ASPECTS OF URBAN CHANGE IN WINDHOEK, NAMIBIA, ASPECTS OF URBAN CHANGE IN WINDHOEK, NAMIBIA, DURING THE TRANSITION TO INDEPENDENCE. DAVID SIMON Linacre College, Oxford. Thesis submitted to the University of Oxford for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. January 1983. ASPECTS OF URBAN CHANGE IN WINDHOEK, NAMIBIA, DURING THE TRANSITION TO INDEPENDENCE. DAVID SIMON Linacre College, Oxford. Thesis submitted to the University of Oxford for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Hilary Term 1983. ABSTRACT This study focuses on contemporary urban change in the capital city of Namibia during the decolonization period. While primarily geographical, analysis is broadly based within the social sciences, employing techniques ranging from archival search and newspaper content analysis to participant observation, sample surveys, and computer analysis. The central aims are to determine, analyze and evaluate changes contingent on the political developments implied by decolonization. These are approached through the existing literature on Third World and colonial urbanization, urban form and post-colonial development. By virtue of size, structure and functions, the colonial capital city is an appropriate subject for analysis of politico-economic, social and spatial changes, since many of the characteristic structural tensions manifest themselves most clearly here. The transition period is distinguished as having commenced with the installation of an Administrator-General in Windhoek in September 1977. Original methodologies are derived for identifying appropriate research foci, which are then pursued in turn. Major topics covered include the position of Windhoek as local authority within the reorganized government structure; mobility after desegregation of residential areas; the housing situation, including attempts to adapt policy to new circumstances and remove apartheid symbols like the contract workers' hostel; the urban economy - including trade patterns, employment conditions, unemployment and the 'informal' sector; and access to education, health and public amenities. A final chapter synthesizes the various issues, evaluates their overall significance and offers prospects into independence. In most spheres there has been mainly cosmetic or incremental, rather than significant structural or attitudinal, change. Existing political structures are inimical to this end, although a number of legislative measures do have potential for important longer term change. Experiences elsewhere suggest that the new post-colonial order may not be as radically different, at least in the city, as anticipated. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been successfully completed without the goodwill and assistance of numerous people, all of which is gratefully acknowledged. My studies in Oxford were made possible by the award of a Rhodes Scholarship; Ron Davies set my sights on Windhoek and provided fieldwork funds by asking me to join his HSRC-sponsored research project into contemporary urban change in Harare and Windhoek; while Linacre College and the Oxford University Graduate Studies Board, assisted with travel expenses. Countless people of all persuasions in Windhoek gave of their time and knowledge: businessmen, officials, politicians and members of the public. The Municipality, especially the Town Planners under Arthur Clayton and Barry Watson, provided facilities, free access to normally inaccessible material and willingly endured endless questioning and interrogation. Werner Claassen undertoook the 'informal sector' interviews thoroughly, and Kenneth Abrahams investigated alcoholism among his patients. In Oxford, my thanks to Paul Griffiths, Glynis Edwards and Clive Payne of the Computing Service, and technical and secretarial staff in the School of Geography, notably Peter Masters, Jack Landon, Julie Prowse and Sheila O'Clarey, for forebearance, advice and assistance. Margaret Loveless drew Figures 1.2 and 1.3; Jayne Lewin Figure 6.9. Peter Webster typed the final product on the word processor, and Edward Wates helped proofread. David Browning, Colin Clarke, Gillian Cook, Hugh Corder, Ceri Peach and Max Price commented helpfully on parts of the draft. The analysis and remaining faults are my own. My greatest debts are three: to John House, my supervisor, for time invested, thoughtful reflection and advice, and prompt and incisive comments on draft chapters; to my parents, Ruth and Wolfgang, for a lifetime of support and encouragement; and especially to Sheryl, for everything since joining hands, perhaps unwisely, with a thesis-ridden student. This study is dedicated to all the people of Windhoek in the hope that it might contribute in some small way to a more thorough understanding of the past and present, and hence a better future. (ii) CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements i Contents ii Tables viii Figures xii Photographs xiv Notes xv CHAPTER 1. THE CONCEPTUAL CONTEXT: COLONIAL SOCIETIES, CITIES AND PROBLEMS OF TRANSITION 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS 6 3. CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO URBANIZATION, CITIES AND THE POSITION OF COLONIAL CITIES 11 a) Urbanization 11 b) Urban Areas 16 b(i) Typologies 19 b(ii) Theories and Models 28 b(iii) Synthesis: a Conceptual Framework 33 4. ASSIGNMENT OF RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND METHODOLOGY 37 5.STRUCTUREOFTHETHESIS 42 REFERENCES 46 CHAPTER 2. NAMIBIA: THE EVOLUTION OF A COLONIAL DEPENDENCY 54 1. INTRODUCTION 54 2. HISTORICAL CONTEXT 55 a) The Pre-colonial Period 55 b) German Colonial Rule 1884-1915 57 c) South African Occupation 1915- 63 c(i) The Pre-World War II Years 63 c(ii) Consolidation and Incorporation Since World War II 69 3. POPULATION GROWTH AND SPATIAL STRUCTURE 78 4. THE BCONOMIC STRUCTURE 85 a) Openness 85 b) Spatial Structure 86 c) Sectoral Balance and National Product 89 d) Ownership and Control 92 e) Conclusion 94 REFERENCES (iii) CHAPTER 3. FROM KRAAL TO CAPITAL: THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WINDHOEK 101 1. INTRODUCTION: EARLY OCCUPATION; SITE AND SITUATION 101 2. COLONIAL BEGINNINGS 103 a) Military Settlement and 'Political Momentum' 103 b) A German Colonial Town 111 3. THE SOUTH AFRICAN ERA 119 a) Colonial Consolidation 119 b) From Segregation to Apartheid 130 4. TRANSITION: A NEW DISPENSATION? 136 REFERENCES 141 CHAPTER 4. WINDHOEK'S POSITION AND ROLE WITHIN THE STRUCTURE AND REORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT 145 1.THEPOSITIONUPTO1977 146 2. REORGANIZATION SINCE 1977 147 3. THE MUNICIPALITY OF WINDHOEK 154 a) Structure, Function and Role 154 b) Advisory Bodies 161 4. MUNICIPAL FINANCE 165 5. PROPOSED CHANGES TO MUNICIPAL STATUS 172 a) Initial Proposals 172 b) Elaborating the Plan 177 6.CONCLUSION 187 REFERENCES 191 CHAPTER 5. STATUTORY DESEGREGATION AND RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY 194 1. INTRODUCTORY OVERVIEW 194 2. SEGREGATION AND APARTHEID: THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 199 3. LEGISLATION AND APARTHEID IN NAMIBIA 202 a) Refining Control Till 1977 202 b) Legislating for the 'New Dispensation' 205 (iv) 4. BLURRING THE EDGES: RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY a) The Baseline b) Applications for Residence Permits 1976-1979 c) Municipal Attitudes to Change d) The Sample Survey d(i) Methodology d(ii) Spatial Distribution, Characteristics and Housing Conditions of Migrants d(iii) Migrants' Perceptions, Attitudes and Problems e) Further Statistical Analysis 5. CONCLUSION REFERENCES CHAPTER 6. THE POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF HOUSING 1. THE CENTRAL CITY AND SUBURBS a) Distribution of Housing Types and Demographic Characteristics b) Changing Conditions 1976-1982 2. KATUTURA a) The Apartheid Master Plan b) The Effects of Removing Influx Control b(i) Legislation b(ii) White Attitudes b(iii) Measurement c) Re-evaluation and Policy Change c(i) Crisis in the Hostel c(ii) Exploring Alternatives c(iii) Implementation: The Katutura Emergency Housing Scheme c(iv) Attempts to Integrate a Housing Policy: Single Quarters and Houses. 3. KHOMASDAL a) The Apartheid Plan b) Developments 1977-1981 4. SYNTHESIS REFERENCES 330 5.12 Monthly Rent or Mortgage Payments Before and After Moves 236 5.13 Modes of Occupancy Before and After Moves 237 5.14Respondents'ReasonsforMoving 237 5.15 Interaction with Neighbours 243 5.16 Number of Friends in New Neighbourhood 243 6.1 Age/Sex Structure by Residential Area 264 6.2 Number of Dwellings by Size and Type,- White Residential Area 266 6.3 Occupants by Housing Type - White Residential Areas May 1975 269 6.4 Number of Dwellings by Size and Type - Black Residential Area 269 6.5 No. of Occupants in the Katutura Hostel 291 6.6 No. of Occupants in the Single Quarters 291 6.7 Katutura House Rentals 1980/81 298 6.8 Structure of the Katutura Emergency Housing Scheme 298 6.9 SWA Administration Loan Scheme 308 6.10 Katutura Housing Schemes 310 6.11 Number of Dwellings by Size and Type Coloured and Baster Residential Area 315 6.12 Khomasdal Income Distribution Surveys 1981 326 6.13 Incomes of Loan Applicants 326 7.1 Summary of Selected Economic Indicators 341 7.2 Plans Approved by the Municipality of Windhoek, and Buildings Completed, per Calendar Year 1976-1981 342 7.3 Windhoek Consumer Price Index 1976-1981 343 7.4 Spatial Distribution of Retail Shop Types by Major Area 1975 352 7.5 Status of Firms in Sample 358 7.6 Economic Sector of Firms in Sample 358 7.7 Firm Size and Employee Strength in Windhoek 361 7.8 Establishment of Windhoek Firms 361 7.9 Reasons Cited for Moving 361 CHAPTER 7. CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN THE URBAN ECONOMY 1. INTRODUCTION 2. LEGISLATION AND THE URBAN ECONOMY 3. GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 4. WINDHOEK'S SPATIAL-ECONOMIC STRUCTURE 5. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON CONTEMPORARY CHANGE a) The