published by International MIDI Association (IMA). The MIDI standard allows computers to be connected to

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Date Place Event instruments like keyboards through a low-bandwidth (31,250 bit/s) protocol. December United IBM bought 12% of Intel. States ? United Introduction of 80186/80188. These are rarely used in States personal computers as they incorporate a built in DMA and timer chip – and thus have register addresses incompatible with IBM PCs.

1983 Date Place Event January United Apple introduced its Lisa. The first mass market personal States computer with a graphical user interface, its development was central in the move to such systems for personal computers. The Lisa's sloth and high price ($10,000) led to its ultimate failure. The Lisa ran on a Motorola 68000 microprocessor and came equipped with 1 MB of RAM, a 12-inch black-and- white monitor, dual 5¼" floppy disk drives and a 5 MB Profile hard drive. The Xerox Star – which included a system called Smalltalk that involved a mouse, windows, and pop-up menus – inspired the Lisa's designers. January United IBM PC gets European launch at Which Computer Show. States Europe March United IBM XT released, similar to the original IBM PC but with a States hard drive. It had a 10 MB hard disk, 128 KB of RAM, one floppy drive, mono monitor and a printer, all for $5000. March United MS-DOS 2.0, PC DOS 2.0 States Introduced with the IBM XT this version included a Unix style hierarchical sub-directory structure, and altered the way in which programs could load and access files on the disk. May United Thinking Machines Corporation formed. States

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Date Place Event May United MS-DOS 2.01 States September United Richard Stallman announces the GNU Project, to create a free States software alternative to proprietary Unixes, on Usenet. He works towards this goal over the next years, but GNU's own kernel, the GNU Hurd, is delayed indefinitely and GNU only becomes a complete usable alternative to Unix with the creation of the Linux kernel in 1991. October United IBM released the IBM PCjr in an attempt to get further into States the home market; it cost just $699. Cheaper alternatives from other companies were more preferable to the home buyer, but businesses continued to buy IBM. PC DOS 2.1 (for PCjr). Like the PCjr this was not a great success and quickly disappeared from the market. MS-DOS 2.11, MS-DOS 2.25 Version 2.25 included support for foreign character sets, and was marketed in the Far East. October United Microsoft Word software released. States November United Domain Name System (DNS) introduced to the Internet, States which then consisted of about 1000 hosts. RFC 881 (now obsoleted by subsequent revisions) Microsoft Windows is announced. December Serbia Detailed schematic diagrams for build-it-yourself computer Galaksija released in Belgrade. Thousands were soon assembled by computer enthusiasts. United Borland formed. States Japan Epson QX-10 released; first Japanese computer sold in the US United Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet software launched. States Italy Olivetti M24 was put on sale. This personal computer had good success and was later rebranded by AT&T.

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Date Place Event January UK Sinclair Research Ltd announced its first (and only) personal computer aimed to the business market, the Sinclair QL, at an attractive introductory price of £399. The machine was based on the 68008 CPU of Motorola, the low-cost version of Motorola 68000 with 8-bit external bus. The QL (abbreviation of Quantum Leap) did not become a market success, because of quality issues of the first series and due to the Microdrive used as storage medium instead of the much more reliable floppy discs, and its development and production later caused serious financial difficulties to the company. January United Apple Macintosh released, based on the 8 MHz version of States the Motorola 68000 processor. The 68000 can address 16 MB of RAM, a noticeable improvement over Intel's 8088/8086 family. However the Apple achieved 0.7 MIPS and originally came with just 128 KB of RAM. It came fitted with a monochrome monitor and was the first successful mouse- driven computer with a Graphical user interface. The Macintosh included many of the Lisa's features at a much more affordable price: $2,500. Applications that came as part of the package included MacPaint, which made use of the mouse, and MacWrite, which demonstrated WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) word processing. May United Hewlett-Packard release the immensely States popular LaserJet printer, by 1993 they had sold over 10 million LaserJet printers and over 20 million printers overall. HP were also pioneering inkjet technology. June UK Amstrad CPC was introduced first in Britain, later in other European markets as well. The machine was based on the popular 8 bit Z80 CPU. The mainboard (i.e. the computer itself) and a cassette recorder (Datacorder) were both integrated in the keyboard. The CPC could be bought in a bundle with a monochrome (GT64) monitor for £249 or a colour (CTM640) monitor for £359. The monitor also served as the power supply in order to have only one plug to be connected to the wall outlet. CPC became very popular in www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 229 of 391

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Date Place Event France and Spain, and in Germany where it was marketed by Schneider Rundfunkwerke AG under its own label. In 1985 two further models (CPC 664 and 6128) with built-in 3- inch floppy disc drive were released. August United MS-DOS 3.0, PC DOS 3.0 States Released for the IBM AT, it supported larger hard disks as well as High Density (1.2 MB) 5¼" floppy disks. September United Apple released a 512KB version of the Macintosh, known as States the "Fat Mac". United Compaq started the development of the IDE interface (see States also 1989). IDE = Intelligent Drive Electronics. This standard was designed specially for the IBM PC and can achieve high data transfer rates through a 1:1 interleave factor and caching by the actual disk controller – the bottleneck is often the old AT bus and the drive may read data far quicker than the bus can accept it, so the cache is used as a buffer. Theoretically 1 MB/s is possible but 700 kB/s is perhaps more typical of such drives. This standard has been adopted by many other models of computer, such the Acorn Archimedes A4000 and above. A later improvement was EIDE, laid down in 1989, which also removed the maximum drive size of 528 MB and increased data transfer rates. United Turbo Pascal introduced by Borland. States United Motorola released the 68020 processor. States

1985 Date Place Event January United PostScript introduced by Adobe Systems. It is a powerful States page description language used in the Apple Laserwriter printer. Adopted by IBM for their use in March 1987. March United MS-DOS 3.1, PC DOS 3.1 States

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Date Place Event This was the first version of DOS to provide network support, and provides some new functions to handle networking. March United Symbolics registered the symbolics.com domain, the States first .com domain in the world. April United Expanded memory specification, a memory paging States scheme for PCs, was introduced by Lotus and Intel. June United Commodore 128 was released. Based on a complex multi- States mode architecture, this was Commodore's last 8-bit computer. Cost: $299.95 for each of the CPU unit and accompanying 1571 disk drive. June United The Atari ST, an inexpensive 8 MHz Motorola 68000- States based computer, appeared. Nicknamed the "Jackintosh", after Atari owner Jack Tramiel, it featured 512 KB of memory and used GEM graphical interface from Digital Research. It was priced under US$1,000. June USSR Tetris was written by Russian Alexey Pazhitnov. It was later released for various western games machines, the crown jewel being its inclusion with Nintendo's Game Boy in 1989. Alexey made nothing from the game, since under the Communist Regime it was owned by the people. However, after the collapse of Communism he was able to move to the USA where he now works for Microsoft. July United Commodore released the Amiga, based on a States 7.16 MHz Motorola 68000 and a custom chipset. It was the first home computer to feature pre-emptive multitasking operating system. It used a Macintosh-like GUI. Cost: US$1,295 for a system with a single 880 KB 3.5 in disk drive and 256 KB of RAM. September UK Amstrad introduced Amstrad PCW 8256/8512, an 8 bit, Z80 based computer system with 256 or 512 KB of RAM, dedicated to word processing and promoted as the alternative of electronic typewriters. PCW was the abbreviation of personal computer for word processing (or personal computer word processor). 8 million PCWs were

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Date Place Event sold until 1998 when Amstrad discontinued this range of computers. October United On October 17 80386 DX was released. It supports clock States frequencies of up to 33 MHz and can address up to 4 GB of memory (and in theory virtual memory of up to 64 TB, which was important for marketing purposes). It also includes a bigger instruction set than the 80286. At the date of release the fastest version ran at 20 MHz and achieved 6.0 MIPS. It contained 275,000 transistors. November United Microsoft Windows launched. Not really widely used States until version 3, released in 1990, Windows required DOS to run and so was not a complete operating system (until Windows 95, released on August 21, 1995). It merely provided a G.U.I. similar to that of the Macintosh. It was so similar that Apple tried to sue Microsoft for copying the 'look and feel' of their operating system. This court case was not dropped until August 1997. December United MS-DOS 3.2, PC DOS 3.2 States This version was the first to support 3½" disks, although only the 720 KB ones. Version 3.2 remained the standard version until 1987 when version 3.3 was released with the IBM PS/2. Netherlands CD-ROM, invented by Philips, produced in collaboration Japan with Sony. United Enhanced Graphics Adapter released. States UK Meiko Scientific formed.

1986 Date Place Event January United Apple released another enhanced version of the Macintosh States (the Macintosh Plus personal computer) – this one could cope with 4 MB of RAM (for the first time, upgradable via SIMMs) and it had a built-in SCSI adapter based on the NCR 5380.

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Date Place Event February UK Sinclair ZX Spectrum 128 released. It had 128 KB of RAM, but little other improvement over the original ZX (except improved sound capabilities). Later models were produced by Amstrad – but they showed no major advances in technology. April United Apple released another version of the Macintosh (the States Macintosh 512Ke) equipped with a double sided 3.5 inch Floppy Disk drive. April UK On April 7 it was officially announced that Amstrad Plc acquired the computer division of Sinclair Research Ltd including the marketing and development rights of all ZX Spectrum models and the exclusive right to use the well-known Sinclair brand itself. As ZX Spectrum still had 40% market share and CPC also had some 20%, by the merger a very strong player was established in the British home computer market. June France LISTSERV, the first automated mailing list management application, was invented by Eric Thomas. September UK Amstrad announced Amstrad PC 1512, a cheap and powerful PC. Which included a slightly enhanced CGA graphics adapter, 512 KB RAM (upgradable to 640KB), 8086 processor (upgradable to NEC V30) and a 20 MB hard disk (optional). To ensure the computer was accessible they made sure the manuals could be read by everyone, and also included DR's GEM desktop (a WIMP system) and a mouse to try to make to machine more user friendly. It was sold in many high street shops and was a complete success, being bought by Business and Home users alike. September Nederlands At EUSPICO '86 conference it was presented RIPAC, a microprocessor specialized for speech-recognition designed by CSELT, Elsag and manufactured by SGS. It was used for telephone dialogue-based services in Italy. November United At Comdex Las Vegas Atari invited Gene Mosher to States introduce his touchscreen point of sale graphic user interface with direct manipulation widget toolkit editing, www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 233 of 391

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Date Place Event including the Atari ST's 12" CRT with a Microtouch capacitance touchscreen overlay, 320x200 resolution graphics and a 16-color bitmapped display.

1987 Date Place Event March United Macintosh II and Macintosh SE released on March 2. The SE States was based on the 68000, but could cope with 4 MB of RAM and had an internal and external SCSI adapter. It offered a high performance PDS interrupt slot which provided some of the first expandability on a Mac. The SE also offered the capability of displaying color with a third-party video card with its new ROM. The Macintosh II was based on the newer Motorola 68020, that ran at 16 MHz and achieved a much more respectable 2.6 MIPS (comparable to an 80286). It too had a SCSI adapter but was also fitted with a colour video adapter. April United On April 2 PS/2 Systems were introduced by IBM. The first 4 States models were released on this date. The PS/2 Model 30 based on an 8086 processor and an old XT bus, Models 50 and 60 based on the 80286 processor and the Model 80 based on the 80386 processor. These used the 3½" floppy disks, storing 1.44 MB on each (although the Model 30 could only use the low 720KB density). These systems (except the Model 30, released in September 1988) included a completely new bus, the MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) bus, which did not catch on as it did not provide support for old-style 16 bit AT bus expansion cards. The MCA bus did show many improvements in design and speed over the ISA bus most PCs used, and IBM (if no-one else) still use it in some of their machines. The PS/2 models were very successful – selling well over 2 million machines in less than 2 years. April United MS-DOS 3.3, PC DOS 3.3 States Released with the IBM PS/2 this version included support for the High Density (1.44 MB) 3½" disks. It also supported hard

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Date Place Event disk partitions, splitting a hard disk into 2 or more logical drives. April United OS/2 Launched by Microsoft and IBM. A later enhancement, States OS/2 Warp provided many of the 32 bit enhancements boasted by Windows 95 – but several years earlier, yet the product failed to dominate the market in the way Windows 95 did 8 years later. June UK Introduction of Acorn Archimedes. August Canada AD-LIB soundcard released. Not widely supported until a software company, Taito, released several games fully supporting AD-LIB – the word then spread how much the special sound effects and music enhanced the games. Ad Lib, Inc., a Canadian Company, had a virtual monopoly until 1989 when the SoundBlaster card was released. August United LIM EMS v4.0 States October– United Compaq DOS (CPQ-DOS) v3.31 released to cope with disk November States partitions >32Mb. Used by some other OEMs, but not Microsoft. December United Microsoft Windows 2 released on December 9. States United Connection Machine, an interesting supercomputer which States instead of integration of circuits operates up to 64,000 fairly ordinary microprocessors – using parallel architecture – at the same time, in its most powerful form it can do somewhere in the region of 2 billion operations per second. UK Fractal Image Compression Algorithm invented by English mathematician Michael F. Barnsley, allowing digital images to be compressed and stored using fractal codes rather than normal image data. United Motorola released the 68030 processor. States United HyperCard software released. States

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Date Place Event United Commodore released the Amiga 500 and the Amiga 2000. States The Amiga 500 was similar to the original Amiga 1000, but in an all-in-one case with 512 KB of RAM and at a lower price. The Amiga 2000 was built in a large PC-style case and included 1 MB of RAM and Zorro II expansion slots. United VGA released (designed for the PS/2) by IBM. States United MCGA released (only for low end PS/2s, i.e. the Model 30) States by IBM. United The 8514/A introduced by IBM. This was a graphics card that States included its own processor to speed up the drawing of common objects. The advantages included a reduction in CPU workload.

1988 Date Place Event January Italy Foundation of the MPEG group by Leonardo Chiariglione and Hiroshi Yasuda. June United 80386SX was released on June 16 as a cheaper alternative to States the 80386DX. It had a narrower (16 bit) time multiplexed bus. This reduction in pins, and the easier integration with 16 bit devices made the cost savings. July– United PC DOS 4.0, MS-DOS 4.0 August States Version 3.4 – 4.x are confusing due to lack of correlation between IBM and Microsoft and also the US and Europe. Several 'Internal Use only' versions were also produced. This version reflected increases in hardware capabilities; it supported hard drives greater than 32 MB (up to 2 GB) and also EMS memory. This version was not properly tested and was bug ridden, causing system crashes and loss of data. The original release was IBM's, but Microsoft's version 4.0 (in October) was no better and version 4.01 was released (in November) to correct this, then version 4.01a (in April 1989) as a further

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Date Place Event improvement. However many people could not trust this and reverted to version 3.3 while they waited for the complete re- write (version 5 – 3 years later). Betas of Microsoft's version 4.0 were apparently shipped as early as 1986–1987. September United IBM PS/2 Model 30 286 released, based on an 80286 States processor and the old AT bus – IBM abandoned the MCA bus, released less than 18 months earlier. Other IBM machines continued to use the MCA bus. October Common Access Method committee (CAM) formed. They invented the ATA standard in March 1989. October United Macintosh IIx released. It was based on a new processor, the States Motorola 68030. It still ran at 16 MHz but now achieved 3.9 MIPS. It could be expanded to 128 MB of RAM and had 6 NuBus expansions slots. November United MS-DOS 4.01, PC DOS 4.01 States This corrected many of the bugs seen in version 4.0, but many users simply switched back to version 3.3 and waited for a properly re-written and fully tested version – which did not come until version 5 in June 1991. Support for disk partitions >32 MB. First optical chip developed, it uses light instead of electricity to increase processing speed. XMS Standard introduced. EISA Bus standard introduced. United WORM (Write Once Read Many times) – disks marketed for States first time by IBM. United Adobe Photoshop software created. States

1989 Date Place Event January United Apple Computer Macintosh SE/30 released. Like the SE States of March 1987 it only had a monochrome display

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Date Place Event adapter but was fitted with the newer 68030 processor. March Command set for E-IDE disk drives was defined by CAM (formed Oct. 1988). This supports drives over 528 MB in size. Early controllers often imposed a limit of 2.1 GB, then later ones 8.4GB. Newer controllers support much higher capacities. Drives greater in size than 2.1GB must be partitioned under DOS since the drive structure (laid down in MS-DOS 4) used by DOS and even Windows 95 prevents partitions bigger than 2.1 GB. EIDE controllers also support the ATAPI interface that is used by most CD-ROM drives produced after its introduction. Newer implementations to EIDE, designed for the PCI bus, can achieve data transfer at up to 16.67 MB/s. A later enhancement, called UDMA, allows transfer rates of up to 33.3 MB/s. March United The Macintosh IIcx released, with the same basic States capabilities of the Macintosh IIx but in a more compact half-width case. April United 80486DX released by Intel on April 10. It contains the States equivalent of about 1.2 million transistors. At the time of release the fastest version ran at 25 MHz and achieved up to 20 MIPS. Later versions, such as the DX/2 and DX/4 versions achieved internal clock rates of up to 120 MHz. September United Apple Computer Macintosh IIci released based on a faster States version of the 68030 – now running at 25 MHz, and achieved 6.3 MIPS. Apple also released the Macintosh Portable – the first notebook computer Mac, which went back to the original 68000 processor (but now ran it at 16 MHz to achieve 1.3 MIPS). It had a monochrome display. November Singapore Release of Sound Blaster Card, by Creative Labs, its success was ensured by maintaining compatibility with the widely supported AdLib soundcard of 1987. Switzerland World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-Lee who wanted to use hypertext to make documents and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 238 of 391

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Date Place Event information seamlessly accessible over different kinds of computers and systems, and wherever they might be in the world. He was working in computing at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Switzerland, at the time. The Web was a result of the integration of hypertext and networking, the best known vehicle being the Internet. The hyperlinked pages not only provided static information but also transparent access to databases and to existing Internet facilities such as File Transfer Protocol, telnet, Gopher, WAIS and Usenet. He was awarded the Institute of Physics' 1997 Duddell Medal for this contribution to the advancement of knowledge. The first Web browser was actually an integrated browser/editor with a GUI interface, written for the sophisticated but fairly rare NeXT Computer. Berners-Lee and his colleagues offered a stripped down text-only browser as a downloadable demo, and asked the emerging Web community to write full GUI versions for other platforms. By early 1993 there were GUI browsers for UNIX and PC, including Erwise, ViolaWWW, Midas, and Cello, Samba, and Mosaic; Lynx was an important text-only browser. None of these included the editing features of the first NeXT browser, which were more labor-intensive to implement on non-NeXT platforms. Mosaic, written at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) was the first browser with full-time programmers and institutional support behind it. It was reliable and easy to install, and soon offered images embedded in the text rather than in separate windows. The Web's popularity exploded with Mosaic, which made it accessible to the novice user. This explosion started in earnest during 1993, a year in which Web traffic over the Internet increased by 300,000%. The bulk of the Mosaic programmers went on to found Netscape. United Lotus Notes software launched. States

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1990 Date Event A consortium of major SVGA card manufacturers (called Video Electronic Standard Association, VESA) was formed and then introduced VESA SVGA Standard. Motorola releases the 68040 capable of 35 MIPS and integrated a far superior FPU. The 68040 was included in some of the Apple Macintosh and Commodore Amiga lineup. March 19 Macintosh IIfx released. Based on a 40 MHz version of the 68030 it achieved 10 MIPS. It also featured a faster SCSIadapter, which could transfer 3.0 Mbit/s. May 22 Introduction of Windows 3.0 by Microsoft. It is a multitasking system that maintains compatibility with MS-DOS, allowing several MS-DOS tasks to be run at once on an 80386 or above. This created a real threat to the Macintosh and despite a similar product, IBM's OS/2, it was very successful. June Commodore releases the Amiga 3000, the first 32-bit Amiga. It featured the Motorola 68030 processor and the upgraded ECS chipset. Amiga OS 2.0 was released with the launch of the A3000, which took advantage of its 32-bit architecture. Later variants included the Amiga 3000UX, launched as a low end UNIX workstation, running UNIX System V. The A3000T was the first Amiga to use a tower form factor, which increased expansion potential. October Macintosh Classic released, an identical replacement to the Macintosh Plus of January 1986. Also came the Macintosh IIsi which ran a 68030 processor at 20 MHz to achieve 5.0 MIPS, and also a 256 colour video adapter. November Microsoft Office released 19 November Macintosh LC released. This ran a 68020 processor at 16 MHz to achieve 2.6 MIPS, it had a slightly improved SCSI adapter and a 256 colour video adapter. Multimedia PC (MPC) Level 1 specification published by a council of companies including Microsoft and Creative Labs. This specified the

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Date Event minimum standards for a Multimedia IBM PC. The MPC level 1 specification originally required a 12 MHz 80286 microprocessor, but this was later revised to require a 16 MHz 80386SX microprocessor as the 80286 was realised to be inadequate. It also required a CD- ROM drive capable of 150 kB/s (single speed) and also of Audio CD output. Companies can, after paying a fee, use the MPC logo on their product.

1991 Date Event Borland acquires Ashton-Tate Corporation and the Dbase program. Phil Zimmermann releases the public key encryption program PGP along with its source code, which quickly appears on the Internet. March Commodore release the CDTV, an Amiga multimedia appliance with CD- ROM drive but no floppy drive. April The Intel 80486 SX is released as a cheaper alternative to 80486 DX, with 22 the key difference being the lack of an integrated FPU. May Creative Labs introduces the Sound Blaster Pro sound card. June To promote OS/2, Bill Gates took every opportunity after its release to say 'DOS is dead'; however, the development of DOS 5.0 led to the permanent dropping of OS/2 development. This version, after the mess of version 4, was properly tested through the distribution of Beta versions to over 7,500 users. This version included the ability to load device drivers and TSR programs above the 640 KiB boundary (into UMBs and the HMA), freeing more RAM for programs. This version marked the end of collaboration between Microsoft and IBM on DOS. August The Linux kernel is born with the following post to the Usenet Newsgroup comp.os.minix by Linus Torvalds, a Finnish college student: "Hello everybody out there using minix- I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones." Linux has become one of the most widely used Unix-like operating system kernels in the world today. It originally only ran on Intel 386 processors but years later added many different types of computers (now includes

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Date Event complete range from small to supercomputers and IBM mainframes), including the Sun SPARC and the DEC/Compaq Alpha, as well as many ARM, MIPS, PowerPC and Motorola 68000 based computers. In 1992, the GNU project adopted the Linux kernel for use with GNU systems while they waited for the development of their own kernel, GNU Hurd, to be completed. The GNU project's aim is to provide a complete and free Unix-like operating system, combining the Hurd or Linux kernel with a complete suite of free software to run on it. Torvalds changed the licence of the Linux kernel from one prohibiting commercial use to the GNU General Public License on February 1, 1992.

1992 Date Event First 64-bit microprocessors; the first 64-bit variant of MIPS, the MIPS R4000 was introduced in 1992 (announced October 1, 1991) and another major RISC microprocessor, DEC Alpha (no longer produced), was also introduced in 1992. Intel had introduced the Intel i860 RISC microprocessor in 1989, marketed as a "64-Bit Microprocessor", while it had essentially a 32-bit architecture (non-pure "32/64-bit"), enhanced with a 3D Graphics Unit capable of 64-bit. Computers with 64-bit registers (but not addressing, and not microprocessors) had appeared decades earlier, as far back as IBM 7030 Stretch (considered a failure) in 1962, and in the Cray-1 supercomputer installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976. Windows NT addresses 2 Gigabytes of RAM which is more than any application will ever need — Microsoft on the development of Windows NT. Introduction of CD-i launched by Philips. The PowerPC 601, developed by IBM, Motorola and Apple Computer, was released. This was the first generation of PowerPC processors. IBM ThinkPad 700C laptop created. It was lightweight compared to its predecessors. April Introduction of Windows 3.1 May Wolfenstein 3D released by id Software June Sound Blaster 16 ASP Introduced by Creative Labs. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 242 of 391

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Date Event October Commodore International releases the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000. Both machines included the improved Advanced Graphics Architecture chipset. The Amiga 1200 featured a 14 MHz 68020 processor, whilst the Amiga 4000 featured a 25 MHz 68040. November Digital Equipment Corporation introduces the Alpha AXP architecture 10 and the Alpha-based DEC 3000 AXP workstations, DEC 4000 AXP departmental servers and the DEC 7000 AXP enterprise servers.

1993 Date Event Mosaic graphical web browser launched. Commercial providers were allowed to sell internet connections to individuals. Its use exploded, especially with the new interface provided by the World-Wide Web (see 1989) and NCSA Mosaic. Release of the first version of ELOQUENS, a Text-To-Speech commercial software, from CSELT. The first web magazine, The Virtual Journal, is published but fails commercially. Novell purchased Digital Research, DR DOS became Novell DOS. The MP3 file format was published. This sound format later became the most common standard for music on PCs and later digital audio players. March Microsoft introduces MS-DOS 6.0, including DoubleSpace disk compression. March 22 Intel releases the P5-based Pentium processor, with 60 and 66 MHz versions. The Pentium has over 3.1 million transistors and can achieve up to 100 MIPS. John H. Crawford co-managed the design of the P5; Donald Alpert managed the architectural team; and Vinod K. Dham headed the P5 group. May MPC Level 2 specification introduced (see November 1990). This was designed to allow playback of a 15 frames per second video in a 320x240 pixel window. The key difference from MPC level 1 is the requirement of a CD-ROM drive capable of 300 kB/s (double speed). Products are also required to be tested by the MPC council, making

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Date Event MPC Level 2 compatibility a stamp of certification. June Severe Tire Damage made the first live music performance on the Internet, using MBone technology. July 27 Microsoft released the Windows NT 3.1 operating system that supported 32-bit programs. December Doom was released by id Software. 10 The PC began to be considered as a serious games playing machine, reinforced by the earlier release in November of Sam & Max Hit the Road.

1994 Date Event ? Several major PC games are released, such as Command & Conquer, Alone in the Dark 2, Theme Park, Magic Carpet, Descent and Little Big Adventure. Other, less significant releases for the PC included Star Trek: The Next Generation: A Final Unity, Full Throttle and Terminal Velocity. This success of the PC as a games platform was partly due to and partly a cause of significantly increased PC ownership among the 'general public' during the early–mid 1990s. This also reflected the rapidly increasing quality of games available for the PC. Peter Shor devises an algorithm which lets quantum computers determine the factorization of large integers quickly. This is the first interesting problem for which quantum computers promise a

significant speed-up, and it therefore generates a lot of interest in quantum computers. DNA computing proof of concept on toy travelling salesman problem; a method for input/output still to be determined. Motorola released the 68060 processor. Adobe Photoshop 3.0 graphics editing software released. June Microsoft releases MS-DOS 6.22, containing disk compression under the name DriveSpace after settling a dispute with Stac over their compression program, Stacker. Microsoft had removed DoubleSpace from MS-DOS 6.21 in February after a jury found them guilty of patent

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Date Event infringement, and a judge later ordered Microsoft to recall all unsold infringing products worldwide. MS-DOS 6.22 was the last standalone version of MS-DOS released. March 7 Intel released the 90 and 100 MHz versions of the Pentium Processor. March 14 Linus Torvalds released version 1.0 of the Linux kernel. April 29 Commodore International declares bankruptcy. Commodore's assets were eventually sold to German PC manufacturer ESCOM in 1995. September PC DOS 6.3 Basically the same as version 5.0 this release by IBM included more bundled software, such as Stacker (the program that caused Microsoft so much embarrassment) and anti-virus software. October Intel releases the 75 MHz version of the Pentium Processor. 10 December Netscape Navigator 1.0 web browser released. It was written as an alternative to NCSA Mosaic. December Sony releases its first PlayStation console in Japan – to date, over 100 3 million units have been sold.

1995 Date Event ? Jaz drive removable hard disk storage introduced. ? Zip drive removable floppy disk storage introduced. March Linus released Linux Kernel v1.2.0 (Linux 95). March 27 Intel releases the 120 MHz version of the Pentium processor. May 23 Sun Microsystems first announces Java at the SunWorld conference. June 1 Intel releases the 133 MHz version of the Pentium processor. August 24 Microsoft releases Windows 95, replacing Windows 3.1 with a pre- emptively multitasked 32-bit operating system that integrated MS-DOS and Windows. October 3 Be Inc. launch the BeBox, featuring two PowerPC 603 processors running at 66 MHz, and running their new operating system BeOS. November Pentium Pro released.

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Date Event 1 At introduction it achieved a clock speed of up to 200 MHz (there were also 150, 166 and 180 MHz variants released on the same date). It was the first product built around Intel's P6 microarchitecture, later used in the Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium M and Core processors. It achieves 440 MIPS and contains 5.5 million transistors – this is nearly 2400 times as many as the first microprocessor, the 4004 – and capable of 70,000 times as many instructions per second. November 3dfx releases Voodoo, the first consumer 3D accelerator, capable of 6 rendering scenes in real time and in high resolution. QuakeGL (a GL port of Quake) is the first popular game utilising this new technology. Other games soon follow, including Tomb Raider. [1] December JavaScript development announced by Netscape. December First public release of the Ruby programming language (version 0.95) 21 December CompuServe blocked access to over 200 sexually 28 explicit Usenet newsgroups, partly to avoid confrontation with the German government. Access to all but five groups was restored on February 13, 1996.

1996 Date Event ? Nokia released the Nokia 9000, the first of Nokia's smartphones. ? Quake released – representing the dramatic increases in both software and hardware technology since Doom, of three years previous. Other notable releases included Civilization 2, Tomb Raider, Command & Conquer: Red Alert and Grand Prix Manager 2. On the more controversial front Battlecruiser 3000AD was also released, but its advertising had to be censored. January Netscape Navigator 2.0 released. First browser to support JavaScript. Windows 95 OSR2 (OEM System Release 2) was released – partly to fix bugs found in release 1 – but only to computer retailers for sale with new systems. There were actually two separate releases of Windows 95 OSR2 before the introduction of Windows 98, the second of which contained both USB and FAT32 support – the main selling points of Windows 98. FAT32 is a new filing system that provides support for

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Date Event disk partitions bigger than 2.1 GB and is better at coping with large disks (especially in terms of wasted space). January 4 Intel released 150 and 166 MHz versions of the Pentium Processor. April 17 Toshiba released the Libretto sub-notebook. With a volume of 821.1 cm³ and a weight of just 840 g, it was the smallest PC compatible computer to be released at that time. June 9 Linux 2.0 released. 2.0 was a significant improvement over the earlier versions: it was the first to support multiple architectures (originally developed for the Intel 386 processor, it now supported Digital's Alpha architecture and would very soon support the SPARC architecture in addition to many others). It was also the first stable kernel to support SMP, kernel modules, and much more. July 4 Hotmail, founded by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith, is commercially launched on Independence Day in the United States, symbolically representing freedom from Internet service providers. (Hotmail is now owned and operated by Microsoft, which is known today as Outlook.com.) July 14 The first public release of Opera, version 2.1 for Windows. September Audio Highway announced the Listen Up player, the first MP3 digital 23 audio player. It was later released in September 1997. October 6 Intel released the 200 MHz version of the Pentium Processor. November It was released the first pre-paid card for cellular phones in the world. It was called "TIM Card". It was designed by CSELT and introduced by Telecom Italia. December id Software releases QuakeWorld, a version of Quake designed for Internet multiplayer games. A number of innovative features such as movement prediction make the game playable even over low-speed and high-latency Internet connections.

1997 Date Event ? Tim Berners-Lee awarded the Institute of Physics' 1997 Duddell Medal for inventing the World Wide Web (see 1989). ? Grand Theft Auto and Quake 2 were released while Lara Croft returned www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 247 of 391

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Date Event in Tomb Raider II. As standards for graphics kept increasing, 3D graphics cards were beginning to become mandatory for game players. January 8 Intel released the Pentium MMX (166 and 200 MHz versions) with the MMX instruction set designed to increase performance when running multimedia applications. May 7 Intel releases the Pentium II processor (233, 266 and 300 MHz versions). The Pentium II features a larger on-chip cache as well as an expanded instruction set. May 11 IBM's Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a reigning World Chess Champion, Garry Kasparov, in a full chess match. The computer had played him previously — losing 5/6 games in February 1996. June 2 Intel releases the 233 MHz Pentium MMX. August 6 After 18 months of losses Apple Computer was in serious financial trouble. Microsoft invested in Apple, buying 100,000 non-voting shares worth $150 million — many Apple owners disapproved. One condition was that Apple would drop the long-running court case — attempting to sue Microsoft for copying the look and feel of their operating system when designing Windows. September Internet Explorer 4.0 was released.

1998 Date Event January Compaq Computer Corporation announces pending acquisition of Digital Equipment Corporation for $9.6 billion. February Intel released the 333 MHz Pentium II processor. Code-named Deschutes, these processors used the new 0.25 micrometre manufacturing process, which allowed them to run faster and generate less heat. March Be Inc. released BeOS R3. This was the first version of BeOS to be available for x86 PCs as well as Power Macs. May Apple announces the iMac, an All-in-One with integral 15 inch (381 mm) multiscan monitor, 24× CD-ROM, 2× available USB ports, 56 kbit/s modem, two stereo speakers, and Ethernet but no floppy drive. It was encased in translucent Bondi Blue and Ice plastic. Quantity

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Date Event shipping began in August. Designed by Jonathan Ive, it was the model that put Apple back on the road to profitability. June 25 Microsoft released Windows 98. Some U.S. attorneys tried to block its release since the new OS interfaces with other programs such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and so effectively closes the market of such software to other companies. Microsoft has fought back with a letter to the White House suggesting that 26 of its industry allies say that a delay in the release of the new OS could damage the U.S. economy. The main selling points of Windows 98 were its support for USB and its support for disk partitions greater than 2 GB with FAT32 (although FAT32 was actually released with Windows 95 OSR2). September Upstart eMachines announces two home PCs priced at $399 and $499, creating the sub-$600 market and launching a price war. Within four months, the new company becomes the No. 5 computer maker at retail.

1999 Date Event January 25 Linux Kernel 2.2.0 is released. The number of people running Linux is estimated at over 10 million, making it not only an important operating system in the Unix world, but an increasingly important one in the PC world. February 22 AMD releases a K6-III clocked at 400 MHz and a 450 MHz version for OEMs. It contains approximately 23 million transistors, and is requires motherboards using the Super Socket 7 socket. It supports a 100 MHz front side bus (FSB), an improvement over AMD's previous chips that used a 66 MHz FSB. The use of a 100 MHz FSB brought technological equivalency with the 100 MHz FSB featured on the Intel Pentium II. August 31 Apple releases the Power Mac G4. It is powered by the PowerPC G4 chip from Motorola. Available in 400 MHz, 450 MHz and 500 MHz versions, Apple claimed it to be the first personal computer to be capable of over one billion floating-point operations per second. October 11, Nvidia releases Geforce 256, claiming to be the first consumer level

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Date Event 1999 Graphics Processor Unit with Transform and Lighting Engine. November AMD releases an Athlon clocked at 750 MHz. 29

2000 Date Event ? The Ericsson R380, the first phone running Symbian OS was released. January 14 The US Government announce restrictions on exporting cryptography are relaxed (although not removed). This allows many US companies to stop the long running process of having to create US and international copies of their software. January 19 Transmeta releases the Crusoe microprocessor. The Crusoe was intended for laptops and consumed significantly less electricity than most microprocessors of the time, while providing comparable performance to the mid-range Pentium II microprocessors. Transmeta and Crusoe, new competitors to Intel and their products, initially appeared exciting and promising. February Microsoft releases Windows 2000. 17 March Be Inc. released BeOS R5 for PowerPC and x86, which was the first release of BeOS for x86 to have a freely downloadable version which could be fully installed on a user's hard drive. March 4 Sony releases the PlayStation 2. March 6 AMD released an Athlon clocked at 1 GHz. March 8 Intel releases very limited supplies of the 1 GHz Pentium III chip. June 20 British Telecom (BT) claim the rights to hyperlinks on the basis of a US patent granted in 1989. Similar patents in the rest of the world have now expired. Their claim is widely believed to be absurd since Ted Nelson wrote about hyperlinks in 1965, and this is where Tim Berners-Lee says he got the ideas for the World Wide Web from. This is just another in the line of similar incredible cases – for

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Date Event example Amazon.com's claim to have patented '1-click ordering'. September RSA Security released their RSA algorithm into the public domain, in 6 advance of the US patent (#4,405,829) expiring on September 20 of the same year. Following the relaxation of the US government restrictions earlier in the year (January 14) this removed one of the last barriers to the worldwide distribution of much software based on cryptographic systems. The IDEA algorithm is still under patent and also that government restrictions still apply in some places. September Microsoft releases Windows ME. 14 November Intel releases the Pentium 4. The processor is built using 20 the NetBurst microarchitecture, a new design since the introduction of the P6 microarchitecture used in the Pentium Pro in late 1995

2001 Date Event January 4 Linux kernel version 2.4.0 released. February 1 Foundation of the newco Loquendo as a spin-off of the CSELT's voice technology group. February The Agile Manifesto, which crystallised and named a growing trend towards more "agile" processes in software development, was released. The perceived success of agile project management led to agile approaches such as Scrum later being used as a general project management approach in other fields, not just in software development or even in computing. March 24 Apple released macOS (as Mac OS X). This was a new operating system derived from NeXTSTEP, using Darwin as its kernel, an Open Source operating system based on BSD. This replaced the "classic" Mac OS for its Mac computers. Mac OS X finally gave Mac users the stability benefits of a protected memory architecture along many other enhancements, such as pre- emptive multitasking. The BSD base also makes porting Unix applications to Mac OS X

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Date Event easier and gives Mac users a full-featured command line interface alongside their GUI. September Nintendo releases their sixth generation home console, the GameCube. 14 October 25 Microsoft released Windows XP, based on Windows 2000 and Windows NT kernel. Windows XP introduces a heavily redesigned GUI and brings the NT kernel to the consumer market. November Microsoft releases the Xbox in North America. 15

2002 Date Event March 4 RIM (now BlackBerry Ltd) released the first BlackBerry smartphone. May 30 United Linux officially formed. September Blender, a 3D graphics software package, becomes open-source 7 software after a crowdfunding campaign successfully raises €100,000.

2003 Date Event February Nvidia releases GeForce FX, a family of DirectX 9.0-compatible 3D cards with extensive support for pixel and vertex shaders. With this new product Nvidia makes an emphasis on image quality, proclaiming a "dawn of cinematic computing", illustrated with the popular Dawn demo utilising extremely realistic skin and wing shaders. March 6 SCO Group announces it would sue IBM for US$1 billion. The claim is that Linux contains code inserted by IBM that was the copyrighted property of SCO (see SCO v. IBM). March 12 Intel releases the Pentium M for notebooks and the Centrino mobile platform. The Pentium M delivers similar or higher performance than the Pentium 4-M while consuming less power. April 22 AMD releases the Opteron line of server processors. The Opteron is the successor of the Athlon MP, and introduces the 64- bit K8 microarchitecture.

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Date Event September AMD releases the Athlon 64. The Athlon 64 is built on the K8 23 microarchitecture and is the first 64-bit processor widely available to the consumer market. December Linux kernel version 2.6.0 is released. 17

2004 Date Event ? Sony released Librié EBR-1000EP in Japan, the first e-book reader with an electronic paper display. April 1 Google announces Gmail. April 14 Nvidia releases GeForce 6800, claiming it is the biggest leap in graphics technology the company ever made. Independent reviews show more than 100% increase in productivity compared with the fastest card on the market. Continuing the tradition, the company demonstrated Nalu, a mermaid with extremely realistic hair. A few weeks later, rival ATI announces the X800 series with nearly the same level of performance and feature support. The card is showcased by the Ruby demo, delivering a smooth real-time rendering of what was previously in the exclusive realm of prerendered cinematics. October The first release of the Ubuntu Linux distribution. 20 October Infineon Technologies pleads guilty to charges of DRAM price fixing, 20 resulting in a $160 million fine. Hynix Semiconductor, Samsung and Elpida would later plead guilty to the same. November Firefox 1.0 released, which later became Microsoft Internet Explorer's 9 biggest competitor since Netscape Navigator.

2005 Date Event February Jef Raskin, who in 1979 envisioned and established

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Date Event 26 the Macintosh project at Apple Computer, dies at the age of 61. April 29 Apple Computer releases Mac OS X Tiger (v10.4) for PowerPC-based Macs. May 25 Nokia announces the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet, the first device running Maemo. May 26 Intel releases the Pentium D, their first dual-core 64-bit desktop processor. May 31 AMD releases the Athlon 64 X2, their first dual-core 64-bit desktop processor. June 6 Apple announces they are going to use Intel processors in upcoming Macintosh computers. July 22 Microsoft announces their next consumer operating system, Windows Vista (previously "Longhorn"), to be released in early 2007. November Microsoft releases the Xbox 360. 22

2006 Date Event January 5 Intel releases the Core brand. These are mobile 32-bit single-core and dual-core processors that were built using a modified design of the Pentium M's microarchitecture. January 10 Apple Computer introduces the MacBook Pro, their first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as well as an Intel-based iMac. June 19 Researchers create experimental processor that delivers 350 GHz, when cryogenically frozen. July 27 Intel releases the Core 2 processor. September Intel announces plans for an 80-core processor that would exceed 1 26 TFLOP, planned to be available in 2011. November Sony releases the PlayStation 3. 11 November Nintendo releases the Wii. 19

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Date Event December AmigaOS 4 was released by Hyperion Entertainment (VOF) under 24 license from Amiga, Inc. for AmigaOne registered users.

2007 Date Event January 7 The first iPhone was introduced by Apple. January 30 Microsoft Corporation launches Windows Vista more than 5 years after their last major, new operating system, Windows XP, was released. June 5 Asus announces the first Asus Eee PC, launching the netbook category of mobile computers. It initially ran Linux; later models also offered a choice of Windows. October 26 Apple launches Mac OS X Leopard (v10.5) November AMD releases the Phenom line of high performance processors, 19 positioning the Athlon as a mid-range line.

2008 Date Event September The first public beta version of the Google Chrome web browser was 2 released. Chrome subsequently became the most popular web browser in the world, overtaking Internet Explorer. September The first version of Android was introduced by Google. 23 October 22 The HTC Dream (T-Mobile G1), the first commercially available device to run the Android operating system, was released.

2009 Date Event January 3 The online currency Bitcoin is released. August 28 Apple launches Mac OS X Snow Leopard (v10.6) October 22 Microsoft releases Windows 7.

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2010 Date Event April 3 Apple releases the original iPad. June 24 Apple releases the iPhone 4.

2011 Date Event May 4 Intel announces the commercialisation of 3D transistors, a variant of the FinFET June 15 The first Chromebooks, by Acer and Samsung, go on sale. August 13 Acquisition of Loquendo by Nuance Communications. September The first 4 terabyte hard drive is released by Seagate. 7

2012 Date Event February Raspberry Pi, a bare-bones, low-cost credit-card sized computer 29 created by volunteers mostly drawn from academia and the UK tech industry, is released to help teach children to code. September Intel demonstrates its Next Unit of Computing, a motherboard measuring only 4 × 4 in (10 × 10 cm) October 4 TDK demonstrates a 2 terabyte hard drive on a single 3.5-inch platter. October 26 Microsoft releases the operating system Windows 8. November Nintendo releases the Wii U in North America. 18

2013 Date Event June 11 Apple releases the first Retina Display MacBook Pros September Apple releases the iPhone 5S, powered by the Apple A7 system-on- 20 chip which the company proclaimed to be the first 64 bit processor to be used on a smartphone.

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Date Event November Sony releases the PlayStation 4 in the United States. 15 November Microsoft releases Xbox One. 22 November Sony releases the PlayStation 4 in Europe. 29

2014 Date Event August The first 8 terabyte hard drive is released by Seagate. 26 Google releases the 64-bit version of Chrome for Windows. August Intel unveiled its first eight-core desktop processor, the Intel Core i7- 29 5960X.

2015 Date Event July 29 Microsoft releases the operating system Windows 10.

2016 Date Event January The High Bandwidth Memory 2 standard is released by JEDEC. 12 January Fixstars Solutions releases the world's first 13 TB SSD. 13 March 4 Scientists at MIT created the first five-atom quantum computer with the potential to crack the security of traditional encryption schemes.

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Chapter 12 Career Possibilities in Science and Related Fields

Generally speaking, we use the term scientist very vaguely. Let‘s have a look at various career possibilities as a scientist.

Physical science  Astronomer  Earth scientist  Physicist  Astrobiologi  Astrogeologist  Agrophysici st  Biogeochemist st  Planetary  Climatologist  Astrophysici scientist  Dendroarchaeolo st  Chemist gist  Atmospheric  Agrochemis  Dendrologist physicist t  Edaphologist  Atomic  Analytical  Gemologist physicist chemist  Geoarchaeologis  Chemical  Astrochemis t physicist t  Geobiologist  Computation  Atmospheri  Geochemist al physicist c chemist  Geographer  Cosmologist  Biophysical  Geologist  Condensed- chemist  Geomicrobiologi matter physicist  Clinical st  Engineering chemist  Geomorphologis physicist  Computatio t  Material nal chemist  Geophysicist physicist  Electrochem  Glaciologist  Molecular ist  Hydrogeologist physicist  Femtochemi  Hydrologist  Nuclear st  Hydrometeorolo physicist  Green gist  Particle chemist  Limnologist physicist  Inorganic  Meteorologist  Plasma chemist  Mineralogist physicist

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 Medicinal  Oceanographer  Polymer chemist  Paleoclimatologi physicist  Neurochemi st  Psychophysi st  Paleoecologist cist  Nuclear  Paleogeologist  Quantum chemist  Paleoseismologi physicist  Organic st  Theoretical chemist  Palynologist physicist  Organometa  Petrologist llic chemist  Sedimentologist  Pharmacolo  Seismologist gist  Speleologist  Physical  Volcanologist chemist  Quantum chemist  Solid-state chemist  Stereochemi st  Structural chemist  Supramolec ular chemist  Theoretical chemist  Thermoche mist

Life science  Biologist  Conservatio  Ichnologist  Parasitologi  Acarolo n biologist  Ichthyologist st gist  Dendrochro  Immunologist  Pathologist  Aerobio nologist  Integrative  Physiologis logist  Developmen biologist t  Anatom tal biologist  Lepidopterist  Phytopatho ist  Ecologist  Mammalogist logist  Arachno  Electrophysi  Marine  Population logist ologist biologist biologist

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 Bacterio  Embryologi  Microbiologis  Primatologi logist st t st  Bioche  Endocrinolo  Molecular  Quantum mist gist biologist biologist  Bioclim  Entomologis  Mycologist  Radiobiolo atologist t  Neuroendocri gist  Biogeog  Epidemiolo nologist  Sclerochron rapher gist  Neuroscientis ologist  Biotech  Ethologist t  Sociobiolo nologist  Evolutionar  Ornithologist gist  Bioarch y biologist  Osteologist  Structural eologist  Geneticist  Paleoanthrop biologist  Bioling  Hematologis ologist  Theoretical uist t  Paleobotanist biologist  Botanist  Herbchronol  Paleobiologis  Toxicologis  Cell ogist t t biologist  Herpetologi  Paleontologis  Virologist  Chrono st t  Wildlife biologist  Histologist  Paleopatholo biologist  Cogniti  Human gist  Zoologist ve biologist behavioral  Cogniti ecologist ve neuroscienist  Human  Comput biologist ational biologist

Social science  Anthropologist  Psychologist  Archaeologist  Abnormal psychologist  Biological  Behavioral psychologist anthropologist  Biopsychologist  Cultural  Clinical psychologist anthropologist  Cognitive psychologist  Communication scientist  Comparative psychologist  Criminologist  Developmental psychologist  Demographer  Educational psychologist  Economist  Evolutionary psychologist  Linguist  Experimental psychologist

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 Management scientist  Forensic psychologist  Political economist  Health psychologist  Political scientist  Industrial and organizational psychologist  Medical psychologist  Neuropsychologist  Psychopharmacologist  Psychophysicist  Social psychologist  Sport psychologist  Sociologist

Scientist by specialization

I. Physical science

1.a. Astronomer An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets, and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. Related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology.

 Astrobiologist Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology considers the

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) question of whether extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does. The term exobiology is similar.

Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth. The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology. Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.

This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic compounds in space, rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space

 Planetary scientist Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy and earth science, but which now incorporates many disciplines, including planetary geology (together with geochemistry and geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology. There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science. Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration, predominantly with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing, and comparative, experimental work in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and mathematical modelling. Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments of universities or research centres, though there are several purely planetary science institutes worldwide. There are several major conferences each year, and a wide range of peer-reviewed journals. In the case of some exclusive planetary scientists, many of whom are in relation to the study of dark matter, they will seek a private research centre and often initiate partnership research tasks www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 262 of 391

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1.b. Chemist  Agrochemist Agricultural chemistry is the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. These studies emphasize the relationships between plants, animals and bacteria and their environment. The science of chemical compositions and changes involved in the production, protection, and use of crops and livestock. As a basic science, it embraces, in addition to test-tube chemistry, all the life processes through which humans obtain food and fiber for themselves and feed for their animals. As an applied science or technology, it is directed toward control of those processes to increase yields, improve quality, and reduce costs. One important branch of it, chemurgy, is concerned chiefly with utilization of agricultural products as chemical raw materials. Etc.

 Analytical chemist

Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods used to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration.

Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern, instrumental methods. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte.

Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to forensics, medicine, science and engineering.

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Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their interaction with radiation. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites, is also called cosmochemistry, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar systems form  Atmospheric chemist Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines. Research is increasingly connected with other areas of study such as climatology.

The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from corona. It has also been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases and global warming. Atmospheric chemists seek to understand the causes of these problems, and by obtaining a theoretical understanding of them, allow possible solutions to be tested and the effects of changes in government policy evaluated.

 Biophysical chemist Biophysical chemistry is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek explanation of the various phenomena in biological systems in terms of either the molecules that make up the system or the supra-molecular structure of these systems.

Biophysical chemists employ various techniques used in physical chemistry to probe the structure of biological systems. These techniques include spectroscopic methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and X-ray diffraction. For example, the work for which Nobel Prize was awarded in 2009 to three chemists was based on X- ray diffraction studies of ribosomes. Some of the areas in which biophysical www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 264 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) chemists engage themselves are protein structure and the functional structure of cell membranes. For example, enzyme action can be explained in terms of the shape of a pocket in the protein molecule that matches the shape of the substrate molecule or its modification due to binding of a metal ion. Similarly the structure and function of the biomembranes may be understood through the study of model supramolecular structures as liposomes or phospholipid vesicles of different compositions and sizes.

 Clinical chemist Clinical chemistry (also known as chemical pathology, clinical biochemistry or medical biochemistry) is the area of chemistry that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. It is an applied form of biochemistry (not to be confused with medicinal chemistry, which involves basic research for drug development). The discipline originated in the late 19th century with the use of simple chemical reaction tests for various components of blood and urine. In the many decades since, other techniques have been applied as science and technology have advanced, including the use and measurement of enzyme activities, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis, and immunoassay. There are now many blood tests and clinical urine tests with extensive diagnostic capabilities. Most current laboratories are now highly automated to accommodate the high workload typical of a hospital laboratory. Tests performed are closely monitored and quality controlled. All biochemical tests come under chemical pathology. These are performed on any kind of body fluid, but mostly on serum or plasma. Serum is the yellow watery part of blood that is left after blood has been allowed to clot and all blood cells have been removed. This is most easily done by centrifugation, which packs the denser blood cells and platelets to the bottom of the centrifuge tube, leaving the liquid serum fraction resting above the packed cells. This initial step before analysis has recently been included in instruments that operate on the "integrated system" principle. Plasma is in essence the same as serum, but is obtained by centrifuging the blood without clotting. Plasma is obtained by centrifugation before clotting occurs. The type of test required dictates what type of sample is used.

 Computational chemist Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids. It is necessary because, apart from relatively recent results concerning the hydrogen molecular ion (dihydrogen cation, see references therein for more details), the quantum many-body problem cannot be www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 265 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) solved analytically, much less in closed form. While computational results normally complement the information obtained by chemical experiments, it can in some cases predict hitherto unobserved chemical phenomena. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and materials. Examples of such properties are structure (i.e., the expected positions of the constituent atoms), absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge density distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity, or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles. The methods used cover both static and dynamic situations. In all cases, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) increase rapidly with the size of the system being studied. That system can be one molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from very approximate to highly accurate; the latter are usually feasible for small systems only. Ab initio methods are based entirely on quantum mechanics and basic physical constants. Other methods are called empirical or semi-empirical because they use additional empirical parameters

 Electrochemist Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry that studies the relationship between electricity, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with either electricity considered an outcome of a particular chemical change or vice versa. These reactions involve electric charges moving between electrodes and an electrolyte (or ionic species in a solution). Thus electrochemistry deals with the interaction between electrical energy and chemical change. When a chemical reaction is caused by an externally supplied current, as in electrolysis, or if an electric current is produced by a spontaneous chemical reaction as in a battery, it is called an electrochemical reaction. Chemical reactions where electrons are transferred directly between molecules and/or atoms are called oxidation-reduction or (redox) reactions. In general, electrochemistry describes the overall reactions when individual redox reactions are separate but connected by an external electric circuit and an intervening electrolyte.

 Femtochemist Femtochemistry is the area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales (approximately 10 raised to −15 seconds or one femtosecond, hence the name) in order to study the very act of atoms within molecules (reactants) rearranging themselves to form new molecules (products). In 1999, Ahmed Hassan Zewail received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 266 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) pioneering work in this field showing that it is possible to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction with flashes of laser light. Application of femtochemistry in biological studies has also helped to elucidate the conformational dynamics of stem-loop RNA structures. Many publications have discussed the possibility of controlling chemical reactions by this method, but this remains controversial. The steps in some reactions occur in the femtosecond timescale and sometimes in attosecond timescales, and will sometimes form intermediate products. These intermediate products cannot always be deduced from observing the start and end products.

 Green chemist Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the designing of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Whereas environmental chemistry focuses on the effects of polluting chemicals on nature, green chemistry focuses on the environmental impact of chemistry, including technological approaches to preventing pollution and reducing consumption of nonrenewable resources. The overarching goals of green chemistry—namely, more resource-efficient and inherently safer design of molecules, materials, products, and processes—can be pursued in a wide range of contexts. IUPAC definition Green chemistry (sustainable chemistry): Design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of substances hazardous to humans, animals, plants, and the environment. Green chemistry discusses the engineering concept of pollution prevention and zero waste both at laboratory and industrial scales. It encourages the use of economical and ecocompatible techniques that not only improve the yield but also bring down the cost of disposal of wastes at the end of a chemical process

 Inorganic chemist Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds (carbon-based compounds, usually containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture

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 Medicinal chemist Medicinal chemistry and pharmaceutical chemistry are disciplines at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents, or bio-active molecules (drugs). Compounds used as medicines are most often organic compounds, which are often divided into the broad classes of small organic molecules (e.g., atorvastatin, fluticasone, clopidogrel) and "biologics" (infliximab, erythropoietin, insulin glargine), the latter of which are most often medicinal preparations of proteins (natural and recombinant antibodies, hormones, etc.). Inorganic and organometallic compounds are also useful as drugs (e.g., lithium and platinum-based agents such as lithium carbonate and cisplatin as well as gallium).

In particular, medicinal chemistry in its most common practice—focusing on small organic molecules—encompasses synthetic organic chemistry and aspects of natural products and computational chemistry in close combination with chemical biology, enzymology and structural biology, together aiming at the discovery and development of new therapeutic agents. Practically speaking, it involves chemical aspects of identification, and then systematic, thorough synthetic alteration of new chemical entities to make them suitable for therapeutic use. It includes synthetic and computational aspects of the study of existing drugs and agents in development in relation to their bioactivities (biological activities and properties), i.e., understanding their structure-activity relationships (SAR). Pharmaceutical chemistry is focused on quality aspects of medicines and aims to assure fitness for purpose of medicinal products. At the biological interface, medicinal chemistry combines to form a set of highly interdisciplinary sciences, setting its organic, physical, and computational emphases alongside biological areas such as biochemistry, molecular biology, pharmacognosy and pharmacology, toxicology and veterinary and human medicine; these, with project management, statistics, and pharmaceutical business practices, systematically oversee altering identified chemical agents such that after pharmaceutical formulation, they are safe and efficacious, and therefore suitable for use in treatment of disease.

 Neurochemist Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that influence the function of neurons. This field within neuroscience examines how neurochemicals influence the operation of neurons, synapses, and neural networks. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 268 of 391

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Neurochemists analyze the biochemistry and molecular biology of organic compounds in the nervous system, and their roles in such neural processes as cortical plasticity, neurogenesis, and neural differentiation. In the 1950s, neurochemistry became a recognized scientific research discipline. The founding of neurochemistry as a discipline traces it origins to a series of "International Neurochemical Symposia", of which the first symposium volume published in 1954 was titled Biochemistry of the Developing Nervous System. These meetings led to the formation of the International Society for Neurochemistry and the American Society for Neurochemistry. These early gatherings discussed the tentative nature of possible neurotransmitter substances such as acetylcholine, histamine, substance P, and serotonin. By 1972, ideas were more concrete. Neurochemicals such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin were classified as "putative neurotransmitters in certain neuronal tracts in the brain.

 Nuclear chemist Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, such as nuclear transmutation, and nuclear properties. It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the corrosion of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal site. It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The radiation chemistry controls much of radiation biology as radiation has an effect on living things at the molecular scale, to explain it another way the radiation alters the biochemicals within an organism, the alteration of the biomolecules then changes the chemistry which occurs within the organism, this change in chemistry then can lead to a biological outcome. As a result, nuclear chemistry greatly assists the understanding of medical treatments (such as cancer radiotherapy) and has enabled these treatments to improve. It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range of processes. These include radiotherapy in medical applications; the use of radioactive tracers within industry, science and the environment; and the use of radiation to modify materials such as polymers. It also includes the study and use of nuclear processes in non-radioactive areas of human activity. For instance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is commonly used in synthetic organic chemistry and physical chemistry and for structural analysis in macromolecular chemistry. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 269 of 391

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 Organic chemist Organic chemistry is the chemistry subdiscipline for the scientific study of structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials (materials that contain carbon atoms). Study of structure determines their chemical composition and formula. Study of properties includes physical and chemical properties, and evaluation of chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The study of organic reactions includes the chemical synthesis of natural products, drugs, and polymers, and study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study. The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry includes hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) as well as compounds based on carbon, but also containing other elements, especially oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus (included in many biochemicals) and the halogens. In the modern era, the range extends further into the periodic table, with main group elements, including: Group 1 and 2 organometallic compounds involving alkali (lithium, sodium, and potassium) or alkaline earth metals (magnesium) Metalloids (boron and silicon) or other metals (aluminium and tin) In addition, contemporary research focuses on organic chemistry involving other organometallics including the lanthanides, but especially the transition metals zinc, copper, palladium, nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute the majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with its valence of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus structures with delocalized electrons—make the array of organic compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications enormous. They form the basis of, or are constituents of, many commercial products including pharmaceuticals; petrochemicals and agrichemicals, and products made from them including lubricants, solvents; plastics; fuels and explosives. The study of organic chemistry overlaps organometallic chemistry and biochemistry, but also with medicinal chemistry, polymer chemistry, and materials science.

 Organometallic chemist Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin, as well. Aside from bonds to organyl fragments or molecules, bonds to 'inorganic' carbon, like carbon monoxide (metal carbonyls), cyanide, or carbide, are generally considered to be organometallic as well. Some related compounds such as transition www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 270 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) metal hydrides and metal phosphine complexes are often included in discussions of organometallic compounds, though strictly speaking, they are not necessarily organometallic. The related but distinct term "metalorganic compound" refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands. Metal β-diketonates, alkoxides, dialkylamides, and metal phosphine complexes are representative members of this class. The field of organometallic chemistry combines aspects of traditional inorganic and organic chemistry. Organometallic compounds are widely used both stoichiometrically in research and industrial chemical reactions, as well as in the role of catalysts to increase the rates of such reactions (e.g., as in uses of homogeneous catalysis), where target molecules include polymers, pharmaceuticals, and many other types of practical products. Industrial applications Organometallic compounds find wide use in commercial reactions, both as homogeneous catalysis and as stoichiometric reagents For instance, organolithium, organomagnesium, and organoaluminium compounds, examples of which are highly basic and highly reducing, are useful stoichiometrically, but also catalyze many polymerization reactions. Almost all processes involving carbon monoxide rely on catalysts, notable examples being described as carbonylations. The production of acetic acid from methanol and carbon monoxide is catalyzed via metal carbonyl complexes in the Monsanto process and Cativa process. Most synthetic aldehydes are produced via hydroformylation. The bulk of the synthetic alcohols, at least those larger than ethanol, are produced by hydrogenation of hydroformylation-derived aldehydes. Similarly, the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde.

Almost all industrial processes involving alkene-derived polymers rely on organometallic catalysts. The world's polyethylene and polypropylene are produced via both heterogeneously via Ziegler-Natta catalysis and homogeneously, e.g., via constrained geometry catalysts.

Most processes involving hydrogen rely on metal-based catalysts. Whereas bulk hydrogenations, e.g. margarine production, rely on heterogeneous catalysts, For the production of fine chemicals, such hydrogenations rely on soluble organometallic complexes or involve organometallic intermediates. Organometallic complexes allow these hydrogenations to be effected asymmetrically.

A constrained geometry organotitanium complex is a precatalyst for olefin polymerization.

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Many semiconductors are produced from trimethylgallium, trimethylindium, trimethylaluminium, and trimethylantimony. These volatile compounds are decomposed along with ammonia, arsine, phosphine and related hydrides on a heated substrate via metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) process in the production of light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

 Pharmacologist Pharmacology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism (sometimes the word pharmacon is used as a term to encompass these endogenous and exogenous bioactive species). More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, synthesis and drug design, molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ/systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, interactions, toxicology, chemical biology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics studies the effects of a drug on biological systems, and Pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned with application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two are their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology

 Physical chemist Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, analytical dynamics and chemical equilibrium. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 272 of 391

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Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which it was founded relate to the bulk rather than the molecular/atomic structure alone (for example, chemical equilibrium and colloids). Some of the relationships that physical chemistry strives to resolve include the effects of: 1) Intermolecular forces that act upon the physical properties of materials (plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids). 2) Reaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction. 3) The identity of ions and the electrical conductivity of materials. 4) Surface science and electrochemistry of cell membranes. 5) Interaction of one body with another in terms of quantities of heat and work called thermodynamics. 6) Transfer of heat between a chemical system and its surroundings during change of phase or chemical reaction taking place called thermochemistry 7) Study of colligative properties of number of species present in solution. 8) Number of phases, number of components and degree of freedom (or variance) can be correlated with one another with help of phase rule. 9) Reactions of electrochemical cells.

 Quantum chemist Quantum chemistry studies the ground state of individual atoms and molecules, and the excited states, and transition states that occur during chemical reactions.

Experimental quantum chemists rely heavily on spectroscopy, through which information regarding the quantization of energy on a molecular scale can be obtained. Common methods are infra-red (IR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Theoretical quantum chemistry, the workings of which also tend to fall under the category of computational chemistry, seeks to calculate the predictions of quantum theory as atoms and molecules can only have discrete energies; as this task, when applied to polyatomic species, invokes the many-body problem, these calculations are performed using computers rather than by analytical "back of the envelope" methods. It involves heavy interplay of experimental and theoretical methods. In these ways, quantum chemists investigate chemical phenomena. On the calculations, quantum chemical studies use also semi-empirical and other methods based on quantum mechanical principles, and deal with time dependent problems. Many quantum chemical studies assume the nuclei are at rest (Born– Oppenheimer approximation). Many calculations involve iterative methods that www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 273 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) include self-consistent field methods. Major goals of quantum chemistry include increasing the accuracy of the results for small molecular systems, and increasing the size of large molecules that can be processed, which is limited by scaling considerations—the computation time increases as a power of the number of atoms.

 Solid-state chemist Solid-state chemistry, also sometimes referred as materials chemistry, is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. It therefore has a strong overlap with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics with a focus on the synthesis of novel materials and their characterisation. Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on basis of the nature of order present in the arrangement of their constituent particles.

 Stereochemist Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on stereoisomers, which by definition have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space. For this reason, it is also known as 3D chemistry—the prefix "stereo-" means "three-dimensionality". An important branch of stereochemistry is the study of chiral molecules. Stereochemistry spans the entire spectrum of organic, inorganic, biological, physical and especially supramolecular chemistry. Stereochemistry includes methods for determining and describing these relationships; the effect on the physical or biological properties these relationships impart upon the molecules in question, and the manner in which these relationships influence the reactivity of the molecules in question (dynamic stereochemistry). Example; Louis Pasteur could rightly be described as the first stereochemist, having observed in 1842 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine production vessels could rotate plane polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property, the only physical property in which the two types of tartrate salts differed, is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus vant Hoff and Joseph Le Bel explained optical activity in terms of the tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms bound to carbon.

 Structural chemist

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A chemical structure determination includes a chemist's specifying the molecular geometry and, when feasible and necessary, the electronic structure of the target molecule or other solid. Molecular geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the chemical bonds that hold the atoms together, and can be represented using structural formulae and by molecular models; complete electronic structure descriptions include specifying the occupation of a molecule's molecular orbitals. Structure determination can be applied to a range of targets from very simple molecules (e.g., diatomic oxygen or nitrogen), to very complex ones (e.g., such as of protein or DNA). Theories of chemical structure were first developed by August Kekule, Archibald Scott Couper, and Aleksandr Butlerov, among others, from about 1858. These theories were first to state that chemical compounds are not a random cluster of atoms and functional groups, but rather had a definite order defined by the valency of the atoms composing the molecule, giving the molecules a three dimensional structure that could be determined or solved. In determining structures of chemical compounds, one generally aims to obtain, minimally, the pattern and multiplicity of bonding between all atoms in the molecule; when possible, one seeks the three dimensional spatial coordinates of the atoms in the molecule (or other solid). The methods by which one can elucidate the structure of a molecule include spectroscopies such as nuclear magnetic resonance (proton and carbon-13 NMR), various methods of mass spectrometry (to give overall molecular mass, as well as fragment masses), and x-ray crystallography when applicable. The last technique can produce three-dimensional models at atomic-scale resolution, as long as crystals are available. When a molecule has an unpaired electron spin in a functional group of its structure, ENDOR and electron-spin resonance spectroscopes may also be performed. Techniques such as absorption spectroscopy and the vibrational spectroscopies, infrared and Raman, provide, respectively, important supporting information about the numbers and adjacencies of multiple bonds, and about the types of functional groups (whose internal bonding gives vibrational signatures); further inferential studies that give insight into the contributing electronic structure of molecules include cyclic voltammetry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. These latter techniques become all the more important when the molecules contain metal atoms, and when the crystals required by crystallography or the specific atom types that are required by NMR are unavailable to exploit in the structure determination. Finally, more specialized methods such as electron microscopy are also applicable in some cases.

 Supramolecular chemist

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Supramolecular chemistry is the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules that focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. The forces responsible for the spatial organization may vary from weak (intermolecular forces, electrostatic or hydrogen bonding) to strong (covalent bonding), provided that the degree of electronic coupling between the molecular component remains small with respect to relevant energy parameters of the component. While traditional chemistry focuses on the covalent bond, supramolecular chemistry examines the weaker and reversible non- covalent interactions between molecules. These forces include hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, van der Waals forces, pi–pi interactions and electrostatic effects. Important concepts that have been demonstrated by supramolecular chemistry include molecular self-assembly, folding, molecular recognition, host–guest chemistry, mechanically-interlocked molecular architectures, and dynamic covalent chemistry. The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes from cell structure to vision that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research. Supermolecules are to molecules and the intermolecular bond what molecules are to atoms and the covalent bond.

 Theoretical chemist Theoretical chemistry is a branch of chemistry, which develops theoretical generalizations that are part of the theoretical arsenal of modern chemistry, for example, the concept of chemical bonding, chemical reaction, valence, the surface of potential energy, molecular orbitals, orbital interactions, molecule activation etc Branches of theoretical chemistry i. Quantum chemistry a. The application of quantum mechanics or fundamental interactions to chemical and physico-chemical problems. Spectroscopic and magnetic properties are between the most frequently modelled. ii. Computational chemistry a. The application of computer codes to chemistry, involving approximation schemes such as Hartree–Fock, post-Hartree–Fock, density functional theory, semiempirical methods (such as PM3) or force field methods. Molecular shape is the most frequently predicted property. Computers can also predict vibrational spectra and vibronic coupling, but also acquire and Fourier transform Infra-red Data into frequency information. The comparison with predicted vibrations supports the predicted shape. iii. Molecular modelling

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a. Methods for modelling molecular structures without necessarily referring to quantum mechanics. Examples are molecular docking, protein-protein docking, drug design, combinatorial chemistry. The fitting of shape and electric potential are the driving factor in this graphical approach. iv. Molecular dynamics a. Application of classical mechanics for simulating the movement of the nuclei of an assembly of atoms and molecules. The rearrangement of molecules within an ensemble is controlled by Van der Waals forces and promoted by temperature. v. Molecular mechanics a. Modeling of the intra- and inter-molecular interaction potential energy surfaces via potentials. The latter are usually parameterized from ab initio calculations. vi. Mathematical chemistry a. Discussion and prediction of the molecular structure using mathematical methods without necessarily referring to quantum mechanics. Topology is a branch of mathematics that allows researchers to predict properties of flexible finite size bodies like clusters. vii. Theoretical chemical kinetics a. Theoretical study of the dynamical systems associated to reactive chemicals, the activated complex and their corresponding differential equations. viii. Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics) a. The use of computer and informational techniques, applied to crop information to solve problems in the field of chemistry.

 Thermochemist Thermochemistry is the study of the heat energy associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same, such as in melting and boiling. Thermochemistry focuses on these energy changes, particularly on the system's energy exchange with its surroundings. Thermochemistry is useful in predicting reactant and product quantities throughout the course of a given reaction. In combination with entropy determinations, it is also used to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous or non- spontaneous, favorable or unfavorable. Endothermic reactions absorb heat, while exothermic reactions release heat. Thermochemistry coalesces the concepts of thermodynamics with the concept of energy in the form of chemical bonds. The subject commonly includes calculations of such quantities as heat capacity, heat of combustion, heat of formation, enthalpy, entropy, free energy, and calories.

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Earth scientist Astrogeologist Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Although the geo- prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to the Earth, planetary geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons; applying geological science to other planetary bodies. Due to the types of investigations involved, it is also closely linked with Earth-based geology. Planetary geology includes such topics as determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets, and also looks at planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters, fluvial and aeolian processes. The structures of the giant planets and their moons are also examined, as is the make-up of the minor bodies of the Solar System, such as asteroids, the Kuiper Belt, and comets. Planetary geology uses a wide variety of standardised descriptor names for features. All planetary feature names recognised by the International Astronomical Union combine one of these names with a possibly unique identifying name. The conventions which decide the more precise name are dependent on which planetary body the feature is on, but the standard descriptors are in general common to all astronomical planetary bodies. Some names have a long history of historical usage, but new must be recognised by the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature as features are mapped and described by new planetary missions. This means that in some cases names may change as new imagery becomes available or in other cases widely adopted informal names changed in line with the rules. The standard names are chosen to consciously avoid interpreting the underlying cause of the feature, but rather to describe only its appearance.

Biogeochemist Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the biosphere, the cryosphere, the hydrosphere, the pedosphere, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the cycles of chemical elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, and their interactions with and incorporation into living things transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time.

The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or influence biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles. Biogeochemistry is a systems science closely related to systems ecology. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 278 of 391

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Climatologist Climatology (from Greek θιίκα, klima, "place, zone"; and -ινγία, -logia) or climate science is the scientific study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography, which is one of the Earth sciences. Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry. Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO), the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO), the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation (AO), the Northern Pacific (NP) Index, the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time, while climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time.

Dendroarchaeologist Dendroarchaeology is a term used for the study of vegetation remains, old buildings, artifacts, furniture, art and musical instruments using the techniques of dendrochronology (tree-ring dating). It refers to dendrochronological research of wood from the past regardless of its current physical context (in or above the soil). This form of dating is the most accurate and precise absolute dating method available to archaeologists, as the last ring that grew is the first year the tree could have been incorporated into an archaeological structure. Tree-ring dating is useful in that it can contribute to "chronometric", "environmental", and "behavioral" archaeological research.

The utility of tree-ring dating in an environmental sense is the most applicable of the three in today's world. Tree rings can be used to "reconstruct numerous environmental variables" such as "temperature", "precipitation", "stream flow", "drought society", "fire frequency and intensity", "insect infestation", "atmospheric circulation patterns", among others.

Dendrologist Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δέλδξνλ, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -ινγία, - logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: μύινλ, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of wooded plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 279 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) dendrology; however, woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.

Edaphologist Edaphology (from Greek ἔδαθνο, edaphos, "ground", and -ινγία, -logia) is one of two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, particularly plants. Edaphology includes the study of how soil influences humankind's use of land for plant growth as well as man's overall use of the land. General subfields within edaphology are agricultural soil science (known by the term agrology in some regions) and environmental soil science. (Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification.)

In Russia, edaphology is considered equivalent to pedology, but is recognized to have an applied sense consistent with agrophysics and agrochemistry outside Russia.

Gemologist Gemology or gemmology is the science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials. It is considered a geoscience and a branch of mineralogy. Some jewelers are academically trained gemologists and are qualified to identify and evaluate gems.

Geoarchaeologist Geoarchaeology is a multi-disciplinary approach which uses the techniques and subject matter of geography, geology and other Earth sciences to examine topics which inform archaeological knowledge and thought. Geoarchaeologists study the natural physical processes that affect archaeological sites such as geomorphology, the formation of sites through geological processes and the effects on buried sites and artifacts post-deposition. Geoarchaeologists' work frequently involves studying soil and sediments as well as other geographical concepts to contribute an archaeological study. Geoarchaeologists may also use computer cartography, geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models (DEM) in combination with disciplines from human and social sciences and earth sciences. Geoarchaeology is important to society because it informs archaeologists about the www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 280 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) geomorphology of the soil, sediments and the rocks on the buried sites and artifacts they're researching on. By doing this we are able locate ancient cities and artifacts and estimate by the quality of soil how "prehistoric" they really are.

Geobiologist Geobiology is a field of scientific research that explores the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere. It is a relatively young field, and its borders are fluid. There is considerable overlap with the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, microbiology, paleontology, and particularly biogeochemistry. Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology and geology to the study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world. Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on microorganisms, and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and/or cryosphere. It differs from biogeochemistry in that the focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles.

Geobiological research synthesizes the geologic record with modern biologic studies. It deals with process - how organisms affect the Earth and vice versa - as well as history - how the Earth and life have changed together. Much research is grounded in the search for fundamental understanding, but geobiology can also be applied, as in the case of microbes that clean up oil spills.

Geobiology employs molecular biology, environmental microbiology, chemical analyses, and the geologic record to investigate the evolutionary interconnectedness of life and Earth. It attempts to understand how the Earth has changed since the origin of life and what it might have been like along the way. Some definitions of geobiology even push the boundaries of this time frame - to understanding the origin of life and to the role that man has played and will continue to play in shaping the Earth in the Anthropocene.

Geochemist Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar System, and has made important contributions to the understanding of a number of processes including mantle convection, the formation of planets and the origins of granite and basalt.

Geographer www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 281 of 391

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Geography (from Greek: γεσγξαθία, geographia, literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of the Earth and planets. The first person to use the word γεσγξαθία was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be.

Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography. Human geography deals with the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across space and place. Physical geography deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.

The four historical traditions in geographical research are: spatial analyses of natural and the human phenomena, area studies of places and regions, studies of human-land relationships, and the Earth sciences. Geography has been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and the physical sciences".

Geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes the Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences are also useful. Field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work.

Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, and precious metals. They are also in the forefront of preventing and mitigating damage from natural hazards and disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions.

Geomicrobiologist Geomicrobiology is the scientific field at the intersection of geology and microbiology. It concerns the effect of microbes on geological and geochemical processes and vice versa. Such interactions occur in the geosphere (rocks, minerals, soils, and sediments), the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Applications include aquifers and public drinking water supplies.

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Geomorphologist Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: γῆ, gê, "earth"; κνξθή, morphḗ, "form"; and ιόγνο, lógos, "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Geophysicist Geophysics /dʒiːoʊfɪzɪks/ is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.

Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from lodestones, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132 AD. Isaac Newton applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the precession of the equinox; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.

Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as mineral resources, mitigation of natural hazards and environmental protection. In Exploration Geophysics, Geophysical survey data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) mineral deposits, locate groundwater, find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for environmental remediation.

Glaciologist Glaciology (from Latin: glacies, "frost, ice", and Ancient Greek: ιόγνο, logos, "subject matter"; literally "study of ice") is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.

Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, biology, and ecology. The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of human geography and anthropology. The discoveries of water ice on the Moon, Mars, Europa and Pluto add an extraterrestrial component to the field, as in "astroglaciology".

Hydrogeologist Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably.

Groundwater engineering, another name for hydrogeology, is a branch of engineering which is concerned with groundwater movement and design of wells, pumps, and drains. The main concerns in groundwater engineering include groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies, and water quality.

Wells are constructed for use in developing nations, as well as for use in developed nations in places which are not connected to a city water system. Wells must be designed and maintained to uphold the integrity of the aquifer, and to prevent contaminants from reaching the groundwater. Controversy arises in the use of groundwater when its usage impacts surface water systems, or when human activity threatens the integrity of the local aquifer system.

Hydrologist Hydrology (from Greek: ὕδσξ, "hýdōr" meaning "water"; and ιόγνο, "lógos" meaning "study") is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography, www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 284 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) geology or civil and environmental engineering. Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and water management.

Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.

Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields. Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering, policy and planning.

Hydrometeorologist Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the lower atmosphere. Hydrologists often utilize meteorologists and products produced by meteorologists As an example, a meteorologist would forecast 2-3 inches of rain is a specific area, and a hydrologist would then forecast what the specific impact of that rain would be on the terrain. UNESCO has several programmes and activities in place that deal with the study of natural hazards of hydrometeorological origin and the mitigation of their effects. Among these hazards are the results of natural processes or atmospheric, hydrological, or oceanographic phenomena such as floods, tropical cyclones, drought and desertification. Many countries have established an operational hydrometeorological capability to assist with forecasting, warning, and informing the public of these developing hazards.

Limnologist Limnology (/lɪmˈnɒlədʒi/ lim-NOL-ə-jee; from Greek ιίκλε, limne, "lake" and ιόγνο, logos, "knowledge"), is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics and functions of inland waters (running and standing waters, fresh and saline, natural or man-made). This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater. A more recent sub-discipline of limnology, termed landscape limnology, studies, manages, and seeks to conserve these ecosystems using a landscape perspective, by explicitly examining connections between an aquatic ecosystem and its watershed. Recently, the need to understand global inland waters as part of the Earth System created a sub-discipline called

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) global limnology. This approach considers the role of inland aquatic ecosystems in carbon cycling.

Limnology is closely related to aquatic ecology and hydrobiology, which study aquatic organisms and their interactions with the abiotic (non-living) environment. While limnology has substantial overlap with freshwater-focused disciplines (e.g., freshwater biology), it also includes the study of inland salt lakes.

Meteorologist Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly, the development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.

Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water vapour, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of those variables, and how they change over time. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels.

Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub- disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction. The word meteorology is from the Ancient Greek κεηέσξνο metéōros (meteor) and - ινγία -logia (-(o)logy), meaning "the study of things high in the air".

Mineralogist Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 286 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.

Oceanographer Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠθεαλόο meaning "ocean" and γξάθσ meaning "write"), also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within: astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.

Paleoclimatologist Paleoclimatology (in British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth. It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks, sediments, ice sheets, tree rings, corals, shells, and microfossils. It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth's various climate regions and its atmospheric system. Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation, specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery.

Paleoecologist Paleoecology (also spelled palaeoecology) is the study of interactions between organisms and/or interactions between organisms and their environments across geologic timescales. As a discipline, paleoecology interacts with, depends on and informs a variety of fields including paleontology, ecology, climatology and biology.

Paleoecology emerged out of the field of paleontology in the 1950s, though paleontologists have conducted paleoecological studies since the creation of paleontology in the 1700s and 1800s. Combining the investigative approach of searching for fossils with the theoretical approach of Charles Darwin and Alexander von Humboldt, paleoecology began as paleontologists began examining both the ancient organisms they discovered and the reconstructed environments in which they

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Paleogeologist Historical geology or paleogeology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth. It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth's surface and subsurface; and the use of stratigraphy, structural geology and paleontology to tell the sequence of these events. It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale. The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history.

Economic geology, the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials, is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area. Environmental geology, including most importantly the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism, must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic history.

Paleoseismologist Paleoseismology looks at geologic sediments and rocks, for signs of ancient earthquakes. It is used to supplement seismic monitoring, for the calculation of seismic hazard. Paleoseismology is usually restricted to geologic regimes that have undergone continuous sediment creation for the last few thousand years, such as swamps, lakes, river beds and shorelines.

In this typical example, a trench is dug in an active sedimentation regime. Evidence of thrust faulting can be seen in the walls of the trench. It becomes a matter of deducting the relative age of each fault, by cross-cutting patterns. The faults can be dated in absolute terms, if there is dateable carbon, or human artifacts.

Many notable discoveries have been made using the techniques of paleoseismology. For example, there is a common misconception that having many smaller earthquakes can somehow 'relieve' a major fault such as the San Andreas Fault, and reduce the chance of a major earthquake. It is now known (using paleoseismology) that nearly all the movement of the fault takes place with extremely large earthquakes. All of these seismic events (with a moment magnitude of over 8), leave some sort of trace in the sedimentation record. Another famous example involves the megathrust earthquakes of the Pacific Northwest. It was thought for some time that there was low seismic hazard in the www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 288 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) region because relatively few modern earthquakes have been recorded. It was thought that the Cascadia subduction zone was merely sliding in a benign manner.

All of these comforting notions were shattered by paleoseismology studies showing evidence of extremely large earthquakes (the most recent being in 1700), along with historical tsunami records. In effect, the subduction zone under British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and far northern California, is perfectly normal, being extremely hazardous in the long term, with the capability of generating coastal tsunamis of several hundred feet in height at the coast. These are caused by the interface between the subducted sea floor stressing the overlaying coastal soils in compression. Periodically a slip will occur which causes the coastal portion to reduce in elevation and thrust toward the west, leading to tsunamis in the central and eastern north Pacific Ocean (with several hours of warning) and a reflux of water toward the coastal shore, with little time for residents to escape.

Palynologist Palynology is the "study of dust" (from Greek: παιύλσ, translit. palunō, "strew, sprinkle" and -logy) or "particles that are strewn". A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, or from deposits including sediments of any age. The condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. The term is sometimes narrowly used to refer to a subset of the discipline, which is defined as "the study of microscopic objects of macromolecular organic composition (i.e., compounds of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen), not capable of dissolution in hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acids". It is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen, spores, orbicules, dinocysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments. Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with siliceous or calcareous exoskeletons. Palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science (geology or geological science) and biological science (biology), particularly plant science (botany). Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene.

Petrologist Petrology (from the Greek πέηξνο, pétros, "rock" and ιόγνο, lógos, "subject matter", see -logy) is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 289 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is, on the other hand, commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks while petrography is the speciality that deals with microscopic details. In the petroleum industry, lithology, or more specifically mud logging, is the graphic representation of geological formations being drilled through, and drawn on a log called a mud log. As the cuttings are circulated out of the borehole they are sampled, examined (typically under a 10× microscope) and tested chemically when needed.

Sedimentologist Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures.

Sedimentary rocks cover up to 75% of the Earth's surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata.

The premise that the processes affecting the earth today are the same as in the past is the basis for determining how sedimentary features in the rock record were formed. By comparing similar features today to features in the rock record—for example, by comparing modern sand dunes to dunes preserved in ancient aeolian sandstones— geologists reconstruct past environments.

Seismologist Seismology ( /saɪzˈmɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek ζεηζκόο (seismós) meaning "earthquake" and -ινγία (-logía) meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. The field also includes studies of earthquake environmental effects such as tsunamis as well as diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial processes such as explosions. A related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes is paleoseismology. A recording of earth motion as a function of time is called a seismogram. A seismologist is a scientist who does research in seismology. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 290 of 391

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Speleologist Speleology is the scientific study of caves and other karst features, as well as their make-up, structure, physical properties, history, life forms, and the processes by which they form (speleogenesis) and change over time (speleomorphology). The term speleology is also sometimes applied to the recreational activity of exploring caves, but this is more properly known as caving or potholing, or (not usually by participants) by the uncommon American term spelunking. Speleology and caving are often connected, as the physical skills required for in situ study are the same. Speleology is a cross-disciplinary field that combines the knowledge of chemistry, biology, geology, physics, meteorology, and cartography to develop portraits of caves as complex, evolving systems.

Volcanologist Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan. Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire.

A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes, and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives.

Physicist Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan. Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire.

A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes, and their current and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions; there is currently no accurate way to do this, but predicting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, could save many lives.

Agrophysicist Agrophysics is a branch of science bordering on agronomy and physics, whose objects of study are the agroecosystem - the biological objects, biotope and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 291 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) biocoenosis affected by human activity, studied and described using the methods of physical sciences. Using the achievements of the exact sciences to solve major problems in agriculture, agrophysics involves the study of materials and processes occurring in the production and processing of agricultural crops, with particular emphasis on the condition of the environment and the quality of farming materials and food production.

Agrophysics is closely related to biophysics, but is restricted to the biology of the plants, animals, soil and an atmosphere involved in agricultural activities and biodiversity. It is different from biophysics in having the necessity of taking into account the specific features of biotope and biocoenosis, which involves the knowledge of nutritional science and agroecology, agricultural technology, biotechnology, genetics etc.

The needs of agriculture, concerning the past experience study of the local complex soil and next plant-atmosphere systems, lay at the root of the emergence of a new branch – agrophysics – dealing this with experimental physics. The scope of the branch starting from soil science (physics) and originally limited to the study of relations within the soil environment, expanded over time onto influencing the properties of agricultural crops and produce as foods and raw postharvest materials, and onto the issues of quality, safety and labeling concerns, considered distinct from the field of nutrition for application in food science.

Research centres focused on the development of the agrophysical sciences include the Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences in Lublin, and the Agrophysical Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

Astrophysicist Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain the nature of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions or motions in space". Among the objects studied are the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background. Their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.

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In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black holes; whether or not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe. Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.

Atmospheric physicist Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations, chemical models, radiation budget, and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere (as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans). In order to model weather systems, atmospheric physicists employ elements of scattering theory, wave propagation models, cloud physics, statistical mechanics and spatial statistics which are highly mathematical and related to physics. It has close links to meteorology and climatology and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including remote sensing instruments. At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets, aeronomy became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important.

Atomic physicist Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions.

The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics — which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons — and nuclear physics, which considers atomic nuclei alone.

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As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified.

Chemical physicist Chemical physics is a subdiscipline of chemistry and physics that investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. While at the interface of physics and chemistry, chemical physics is distinct from physical chemistry in that it focuses more on the characteristic elements and theories of physics. Meanwhile, physical chemistry studies the physical nature of chemistry. Nonetheless, the distinction between the two fields is vague, and workers often practice in both fields during the course of their research.

The United States Department of Education defines chemical physics as "A program that focuses on the scientific study of structural phenomena combining the disciplines of physical chemistry and atomic/molecular physics. Includes instruction in heterogeneous structures, alignment and surface phenomena, quantum theory, mathematical physics, statistical and classical mechanics, chemical kinetics, and laser physics.

Computational physicist Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical analysis to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. Historically, computational physics was the first application of modern computers in science, and is now a subset of computational science.

It is sometimes regarded as a subdiscipline (or offshoot) of theoretical physics, but others consider it an intermediate branch between theoretical and experimental physics, a third way that supplements theory and experiment. Cosmologist Cosmology (from the Greek θόζκνο, kosmos "world" and -ινγία, -logia "study of") is a branch of astronomy concerned with the studies of the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to today and on into the future. It is the scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scientific study of the universe's origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and its ultimate fate, as well as the laws of science that govern these areas.

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The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's Glossographia, and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher Christian Wolff, in Cosmologia Generalis.

Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation myths and eschatology.

Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. Because of this shared scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that cannot be tested. Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which attempts to bring together observational astronomy and particle physics; more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark energy, known as the Lambda-CDM model.

Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a "historical science" because "when we look out in space, we look back in time" due to the finite nature of the speed of light.

Condensed-matter physicist Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In particular it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the electromagnetic forces between atoms. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by using physical laws. In particular, they include the laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetism and statistical mechanics.

The most familiar condensed phases are solids and liquids while more exotic condensed phases include the superconducting phase exhibited by certain materials at low temperature, the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on crystal lattices of atoms, and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in ultracold atomic systems. The study of condensed matter physics involves measuring various material properties via experimental probes along with using methods of theoretical physics to develop mathematical models that help in understanding physical behavior.

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The diversity of systems and phenomena available for study makes condensed matter physics the most active field of contemporary physics: one third of all American physicists self-identify as condensed matter physicists, and the Division of Condensed Matter Physics is the largest division at the American Physical Society. The field overlaps with chemistry, materials science, and nanotechnology, and relates closely to atomic physics and biophysics. The theoretical physics of condensed matter shares important concepts and methods with that of particle physics and nuclear physics.

A variety of topics in physics such as crystallography, metallurgy, elasticity, magnetism, etc., were treated as distinct areas until the 1940s, when they were grouped together as solid state physics. Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of liquids was added to this list, forming the basis for the new, related specialty of condensed matter physics. According to physicist Philip Warren Anderson, the term was coined by him and Volker Heine, when they changed the name of their group at the Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge from Solid state theory to Theory of Condensed Matter in 1967, as they felt it did not exclude their interests in the study of liquids, nuclear matter, and so on. Although Anderson and Heine helped popularize the name "condensed matter", it had been present in Europe for some years, most prominently in the form of a journal published in English, French, and German by Springer-Verlag titled Physics of Condensed Matter, which was launched in 1963. The funding environment and Cold War politics of the 1960s and 1970s were also factors that lead some physicists to prefer the name "condensed matter physics", which emphasized the commonality of scientific problems encountered by physicists working on solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter, over "solid state physics", which was often associated with the industrial applications of metals and semiconductors. The Bell Telephone Laboratories was one of the first institutes to conduct a research program in condensed matter physics.

References to "condensed" state can be traced to earlier sources. For example, in the introduction to his 1947 book Kinetic Theory of Liquids, Yakov Frenkel proposed that "The kinetic theory of liquids must accordingly be developed as a generalization and extension of the kinetic theory of solid bodies. As a matter of fact, it would be more correct to unify them under the title of 'condensed bodies'".

Engineering physicist Engineering physics or engineering science refers to the study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the

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Material physicist Material physics is the use of physics to describe the physical properties of materials. It is a synthesis of physical sciences such as chemistry, solid mechanics, solid state physics, and materials science. Materials physics is considered a subset of condensed matter physics and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest.

Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials, nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics. New experimental and computational tools are constantly improving how materials systems are modeled and studied and are also fields when materials physicists work in.

Molecular physicist Molecular physics is the study of the physical properties of molecules, the chemical bonds between atoms as well as the molecular dynamics. Its most important experimental techniques are the various types of spectroscopy; scattering is also used. The field is closely related to atomic physics and overlaps greatly with theoretical chemistry, physical chemistry and chemical physics.

In addition to the electronic excitation states which are known from atoms, molecules exhibit rotational and vibrational modes whose energy levels are quantized. The smallest energy differences exist between different rotational states: pure rotational spectra are in the far infrared region (about 30 - 150 µm wavelength) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Vibrational spectra are in the near infrared (about 1 - 5 µm) and spectra resulting from electronic transitions are mostly in the visible and ultraviolet regions. From measuring rotational and vibrational spectra properties of molecules like the distance between the nuclei can be specifically calculated.

One important aspect of molecular physics is that the essential atomic orbital theory in the field of atomic physics expands to the molecular orbital theory.

Nuclear physicist Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of nuclear matter are also studied. Nuclear

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Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. This includes nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, industrial and agricultural isotopes, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering. Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of nuclear physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars and the origin of the chemical elements.

Particle physicist Particle physics (also known as high energy physics) is a branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. Although the word particle can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, or even household dust), particle physics usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the fundamental interactions necessary to explain their behaviour. By our current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known" particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity.

Plasma physicist Plasma (from Ancient Greek πιάζκα, meaning 'moldable substance') is one of the four fundamental states of matter, and was first described by chemist Irving Langmuir in the 1920s. Plasma can be artificially generated by heating or subjecting a neutral gas to a strong electromagnetic field to the point where an ionized gaseous substance becomes increasingly electrically conductive, and long-range electromagnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter.

Plasma and ionized gases have properties and display behaviours unlike those of the other states, and the transition between them is mostly a matter of nomenclature and subject to interpretation. Based on the surrounding environmental temperature and density, partially ionized or fully ionized forms of plasma may be produced. Neon signs and lightning are examples of partially ionized plasma. The Earth's ionosphere www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 298 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) is a plasma and the magnetosphere contains plasma in the Earth's surrounding space environment. The interior of the Sun is an example of fully ionized plasma, along with the solar corona and stars. Positive charges in ions are achieved by stripping away electrons orbiting the atomic nuclei, where the total number of electrons removed is related to either increasing temperature or the local density of other ionized matter. This also can be accompanied by the dissociation of molecular bonds, though this process is distinctly different from chemical processes of ion interactions in liquids or the behaviour of shared ions in metals. The response of plasma to electromagnetic fields is used in many modern technological devices, such as plasma televisions or plasma etching. Plasma may be the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe, although this hypothesis is currently tentative based on the existence and unknown properties of dark matter. Plasma is mostly associated with stars, extending to the rarefied intracluster medium and possibly the intergalactic regions.

Polymer physicist Polymer physics is the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively. While it focuses on the perspective of condensed matter physics, polymer physics is originally a branch of statistical physics. Polymer physics and polymer chemistry are also related with the field of polymer science, where this is considered the applicative part of polymers.

Polymers are large molecules and thus are very complicated for solving using a deterministic method. Yet, statistical approaches can yield results and are often pertinent, since large polymers (i.e., polymers with a large number of monomers) are describable efficiently in the thermodynamic limit of infinitely many monomers (although the actual size is clearly finite).

Thermal fluctuations continuously affect the shape of polymers in liquid solutions, and modeling their effect requires using principles from statistical mechanics and dynamics. As a corollary, temperature strongly affects the physical behavior of polymers in solution, causing phase transitions, melts, and so on.

The statistical approach for polymer physics is based on an analogy between a polymer and either a Brownian motion, or other type of a random walk, the self- avoiding walk. The simplest possible polymer model is presented by the ideal chain, corresponding to a simple random walk. Experimental approaches for characterizing www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 299 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) polymers are also common, using polymer characterization methods, such as size exclusion chromatography, viscometry, dynamic light scattering, and Automatic Continuous Online Monitoring of Polymerization Reactions (ACOMP) for determining the chemical, physical, and material properties of polymers. These experimental methods also helped the mathematical modeling of polymers and even for a better understanding of the properties of polymers. Psychophysicist Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation" or, more completely, as "the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions". Psychophysics also refers to a general class of methods that can be applied to study a perceptual system. Modern applications rely heavily on threshold measurement, ideal observer analysis, and signal detection theory.

Psychophysics has widespread and important practical applications. For example, in the study of digital signal processing, psychophysics has informed the development of models and methods of lossy compression. These models explain why humans perceive very little loss of signal quality when audio and video signals are formatted using lossy compression.

Quantum physicist Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.

Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, describes nature at ordinary (macroscopic) scale. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid at large (macroscopic) scale. Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, angular momentum and other quantities of a bound system are restricted to discrete values (quantization); objects have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-particle duality); and there are limits to the precision with which quantities can be measured (uncertainty principle).

Quantum mechanics gradually arose from theories to explain observations which could not be reconciled with classical physics, such as Max Planck's solution in 1900 www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 300 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) to the black-body radiation problem, and from the correspondence between energy and frequency in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which explained the photoelectric effect. Early quantum theory was profoundly re-conceived in the mid-1920s by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and others. The modern theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle.

Important applications of quantum theory include quantum chemistry, quantum optics, quantum computing, superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes, and the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy. Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-molecule DNA.

Theoretical physicist Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to experimental physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena.

The advancement of science generally depends on the interplay between experimental studies and theory. In some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. For example, while developing special relativity, Albert Einstein was concerned with the Lorentz transformation which left Maxwell's equations invariant, but was apparently uninterested in the Michelson–Morley experiment on Earth's drift through a luminiferous ether. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, previously an experimental result lacking a theoretical formulation. ii Life Science

Biologist A biologist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 301 of 391

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Biologists are interested in understanding the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter as well as the complex properties that emerge from the biophysical, biochemical, cellular and systemic interactions of living systems. Biologists conduct research using the scientific method to test the validity of a theory in a rational, unbiased and reproducible manner. This consists of hypothesis formation, experimentation and data analysis to establish the validity or invalidity of a scientific theory.

There are different types of biologists. Theoretical biologists use mathematical methods and develop models to understand phenomena and ideally predict future experimental results, while experimental biologists conceive experiments to test those predictions. Some biologists work on microorganisms, while others study multicellular organisms (including humans). Some investigate the nano or micro- scale, others emergent properties such as ecological interactions or cognition. There is much overlap between different fields of biology (e.g. zoology, microbiology, genetics and evolutionary biology) and due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field it is often difficult to classify a life scientist as only one of them. Many biological scientists work in research and development. Some conduct fundamental research to advance human knowledge of life. Furthermore, applied biological research often aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health and the natural environment. Biological scientists mostly work in government, university, and private industry laboratories.

Acarologist Acarology (from Greek ἀθαξί/ἄθαξη, akari, a type of mite; and -ινγία, -logia) is the study of mites and ticks, the animals in the order Acarina. It is a subfield of arachnology, a sub-discipline of the field of zoology. A zoologist specializing in acarology is called an acarologist. There are many acarologists studying around the world both professionally and amateur. It is a developing science and long awaited research has been provided for it in more recent history.

Aerobiologist Aerobiology (from Greek ἀήξ, aēr, "air"; βίνο, bios, "life"; and -ινγία, -logia) is a branch of biology that studies organic particles, such as bacteria, fungal spores, very small insects, pollen grains and viruses, which are passively transported by the air. Aerobiologists have traditionally been involved in the measurement and reporting of airborne pollen and fungal spores as a service to allergy sufferers. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 302 of 391

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The first finding of airborne algae took place in Germany in 1910. The minimum requirements published after a big consensus are an international standard to ensure the quality in Aerobiological method.

Anatomist Anatomy (Greek anatomē, "dissection") is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate (embryology) and long (evolution) timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study (respectively) the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and they are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine.

The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells.

The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.

Arachnologist Arachnology is the scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. Those who study spiders and other arachnids are arachnologists. The word arachnology derives from Greek ἀξάρλε, arachnē, "spider"; and -ινγία, - logia.

Bacteriologist Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species. Because of the similarity of thinking and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 303 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) working with microorganisms other than bacteria, such as protozoa, fungi, and viruses, there has been a tendency for the field of bacteriology to extend as microbiology. The terms were formerly often used interchangeably. However, bacteriology can be classified as a distinct science.

Biochemist Bioclimatologist Bioclimatology is the interdisciplinary field of science that studies the interactions between the biosphere and the Earth's atmosphere on time scales of the order of seasons or longer (by opposition to biometeorology). Biogeographer Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area. Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. Zoogeography is the branch that studies distribution of animals.

Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments. Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology, evolutionary biology, geology, and physical geography.

Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from the physiological and ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial scales and evolutionary time frames.

The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long- term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with Carl Linnaeus, contributed to the development of biogeography as a science. Beginning in the mid-18th century, Europeans explored the world and discovered the biodiversity of life. Biotechnologist Biotechnology is the broad area of biology involving living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2). www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 304 of 391

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Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of molecular biology, bio-engineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc.

For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, and medicine. The term is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Károly Ereky. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant gene techniques, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.

Bioarcheologist The term bioarchaeology was first coined by British archaeologist Grahame Clark in 1972 as a reference to zooarchaeology, or the study of animal bones from archaeological sites. Redefined in 1977 by Jane Buikstra, bioarchaeology in the US now refers to the scientific study of human remains from archaeological sites, a discipline known in other countries as osteoarchaeology or palaeo-osteology. In England and other European countries, the term 'bioarchaeology' is borrowed to cover all biological remains from sites.

Bioarchaeology was largely born from the practices of New Archaeology, which developed in the US in the 1970s as a reaction to a mainly cultural-historical approach to understanding the past. Proponents of New Archaeology advocated using processual methods to test hypotheses about the interaction between culture and biology, or a biocultural approach. Some archaeologists advocate a more holistic approach to bioarchaeology that incorporates critical theory and is more relevant to modern descent populations.

Biolinguist Biolinguistics is the study of the biology and evolution of language. It is a highly interdisciplinary field, including linguists, biologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and others. By shifting the focus of investigation in linguistics to a comprehensive scheme that embraces natural sciences, it seeks to yield a framework by which we can understand the fundamentals of the faculty of language.

Botanist Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word βνηάλε (botanē) meaning "pasture", "grass", or "fodder"; βνηάλε is in www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 305 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) turn derived from βόζθεηλ (boskein), "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.

Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest branches of science. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.

Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity.

Cell biologist

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Cell biology (also called cytology, from the Greek θύηνο, kytos, "vessel") is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, which is the basic unit of life. Cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences; it is also essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology and cytochemistry .

Chronobiologist Chronobiology is a field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. These cycles are known as biological rhythms. Chronobiology comes from the ancient Greek ρξόλνο (chrónos, meaning "time"), and biology, which pertains to the study, or science, of life. The related terms chronomics and chronome have been used in some cases to describe either the molecular mechanisms involved in chronobiological phenomena or the more quantitative aspects of chronobiology, particularly where comparison of cycles between organisms is required.

Chronobiological studies include but are not limited to comparative anatomy, physiology, genetics, molecular biology and behavior of organisms within biological rhythms mechanics. Other aspects include epigenetics, development, reproduction, ecology and evolution.

Cognitive biologist Cognitive biology is an emerging science that regards natural cognition as a biological function. It is based on the theoretical assumption that every organism— whether a single cell or multicellular—is continually engaged in systematic acts of cognition coupled with intentional behaviors, i.e., a sensory-motor coupling. That is to say, if an organism can sense stimuli in its environment and respond accordingly, it is cognitive. Any explanation of how natural cognition may manifest in an organism is constrained by the biological conditions in which its genes survives from one generation to the next. And since by Darwinian theory the species of every organism is evolving from a common root, three further elements of cognitive biology are required: (i) the study of cognition in one species of organism is useful, through contrast and comparison, to the study of another species‘ cognitive abilities; (ii) it is useful to proceed from organisms with simpler to those with more complex

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Cognitive neuroscientist The term cognitive neuroscience was coined by George Armitage Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in year 1976. Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology, and computational modeling.

Parts of the brain play an important role in this field. Neurons play the most vital role, since the main point is to establish an understanding of cognition from a neural perspective, along with the different lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental procedures from psychophysics and cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiology, cognitive genomics, and behavioral genetics.

Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience. The damages in lesioned brains provide a comparable basis with regards to healthy and fully functioning brains. These damages change the neural circuits in the brain and cause it to malfunction during basic cognitive processes, such as memory or learning. With the damage, we can compare how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes.

Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.

Computational biologist Computational biology involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, ecological, behavioral, and social systems. The www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 308 of 391

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Computational biology is different from biological computing, which is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering using bioengineering and biology to build computers, but is similar to bioinformatics, which is an interdisciplinary science using computers to store and process biological data.

Conservation biologist Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.

Dendrochronologist Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed. As well as dating them this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from wood.

Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date, to be very accurate. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages.

New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life. As of 2013, the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere are a floating sequence extending from about 12,580 to 13,900 years. Dendrochronology derives from Ancient Greek: δέλδξνλ (dendron), meaning "tree", ρξόλνο (khronos), meaning "time", and -ινγία (-logia), "the study of".

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Developmental biologist Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism. Ecologist Ecology (from Greek: νἶθνο, "house", or "environment"; -ινγία, "study of")[A] is the branch of biology which studies the interactions among organisms and their environment. Objects of study include interactions of organisms with each other and with abiotic components of their environment. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits. Biodiversity means the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.

Ecology is not synonymous with environmentalism, natural history, or environmental science. It overlaps with the closely related sciences of evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function. Ecologists seek to explain:

Life processes, interactions, and adaptations The movement of materials and energy through living communities The successional development of ecosystems The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment.

Ecology has practical applications in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agroecology, agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology). For example, the

Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment 'out there'. It is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms (including humans) and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living (biotic) and non-living www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 310 of 391

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(abiotic) components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the regulation of climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.

The word "ecology" ("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory.

Electrophysiologist Electrophysiology (from Greek ἥιεθηξνλ, ēlektron, "amber" [see the etymology of "electron"]; θύζηο, physis, "nature, origin"; and -ινγία, -logia) is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage changes or electric current or manipulations on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons, and, in particular, action potential activity. Recordings of large-scale electric signals from the nervous system, such as electroencephalography, may also be referred to as electrophysiological recordings. They are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring.

Embryologist Embryology (from Greek ἔκβξπνλ, embryon, "the unborn, embryo"; and -ινγία, - logia) is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology.

Embryology has a long history. Aristotle proposed the currently accepted theory of epigenesis, that organisms develop from seed or egg in a sequence of steps. The alternative theory, preformationism, that organisms develop from pre-existing miniature versions of themselves, however held sway until the 18th century. Modern embryology developed from the work of von Baer, though accurate observations had been made in Italy by anatomists such as Aldrovandi and Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance. Endocrinologist www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 311 of 391

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Endocrinology (from endocrine + -ology) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology.

The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

Entomologist Entomology (from Ancient Greek ἔληνκνλ (entomon), meaning 'insect', and -ινγία (- logia), meaning 'study of') is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was more vague, and historically the definition of entomology included the study of terrestrial animals in other arthropod groups or other phyla, such as arachnids, myriapods, earthworms, land snails, and slugs. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use.

Like several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology, entomology is a taxon-based category; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is, by definition, entomology. Entomology therefore overlaps with a cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics, behavior, biomechanics, biochemistry, systematics, physiology, developmental biology, ecology, morphology, and paleontology.

At some 1.3 million described species, insects account for more than two-thirds of all known organisms, date back some 400 million years, and have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on earth.

Epidemiologist Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where) and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations.

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Major areas of epidemiological study include disease causation, transmission, outbreak investigation, disease surveillance, environmental epidemiology, forensic epidemiology, occupational epidemiology, screening, biomonitoring, and comparisons of treatment effects such as in clinical trials. Epidemiologists rely on other scientific disciplines like biology to better understand disease processes, statistics to make efficient use of the data and draw appropriate conclusions, social sciences to better understand proximate and distal causes, and engineering for exposure assessment.

Ethologist Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioural responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history. Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and by Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group, and often study one type of behaviour, such as aggression, in a number of unrelated animals.

Ethology is a rapidly growing field. Since the dawn of the 21st century, many aspects of animal communication, emotions, culture, learning and sexuality that the scientific community long thought it understood have been re-examined, and new conclusions reached. New fields, such as neuroethology, have developed.

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Understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of different species or breeds enables the trainer to select the individuals best suited to perform the required task. It also enables the trainer to encourage the performance of naturally occurring behaviours and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours.

Evolutionary biologist Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a single common ancestor. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation.

The discipline emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis (of the 1930s) of understanding from several previously unrelated fields of biological research, including genetics, ecology, systematics, and paleontology.

Current research has widened to cover the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution including sexual selection, genetic drift and biogeography. The newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryonic development is controlled, thus creating a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis.

Geneticist A geneticist is a biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms.

Hematologist Hematology, also spelled haematology, is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the cause, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases related to blood. It involves treating diseases that affect the production of blood and its components, such as blood cells, hemoglobin, blood proteins, bone marrow, platelets, blood vessels, spleen, and the mechanism of coagulation. Such diseases might include hemophilia, blood clots, other bleeding disorders and blood cancers such as leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma. The laboratory work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a medical technologist or medical laboratory scientist. Many hematologists work as hematologist-oncologists, also providing medical treatment for all types of cancer. The term is from the Greek αἷκα, haima meaning "blood," and -ιoγία meaning study.

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Herbchronology is the analysis of annual growth rings (or simply annual rings) in the secondary root xylem of perennial herbaceous plants. While leaves and stems of perennial herbs die down at the end of the growing season the root often persists for many years or even the entire life. Perennial herb species belonging to the dicotyledon group (also known as perennial forbs) are characterized by secondary growth, which shows as a new growth ring added each year to persistent roots. About two thirds of all perennial dicotyledonous herb species with a persistent root that grow in the strongly seasonal zone of the northern hemisphere show at least fairly clear annual growth rings.

Counting of annual growth rings can be used to determine the age of a perennial herb similarly as it is done in trees using dendrochronology. This way it was found that some perennial herbs live up to 50 years and more.

Herpetologist Herpetology (from Greek ἑξπεηόλ herpetón, meaning "reptile" or "creeping animal") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians (gymnophiona)) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Birds, which are cladistically included within Reptilia, are traditionally excluded here; the scientific study of birds is the subject of ornithology.

Thus, the definition of herpetology can be more precisely stated as the study of ectothermic (cold-blooded) tetrapods. Under this definition "herps" (or sometimes "herptiles" or "herpetofauna") exclude fish, but it is not uncommon for herpetological and ichthyological scientific societies to "team up", publishing joint journals and holding conferences in order to foster the exchange of ideas between the fields, as the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists does. Many herpetological societies have been formed to promote interest in reptiles and amphibians, both captive and wild.

Herpetology offers benefits to humanity in the study of the role of amphibians and reptiles in global ecology, especially because amphibians are often very sensitive to environmental changes, offering a visible warning to humans that significant changes are taking place. Some toxins and venoms produced by reptiles and amphibians are useful in human medicine. Currently, some snake venom has been used to create anti-coagulants that work to treat strokes and heart attacks.

Histologist

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Histology, also microanatomy, is the branch of biology which studies the tissues of animals and plants using microscopy. It is commonly studied using a light microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained, and mounted on a microscope slide. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where live animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of staining. Histology is one of the major preclinical subjects in medical school, often stretching over several semesters.

Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool in anatomical pathology, since accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic information based on their observations. The trained personnel who prepare histological specimens for examination are histotechnicians, histotechnologists, histology technicians (HT), histology technologists (HTL), medical scientists, medical laboratory technicians, or biomedical scientists, and their support workers. Their field of study is called histotechnology.

Human behavioral ecologist Human behavioral ecology (HBE) or human evolutionary ecology applies the principles of evolutionary theory and optimization to the study of human behavioral and cultural diversity. HBE examines the adaptive design of traits, behaviors, and life histories of humans in an ecological context. One aim of modern human behavioral ecology is to determine how ecological and social factors influence and shape behavioral flexibility within and between human populations. Among other things, HBE attempts to explain variation in human behavior as adaptive solutions to the competing life-history demands of growth, development, reproduction, parental care, and mate acquisition.

HBE overlaps with evolutionary psychology, human or cultural ecology, and decision theory. It is most prominent in disciplines such as anthropology and psychology where human evolution is considered relevant for a holistic understanding of human behavior or in economics where self-interest, methodological individualism, and maximization are key elements in modeling behavioral responses to various ecological factors.

Human biologist

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Human biology is an interdisciplinary area of study that examines humans through the influences and interplay of many diverse fields such as genetics, evolution, physiology, anatomy, epidemiology, anthropology, ecology, nutrition, population genetics and sociocultural influences. It is closely related to biological anthropology and other biological fields tying in various aspects of human functionality.

Ichnologist A trace fossil, also ichnofossil ( /ˈɪknoʊfɒsɪl/; from Greek: ἴρλνο ikhnos "trace, track"), is a geological record of biological activity. Ichnology is the study of such traces, and is the work of ichnologists. Trace fossils may consist of impressions made on or in the substrate by an organism: for example, burrows, borings (bioerosion), urolites (erosion caused by evacuation of liquid wastes), footprints and feeding marks, and root cavities. The term in its broadest sense also includes the remains of other organic material produced by an organism — for example coprolites (fossilized droppings) or chemical markers — or sedimentological structures produced by biological means - for example, stromatolites. Trace fossils contrast with body fossils, which are the fossilized remains of parts of organisms' bodies, usually altered by later chemical activity or mineralization.

Sedimentary structures, for example those produced by empty shells rolling along the sea floor, are not produced through the behaviour of an organism and not considered trace fossils.

The study of traces - ichnology - divides into paleoichnology, or the study of trace fossils, and neoichnology, the study of modern traces. Ichnological science offers many challenges, as most traces reflect the behaviour — not the biological affinity — of their makers. Accordingly, researchers classify trace fossils into form genera, based on their appearance and on the implied behaviour, or ethology, of their makers.

Ichthyologist Ichthyology (from Greek: ἰρζύο, ikhthys, "fish"; and ιόγνο, logos, "study"), also known as fish science, is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish. This includes bony fish (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). While a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each year. According to FishBase, 33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016.

Immunologist

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Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, and transplant rejection); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.

The term was coined by Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, who advanced studies on immunology and received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1908. He pinned small thorns into starfish larvae and noticed unusual cells surrounding the thorns. This was the active response of the body trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body.

Prior to the designation of immunity, from the etymological root immunis, which is Latin for "exempt", early physicians characterized organs that would later be proven as essential components of the immune system. The important lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus, bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and liver. When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs, including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues, can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are typically cellular in nature and not associated with any specific organ, but rather are embedded or circulating in various tissues located throughout the body.

Integrative biologist Integrative Biology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the interface between biology and the fields of physics, chemistry, engineering, imaging, and informatics. It is published by the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Lepidopterist Lepidopterology (from Ancient Greek ιεπίδνο (scale) and πηεξόλ (wing); and -ινγία -logia.), is a branch of entomology concerning the scientific study of moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies. Someone that studies in this field is a lepidopterist or, archaically, an aurelian. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 318 of 391

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Mammalogist In zoology, mammalogy is the study of mammals – a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology." There are about 4,200 different species of mammals. The major branches of mammalogy include natural history, taxonomy and systematics, anatomy and physiology, ethology, ecology, and management and control. The approximate salary of a mammalogist varies from $20,000 to $60,000 a year, depending on their experience. Mammalogists are typically involved in activities such as conducting research, managing personnel, and writing proposals.

Mammalogy branches off into other taxonomically-oriented disciplines such as primatology (study of primates), and cetology (study of cetaceans). Like other studies, mammalogy is also a part of zoology which is also a part of biology.

Marine biologist Marine biology is the scientific study of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy.

A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean. The exact size of this large proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world[3] covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 25–32 meters (82–105 feet) in length. Marine ecology is the study of how marine organisms interact with each other and the environment.

Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 319 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.

Many species are economically important to humans, including both finfish and shellfish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.

Microbiologist A microbiologist (from Greek κῑθξνο) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. Most microbiologists work in offices and/or research facilities, both in private biotechnology companies as well as in academia. Most microbiologists specialize in a given topic within microbiology such as bacteriology, parasitology, virology, or immunology.

Molecular biologist Molecular biology /məˈlɛkjʊlər/ is a branch of biology that concerns the molecular basis of biological activity between biomolecules in the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA, proteins and their biosynthesis, as well as the regulation of these interactions. Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as:

...not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so- called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large-scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and [...] is predominantly three-dimensional and structural – which does not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement of morphology. It must at the same time inquire into genesis and function.

Mycologist Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 320 of 391

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A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist.

Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, and the two disciplines remain closely related because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi.

Neuroendocrinologist Neuroendocrinology is the branch of biology (specifically of physiology) which studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure.

Neuroscientist A neuroscientist (or neurobiologist) is a scientist who has specialised knowledge in the field of neuroscience, the branch of biology that deals with the physiology, biochemistry, anatomy and molecular biology of neurons and neural circuits and especially their association with behaviour and learning.

Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italian physician, neuroscientist, and namesake of the Golgi apparatus Neuroscientists generally work as researchers within a college, university, government agency, or private industry setting. In research-oriented careers, neuroscientists typically spend their time designing and carrying out scientific experiments that contribute to the understanding of the nervous system and its function. They can engage in basic or applied research. Basic research seeks to add information to our current understanding of the nervous system, whereas applied research seeks to address a specific problem, such as developing a treatment for a neurological disorder. Biomedically-oriented neuroscientists typically engage in www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 321 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) applied research. Neuroscientists also have a number of career opportunities outside the realm of research, including careers in industry, science writing, government program management, science advocacy, and education. These individuals most commonly hold doctorate degrees in the sciences, but may also hold a master's degree. The Neuroscientists day is celebrated on August 13th.

Ornithologist Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds.

The science of ornithology has a long history and studies on birds have helped develop several key concepts in evolution, behaviour and ecology such as the definition of species, the process of speciation, instinct, learning, ecological niches, guilds, island biogeography, phylogeography, and conservation. While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories. Most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups, and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as "ornithologists" has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques is used in ornithology, both inside the laboratory and out in the field, and innovations are constantly made.

Osteologist Osteology is the scientific study of bones, practiced by osteologists. A subdiscipline of anatomy, anthropology, and archaeology, osteology is a detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, microbone morphology, function, disease, pathology, the process of ossification (from cartilaginous molds), the resistance and hardness of bones (biophysics), etc. often used by scientists with identification of vertebrate remains with regard to age, death, sex, growth, and development and can be used in a biocultural context. Osteologists frequently work in the public and private sector as consultants for museums, scientists for research laboratories, scientists for medical investigations and/or for companies producing osteological reproductions in an academic context.

Osteology and osteologists should not be confused with the holistic practice of medicine known as osteopathy and its practitioners, osteopaths.

Paleoanthropologist

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Paleoanthropology or paleo-anthropology is a branch of archaeology with a human focus, which seeks to understand the early development of anatomically modern humans, a process known as hominization, through the reconstruction of evolutionary kinship lines within the family Hominidae, working from biological evidence (such as petrified skeletal remains, bone fragments, footprints) and cultural evidence (such as stone tools, artifacts, and settlement localities).

The field draws from and combines paleontology, biological anthropology, and cultural anthropology. As technologies and methods advance, genetics plays an ever- increasing role, in particular to examine and compare DNA structure as a vital tool of research of the evolutionary kinship lines of related species and genera.

Paleobotanist Paleobotany, also spelled as palaeobotany (from the Greek words paleon = old and "botany", study of plants), is the branch of paleontology or paleobiology dealing with the recovery and identification of plant remains from geological contexts, and their use for the biological reconstruction of past environments (paleogeography), and both the evolutionary history of plants, with a bearing upon the evolution of life in general. A synonym is paleophytology. Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant fossils, as well as the study of prehistoric marine photoautotrophs, such as photosynthetic algae, seaweeds or kelp. A closely related field is palynology, which is the study of fossilized and extant spores and pollen.

Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of ancient ecological systems and climate, known as paleoecology and paleoclimatology respectively; and is fundamental to the study of green plant development and evolution. Paleobotany has also become important to the field of archaeology, primarily for the use of phytoliths in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany.

The emergence of paleobotany as a scientific discipline can be seen in the early 19th century, especially in the works of the German palaeontologist Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim, the Czech (Bohemian) nobleman and scholar Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, and the French botanist Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart.

Paleobiologist Paleobiology (UK & Canadian English: palaeobiology) is a growing and comparatively new discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. It is occasionally referred to as "geobiology".

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Paleobiological research uses biological field research of current biota and of fossils millions of years old to answer questions about the molecular evolution and the evolutionary history of life. In this scientific quest, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils are typically analyzed. However, the 21st-century biochemical analysis of DNA and RNA samples offers much promise, as does the biometric construction of phylogenetic trees.

Paleontologist Paleontology or palaeontology (/ˌpeɪliɒnˈtɒlədʒi, ˌpæli-, -ən-/) is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology). Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παιαηόο, palaios, "old, ancient", ὄλ, on (gen. ontos), "being, creature" and ιόγνο, logos, "speech, thought, study".

Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics, and engineering. Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life, almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life, about 3.8 billion years ago. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised sub- divisions, some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history, such as ancient climates.

Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating, which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0.5%, but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "jigsaw puzzles" of biostratigraphy. Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the Linnaean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, which investigates how closely organisms are related by www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 324 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend.

Paleopathologist Paleopathology, also spelled palaeopathology, is the study of ancient diseases. Studying pathologies, these abnormalities in biologic individuals and systems, may be intrinsic to the system itself (examples: autoimmune disorders or traumatic arthritis) or caused by an extrinsic factor (examples: viruses or lead poisoning from pipes). Any living organism can have pathology. Studies have historically focused on humans, but there is no evidence that humans are more prone to pathologies than any other animal.

Paleopathology is an interdisciplinary science. The majority of the work has historically been done by anthropologists studying diseases in ancient cultures. Medically trained professionals have also made substantial contributions, especially in modern comparative studies. Paleontologists have sporadically contributed to the field, focusing on non-avian dinosaurs and Cenozoic mammals.

Parasitologist Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology.

Pathologist Pathology (from the Ancient Greek roots of pathos (πάζνο), meaning "experience" or "suffering" and -logia (-ινγία), "study of") is concerned mainly with the causal study of disease.

The word pathology itself may be used broadly to refer to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of bioscience research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatment, the term is often used in a more narrow fashion to refer to processes and tests which fall within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology," an area which includes a number of distinct but inter-related medical specialties that diagnose disease, mostly through analysis of tissue, cell, and body fluid samples. Idiomatically, "a pathology" may also refer to the predicted or actual progression of www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 325 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) particular diseases (as in the statement "the many different forms of cancer have diverse pathologies"), and the affix path is sometimes used to indicate a state of disease in cases of both physical ailment (as in cardiomyopathy) and psychological conditions (such as psychopathy). A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist.

As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development (pathogenesis), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology, hematopathology, and histopathology), organs (as in renal pathology), and physiological systems (oral pathology), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology). Physiologist Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek θύζηο (physis), meaning 'nature, origin', and -ινγία (-logia), meaning 'study of') is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a living system.

As a sub-discipline of biology, the focus of physiology is on how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system.

Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is the investigation of the fundamental biophysical and biochemical phenomena, the coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and the continuous communication between cells.

The physiologic state is the condition occurring from normal body function, while the pathological state is centered on the abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.

According to the type of investigated organisms, the field can be divided into, animal physiology (including that of humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology and microbial physiology.

Phytopathologist

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Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating of plant tissues. Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, pathosystem genetics, and management of plant diseases. Population biologist Population biology is an interdisciplinary field combining the areas of ecology and evolutionary biology. Population biology draws on tools from mathematics, statistics, genomics, genetics, and systematics. Population biologists study allele frequency changes (evolution) within populations of the same species (population genetics), and interactions between populations of different species (ecology).

Primatologist Primatology is the scientific study of primates. It is a diverse discipline at the boundary between mammalogy and anthropology, and researchers can be found in academic departments of anatomy, anthropology, biology, medicine, psychology, veterinary sciences and zoology, as well as in animal sanctuaries, biomedical research facilities, museums and zoos. Primatologists study both living and extinct primates in their natural habitats and in laboratories by conducting field studies and experiments in order to understand aspects of their evolution and behaviour.

Quantum biologist Quantum biology refers to applications of quantum mechanics and theoretical chemistry to biological objects and problems. Many biological processes involve the conversion of energy into forms that are usable for chemical transformations, and are quantum mechanical in nature. Such processes involve chemical reactions, light absorption, formation of excited electronic states, transfer of excitation energy, and the transfer of electrons and protons (hydrogen ions) in chemical processes, such as photosynthesis, olfaction and cellular respiration. Quantum biology may use computations to model biological interactions in light of quantum mechanical effects. Quantum biology is concerned with the influence of non-trivial quantum phenomena, which can be explained by reducing the biological process to fundamental physics, although these effects are difficult to study and can be speculative. The field of study does not imply any new physical principles are needed, since the quantum mechanical study of reaction rates and energy transfer is www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 327 of 391

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Radiobiologist Radiobiology (also known as radiation biology) is a field of clinical and basic medical sciences that involves the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, especially health effects of radiation. Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.

Sclerochronologist Sclerochronology is the study of physical and chemical variations in the accretionary hard tissues of invertebrates and coralline red algae, and the temporal context in which they formed. It is particularly useful in the study of marine paleoclimatology. The term was coined in 1974 following pioneering work on nuclear test atolls by Knutson and Buddemeier and comes from the three Greek words scleros (hard), chronos (time) and logos (science), which together refer to the use of the hard parts of living organisms to order events in time. It is, therefore, a form of stratigraphy. Sclerochronology focuses primarily upon growth patterns reflecting annual, monthly, fortnightly, tidal, daily, and sub-daily (ultradian) increments of time.

The regular time increments are controlled by biological clocks, which, in turn, are caused by environmental and astronomical pacemakers.

Familiar examples include annual bandings in reef coral skeletons or annual, fortnightly, daily and ultradian growth increments in mollusk shells as well as annual bandings in the ear bones of fish, called otoliths. Sclerochronology is analogous to dendrochronology, the study of annual rings in trees, and equally seeks to deduce organismal life history traits as well as to reconstruct records of environmental and climatic change through space and time.

The science of sclerochronology as applied to hard parts of various organism groups is now routinely used for paleoceanographic and paleoclimate reconstructions. The study includes isotopic and elemental proxies, sometimes termed sclerochemistry.

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Improvements in imaging techniques have now realised the potential to decipher coral banding at daily resolution, although biological 'vital' effects may blur the climate signal at such a high resolution.

Sociobiologist Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution. It draws from disciplines including ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, and population genetics. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely allied to Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology.

Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior.

While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s, the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. The new field quickly became the subject of controversy. Critics, led by Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as aggressiveness could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between nature and nurture.

Structural biologist Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules (especially proteins, made up of amino acids, and RNA or DNA, made up of nucleotides), how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. This subject is of great interest to biologists because macromolecules carry out most of the functions of cells, and it is only by coiling into specific three- dimensional shapes that they are able to perform these functions. This architecture, the "tertiary structure" of molecules, depends in a complicated way on each molecule's basic composition, or "primary structure."

Hemoglobin, the oxygen transporting protein found in red blood cells Biomolecules are too small to see in detail even with the most advanced light microscopes. The methods that structural biologists use to determine their structures www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 329 of 391

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1. Mass spectrometry 2. Macromolecular crystallography 3. Proteolysis 4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of proteins (NMR) 5. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) 6. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) 7. Multiangle light scattering 8. Small angle scattering 9. Ultrafast laser spectroscopy 10. Dual-polarization interferometry and circular dichroism Most often researchers use them to study the "native states" of macromolecules. But variations on these methods are also used to watch nascent or denatured molecules assume or reassume their native states. See protein folding.

A third approach that structural biologists take to understanding structure is bioinformatics to look for patterns among the diverse sequences that give rise to particular shapes. Researchers often can deduce aspects of the structure of integral membrane proteins based on the membrane topology predicted by hydrophobicity analysis. See protein structure prediction.

Examples of protein structures from the Protein Data Bank In the past few years it has become possible for highly accurate physical molecular models to complement the in silico study of biological structures. Examples of these models can be found in the Protein Data Bank.

Theoretical biologist Mathematical and theoretical biology is a branch of biology which employs theoretical analysis, mathematical models and abstractions of the living organisms to investigate the principles that govern the structure, development and behavior of the systems, as opposed to experimental biology which deals with the conduction of experiments to prove and validate the scientific theories. The field is sometimes called mathematical biology or biomathematics to stress the mathematical side, or theoretical biology to stress the biological side. Theoretical biology focuses more on the development of theoretical principles for biology while mathematical biology focuses on the use of mathematical tools to study biological systems, even though the two terms are sometimes interchanged. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 330 of 391

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Mathematical biology aims at the mathematical representation and modeling of biological processes, using techniques and tools of applied mathematics. It has both theoretical and practical applications in biological, biomedical and biotechnology research. Describing systems in a quantitative manner means their behavior can be better simulated, and hence properties can be predicted that might not be evident to the experimenter. This requires precise mathematical models.

Mathematical biology employs many components of mathematics, and has contributed to the development of new techniques.

Toxicologist Toxicology is a discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage (and whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning.

Virologist Virology is the study of viruses – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of microbiology or of medicine.

Wildlife biologist

Zoologist Zoology (/zuˈɒlədʒi, zoʊ-/) is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek δῷνλ, zōion, i.e. "animal" and ιόγνο, logos, i.e. "knowledge, study".

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III. Social science

Anthropologist An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology, and philosophical anthropology study the norms and values of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life, while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior. Biological (physical), forensic, and medical anthropology study the biological development of humans, the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting, and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time, respectively. Archaeologist Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America archaeology is a sub-field of anthropology, while in Europe it is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines.

Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology is distinct from palaeontology, the study of fossil remains. It is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.

The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross- disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography, geology, literary history, linguistics, semiology, textual criticism, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleography, paleontology, paleozoology, and paleobotany.

Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Since its early development,

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CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. Biological anthropologist Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their extinct hominin ancestors, and related non-human primates, particularly from an evolutionary perspective. It is a subfield of anthropology that provides a biological perspective to the systematic study of human beings.

Cultural anthropologist Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant.

Cultural anthropology has a rich methodology, including participant observation (often called fieldwork because it requires the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the research location), interviews, and surveys. One of the earliest articulations of the anthropological meaning of the term "culture" came from Sir Edward Tylor who writes on the first page of his 1871 book: "Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." The term "civilization" later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with culture forming an umbrella term and civilization becoming a particular kind of culture.

The anthropological concept of "culture" reflects in part a reaction against earlier Western discourses based on an opposition between "culture" and "nature", according to which some human beings lived in a "state of nature". Anthropologists have argued that culture is "human nature", and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically (i.e. in language), and teach such abstractions to others.

Since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, so people living in different www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 333 of 391

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The rise of cultural anthropology took place within the context of the late 19th century, when questions regarding which cultures were "primitive" and which were "civilized" occupied the minds of not only Marx and Freud, but many others. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with "primitive others." The relative status of various humans, some of whom had modern advanced technologies that included engines and telegraphs, while others lacked anything but face-to-face communication techniques and still lived a Paleolithic lifestyle, was of interest to the first generation of cultural anthropologists.

Communication scientist Communication studies or communication sciences is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication and behavior. There are three types of communication: verbal, involving listening to a person to understand the meaning of a message; written, in which a message is read; and nonverbal communication involving observing a person and inferring meaning. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets, such as television broadcasting.

Communication studies shares with cultural studies an interest in how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, semiotic, hermeneutic, and social dimensions of their contexts. In political economics, communication studies examines how the politics of ownership affects content. Quantitative communication studies examines statistics in order to help substantiate claims.

Criminologist Criminology (from Latin crīmen, "accusation" originally derived from the Ancient Greek verb "krino" "θξίλσ", and Ancient Greek -ινγία, -logy|-logia, from "logos" meaning: ―word,‖ ―reason,‖ or ―plan‖) is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioral and social sciences, drawing primarily upon the research of sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, biologists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law.

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The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia. Later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie.

From 1900 through to 2000 the study underwent three significant phases in the United States: (1) Golden Age of Research (1900-1930)-which has been described as multiple-factor approach, (2) Golden Age of Theory (1930-1960)-which shows that there was no systematic way of connecting criminological research to theory, and (3) a 1960-2000 period-which was seen as a significant turning point for criminology.

Demographer Demography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆκνο dēmos meaning "the people", and -graphy from γξάθσ graphō, implies "writing, description or measurement") is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population, i.e., one that changes over time or space (see population dynamics). Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging, and death. Based on the demographic research of the earth, earth's population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers. Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population.

Demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality, religion, and ethnicity. Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology, though there are a number of independent demography departments.

Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes, while the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyses the relationships between economic, social, cultural, and biological processes influencing a population.

Economist An economist is a practitioner in the social science discipline of economics.

The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub- fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 335 of 391

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Linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves analysing language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest activities in the documentation and description of language have been attributed to the 6th-century- BC Indian grammarian Pāṇini who wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his Aṣṭādhyāyī.

Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning. Phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, deals with how languages encode relations between entities, properties, and other aspects of the world to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as manage and resolve ambiguity. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, pragmatics deals with how situational context influences the production of meaning.

Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential subsets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology (the organisation of phonetic sound systems), morphology (the formation and composition of words), and syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences). Modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomsky's framework of generative linguistics.

In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the specific utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles and system of rules that govern a language. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an individual's innate capacity and potential for language (like in Saussure's langue), while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups, and communities (i.e., parole, in Saussurean terms).

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Management science (MS) is the broad interdisciplinary study of problem solving and decision making in human organizations, with strong links to management, economics, business, engineering, management consulting, and other sciences. It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and accurate management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems. Management sciences help businesses to achieve goals using various scientific methods.

The field was initially an outgrowth of applied mathematics, where early challenges were problems relating to the optimization of systems which could be modeled linearly, i.e., determining the optima (maximum value of profit, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, etc. or minimum of loss, risk, costs, etc.) of some objective function. Today, management science encompasses any organizational activity for which the problem can be structured as a functional system so as to obtain a solution set with identifiable characteristics.

Political economist Political economy is the study of production and trade and their relations with law, custom and government; and with the distribution of national income and wealth. As a discipline, political economy originated in moral philosophy, in the 18th century, to explore the administration of states' wealth, with "political" signifying the Greek word polity and "economy" signifying the Greek word "okonomie" (household management). The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to the British scholars Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, although they were preceded by the work of the French physiocrats, such as François Quesnay (1694–1774) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781).[1]

In the late 19th century, the term "economics" gradually began to replace the term "political economy" with the rise of mathematical modelling coinciding with the publication of an influential textbook by Alfred Marshall in 1890. Earlier, William Stanley Jevons, a proponent of mathematical methods applied to the subject, advocated economics for brevity and with the hope of the term becoming "the recognised name of a science". Citation measurement metrics from Google Ngram Viewer indicate that use of the term "economics" began to overshadow "political economy" around roughly 1910, becoming the preferred term for the discipline by 1920. Today, the term "economics" usually refers to the narrow study of the economy absent other political and social considerations while the term "political economy" represents a distinct and competing approach. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 337 of 391

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Political economy, where it is not used as a synonym for economics, may refer to very different things. From an academic standpoint, the term may reference Marxian economics, applied public choice approaches emanating from the Chicago school and the Virginia school. In common parlance, "political economy" may simply refer to the advice given by economists to the government or public on general economic policy or on specific economic proposals developed by political scientists. A rapidly growing mainstream literature from the 1970s has expanded beyond the model of economic policy in which planners maximize utility of a representative individual toward examining how political forces affect the choice of economic policies, especially as to distributional conflicts and political institutions. It is available as a stand-alone area of study in certain colleges and universities.

Political scientist Political science is a social science which deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts, and political behavior. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as determining of the distribution of power and resources. Political scientists "see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of politics works."

Political science—occasionally called politicology—comprises numerous subfields, including comparative politics, political economy, international relations, political theory, public administration, public policy, and political methodology. Furthermore, political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, geography, psychology/psychiatry, and anthropology.

Comparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political theory is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behaviouralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 338 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.

Psychologist A psychologist studies normal and abnormal mental states, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior by observing, interpreting, and recording how individuals relate to one another and to their environments. To become a psychologist, a person often completes a graduate university degree in psychology, but in most jurisdictions, members of other behavioral professions (such as counselors and psychiatrists) can also evaluate, diagnose, treat, and study mental processes.

Abnormal psychologist Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder. Although many behaviors could be considered as abnormal, this branch of psychology generally deals with behavior in a clinical context. There is a long history of attempts to understand and control behavior deemed to be aberrant or deviant (statistically, functionally, morally or in some other sense), and there is often cultural variation in the approach taken. The field of abnormal psychology identifies multiple causes for different conditions, employing diverse theories from the general field of psychology and elsewhere, and much still hinges on what exactly is meant by "abnormal". There has traditionally been a divide between psychological and biological explanations, reflecting a philosophical dualism in regard to the mind- body problem. There have also been different approaches in trying to classify mental disorders. Abnormal includes three different categories; they are subnormal, supernormal and paranormal.

The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Behaviors that are maladaptive suggest that some problem(s) exist, and can also imply that the individual is vulnerable and cannot cope with environmental stress, which is leading them to have problems functioning in daily life in their emotions, mental thinking, physical actions and talks. Behaviors that are adaptive are ones that are well-suited to the nature of people, their lifestyles and surroundings, and to the people that they communicate with, allowing them to understand each other. Clinical psychology is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand and treat psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as 'abnormal psychology' may form a backdrop to such www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 339 of 391

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Behavioral psychologist Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of inheritance in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental factors.

Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and psychological theory. It emerged in the late nineteenth century as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. The earliest derivatives of Behaviorism can be traced back to the late 19th century where Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a process that involved strengthening behavior through the use of reinforcement.

During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner suggested that private events—including thoughts and feelings—should be subjected to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy called "radical behaviorism." While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated the stimulus-response procedures of classical conditioning, Skinner assessed the controlling nature of consequences and also its potential effect on the antecedents (or discriminative stimuli) that strengthens behavior; the technique became known as operant conditioning.

Skinner's radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods, but Skinner‘s dismissal of theory limited its development. Theoretical behaviorism recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called ―latent‖ responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 340 of 391

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The application of radical behaviorism—known as applied behavior analysis—is used in a variety of settings, including, for example, organizational behavior management, to the treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse. In addition, while behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in cognitive-behavior therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, including simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders.

Biopsychologist Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.

Clinical psychologist Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The field is generally considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, three main educational models have developed in the USA—the Ph.D. Clinical Science model (heavily focused on research), the Ph.D. science-practitioner model (integrating research and practice), and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical practice). In the UK and the Republic of Ireland the Clinical Psychology Doctorate falls between the latter two of these models, whilst in much of mainland Europe the training is at masters level and predominantly psychotherapeutic. Clinical psychologists are expert in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within four primary theoretical orientations— www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 341 of 391

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Cognitive psychologist Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking". Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines such as Cognitive Science and of psychological study, including educational psychology, social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, linguistics, and economics.

Comparative psychologist Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area addresses many different issues, uses many different methods and explores the behavior of many different species from insects to primates.

Comparative psychology is sometimes assumed to emphasize cross-species comparisons, including those between humans and animals. However, some researchers feel that direct comparisons should not be the sole focus of comparative psychology and that intense focus on a single organism to understand its behavior is just as desirable; if not more so. Donald Dewsbury reviewed the works of several psychologists and their definitions and concluded that the object of comparative psychology is to establish principles of generality focusing on both proximate and ultimate causation.

Using a comparative approach to behavior allows one to evaluate the target behavior from four different, complementary perspectives, developed by Niko Tinbergen. First, one may ask how pervasive the behavior is across species (i.e. how common is the behavior between animal species?). Second, one may ask how the behavior contributes to the lifetime reproductive success of the individuals demonstrating the behavior (i.e. does the behavior result in animals producing more offspring than animals not displaying the behavior)? Theories addressing the ultimate causes of behavior are based on the answers to these two questions.

Third, what mechanisms are involved in the behavior (i.e. what physiological, behavioral, and environmental components are necessary and sufficient for the generation of the behavior)? Fourth, a researcher may ask about the development of the behavior within an individual (i.e. what maturational, learning, social www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 342 of 391

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Developmental psychologist Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions: physical development, cognitive development, and socioemotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.

Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, and processes of change in context and across time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors, including the social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development.

Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.

Educational psychologist An educational psychologist is a psychologist whose differentiating functions may include diagnostic and psycho-educational assessment, psychological counseling in educational communities (students, teachers, parents and academic authorities), community-type psycho-educational intervention, and mediation, coordination, and referral to other professionals, at all levels of the educational system. Many countries use this term to signify those who provide services to students, their teachers, and families while other countries use this term to signify academic expertise in teaching Educational Psychology.

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Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Some evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking to psychology, arguing that the modularity of mind is similar to that of the body and with different modular adaptations serving different functions. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments.

Evolutionary psychology is not simply a subdiscipline of psychology but its evolutionary theory can provide a foundational, metatheoretical framework that integrates the entire field of psychology in the same way evolutionary biology has for biology. Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations including the abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, and cooperate with others. They report successful tests of theoretical predictions related to such topics as infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price, and parental investment. The theories and findings of evolutionary psychology have applications in many fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics, and literature. Criticism of evolutionary psychology involves questions of testability, cognitive and evolutionary assumptions (such as modular functioning of the brain, and large uncertainty about the ancestral environment), importance of non-genetic and non- adaptive explanations, as well as political and ethical issues due to interpretations of research results.

Experimental psychologist Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the processes that underlie it. Experimental psychologists employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, including (among others) sensation & perception, memory, cognition, learning, motivation, emotion; developmental processes, social psychology, and the neural substrates of all of these.

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Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the justice system. It involves understanding fundamental legal principles, particularly with regard to expert witness testimony and the specific content area of concern (e.g., competence to stand trial, child custody and visitation, or workplace discrimination), as well as relevant jurisdictional considerations (e.g., in the United States, the definition of insanity in criminal trials differs from state to state) in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges, attorneys, and other legal professionals. An important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify in court as an expert witness, reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in a way that can be understood. Further, in order to be a credible witness, the forensic psychologist must understand the philosophy, rules, and standards of the judicial system. Primarily, they must understand the adversarial system. There are also rules about hearsay evidence and most importantly, the exclusionary rule. Lack of a firm grasp of these procedures will result in the forensic psychologist losing credibility in the courtroom. A forensic psychologist can be trained in clinical, social, organizational, or any other branch of psychology.

Generally, a forensic psychologist is designated as an expert in a specific field of study. The number of areas of expertise in which a forensic psychologist qualifies as an expert increases with experience and reputation. Forensic neuropsychologists are generally asked to appear as expert witnesses in court to discuss cases that involve issues with the brain or brain damage. They may also deal with issues of whether a person is legally competent to stand trial.

Questions asked by the court of a forensic psychologist are generally not questions regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response must be in language the court understands. For example, a forensic psychologist is frequently appointed by the court to assess a defendant's competence to stand trial. The court also frequently appoints a forensic psychologist to assess the state of mind of the defendant at the time of the offense. This is referred to as an evaluation of the defendant's sanity or insanity (which relates to criminal responsibility) at the time of the offense. These are not primarily psychological questions but rather legal ones. Thus, a forensic psychologist must be able to translate psychological information into a legal framework.

Health psychologist Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare. It is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 345 of 391

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Psychological factors can affect health directly. For example, chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, cumulatively, can harm health. Behavioral factors can also affect a person's health. For example, certain behaviors can, over time, harm (smoking or consuming excessive amounts of alcohol) or enhance health (engaging in exercise). Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach. In other words, health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes (e.g., a virus, tumor, etc.) but also of psychological (e.g., thoughts and beliefs), behavioral (e.g., habits), and social processes (e.g., socioeconomic status and ethnicity).

By understanding psychological factors that influence health, and constructively applying that knowledge, health psychologists can improve health by working directly with individual patients or indirectly in large-scale public health programs. In addition, health psychologists can help train other healthcare professionals (e.g., physicians and nurses) to take advantage of the knowledge the discipline has generated, when treating patients. Health psychologists work in a variety of settings: alongside other medical professionals in hospitals and clinics, in public health departments working on large-scale behavior change and health promotion programs, and in universities and medical schools where they teach and conduct research.

Although its early beginnings can be traced to the field of clinical psychology, four different divisions within health psychology and one related field, occupational health psychology (OHP), have developed over time. The four divisions include clinical health psychology, public health psychology, community health psychology, and critical health psychology. Professional organizations for the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society (BPS), and the European Health Psychology Society. Advanced credentialing in the US as a clinical health psychologist is provided through the American Board of Professional Psychology.

Industrial and organizational psychologist Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology), which is also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, and work and organizational psychology, is an applied discipline within psychology. I/O psychology is the science of human behaviour relating to work and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals in their places of work as well as the individual's work-life more generally. I/O psychologists are trained in the scientist– practitioner model. They contribute to an organization's success by improving the www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 346 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as well as the overall health and well-being of its employees. An I/O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviours and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems.

As of 2018, I/O psychology is one of the 16 recognized specialties by the American Psychological Association (APA) in the United States. It is represented by Division 14 of the APA, and was formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). In the United Kingdom, industrial and organizational psychologists are referred to as occupational psychologists. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine 'protected titles' within the profession "practitioner psychologist" regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council. In the UK, graduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the British Psychological Society.

In Australia, the title organizational psychologist is protected by law, and regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia.

In Europe someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and an expert in the work psychology field. Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists and industrial and organizational psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe.

Medical psychologist Medical psychology is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine, and is clearly comprehensive rather than primarily drug-oriented, for both physical and mental disorders. The specialty of Medical Psychology and the National Alliance of Professional Psychology Providers (www.nappp.org) has been instrumental in advocacy and professional publications in increasing the awareness of Governmental Agencies, Scientific Societies, and the World Health Associations about the limited effect of "medication only approaches" to mental disorders and many related chronic physical disorders. A Medical Psychologist is a specialist who holds board certification in Medical Psychology from the American Board of Medical Psychology (www.amphome.org) and approved by the national psychology practitioner association in psychology(www.nappp.org). A specialist in Medical Psychology holds a doctoral degree in one of the clinical specialties in psychology, has done post doctoral graduate or approved didactic training in biomedical and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 347 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) pharmaceutical sciences and physical disease with behavioral and lifestyle components, and has completed a supervised residency providing advanced clinical diagnoses, prescribing or collaborating on medication and psychological treatment interventions in a comprehensive treatment plan, and they have passed one of the acceptable national written examinations, and supplied reviewed work product, and passed an Oral Examination. Medical psychologists are prepared to provide leadership and active roles in primary care and specialty healthcare facilities or consultation services essential for these facilities. A psychopharmacologist is very different than a Medical Psychologist, though one state uses confusing language in its laws. The American Society for the Advancement of Pharmacotherapy defines medical psychology (an affiliate of the American Psychological Association) as "that branch of psychology integrating somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities into the management of mental illness and emotional, cognitive, behavioral and substance use disorders".

A medical psychologist who holds prescriptive authority for specific psychiatric medications and other pharmaceutical drugs must first obtain specific qualifications in Psychopharmacology. A trained medical psychologist, or psychopharmacologist who has prescriptive authority is equated with a mid-level provider who has the authority to prescribe psychotropic medication such as antidepressants for neurotic disorders. However, a medical psychologist does not automatically equate with a psychologist who has the authority to prescribe medication. In fact, most medical psychologists do not prescribe medication and do not have the authority to do so. Neuropsychologist Neuropsychology is the study of the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviours. It is both an experimental and clinical field of psychology that aims to understand how behavior and cognition are influenced by brain functioning and is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders. Whereas classical neurology focuses on the physiology of the nervous system and classical psychology is largely divorced from it, neuropsychology seeks to discover how the brain correlates with the mind. It thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioral neurology in general. The term neuropsychology has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied in efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients). It makes use of neuroscience, and shares an information processing view of the mind with cognitive psychology and cognitive science.

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In practice, neuropsychologists tend to work in research settings (universities, laboratories or research institutions), clinical settings (medical hospitals or rehabilitation settings, often involved in assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems), or forensic settings or industry (often as clinical-trial consultants where CNS function is a concern).

Psychopharmacologist Psychopharmacology (from Greek ςῡρή, psȳkhē, 'breath, life, soul'; θάξκαθνλ, pharmakon, 'drug'; and -ινγία, -logia) is the scientific study of the effects drugs have on mood, sensation, thinking, and behavior. It is distinguished from neuropsychopharmacology, which emphasizes the correlation between drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in the nervous system and changes in consciousness and behavior.

The field of psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties, focusing primarily on the chemical interactions with the brain. The term "psychopharmacology" was probably first coined by David Macht in 1920.

Psychoactive drugs interact with particular target sites or receptors found in the nervous system to induce widespread changes in physiological or psychological functions. The specific interaction between drugs and their receptors is referred to as "drug action", and the widespread changes in physiological or psychological function is referred to as "drug effect". These drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis in the laboratory.

Psychophysicist Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation" or, more completely, as "the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions".

Psychophysics also refers to a general class of methods that can be applied to study a perceptual system. Modern applications rely heavily on threshold measurement, ideal observer analysis, and signal detection theory.

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Psychophysics has widespread and important practical applications. For example, in the study of digital signal processing, psychophysics has informed the development of models and methods of lossy compression. These models explain why humans perceive very little loss of signal quality when audio and video signals are formatted using lossy compression.

Social psychologist Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. In this definition, scientific refers to the empirical investigation using the scientific method. The terms thoughts, feelings and behavior refer to psychological variables that can be measured in humans. The statement that others' presence may be imagined or implied suggests that humans are malleable to social influences even when alone, such as when watching television or following internalized cultural norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of mental states and social situations.

Social psychologists examine factors that cause behaviors to unfold in a given way in the presence of others. They study conditions under which certain behavior, actions, and feelings occur. Social psychology is concerned with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and goals are cognitively constructed and how these mental representations, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Social psychology traditionally bridged the gap between psychology and sociology. During the years immediately following World War II there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists. The two disciplines, however, have become increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists focusing on "macro variables" (e.g., social structure) to a much greater extent than psychologists. Nevertheless, sociological approaches to psychology remain an important counterpart to psychological research in this area.

In addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there has been a somewhat less pronounced difference in emphasis between American social psychologists and European social psychologists. As a generalization, American researchers traditionally have focused more on the individual, whereas Europeans have paid more attention to group level phenomena (see group dynamics).

Sport psychologist Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 350 of 391

CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India) psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. In addition to instruction and training of psychological skills for performance improvement, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches, and parents regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and career transitions.

Sociologist Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture of everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, acceptance, and change or social evolution. While some sociologists conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.

The different traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects, such as health, medical, economy, military and penal institutions, the Internet, education, social capital, and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge.

The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.

Social research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, planners, legislators, administrators, developers, business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, and people interested in resolving social issues in general. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields.

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Test your Knowledge of ScienceQ&A format

1. LIGHT

Objective Questions:

1.Light is composed of ______type of particles.

1. Particle 2. ATP 3. Electron 4. Photon

2.Light has ______nature.

1. Particle 2. Wave 3. Both 1,2 4. None of these

3. Light is ______type of wave.

1. Longitudinal 2. Transverse 3. Electromagnetic 4. Oscillation

4. d is the height of plane mirror fitted on the wall. S is point source kept, at a distance of L meter from mirror. Observer starts moving towards mirror. Initial distance between observer and mirror is 2 L meter, so up to how much distance you can observe image of source in the mirror

1. d 2. 2d 3. 3d 4. 4d

P L L Observer

5. Focal length of plain mirror is ______

1. Zero 2. Infinite 3. Depends on size of the mirror 4. None of these

6. Light shows ______Properties

1. Rectilinear 2. Reflection 3. Refraction 4. All

7. Which is a correct statement

1. Lunar Eclipse – No moon day 2. Sun - Earth – Moon – Full moon

3. Sun – Earth – Moon – Lnar eclipse 4. None of these

8. Why do we observe shadow effect of the light ?

1. Light cannot pass through opaque objecys 2. Light cannot pass through transparnt objects

3. Rectilinear ropagation 4. A and C correct

9. If the ray incidence is perpendicular to mirror, reflected rey will be ______www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 352 of 391

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1. It will get reflected along same path in opposite direction

2. It will get reflected along same path in same direction

3. No reflection 4. None of these

10. Angle between Incident rey is 90o . find out the angle of incidence

1. 45o 2. 90o 3. 180o 4. 60o

11. Angle between Ray of Incidence and a mirror is 30o, FinedAngle of Reflection

1. 100o 2. 30o 3.60o 4. 90o

12. If we increase Angle of Incidence by 30o, Angle of Reflection wil increase by ______

1. 60o 2. 90o 3. 120o 4. 30

13. Keep rey of incidence fixed and rotate the mirror through 10o reflected rey turns through______

1. 120o 2. 10o 3. 80o 4. 5o

14. What are the characteristics of image in plane mirror?

1. Distance between object and mirror = Distance between image and mirror

2. Image is virtual

3. Image is laterally opposite [lateral inversion]

4. Hight of the plane mirror should be atleast half of the object to get complete mage of the object

5. All are correct

15. How many images will we get?

1. 6

2. 4

3. 8

4. None of these

16. In case of concave mirror or convex lens, eays get ______

1. Diversified 2. Donverge 3. Parallel 4. None of these

17. In periscope angle between the two mirror is ______

1. 40 2. 46 3. 90 4. Parallel 5.45

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18. In searchlight ______mirror is used.

1. Plane 2. Concave 3. Convex 4. Angular

19. Candela is a unit of ______

1. Intersity of light 2. Light 3.Fluroescence 4. None of these

20. Intensity of light at a particular point depends on ______

1. ( Source – point), distance 2. Type of source

3. Independent of anything 4. None of these

21. To get virtual image by concave mirror we should keep candle at ______

1. F 2. P 3. Between P and F 4. Between C and

22. In a Solar cooker, we use ______

1. Concave lens 2. Convexlens 3. Concave mirror 4. Plane mirror

23. Mirror on the driver side is of ______type.

1. Plane 2. Cancave 3. Canvex 4. None of these

24. Example of Refraction in day-to-day life are______

1. Mirage 2. Bottom of the water tank seems to be lifted up

3. A stick partially dipped in water seems to be bent 4. 2 and 3 correct

25. A Ray of incidence (RI) falls on prism (P) and get dispersed. What will happen if these seven wavelengths are passed through convex lens?

1. White ray forms 2. They will divert

3. No offect 4. Can‘t say

26. Some incidences in day-to-day life are given. Identify the phenomenon. Example:-

1. We can count number blades of fan when it is switched off, but we can‘t count if it is on

2. Inscence stick is whirled we feel a circle of smoke

3. Moveing picture

4. If Newten‘s colour disc is whirled it appears to be white in colour

1. Dispersion 2. Persistence of vision 3. Eye defects 4. Preabiopia www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 354 of 391

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27. Convex lens is used in ______

1. Motor car 2. Simple Compound microscope 3.Telescope 4.Reflectors 5. 2, 3 are correct

28. ______lens is called magnifying glass.

1. Concave 2. Convex 3. Contace 4. Cylindrical

29. Hypermerophia is cured by ______of appropriate focal length.

1. Cylindrical lens 2. Contact lens 3. Concave 4.Convexlens

30. Distance od distinct vision is ______

1. 20cm 2. 21cm 3. 2ft 4. 25cm

31. If therewas no atmosphere, the duration of daylight on the earth will

1. Decrease 2. Increase 3. Remain the same 4. Depend upon the weather

32. A glass slab of height 8 cm is kept on letter. These letter appear to be liffed up by 3 cm. The refractive index od the glass is

1. 1.5 2. 1.32 3. 1.6 4. 2.4

33. When a plane mirror is rotated through a certain angle, the reflected ray tuens through twice as much and the size id the image

1. Is doubled 2. Is halved 3. Becomes infinite 4. Remains the same

34. If red coloured flower is observed in blue light it appears ______

1. Voilet 2. Red 3. Green 4. Blue

35. An observe moves towards a plane mirror with a speed of m/s. The speed of the image with respect to the observer is

1. 1 m/s 2. 2 m/s 3. 4 m/s 4. 8 m/s

36. A plane mirror is approaching you at 1 cm/s. You can see your image in it. The image will approach you with a speed

1. 5 m 2. 10 cm/s 3. 15 cm/s 4. Cm/s

37. A man of height 1.6 m wishes to see his full image in a plane mirror placed at a distance of 2 m. The minimum height of the mirror should be

1. 0.5 m 2. 0.8 m 3. 1.6 m 4. 2.4 m

38. A boy of height 1.5 withhis eye level at 1.4 m stands before a plane mirror of length 0.75 m. Fixed on the well. Rhe height of the lower edge of the mirror above the floor is 0.8 m. Then www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 355 of 391

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1. the boy will see his full image 2. The boy can‘t see his hair

3. the boy can’t see his hair 4. The boy can see neither his hair nor his feet

39. Two plane mirrors are inclined at a certain angle. A ray of light coming paraller to one of the mirrors is rendered paraller to the second mirror after two reflections. The inclination between the mirror is

1. 60o 2. 90o 3. 45o 4. 30o

40. Two plane mirrors are placed perpendicular to each other. A ray strikes one mirror and after reflection falls on the second mirror. The ray reflection from the second mirrorwill be.

1. Perpendicular to he original ray 2. Parallel to the original ray

3. at 45o to the original ray 4. Can be at an angle to original ray

41. A man stands in a room with his eyes at the centre of the room. The height of the ceiling is H. The length of the shortest plane mirror, fixed on the wall in front of the man, so that the man can see the full image of the wall behind him is

1. 2H/3 2. H/2 3. H/3 4. H/4

42. Twoplane mirror are inclined at 70o. A ray incident on one mirror at angle 0, after reflection falls on the second mirror and is reflected from parallel to the first mirror. 0 is

1. 50o 2. 45o 3. 30o 4. 55o

43. A number of images of a candle flame are seen in a thick mirror.

1. The first image is the brightest 2. The second image is the brightest

3. The last image is the brightest 4. All image are eqully bright

44. When a ray or light enters a glass slab from air

1. Its wavelength decreases 2. Its wavelength increases

3. Its frequency decreases 4. Wavelength decreases

45. A monochromatic beam of light passes from a denser to a rarer medium. As a result its

1. Velocity increases 2. Velocity decreases

3. frequency decreases 4. Wavelength decreases

46. When light passes from medium to another, the physical quantity that remains unchanged is

1. velocity 2. Wavelength 3. Frequency 4. None of these

47. A well cut diamond appears bight because

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1. it emits light 2. It is radioactive 3. Of total reflection 4. Of dispersion

48. The refractive index of a given piece of transparent quartz is greatest for

1. red light 2. Violet light 3. Green light 4. Yellow light

49. Total internal reflection can occur when light tends to pass from

1. A denser to a rarer medium 2. A rarer to a denser Mnium

3. one medium to another of different refractive index irrespective of equal refractive index greater refractive index

4. One medium to another of equal refractive index

50. Mirage is observed in a desert due to the phenomenon of

1. Interference 2. Total reflection 3. Scattering 4. Double refraction

51. Critical angle of light passing from glass towater in minimum for

1. red colour 2. Green colour 3. Yellow colour 4. Violet colour

52. A diver in a lake wants to signal his distress to a person sitting on the edge of the lake flashing his water proof torch. He should direct the beam

1. vertically upwards 2. Horizontally

3. ata angle ti the vertical which which is slightly less than the criticalangle

4. at an angle to the vertical which is slightly more than the critical angle

53. Glass has refractive index 4/3. If the speed of light in glass is 2.00 x 108 m/s, the speed of light in wate in m/s

1. 1.50 x 108 2. 1.78 x 108 3. 2.25 x 108 4. 2.67 x 108

54. The speed of light in glass ofrefractive index 1.5 is 2 x 108 m/s In a certain liquid the speed of light is 2.5 x 108 m/s. The refractive index of the liquid is

1. 0.64 2. 0.80 3. 1.20 4. 1.44

55. The index of refraction of diamond is 2.0. Velocity of light in diamond in cm/s is approximately.

1. 6 x 1010 2. 3 x 1010 3. 2 x 1010 4. 1.5 1010

56. When a ray of light is refracted by a prism such that the angle of deviation is minimum, then

1. the angle of emergence is equal to the angle if incidence

2. the angle of emergence is grater than the angle of incidence

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3. the angle of emergence is smaller than the angle of incidence

4. the sun of the angle of emergence is equal to 90o

57. Total internal reflection of a ray of light is possible when the ray goes from

1. Denser to rarer medium and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle

2. Denser ti rarer medium and the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle

3. Rarer to denser medium and the angle of incidence in greater than the critical angle

4. Rarer to danser medium and the angle of incidence in less than the critical angle

58. How much water should be filled in a container, 21 cm in height, so that it appears half filled when viewed from the top of the container? Given refractive index of water 4/3.

1. 8.0 2. 10.5 3. 12.0 cm 4. 14.0

59. Check the wrong statement (s) :

1. A concave mirror can give a virtual image

2. A concave mirror can give a diminished virtual image

3. A convex mirror can give a real image

4. A convex mirror can give a diminished virtual image

60. A concave mirror forms the image of an object on a screen. If the lower half the mirror is covered with an opaque card, the effect would be

1. to make the image less bright

2. to make the lower half of the image disappear.

3. to make the upper half of the image disappear.

4. to make the upper half of the image disappear.

61. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 20 cm. the distance of the image from the mirror is

1. 10/3 2. 20/3 3. 10 cm 4. 40/3 cm

62. A real image formed by a concave mirror is 4.5 times the size of the object. If the mirror is 20 cm front the object, its focal length is

1. 90/11 cm 2. 120/11 cm 3. 150/11 cm 4.

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63. A spherical mirror forms an erect image four times the size of the object. If the distance between the object and the image is 100 cm, the nature and the focal length of the mirror are

1. concave, (80/3) cm 2. Convex, (80/3) cm 3. Convex, 20 cm 4. Convex, 20 cm

64. An object is place at a distance 2f from the pole of a convex mirror of focal length f. The linear magnification is

1. 1/3 2. 2/3 3. 3/4 4. 1

65. A concave mirror of a focal length F in vacuum is placed in a medium of refractive index 2. Its focal length in the medium is

1. f/2 2. F 3. 2f 4. 4f

66. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length 20 cm Is half the size of the object. The distance of the object from the mirror is

1. 10 cm 2. 20 cm 3. 30 cm 4. 40 cm

67. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of a focal length 50 cm. if the image is one-fourth the size of the object the distance of the image from the mirror is

1. 25 cm 2. 37.5 cm 3. 50 cm 4. 75 cm

68. The layered lens as shown is made of two types of transparent materials-one indicated by horizontal lines and the other by vertical lines. The number of images formed of an object will be

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 6

69. The focal length of a convex lens is 50 cm. It power is

1. +50D 2.-50D 3. +2D 4. -2D

70. Which of the following produce a virtual image longer is size than the object?

1. concave lens 2. Convex lens 3. Concave mirror 4. Convex mirror

71. A compound microscope has a magnification of 30. The focal length of the eyepiece is is 5 cm. if the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25cm), the magnification

1. 5 2. 7.5 3. 10 4. 12

2. EVOLUTION

Objective Questions:

1. The greatest weakness of Drawin‘s theory was his failure to give satisfactory explanation for___ 1. Over production 2. Struggle for existence 3. Survival of fittest 4. Variations www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 359 of 391

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2.Which concept attributed to Charles Drawin?

1. Acquired characters are inherited 2. Evert cell must come from preexisting cell.

3. Struggle for existence. 4. Survival of the fittest

3. In formulating the theory of evolution by natural selection Drawin was greatly impressed by Writings of ____

1. Mendel 2. Lamarck 3. De veries 4. Malthus

4. Use & disuse principal proposed by ____

1. Hugo & De vries 2. Weismann 3. Drawin 4. None of these

5. Bird having tech in break is ____

1. Kiwi 2. Archaeopteryx 3. Ostrich 4. None of these

6. Homologous organs are ____

1. Similar in origin but similar or dissimilar in function

2. dissimilar in origin but similar in function

7. Analogous structures are _____

1. Structurally similar 2. Functionally similar 3. Normally non functional 4. None of these

8. Devonian period is called age of:

1. Giant Molluses 2. Fishes 3.Amphibians 4.Reptils

9. Wings of insects and bat are_____

1. Homologous 2. Analogous 3. Vestigal 4. None of these

10. Which one of the following is not a vestigial organ in human body?

1. Hairs on body 2. Pinna muscles 3. Coccyx 4. None of these

11. Animal which has become extinct very recently-

1. Mammoth 2. Dinosaur 3. Pterodactyl 4.Dodo

12. Which of these birds cannot fly____

1. Peacock 2. Duck 3. Emu 4. Stork

13. Which structures provide strong evidence of organic evolution____

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2. Wings in insects, birds and bat 4. Excretory organs in earth worms and frogs.

14. Most modern breeds of domestic dogs have evolved by _____

1. Natural selection 2. Artificial selection 3. Sexual selection 4. Reproductive isolation

15. Important evidences of organic evolution_____

1. Occurrence of homologous and vestigial organs in different animals.

2. Occurrence of analogous and vestigial organs in different animals.

3. Occurrence of homologous and analogous organs in different animals.

4. All of these

16. Most primitive living mammals which provide an evidence of organic evolution from geographical distribution are found in____

1. China 2. India 3. Australia 4. Africa

17. Which one represents a connecting link as an evidence from anatomy in favour of organic evolution____

1. Whale between fishes and mammals

2. Archaeopteryx between birds and mammals

3. Duckbill platypus between reptiles and mammals.

4. Java apemen between modern man and Peking man.

18. Which group includes homologous organs _____

1. Bird‘s wings, but‘s wings and moth‘s wings 2. Hindlegs of dog, duck and kangaroo

3. for limbs of bat and horse 4. All

19. Which group includes analogous organs ______

1. Wings of bat, birds, butterfly 2. Wings of bat, cockroach and sparrow

3. both 4. None of these

20. Galapagos islands are associated with the name of ____

1. Wallace 2. Malthus 3. Drawin 4. Lamarck

21. Why is Archaeopteryx called a connecting link?

1. It combined characters of reptiles and reptiles and mammals

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2. It combined characters of reptiles and birds

3. It combined characters of chordates and non-chordates

4. None of these

22. Analogue is found between______

1. Wings of birds and bats 2. Hands of man and forelimbs of horse

3. Hands of man and flippers of whale 4. Wings of bat and butterfly

23. Basic idea of evolution is _____

1. descent with modification 2. Spontaneous generation

3. special creation 4. cosmic evolution

24. Phenomenon of ― Industrial melanism‖ demonstrates

1. Natural selection 2.Induced mutation

3. Geographical isolation 4. Reproductive isolation

25. Fossil ‗X‘ can be considered to have evolved earlier than fossil ‗Y‘ if fossil____

1. ‗Y‘ has vestigial structures that are homologous to functional structures in fossil ‗X‘

2. ‗Y‘ is structurally more complex than fossil ‗X‘

3. ‗Y‘ is in better state of preservation than ‗X‘

4. ‗X‘ is found in a lower stratum of undisturbed sedimentary rock than ‗Y‘

26. Most reliable evidence of organic evolution is obtained from

1. embryos 2. Fossil 3. Vestigial organs 4. Morphological variations

27. Change of lighter coloured variety of peppered moth, Biston bitularia to its dader variety (Carbonaria) was due to

1. Change gene for survival in smoke-laden industrial environment

2. deletion of a segment of gene due to industrial pollution

3. industrial carbon deposited on the wings of the moth resulting in darker variety

4. translocation of a block of genes in chromososmes in response to heavy carbons

28. Which one of the followings acts as a connecting link?

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29. Which one of the following pairs has homologous organs:

1. Air sacs of fish and lungs of frog 2. Wings of a bird and wings of a butterfly

3. Pectoral fins of a fish and forelimbs of a horse 4. Wing of bat and wings of cockroach

30. Diversity in the types of beaks of beaks of finches adapted to different feeding habits on Galapagos islands provides evidence for:

1. Intraspecific competition 2. Interspecific competition

3. Speciation by natural selection 4. Intraspecific Variations

31. Egg-laying mammals and marsupials are found in Australia only. This indicates:

1. Continuous distribution 2. Discontinuous distribution

3. Natural barrier 4. Climatic barrier

32. Which of the following is an example of living fossil?

1. Sphenodon 2. Archaeopteryx 3. Chimpanzee 4. Orangutan

33. Connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda is:

1. Neopilina 2. Peripatus 3. Cockroach 4. Earthworm

34. Which of the following is a set of homologous organs?

1. Wings of birds and front feet of horse 2. Wings of grasshopper and flipper

3. Wings of housefly and wings of birds 4. None of these

35. Similarity developed in the structures of distantly related group of organism, due to their similar functions, is called:

1. Analogy 2. Homology 3. Eulogy 4. All of above

36. Vermiform appendix is vestigial in man due to:

1. Ommivorous diet 2. Heterodont condition 3. Cooking habit 4. Cellulose digestion

37. An organisiom which is connecting link between animals and plants is:

1. Virus 2. Bacterium 3. Euglena 4. Amoeba

38. Who stated that ― Birds are glorified reptiles?‖

1. Von Bear 2. Huxley 3. Drawin 4. Haecket

39. Birth of a baby with small tari is an example of :

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1. Vestigial organ 2. Homology 3. Analogu 4. Atavism

40. Restricted distribution of marsupials in Australia prove:

1. Continental drift 2. Topographical barrier 3. Ecological barrier 4. Climatic barrier

41. Hand of man, wing of bat and flipper of seal represent:

1. Homology organs 2. Analogous organs 3. Vestigial organs 4. Evolutionary organs

42. Wings of an insect and bat exhibit.

1. Homology 2. Analogy 3. Atavism 4. Connecting link

43. The age of rock is calculated on the basis of:

1. Types of fossil found in it 2. Amount of lead present in it

3. Amount of uranium found in it 4. Number of strata in it

44. The book ―Origin of Species‖ was written by:

1. Drawin 2. Hugo de Vries 3. Lamarck 4. Muller

45. Who gave the principle that man tends to multiply more repidly than food supply:

1. Malthus 2. Haldane 3. Drawin 4. Gandhi

46. Successful adaptation simple means:

1. An increase in fitness 2. Producing offspring

3. Moving to a new place 4. Evolving new characters

47. The ―use and disuse theory‖ was proposed by:

1. Gregor Mendal 2. Konred Lorenz 3. Malthus 4. Jean (B) Lamarck

48. Drawin‘s theory states that:

1. Characters are acquired through inheritance 2. Nature selects species which can adapt

3. Species change morphologically with nature 4. Effect of environment on evolution

49. Founder of Paleontology is:

1. Lamarck 2. Erasmus Drawin 3. G. Cuvier 4. Empedoeles

3. SOURCE OF ENERGY

Objective Questions:

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1.Solar cells convert: -

1. Electrical energy to mechanical energy 3. Solar energy to electrical energy 2. Mechanical energy to electrical energy 4. Potential energy to chemical energy

2.The wind power potential of India is

1. 20,000MW 2. 2000MW 3. 12000MW 4. 14000N1W

3. A solar panel is made by combining a large number of:-

1. Solar cookers 2. Solar cells 3. Solar water heaters 4. Solar concentrators

4. To produce biogas in a biogas plant, we need.

1. air but not water 2. Water but not air 3. Air and water 4. Neither air nor water

5. When we use biomass to generate electricity the conversion of energy is from

1. Chemical to electrical energy 2. Kinetic to electrical energy

3. Nuclear energy to electrical 4. Muscular energy to electrical energy

6. The nuclear fuel in the sun is.

1. Hydrogen 2. Nitrogen 3. Carbon 4. Helium

7. The part of sunlight used in heating solar cooker is

1. Ultraviolet rays 2. Infrared radiations

3. Visible radiations 4. All of these

8. A wind mill can function with a minimum wind velocity of about.

1. 10 km/hr 2. 7km/hr 3. 15 km/hr 4. 20km/hr

9. The energy of the stars is produced by

1. Chemical reaction 2. Thermonuclear reactions

3. Nuclear fission 4. Gravitation condensation

10. The purpose of the glass cover on the top of a box type solar cooker is to

1. Allow more sunlight inti the box

2. Allow people to see the food being cooked

3. Prevent dust from entering the box

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11. The gas mainly responsible for producing green house effect is

1. Carbon dioxide 2. Nitrogen dioxide 3. Oxygen 4. Methane

12. A large concave reflector is used as

1. Solar water heater 2. Solar concentrator 3. Solar panel 4. Solar cooker

13. Which one of the metal shows photo electric effect?

1. Ce 2. U 3. Mg 4. None of these

14. Fusion reaction is initiated with the help of

1. Neutrons 2. High temperature 3. Low temperature 4. Any particle.

15. The temperature at which substance catches fire in the presence of air is.

1. The room temperature 2. Always less than 20oC

3. Always more than 80o 4. The ignition temperature

16. The maximum temperature attend by a box type solar cooker is.

1. 20oC 2. 50oC 3. 150oC 4. 100oC

17. A solar water heater used for heating air is also known as ______

1. Solar dryer 2. Solar cell 3. Solar concentrator 4. Solar cooker

18. In artificial satellites ______are used for generating electricity.

1. Dry cells 2. Button cells 3. Solar cells 4. Generator

19. The largest wind energy farm in India been established near _____

1. Karnataka 2. Mumbai 3. Assam 4. Kanyakumari

20. Nuclear power plants are functioning at.

1. Tarapur 2. Kalpakkan 3. Kota 4. All of these

21. We get ______amount of energy from son per second.

1. 1.8 x 1017 J 2. 1.8 x 107 ergs 3. 18 x 1017 J 4. None of these

22. The type of energy that we get from the ocean.

1. Tidal energy 2. Geothermal energy 3. Nuclear energy 4. Solar energy

23. In the solar power plants ______is used for generating electricity.

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1. Solar Water heaters 2. Solar concentrator 3. Solar cells 4. Windmills

24. Which of the following is not derived from sun‘s energy.

1. Geothermal energy 2. Wind energy 3. Biomass 4. Hydro energy

25. The disadvantage of using a solar cooker is.

1. It causes pollution 2. It makes of non-renewable source of energy

3.It cooks the food slowly 4. It is blackened all over.

26. A photocell converts light energy into

1. Chemical energy 2. Electrical energy 3. Heat energy 4. Mechanical energy

4. CHEMICAL BONDING

Objective Question:

1.Electronic theory of valency was developed by ______and ______. It was extended by Irving Langmuir.

1.W. Kossel, G. N Lewis 2. Heitlor, London 3. Raighlay, soddy 4. None of these

2.Every element has tendency to acquire inert gas configuration i.e.____.

1. ns2np 2.ns2np2 3. ns2np5 4. ns2np6

3.Octet rule was given by _____

1. W. Kossel, G. N Lewis 2. Heitlor, London 3.Raighlay, soddy 4. None of these

4.Which one of the following is a drawback of octet rule?

1.It could not explain the geometry of molecule

2.Expanded octet

3.Incomplete Octet 4. All

5.Anion formation is favored by ______

1.Low electro positivity 2. High electron affinity 3. Lattice energy 4.All

6.Cation formation is favored by______

1. Low I. P 2.Low electron affinity 3. Lattice energy 4.All

7.Ionic bond is formed by ______

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1. One way sharing of lone pair of electron.

2. Sharing of electrons

3.Donation and accepting electrons 4.None of these

8. One of the following is not a character of ionic bond:

1. High MP 2. Formed between metal and non metal

3. Soluble in polar solvents 4.They undergo ionization in fused state.

9.H2 O is ______compound.

1.Coordinated 2. Inorganic 3.Ionic 4.Covalent

10.Covalent bond is formed by ______

1.Sharing of electrons.

2. One way sharing of lone pair of electrons.

3.Sharing of electrons with some spin

4. Sharing of electrons with opposite spin.

11. In hybridization ______

1. Energy of all combining orbitals mix.

2. Energy of all the orbitals mix and get redistributed

3. Hybrid orbitals get oriented along the space.

4. All.

12. Polar covalent bond form when ______

1. If electro negativity difference is high

2. If electro negativity is same.

3. Reaction is done in polar solvents.

4. Bonding is done in liquid N2 temperature.

13. HF is ______type of bond.

1. Polar 2. Homopolar 3. Dative 4. Metallic

14. Which one of the following is not a factor favorable for forma tigon of ionic bond.

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1. Small magnitude of charge on ion. 2. Large radius of cation.

3. Small radius of anion 4. Low electron affinity of anion.

15. Which one is not a favorable factor for formation of covalent bond?

1. Either cation or anion should have high charge.

2. Size of cation should be large and anion should have small size.

3. Cation should have small size anion should have large size

4. High lattice energy.

16. In NH2CI how many type of bonds are present?

1. Coordinate 2. Covalent 3. Ionic 4. All

17. Which is the characteristic of coordinate compound?

1. It is rigid and directional. 2. They are sparingly soluble in a water

3. One sided sharing 4. None of these

5.NERVOUS SYSTEM

Objective Question

1. Voluntary movement in vertebrates are co-ordinated by 1. Cerebellum 2. Cerebrum 3. Thyroid 4. Pituitary

2.Cerebral hemispheres are center of

1. Thinking 2. Will power 3. Reasoning 4. All of these

3. Lateral ventricles are found in

1. Brain and heart 2. Thyroid 3. Cerebellum 4. Cerebrum

4. Outermost covering of brain of man is

1. Duramater 2. Piamater 3. Arachnoid 4. Choroid

5. The ventricles of CNS are filled with

1. Spinal fluid 2.Cerebrospinal fluid 3.Cranial fluid 4. Pericardial fluid

6. The cranial nerves which supplies organs of body than the head is

1. Trochlear 2. Occulomotor 3. Vagus 4. Auditory

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7. Which cranial nerves are purely sensory

1. I, II, and VIII 2. I, II and IV 3. I, V and VIII 4. None of these.

8. Heart is innervated by

1. Trigemins 2. Glossopharyngeal 3. Vagus 4. Facial

9. Number of spinal nerves in man is

1. 10 pairs 2. 12 pairs 3. 21 pairs 4. 31 pairs

10. Conduction of nerve impulse along a myelinated nerva fibre is

1. Twisted 2. Salutatory 3. Continuous 4. Reversible

11. Parasympathetic nervous system

1. Increases heart beat 2. Decreases heart beat

3. Originates heart beat 4. No effect on heart beat

12. Rods and cones are presents in

1. Iris 2. Cornea 3. Sclerotic 4. Retina

13. Sense organs concerned with equilibrium are

1. Eyes 2. Medulla oblongata 3. Internal ear 4. Nasal chamber

14. Cones are with a pigment:

1. lodopsin 2. Rhodopsin 3. Both 4. None of these

6.NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Objection Questions:

1. Newton’s law is applicable if _____ force is acting on a body in inertial frame of reference of reference 1. Pseudo 2. True 3. Real 4. Virtul

2.A cricket ball of mass 150 gm is moving with a velocity of 12m/s and is hit by

a bat so that the ball is turned back with velocity of 20m/s. The force of

blow acts for 0.01 second on the ball. Find average force exerted by the

ball?

1. 480 N 2. 40 dy 3. 49 N 4. 9.8 N

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3.Newton’s first Law is also called as ______

1. Laws of inertia 2. Law of conservation of mass

3. Law of mass action 4. None of these

4. The second Law provindes______

1. Quantitive measure of torque 2. Quantitive measure of force

3. Quantitive measure of inertia 4. None of these

5. When a scooter and huge truck collide(both having high speed) the scooter

is thrown away because of______

1.Law of conservation of momentum 2. High momentum

3.High of impulse 4. None of these.

6. Inertial frame of reference is a frame which is / her ______

1. Net external force is zero 2. Zero acceleration

3. Moving with constant uniform velocity 4. All are correct

7. Impulse is ______

1. Large force acting for small 2. Rate of change of momentum

3. Vector 4. 1, 3 both

8. Frame of reference in which Newton’s laws of motion hold true is called as

1. Inertial 2. Static 3. Non-inertial 4. None of these

9. A constant force acting on a body of mass 5kg changes its speed form 2m/s to 7m/s in 10 sec the direction of motion is unchanged. Find magnitude of force.

1. 2.5 dy 2. 2.5 N 3. 25 N 4. None of these

10. A retarding of 100 N is applicable on body of mass 50kg moving with speed 20m/s.

How long does the body take to stop?

1. 10 sec 2. 5 sec 3. 20 sec 4. 15 sec

11. In cyclones huge fall down because_____

1. High momentum 2. High impulse

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12. In lift is at rest or moving with constant velocity?

1. Apparent weight=true weight

2. Apparent weight>true weight

3. True weight>apparent weight

4. None of these

13. First law give definition of ______

1. Forse 2. Force 3. Inertia 4. Stimulus

14. When a force of 1 N acts on a 1 kg body that is able to move freely, the body

Receives.

1. A speed of 1 m/s 2. An acceleration of 1 m/s2

3.An acceleration of 980 cm /s2 4. None of these.

15. A weight of 280 N another of 190 N are suspended by a rope on either side of

a friction pulley. The acceleration of each weight is

1. 1.5 m/s2 2. 1.8 m/s2 3. 2.2 m/s2 4. 2.5 m/s2

16. Two masses, each equal to m, are attached to one another by a massless string Passing over a smooth pulley. The tension in the string is

1. Mg 2. 2mg 3. Mg/2 4. Zero

17. A body rolling freely on the surface of earth eventually comes to rest because

1. It has mass 2. It suffers 3. It has inertia 4. It has momentum

18. The mass of a ballon and its contents is M. It is descending with an acceleration a . By how much the mass should be decreased, keeping the volume Constant, so that the ballon start ascending with the same acceleration?

푎 𝑔 ퟐ풂 2𝑔 1. 푀 2. 푀 3. M 4. 푀 푎+𝑔 푎+𝑔 풂+품 푎+𝑔

19.Two blocks A and B having masses m1 and m2 respectively, are placed in contact force between A and B is

푚1 푚2 푚2퐹 풎ퟏ푭 1. 퐹 2. 퐹 3. 4. 푚2 푚1 푚1+푚2 풎ퟏ+풎ퟐ

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20. Two masses m1 and m2 placed on a smooth horizontal surface, are connected by a massless, inextensible string. A horizontal force F is applied on m2 as shown. The tension in the string is

푚1 푚2 풎ퟏ푭 푚2퐹 1. 퐹 2. 퐹 3. 4. 푚2 푚1 풎ퟏ+풎ퟐ 푚1+푚2

21. A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal frictionless surface by a rope of mass m by applying a force at one end of the rope. The force which the exerts on the block is

푃 푷푴 푃푚 1. 2. 3. 4. Pm(M+m) 푀−푚 퐌ퟏ+퐦 푀+푚

22. Three blocks A, B and C, each of mass 2 kg, are hanging over a fixed pulley as shown. The tension in the string connecting B and C is

1. Zero 2. 3.3N 3. 13.3 N 4. 19.6 N

23. The pully arrangement of fig. (I) and (II) are identical. The mass of the rope is negligible. In fig(I)the mass m is lifted by arraching a mass 5m to the other end of rope. On fig (ii), m is lifted by pulling the other end of the rope with a downward force F=5mg. the acceleration of m is

1. the same in both cases

2. less in (I)than in (ii)by a factor 1/3

3. more in (I)than in (ii) by factor 3

4. less in (I) than in (ii) by a factor ½

24. A monkey of mass 30kg climbs on a massless rope of breaking strength 700N. Rope will break if the monkey(g=10m/s2)

1. climbs up with a uniform speed of 5m/s

2. climbs up with an acceleration of 6 m/s2

3. climbs down with an acceleration of 4 m/s2

4. climbs down with a uniform speed of 5 m/s

25. A man is at rest in the middle of a horizontal plane of perfectly smooth ice. He can move himself to the shore y making use of Newton’s

1. First law 2. Second law 3. Third law 4. All the laws

7.GRAVITATION

Objective Question:

1. The weight of a body at the center of earth is _____

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1. Infinite 2. Zero 3. Slightly less than at equator 4. None of the above

2.A pendulum clock is set to give correct time at sea level. This clock moved to a hill station at an altitude of 200m above sea level. In order to get correct time on the hill station the length of the pendulum_____

1. Has to be reduced 2. No change 3. Has to be increase 4. None of these

3. Two satellites are moving around the earth in same circular orbit. They must have same______

1. KE 2. Angular momentum 3. Speed 4. None of these

4. A body released from height h takes time t to reach earth’s surface. The time taken by same body released from same height to reach moon’s surface is _____

1. t 2. t/6 3. 6t 4. None of these

5. How much deep inside the earth should a man go so that his weighed becomes 1/4th of the weight on earth’s surface

1. R/2 2. 2R 3. 4R1/2 4. None of these

6. A spring balance is graduated at sea level. If the body is weighed with this balance at consecutively increasing height from the earth surface the weight indicated by the balance will_____

1. First increase then decreases 2. Go on decreasing continuously

3. Remain same 4. Go on increasing continuously

7. If the radius of earth were to shrink by 1% and its mass remaining the same value of g on the earth’s surface would______

1. Increase by 0.5% 2. Increase by 0.2%

3. Decrease by 0.5% 4. None of the above

8. Acceleration due to gravity is given by ______formula ( on surface of the earth)

1. g=GM/R2 2.g= 퐺푀/푅 3. g=v2/GR 4. None of these.

9. Acceleration due to gravity at a height (h) is given by _____ formula.

퐺푀 1. g =GM/R2 2. g = + ℎ 3. g =GM/(R+h)2 4. None of these. h n 푅 h

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8. HEAT

Objective Questions:

1. Heat transferred by radiator of a refrigerator is ______

1. More than that of a freezer 2. Less than that of a freezer

3. Same as that of a freezer 4. None of these

2. Melting point of ice ______

1. Increases with increase in pressure 2. Decreases with increasing pressure

3. Independent of pressure 4. None of these

3. Boiling point of water ______

1. Increases with increase in pressure 2. Decreases with increase in pressure

3. Independent of pressure 4. None of these

4. The pressure cooker is fastest method to cook, because

1. Boiling point is raised by increasing the pressure

2. Boiling point is lowered by increasing the pressure

3. More steam is available to cook the food at 100oC

4. None of these

5. It is difficult to cook at high altitudes because ______

1. Of less oxygen.

2. Of fall in temperature, more heat has to ne supplied

3. Of decrease in atmospheric pressure Boiling Point of water increases

4. Of high moisture content

6. Cooking takes longer time at ______

1. Sea level 2. At Simla

3. At Mount Everest 4. Submarine, 100 meter below surface of water.

7. Water is boiling in a flask over a burner. What is to be done to reduce the Boiling Point ?

1. Reduce the surrounding temperature 2. Connect evacuating system

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3. Close the container with a tight cork 4. Supply more heat

8. A closed bottle containing water at room temperature is taken to moon and then the lid is opened. Then water will.

1. Freeze 2. Boil 3. Decompose 4. No Change o 9. The relative humidity of air can decrease, in spite of an increase in absolute humidity when ______

1. Pressure rises 2. Pressure is lowered

3. Temperature rises 4. Temperature is lowered

10. Water evaporates at the atmospheric pressure at certain rate. If water is placed in vaccum rate of decreases

1. Will decrease 2. Will increase 3. Unchanged 4. None of these

11. If atmospheric pressure and dew point are equal then humidity will be______

1. 100% 2. Zero 3. 50% 4. None of these

12. At a particular day room temperature is 400C relative humidity is 100%. Then dew point will be

1. 10oC 2. 20oC 3. 0oC 4. 40o

13. The air in the room has 12 hgm/cc water water vapour. For saturation of 16 gm/cc vapour is required, the relative humidity will be ______

1. 75% 2. ¾% 3. 60% 4. 30%

14. Formation of water current is due to _____

1. Convection 2. Conduction 3. Radiation 4. All

15. Absorptive power of perfectly black-body is _____

1. Maximum 2. Minimum 3. Medium 4. None of these

16. The temperature will be same on both Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales at ______

1.- 40oC 2. 40oC 3. 50oC 4. -50oC

17. Degree of hotness or coldness of a body is known as ______

1. Kinetic energy 2. Hotness 3. Temperature 4. None of these

18. In radiation, Process of heating transfer occurs by ______waves.

1. Longitudinal 2. Transverse 3. Electromagnetic 4. No Waves ai all

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19. We heat water at 1000C, what will happen?

1. Its temperature increases 2. It will expand

3. Heat will be utilized in the formation of vapours 4. All correct

20. In spherical hot body heat transfer to surrounding‘s occurs by ______

1. Rotation 2. Convection 3. Radiation 4. @ & $ are correct

21. Perfectly black body absorbs heat up to ______%

1. 90% 2. 99% 3. 99.9% 4. None of these

22. Walls of solar coller are colured black because ______

1. Black body is good absorbent 2. Black body is good conductor of heat

3. Black body is bad conductor of heat 4. None of these

23. Rate of heat absorption or radiation depends on ______

1. Surface area 2. Smoothness of surface

3. Nature of substance 4. Nothing specific

24. The heat transfer in gases and water is by convection because ______

1. They are good conductors

2. Molecule does not vibrate and collide by absorbing heat as in metal

3. They are bad conductors

4. Density is less than metals.

25. Heat less by radiation ______

1. Discontinuous 2. Continuous 3. 1 & 4 both

4. Independent of temperature of radiating and absorbing body

26. Put water in card paper box and put it directly on gas burner and you can heat the water easily in the box it self. Box will not catch fire because ______

1. Temperature does not reach to ignition temperature

2. Temperature decreases due to water

3.Water is present so it blows the fire

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27. When we cool melted Nacl at its freezing point.

1. Crystals of formed. 2. 1 & 3

3. Attractive forces between molecules are strongest 4. None of these

28. Latent heat of vaporization can be calculated by _____ formula.

1. Q = mL 2. Q = mct 3. Q = mlct 4. Q = mc (t2 – t1)

29. If we heat crystals of salt Nacl amplitude of vibrations of their molecules increase. At melting point ______

1. Molecules overcome the attractive forces.

2. Typical geometry of crystal or crystal structure is destructed

3. Solid Nacl goes in liquid phase 4. All

30. Boiling the eggs on hill stations becomes difficult because ______

1. Oxygen is less 2. Boiling point of water decreases

3. Can‘t say 4. We can not carry LPG cylinders there

31. Bimetalic strip is based on principle ______

1. Two metals used have different expansion 2. Heating effect of electric current

3. Joule‘s law 4. None of the above

32. A solid metal ball has a spherical cavity. If the ball is heated, the volume of the cavity will

1. Increase

2. Decrease

3. Remain unaffected

4. Contract or expand depending on the value of the linear expansion coefficient.

33. If a bimetallic strip is heated it will

1. Bend towards the metal with lower thermal expansion coefficient

2. Bend towards the metal with higher thermal expansion coefficient

3. Not bend at all 4. Twist it self into a helix

34. A bimetal made of copper and iron strips welded together is straight at room temperature. It is held vertically with iron strip towards left and copper strip towards right. If this bimetal is heated, it will

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1. Remain straight 2. Bend towards right

3. Bends towards left 4. Bend forwards

35. A metal ball is being weighted in a liquid whose temperature is raised continuously. Then the apparent weight of the ball

1. Remain unchanged 2. Increases 3. Decreases 4. Change crratically

36. A block of wood is floating on water at 0oc with a certain volume V above water level. The temperature of water is slowly raised to 21oC. How does the volume V change with rise of temperature?

1. Remain unchanged 2. Decrease continuously

3. Decrease till 40C and then increase 4. Increase till 4oC and then decrease

37. A gas is enclosed in a container which is then placed on a fast moving train. The temperature of the gas

1. Rises 2. Falls 3. Remain unchanged 4. Become unsteady

38. A gas at a pressure P is contained in a vessel. If the masses of all the molecules are halved and their speed double, the resulting pressure will be

1. P/2 2. P 3. 2 P 4. 4 P

39. Temperature can be expressed as a derived quantity in terms of

1. length the mass 2. Mass and time 3. Length, mass and time 4. None of these

40. The change in temperature of a body is 50oc. The change on the Kelvin scale is

1. 50 K 2. 323 k 3. 70 k 4. 30 k

41. The temperature at which the reading of a Fahrenheit thermometer will be double that of a Centigrade thermometer is

1. 160oC 2. 180oC 3. 32oC 4. 100oC

42. Device used to measure very high temperature is

1. Pyrometer 2. Thermometer 3. Bolometer 4. Calorie meter

43. We plot a graph, having temperature in 0C on X-axis and in 0F on Y-axis. If the graph is a straight line, then the correct statement is:

1. The line intercepts the positive X-axis

2. The line intercepts the positive Y-axis

3. The line passes through the origin

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4. The line intercept the negative axis of both X and Y – axis

44. Boiling water is changing into steam. Under this condition the specific heat of water is

1. Zero 2. One 3. Infinite 4. Less than one

45. The heat transferred by the radiator of a refrigerator is

1. More than that at the freezer

2. Less than that at the freezer

3. The same as that at the freezer

4. Less or more than that at the freezer depending on the consititutation of the refrigerator

46. Two blocks of ice when pressed together join to form one block because

1. Of heat produced during pressing

2. Of cold produced during pressing

3. Melting point of ice increases with increase of pressure

4. Melting point of ice decreases with increase of pressure

47. Paraffin wax contract on solidification. The melting point of wax

1. Increases with increase of pressure

2. Decreases with increase of pressure

3. First decreases and then increases as the pressure is gradually increased

4. Is independent of pressure.

48. A large iceberg melts at the base but not at the top because

1. The base of the iceberg remain in warmer condition

2. Ice at the base contain impurities

3. Higher pressure at the base lowers the melting point if ice

4. Ice at the top is of different kind

49. During melting process the heat given to a body is utilised in

1. Increasing the temperature

2. Increasing the density of the material

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3. Increasing the potential energy of the molecules

4. Increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules.

50. Some quantity of water at room temperature is placed in an open pan and allowed to evaporate. After some time the temperature of the water

1. Decrease slightly 2. Increase slightly

3. Decrease condiderably 4. Remain unchanged

51. The boiling point of a liquid is

1. Affected by the addition of a soluble solid

2. Increases with increase of presume

3. Decreases with increase of pressure

4. Is a fixed characteristic of a liquid and does not change by adding impurities or by changing pressure

52. In a pressure cooker the cooking is fast because

1. The boiling point of water is raised by the increased pressure inside the cooker.

2. The boiling point of water is lowered by the increased pressure

3. More steam is available to cook the food at 100oC

4. More pressure is available to cook the food at 100oC

53. It is difficult to cook at high altitudes because.

1. There is less oxygen in air

2. Due to fall in temperature, more heat has to be given

3. Due to atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water decreases

4. Of high moisture content there

54. Water is boiling in a flask over a burner. To reduce its boiling temperature one must

1. Reduce the surrounding temperature

2. Connect the mouth of the flask to an evacuating system

3. Close the container with an air tight cork

4. Supply heat from a very intense heat source

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55. The temperature below which a gas should be cooled, before it can be liquefied by applying pressure, is termed as

1. Dew point 2. Critical temperature

3. Boyle temperature 4. Saturation point

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College Program Brochure

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Disclaimer

. This is a compilation from various sources, including there mentioned in the bibliography. All copyrights belong to their respective members & CASI does not claim any copy rights on this compliances. Any article or notes copied from here needs to showcase the original article or link as copyrights and not CASI . This is a suggested reading material . Please refer website for Terms & Conditions. . All trademarks belong to respective owners and are mentioned here for discussion and educational purposes only. . For private circulation only.

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Franchise Development for School Student Programs @ CASI

Franchise development @ School Programs

We understand that reaching out to the vast Indian population is an enormous task and hence seek franchises for our School Student Programs. Training institutes keen to establish a center of excellence for CSR & Sustainability are welcome to reach us on [email protected] /

+91 9833781267 / +91 9833570282

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CASI Global Fellow Program

The Global Fellow Program is suitable for senior management professionals with over 10 years of experience. For additional details please reach us on www.casi-india.com / www.casiglobal.us

+91 9833570282 | +91 9833781267 Other certification programs by CASI Global New York

For School Students 1. Young Sustainability Champion a. Basic b. Advance 2. Basics of Banking & Finance a. Elementary b. Advance 3. Young Scientist a. Basic www.casiglobal.us | www.casi-india.com | CASI New York; The Global Certification body. Page 386 of 391 CASI New York; Reference material for ‘Advanced Certification in Science – Level 1’ Recommended for college students (material designed for students in India)

b. Advance 4. Young Banker a. Basic b. Advance 5. Confidence Booster

For College Students  Certificate in Finance  Certificate in Marketing  Certificate in CSR & Sustainability  Certificate in Retail marketing  Certificate in Financial Derivatives & Treasury Management  Advance Scientist Level 1  Advance Scientist Level 2  Certificate in Entrepreneurship  Certified HR Manager  Digital Marketing Manager  Certificate in Management  Confidence Booster  Leadership Certificate  Certificate in MS Office  Certificate in IOT  Certificate in Financial Services  Financial Analyst Certificate  Certificate in Investment Banking  Financial Planning Certificate  Certificate in Product Management  Certificate in Wealth Management  Certificate in Family Office Management  Certificate in Rural Marketing  Certificate in Managerial Effectiveness  Certificate in Journalism  Certificate in Event Management  Certificate in Green Finance  Certificate in Sustainability  Certificate in Cyber Security  Certified Marketing Manager  Certificate in Business Communication

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For CXO’s 1. Global Fellow Program Specializations

 Strategy  Finance  HRM  Engineering  Production  Marketing  Operations  Information Technology And many more

For Academicians 1. Academic Lead

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CASI - Government Polytechnic Mumbai co-branded certificate

For School Students  Young Scientist Level 1 Level 2  Young Banker Level 1 Level 2

For College Students  Certified CSR Professional  Certified Sustainability Professional  Certified Marketing Professional  Certified Banking Professional  Certificate in Financial Derivatives and Treasury Management

For Working Professional  Fellow Program

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CSR Diary - Volunteering Platform

CSR Diary - World’s1st Platform for Gamification of Volunteering Efforts www.csrdiary.com CSR Diary is the ideal platform for gamification of your volunteering efforts. While the primary purpose is to promote volunteering by making it fun: the platform also helps you strengthen the bonding between your employees / Students through gamification and competitions, additionally this platform helps students & working professionals showcase their interest in civic duties and claim their volunteering certificates While every person has a particular ‗cause‘ close to its heart; we at CSR Diary are supportive to every action. We believe every action counts!!

CSR Diary is FREE of any costs for all students.

For every hour that you volunteer, you get a certificate. This is a verified certificate which you may submit to your company / institute / University to claim credits of the volunteering hours you have served.

Many prizes and contests to participate! Volunteering hours to Volunteering facts on various countries to Photography contests with themes like ―Sustainability and Responsibility‖

CSR Olympiad – A 100 Day CSR race on CSR Diary. We encourage all students to participate, and volunteer whole heartedly to change the face of our nation.

CSR Diary is the First and only platform recommended by CaSI Global, New York: The Global Certification Body.

―Build the Nation through Volunteering‖ www.csrdiary.com - The Official ScoreKeeper

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Mahawalkathon

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