ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH

Labovitz School of Business & Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 11 E. Superior Street, Suite 210, Duluth, MN 55802

If It’S Similar, It’S More Likely… But Can It Be Worth It? Perceived Similarity, Probability and Outcome Value Hui-Yun Chen, Virginia Tech, USA Elise Chandon Ince, Virginia Tech, USA

Assessment of precise probabilities is difficult, and research has pointed to various cues people use to form probability judgments. In this research we investigate the effect of enhancing perceived proximity on probability judgments. Furthermore, we propose that inflated probability judgments could in turn abate perceived impact level of the event.

[to cite]: Hui-Yun Chen and Elise Chandon Ince (2011) ,"If It’S Similar, It’S More Likely… But Can It Be Worth It? Perceived Similarity, Probability and Outcome Value", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, eds. Darren W. Dahl, Gita V. Johar, and Stijn M.J. van Osselaer, Duluth, MN : Association for Consumer Research.

[url]: http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/16111/volumes/v38/NA-38

[copyright notice]: This work is copyrighted by The Association for Consumer Research. For permission to copy or use this work in whole or in part, please contact the Copyright Clearance Center at http://www.copyright.com/. 568 / Top 10 or #10?: How Positional Inferences Influence the Effectiveness of Category Membership Claims to social judgments, which may be somewhat more motivational Liberman, Nira, Michael D. Sagristano, and Yaacov Trope and less cognitive in nature. (2002), “The Effect of Temporal Distance on Level of Mental Construal,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38 REFERENCES (6), 523-34. Agrawal, Nidhi and Echo Wen Wan (2009), “Regulating Risk or Meyer, Wulf-Uwe, Michael Niperl, Udo Rudolph, and Achim Risking Regulation? Construal Levels and Depletion Effects Schützwohl (1991), “An Experimental Analysis of Surprise,” in the Processing of Health Messages,” Journal of Consumer Cognition and Emotion, 5, 295-311. Research, 36 (3), 448-62. 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Extended Abstract Across four different studies, we find that unrelated, prior Detecting change is a fundamental, all-pervasive cognitive exposure to narrow (vs. broad) categorizations improves decision activity. It forms the core of many cognitive activities, such as makers’ ability to detect a visual change (study 1) and leads to visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile discrimination tasks, simi- stronger reactions to a given change (studies 2-4). These differential larity judgments, and categorization. Naturally then, the ability to reactions occur because the prior categorizations, albeit unrelated, detect a change, to accurately assess the magnitude of the change, alter the extent to which the subsequently presented change is per- and to react to the change in a commensurate fashion, is of critical ceived as either a relatively large change or a relatively small one. importance in many substantive domains (Massey and Wu 2005, Each experiment comprised two, ostensibly unrelated stud- Rensink 2002), ranging from medical decisions, business invest- ies. The first task was used to administer the prior categorization ment decisions, and face recognition, to air traffic control. Thus, it manipulation and the second task was used to record reactions to a is important to understand factors that systematically affect people’s presented change (Figure 1). We began by looking at how these prior ability to detect change. To that end, we document a simple, yet categorizations affect a person’s ability to detect a presented visual novel effect: people’s reactions to a change (e.g., visual change, or change, using well-established stimuli from the “change-blindness” technology change), are systematically affected by the categoriza- paradigm (study 1). We then went on to looking at judgments that tions they encounter in an unrelated, prior task (e.g., how a wine are contingent on people’s subjective reactions to a presented store categorizes its wines). change (studies 2-4). Specifically, we assessed their reactions to Before surmising about reactions to change, it is important an innovative new technology that loomed in the horizon. A pretest to consider, more generally, how exposure to many, narrow (vs. was used to verify that the new technologies were perceived to be few, broad) categorizations might affect an individual’s informa- relatively innovative. tion processing. First, an individual who is exposed to a detailed We operationalized the fine grained nature of the decision environment with many, narrow (vs. few, broad) categories, should context in multiple ways. In some instances participants answered be cued to the notion that objects differ from each other in many preference questions presented either on relatively simple 3-point different ways, and will fine tune her cognitive apparatus accord- semantic differential scales, or on more differentiated 7-point ones. ingly, using more (vs. less) dimensions to perceive and evaluate In other instances, participants are incidentally exposed to the same objects (e.g., see Barsalou 1993, Linville 1982). Further, as long as set of products that have been grouped either in a coarse-grained the subsequent context does not cue the need for cognitive reorga- manner (e.g., movies classified as comedy or drama movies), or in nization, the recently tuned cognitive apparatus will likely be used, a fine-grained manner (e.g., movies classified as comic action, dark as is, for the next task at hand (e.g., see Bargh and Chartrand 2000, comedy, romantic comedy, courtroom drama, historical drama, or Smith and Branscombe 1987, Mullen, Pizzuto, and Foels 2002, melodrama movies). Irrespective of the nature of the manipulation, Ülkümen, Chakravarti, and Morwitz (forthcoming)). Therefore, we find a very similar pattern of carryover effects. in a subsequent, unrelated task, an individual previously exposed The manipulations used show that even incidental exposure to to narrow (broad) categorizations is likely to continue to employ narrow-broad categorizations can have a systematic effect on change and discern relatively many (fewer) dimensions. detection, and reactions to change. Interestingly, the effects are not This brings us to the more specific question: how would such attributable to differential involvement, confidence, familiarity, an individual react to a change that she subsequently encounters? knowledge, mood, and task completion times. Taken together, these Theoretically, there are two distinct possibilities. If the perceptual findings suggest the interesting possibility that decision makers can system alone is affected, then people previously exposed to many, become more discerning, even in the absence of having exerted any narrow (few, broad) categorizations should have a more (less) sensi- extra effort. Given that category structure is a ubiquitous feature tive perceptual encoding system, one that is attuned to processing of many decision environments, our work constitutes an important incoming perceptual stimuli on relatively many (fewer) dimensions. first step in documenting how seemingly innocuous categorizations Such people, therefore, should detect and perceive more (less) might affect a decision maker’s reactions to change. change, subjectively, when they encounter a subsequent change. In this case, then, prior exposure to unrelated, narrow (broad) catego- REFERENCES rizations will lead to stronger (weaker) reactions to a given change. Bargh, John A, and Tanya L. 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EXTENDED ABSTRACT functional alignment with the marketable product, then the very In some industries, it is a common practice to develop prototypes high (extreme) levels of performance on the technical functionalities that are very innovative and that are loosely coupled with the actual are likely to influence negatively the evaluation of the marketable product that is subsequently marketed. These prototypes are referred product, since the latter typically features more moderate levels to as concept products, and are usually exhibited at trade shows and of performance on those same technical functionalities than the at industry events. They typically feature technical functionalities former. However, it may be that the concept product features dif- that are very innovative, sometimes too advanced to be implemented ferent technical functionalities (low functional alignment) than the on large scale production, and are typically characterized by an marketable car. Therefore, it is less easy for consumers to compare extreme design, often too futuristic to be featured by marketable the features of the concept product with those of the marketable versions without substantial adaptations and moderations. products, since non-alignable differences are harder to compare By means of theories on the effects of exaggeration and on than alignable differences (Markman and Gentner 1996; Gentner structural alignment, we argue that exposure to the design and and Markman 1993). In such case, consumers would be less likely functionalities of concept products may affect consumer evaluation to be influenced by the extreme performance of the concept product of marketed products. Specifically, we predict a positive effect of when they evaluate the marketable product (H4). exposure to a visually exaggerated concept product on the judgment Results of two experimental studies using concept cars and cars of the marketed product (H1): when a novel design is preceded by as stimuli support our hypotheses and show that i) exposure to a exposure to its exaggerated form, i.e., the concept product, exag- visually exaggerated concept product positively affect the judgment geration may attract subjects’ attention to the distinctive features of of a moderate product featuring a similar design, and moderates the the design more than in the case of exposure to a non-exaggerated negative effects of the concept product functional exaggeration; ii) exemplar (Rhodes, Brennan and Carey 1987; Mauro and Kubovy the degree of functional alignment between a concept product and a 1992; Rhodes and Tremewan 1996). Moreover, the emphasis on marketed product negatively affects the judgment of the marketed the distinctive features of the design provided by exaggeration is product upon exposure to the concept product, with this effect feasible to leave a stronger trace in subjects’ implicit memory. This being moderated by the degree of visual alignment between the trace may eventually enhance the ease in elaborating those features concept product and the marketed product. Our results contribute when subjects encounter other exemplars, more moderate, of the to shed light on the role of concept products on the evaluation of same design, thus enhancing their evaluation. We expect, howe- marketed products, thus emphasizing a different way in which the ver, that functional exaggeration of the concept product moderate use of design in the initial stages of new product development may such effect (H2): On the one hand, we expect that exposure to an enhance new product performance. exemplar featuring very high (extreme) levels of performance on a given functional feature may set a new standard for the judgment of other exemplars on that same feature, causing a contrast effect that hurts the judgment of the other exemplars (Herr, Sherman and Fazio 1983; Herr 1986). On the other hand, however, the occurrence of such contrast effect is contingent upon the degree of context-target similarity, i.e., occurs only both the priming (concept product) and target (marketed product) are judged as belonging to the same category (Stapel and Winkielman 1998). An exaggerated design (high visual exaggeration) may favor the perception of the concept product as less thematically or temporally related, thus reducing the contrast effect due to the concept product exaggerated functionalities on the judgment of the moderate target product. Concept products may feature different degrees of visual and functional alignment with their respective marketed versions. For instance, firms may invest in developing and promoting a very advanced technological feature within a concept project, but then implement and promote different features in the moderate marketed version. Similarly, they can develop very innovative and futuristic designs for their concept products, but then base the actually marketed products on different and less disruptive designs. We argue that the visual alignment between the concept product and the marketed product influences negatively the judgment of the marketed product (H3), since it activates a ‘thematic link’ between the two objects in consumers’ mind. The more the two products are visually aligned, the higher likelihood that they are judged as belonging to the same category and thus compared in terms of functionalities. Once this link is activated, it leads to an implicit comparison between the technical features of the concept product and those of the marketa- ble product. In the case in which the concept product features high 571 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Choosing versus Rejecting: How Power Shapes our Decision Strategies Mehdi Mourali, University of Calgary, Canada Anish Nagpal, University of Melbourne, Australia

Extended Abstract in turn, would lead to reduced approach-related tendencies and When deciding among several alternatives, consumers may reduced preference for choosing versus rejecting. Our data showed proceed by choosing (selecting, including) the most attractive op- that the effect of power on decision strategy indeed disappeared tion. Alternatively, they may adopt a decision strategy of rejecting when consumers’ sense of responsibility was made salient. We also (eliminating, excluding) the unattractive options. The literature on found that a high sense of responsibility makes both high and low task framing investigates whether choosing and rejecting are two power consumers more satisfied with their choices after adopting sides of the same coin. The principle of task invariance requires a reject strategy than after adopting a choose strategy. that decision makers should arrive at the same conclusion about product choice regardless of whether they reject or choose from References the same finite set. However, past research has shown that the Keltner, Dacher, Deborah H. Gruenfeld, and Cameron Anderson principle of task invariance does not always hold, and that decision (2003), “Power, Approach, and Inhibition,” Psychological outcomes are sensitive to which decision strategy consumers adopt Review, 110 (April), 265-84. (e.g., Park, Jun, and MacInnis 2000; Shafir 1993). Prior research Levin, Irwin P., Carolyn M. Prosansky, Daniel Heller, and Brad has focused primarily on the consequences of framing a decision M. Brunick (2001), “Prescreening of Choice Options in as either a choosing task or a rejecting task. However, much less in “Positive” and “Negative” Decision Making Tasks,” Journal known about the circumstances under which consumers are more of Behavioral Decision Making, 14 (4), 279-93. inclined to choose versus reject. Initially, Shafir (1993) noted that Ordonez, Lisa D., Lehman Benson III, & Lee Roy Beach (1999), choosing might be the more preferred strategy relative to rejecting. “Testing the Compatibility Test: How instructions, account- Conversely, Ordonez, Benson, and Beach (1999) concluded that ability, and anticipated regret affect pre-choice screening the norm during screening tasks seems to be to reject the bad op- of options,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision tions rather than to screen in the good ones. Later investigations, Processes, 78 (1), 63-80. however, revealed that the natural process for screening choice Park, C. Whan, Sung Youl Jun, and Deborah J. MacInnis (2000), options is dependent on the characteristics of the decision task. “Choosing What I Want versus Rejecting What I Do Not Levin et al. (2001), for instance, found that people are more likely Want: An Application of Decision Framing to Product Option to favor an inclusion strategy when the task is positive (e.g., hiring Choice Decisions,” Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (2), employees), while preferring a rejection strategy when the task is 187-202. negative (e.g., firing employees). Shafir, Eldar (1993), “Choosing versus Rejecting: Why Some The present research goes beyond the influence of task charac- Options are both Better and Worse than Others,” Memory and teristics, and examines the role of power–a consumer characteristic– Cognition, 21 (4), 546-56. in determining the preferred decision strategy. It also investigates the interactive effect of power and task frame on consumer satisfaction with the chosen option. Building on the approach/inhibition theory of power (Keltner et al. 2003), we hypothesize that activation of the behavioral approach system would make choosing a more natural strategy than rejecting for powerful consumers, whereas activation of the behavioral inhibition system would make rejecting a more natural strategy than choosing for powerless consumers. Indeed, activation of the behavioral approach system results in greater attention to potential rewards and positive outcomes. This should lead powerful consumers to favor a decision strategy that accentu- ates the choice options’ positive features, which is more typical of a choosing strategy (Shafir 1993). In contrast, activation of the behavioral inhibition system heightens the perception of threat in the environment. Further, a focus on threats and negative outcomes is likely to emphasize the choice options’ negative features. Since negative features tend to be weighted more heavily under rejection instructions than under choosing instructions (Shafir 1993), we predict that powerless consumers are likely to prefer rejecting over choosing decision strategies. Consistent with our predictions, study 1 found that a height- ened sense of power increases preference for choosing versus rejecting. Further, high power consumers were more satisfied with their choices when they adopted a choose strategy than when they adopted a reject strategy. Conversely, low power consumers were more satisfied with their choices when they adopted a reject strategy than when they adopted a choose strategy. In study 2, we investigated the moderating role of responsibil- ity. We argued that a heightened sense of responsibility would raise the perceived constraints that a powerful individual feels which, 572 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 How Objective and Subjective Mental Resources Influence Task Performance: Testing the “I Worked Hard, I Must Be Depleted” Hypothesis Anick Bosmans, Tilburg University, The Netherlands Rik Pieters, Tilburg University, The Netherlands Hans Baumgartner, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Extended Abstract measured. We observed that, as long as actual depletion levels were At the end of an extensive shopping trip or after a complicated low, people inferred the amount of resources available for a task from decision task, we should be depleted. We worked hard, so we must the perceived difficulty level of the preceding (anagram) task. That be tired, not? How will this influence how much resources we will is, when people believed that the preceding task was difficult, they allocate to a subsequent task? felt more depleted and allocated fewer resources to a subsequent task We test the hypothesis that resource allocation to a task depends compared to when they believed that the preceding task was easy. not only on the actual amount of resources available for a task, In study 3, we tested the hypothesis that people would be less but also on consumers’ inferences about the amount of resources likely to infer available resources from the perceived demands of a available. More specifically, we propose and test the idea that infer- preceding task when both tasks appear dissimilar. Indeed, when we ences about the resource demands of preceding tasks (regardless explicitly instructed participants that both tasks drew on different of that task’s actual demands) affect the amount of resources that psychological processes and resources, the amount of resources will be allocated to a subsequent task. When people believe that a consumed in the past was no longer informative when assessing preceding task was difficult, they will allocate fewer resources to a the amount of resources available for a subsequent task and the “I subsequent (unrelated) task and task performance on this task will worked hard, I must be depleted” effect disappeared. thus detoriate, compared to when people believe that the preceding In sum, we observed that resource allocation to a current task task was easy. does not only depend on the actual amount of resources available Of course, resource allocation to a task depends on the demands for that task, but is also a function of the inferences that people set by that task (Locke and Latham 1990), and on the amount of make about the amount of resources they assume to have available. resources the consumer has available for that task. When a demand- Characteristics of the context, such as the perceived ease or difficulty ing preceding task has depleted one’s pool of mental resources, of a preceding task, can inform people about how many resources insufficient resources will be available for subsequent tasks and task they can allocate to subsequent tasks. These findings reveal the great performance will decrease (Ackerman and Kanfer 2009; Baumeister flexibility in resource allocation that consumers have and show that et al. 2008; Vohs et al. 2008). resource depletion is not necessarily an objective phenomenon. Our Research on the effects of resource scarcity has mainly focused studies show that not only the actual level of resource depletion, but on the objective amount of mental resources available (i.e., how also consumers’ naïve theories about when they should or should many resources one actually has available), but little is known about not be depleted determine subsequent task performance. whether and how beliefs about resource availability (i.e. how many resources one assumes to have available for a task) affect resource REFERENCES allocation to a current task. 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Inhibition Spill-Over: Sensations of Peeing Urgency Lead to Increased Impulse Control in Unrelated Domains Mirjam Tuk, University of Twente, The Netherlands Debra Trampe, University of Groningen, The Netherlands Luk Warlop, Catholic University Leuven, Belgium

EXTENDED ABSTRACT Carver and White 1994). In line with our expectations, peeing People often encounter decision situations in which they have urgency had a stronger effect on intertemporal patience for people to choose between an option that is on the short term more reward- with a relatively sensitive BIS compared to people with a relatively ing and attractive, and another option that is on the long term the insensitive BIS. more beneficial one, like choosing between going out for dinner In study 3, we examined whether the inhibition system can tonight versus saving money for retirement. When people follow also be triggered by exogenous cues. We primed half of the respon- their impulses (prefer the more immediate option) and when people dents with the concept of peeing, which we expected to induce an resist impulsive input (and opt for the more long-term beneficial increase in peeing urgency. In line with this reasoning, we found that option), has been an important topic of previous research (e.g., Vohs the peeing prime induced an increase in reported peeing urgency, 2006). Recent research adds to this domain by providing evidence which subsequently significantly influenced intertemporal patience. for the existence of a general reward system (Briers et al. 2006; Van Mediation analysis was significant. den Bergh, Dewitte, and Warlop 2008). When people’s desire for a Finally, in study 4 we show that increased peeing urgency also reward is triggered (e.g., by the sight, smell or taste of rewarding impacts performance on a task that stongly relies on inhibition, stimuli), their desire for any kind of reward increases, rather than namely switching abilities in a stroop task (Stroop 1935). When only their desire for stimuli that are directly linked to the aroused people had to pee relatively more urgently, they could more easily state. For example, exposing people to a consumption sample of a switch between two tasks (word naming versus color naming), tasty food does not only increase their desire for food, but also their indicating that they were relatively better in inhibiting the previ- desire for other rewarding goods (like beverages and a holiday). ously learned behavior (which interferes with the currently required In the current research, we argue that inhibitory signals behavior after switching between two tasks). are domain unspecific. Recent neurological research (Berkman, The results of these four studies provide support for inhibition Burklund, and Lieberman 2009) suggests that inhibitory signals spill-over effects. With this research, we contribute to recent neuro- in the motor, cognitive and affective domain share the same neu- logical research suggesting that people possess a general inhibition rological network. Berkman and colleagues argue for the relative system (Berkman et al. 2009), by providing behavioral data that efficiency of such a network from a neurological point of view. suggests in the same direction. This suggests that inhibition spill- However, a side-effect of such a shared network is the possibility over effects are not only of neurological nature, but also show itself that inhibitory signals are not completely domain specific, but can in human behavior. Furthermore, this research contributes to the spill-over to other domains and result in an unintentional increase current knowledge about impulse control. We show that increased in inhibitory signals in unrelated domains as well. Berkman et al. impulse control can be the unintentional side-effect of increased provide neurological evidence for inhibition spill-over effects. We inhibition in an unrelated domain (e.g., bladder control). We provide aim to provide evidence for inhibition spill-over from a behavioral evidence for inhibition spill-over effects on an intertemporal choice point of view. We argue that inhibitory signals from one domain task which is quite deliberative in nature, but also on a task relying can spill-over and result in more impulse inhibition in unrelated more on automatic responses, namely response times on a stroop domains. One important physiological condition that largely relies task. This suggests that inhibition spill-over is a relatively automatic on inhibitory signals is bladder control. As the bladder becomes process. The current research suggests that impulse control does increasingly full, the impulse (immediate voiding) has to be inhibited not necessarily rely on an energy consuming resource that can be- until an appropriate place and time. This inhibition occurs during come depleted after previous acts of self-control, but can also be a most parts of the day, and is relatively automatized since an early by-product of inhibitory signals in a completely unrelated domain. age. Griffiths and Tadic (2008) show that the inhibitory signal stems from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC), which is also one of the REFERENCES brain areas identified as an important part of the general inhibition Berkman, Elliot T., Lisa Burklund, and Matthew D. Lieberman network. In the current research, we argue that increased inhibitory (2009), “Inhibitory Spillover: Intentional Motor Inhibition signals due to increased bladder control will spill-over to unrelated Produces Incidental Limbic Inhibition Via Right Inferior domains and result in increased impulse control. Frontal Cortex,” Neuroimage, 47 (2), 705-12. In the first study, we manipulate peeing urgency by means of Briers, Barbara, Mario Pandelaere, Siegfried Dewitte, and Luk a water drink test approximately one hour upfront. After one hour Warlop (2006), “Hungry for Money-the Desire for Caloric passed, respondents engaged in an intertemporal choice task (adapted Resources Increases the Desire for Financial Resources and from Li 2008). They were asked to choose eight times between Vice Versa,” Psychological Science, 17 (11), 939-43. either a smaller but sooner reward, or a later but larger reward. Carver, Charles S. and Teri L. White (1994), “Behavioral- Foregoing a smaller but more immediate reward in order to obtain Inhibition, Behavioral Activation, and Affective Responses a later, but larger reward requires impulse control. Manipulation to Impending Reward and Punishment-the Bis Bas Scales,” checks showed significant differences in reported peeing urgency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67 (2), 319-33. In line with our expectations, respondents more often chose for the Griffiths, Derek and Stasa D. Tadic (2008), “Bladder Control, later larger reward when they had to pee more urgently. Urgency, and Urge Incontinence: Evidence from Functional In the second study, we show that sensitivity of the Behavioral Brain Imaging,” Neurourology and Urodynamics, 27 (6), Inhibition System (BIS) moderates this effect. BIS is known to be 466-74. involved in response inhibition and punishment avoidance (e.g., 575 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 576 / Inhibition Spill-Over: Sensations of Peeing Urgency Lead to Increased Impulse Control in Unrelated Domains Li, Xiuping P. (2008), “The Effects of Appetitive Stimuli on out- of-Domain Consumption Impatience,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (5), 649-56. Stroop, John R. (1935), “Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-62. 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Extended Abstract Respondents were then shown a virtual model based on their body Apparel is one of the big success stories of online retailing, with dimensions. After viewing the model, respondents assessed the double digit sales growth in recent years (Mui 2007). As competi- quality (3 item α =.93) and accuracy (2 items r = .88) of the model, tion has intensified, online retailers have begun to rely on product and their interest in using such a model in the future (2 items r = visualization technologies, such as virtual models. While product .91). Finally, they responded to BID and BBA items. visualization tools have been shown to enhance the retail experience Body image discrepancy (BID) was assessed using the scale (Daugherty, Li, and Biocca 2008; Kim and Forsythe 2008), most developed by Cash and Szymanski (Cash and Szymanski 1995); research ignores the potential for individual differences to influence respondents rate how well they match their ideals on eleven physi- their effectiveness. In high body-involvement categories, such as cal characteristics and indicate the importance of each aspect. The apparel, the effectiveness of product visualization may depend on 11 items form a single factor (α =.81) with higher score indicating consumers’ perceptions and beliefs about their physical body in higher BID. ways that potentially limit its accuracy and effectiveness. Body boundary aberration was assessed using a scale developed To explore the influence of body beliefs, we surveyed women by Chapman et al. (Chapman, Chapman, and Raulin 1978), subjects consumers to examine how two different body belief systems affect responded to 49 statements with 10 BBA items interspersed. The 10 their perception of virtual model accuracy and willingness to use items form a single factor (α =.87), with higher scores signifying them. We focus on how two distinct types of body beliefs–body higher BBA. The BBA scores are widely distributed; 1-1.99 (highest image discrepancy (Cash 1994; Cash and Szymanski 1995) and BBA) = 4%, 2-2.99 =14%, 3-3.99 =45%, 4-5 (lowest BBA) = 37%. body boundary aberration (Fisher1986). Body image discrepancy As expected, the two body beliefs are not highly correlated (r = .11). (BID) is a cognitive evaluation of how well the appearance of vari- The structural equation model shows an acceptable level of ous aspects of our body (e.g., hair, muscle tone, body proportions, fit (SRMR of .05, TLI of 0.95, NFI of 0.94, and RMSEA of 0.04) and weight) aligns with our ideals for those body parts (Cash 1994; with all of the hypothesized relationships as expected and statisti- Cash and Szymanski 1995), weighted for the importance of that cally significant. Virtual model accuracy γ( = .315, p < .00) has a aspect. Body boundary aberration (BBA) addresses the individual’s positive influence on consumer intentions to use virtual models. sense of the location and stability of the edges of his or her body Body Boundary Aberration has a positive influence on virtual (Fisher 1970, 1973). The alignment of the body boundary with model accuracy (γ = .117, p < .00), consistent with the idea that the skin surface differs between persons. BBA occurs when an consumers high in BBA consider renditions that highlight the body’s individual’s sense of the location of that edge does not align with edges more accurate. In contrast, Body Image Discrepancy (γ = their skin surface (Fisher 1970, 1986). It is possible for our sense -.120, p = .00) has a negative influence on assessed virtual model of body containment to either move inward from the skin surface or accuracy, suggesting that consumer whose body image differs sub- extend beyond it to incorporate immediately adjacent objects. One stantially from their held ideals are less likely to consider virtual example of mild BBA is the sense of nakedness and vulnerability models accurate. As expected, quality perceptions have a positive when a habitually worn accessory (e.g., hat, bra, watch, or ring) influence on assessed virtual model accuracy γ( = .507, p = .00) is absent. Another example is the enhanced sense of power when and intentions to use models (γ = .486, p = .00). The SEM results wearing bold colors or tightly-woven dense fabrics (Fisher 1986). affirm our expectations that body beliefs influence consumer as- Body image discrepancy should negatively influence perceived sessments of the accuracy of virtual models even after accounting virtual model accuracy. High body image discrepancy exists when for quality perceptions. consumers believe that aspects of their looks do not meet important Additional SEM analyses show that the effects of body beliefs standards, suggesting a more critical view of the self in the mirror. on model usage intentions are fully mediated by their influence on This same critical eye should be used to assess the accuracy of any perceived accuracy. All alternative models lead to substantial reduc- representation that purports to serve the same function as a mirror. tions in model fit, supporting that the influence of body beliefs on Body Boundary Aberration is expected to have a positive intentions to use virtual model is mediated by perceived accuracy. influence on the perceived accuracy of virtual models by virtue of the reassurance that comes from seeing a stand-alone representation References of the self with unambiguous boundaries. High BBA consumers Blakeslee, Sandra. (2004), “When the Brain Says, ‘Don’t Get glean reassurance from seeing their boundaries well-defined, and Too Close’,” The New York Times, (July 13, 2004). we expect that a representation of self with well defined edges Cash, Thomas F. (1994), “Body-Image Attitudes: Evaluation, against a neutral and uniform background will be reassuring to Investment, and Affect,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 78:3, consumers with high BBA. pt2, 1168-1170. Perceived model quality captures how effectively the model ______and Szymanski, Marcela L. (1995), “The Development can represent how the clothing looks and fits. It is expected to and Validation of the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire,” positively influence both their perception of how accurately the Journal of Personality Assessment 64:3, 466-477. model can represent them and how likely they would be to use Chapman, Loren J., Chapman, Jean P. and Raulin, Michael L. it. Both perceived accuracy and quality are expected to positively (1978), “Body-Image Aberration in Schizophrenia,” Journal influence usage intentions. of Abnormal Psychology 87:4, 399-407. Using an online panel, a sample of 978 women consumers ClickZ Stats Staff, (2003), “June 2003 Internet Usage Stats”, was collected. The demographics closely match the U.S. Internet ClickZ.com, Retrieved October 17th, 2009, from http://www. consumer population (ClickZ 2003). The respondents answered clickz.com/stats/big_picture/traffic_patterns/article. questions about their web usage, interest in apparel, online apparel php/2237901 purchase habits and demographics, including height and weight. 577 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 578 / Body Beliefs Shape the Perceived Accuracy of Virtual Models Daugherty, Terry, Li, Hairong, and Biocca, Frank (2008), “Con- Westland, J. Christopher and Au, Grace (1997), “A Comparison sumer Learning and the Effects of Virtual Experience Rela- of Shopping Experiences across Three Competing Digital tive to Indirect and Direct Product Experience,” Psychology Retailing Interfaces,” International Journal of Electronic & Marketing, 25:7, 568-586. Commerce 2:2, 57-69. Fiore, Ann Marie, Kim, Jihyun, and Lee, Hyun-Hwa (2005), Yadav, Manjit S. and Varadarajan, P. Rajan (2005), “Understand- “Effect of Image Interactivity Technology on Consumer ing Product Migration to the Electronic Marketplace: A Responses toward the Online Retailer,” Journal of Interactive Conceptual Framework,” Journal of Retailing 81:2, 125-140. Marketing, 19:3, 38-53. Fisher, Seymour (1970), Body Experience in Fantasy and Behav- ior, New York: Meredith Corp. ______(1973), Body Consciousness: You Are What You Feel. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ______(1986), Development and Structure of the Body Image, vol. 1 and 2, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Griffith, David A.; Krampf, Robert F. and Palmer, Jonathan W. (2001), “The Role of Interface in Electronic Commerce: Consumer Involvement with Print versus On-line Catalogs,” International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 5:4, 135-153. Halls, Steven B. (2000), “Average Height and Weight Charts,” Halls.md Health Calculators and Charts. Retrieved on 10/2/06 from http://www.halls.md/chart/height-weight. htm. 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(2007), “Online Sales Shift: Apparel Outpaced Computers in ’06,” Washingtonpost.com, http://www. washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/05/13/ AR2007051301263.html, accessed February 19th 2009. Nantel, Jacques (2004), “My Virtual Model: Virtual Reality Comes into Fashion,” Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18:8, 73-86. Pastore, Michael (2001), “Online Consumers Now the Average Consumer,” ClickZ.com, Retrieved October 17th 2009, from http://www.clickz.com/stats/big_picture/demographics/ article.php/800201. Rosa, Josa A., Garbarino, Ellen, and Malter, Alan J. (2006), “Keeping the Body in Mind: The Influence of Body Esteem and Body Boundary Aberration on Consumer Beliefs and Purchase Intentions,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 16:1, 79-91. Rust, Roland T. and Lemon, Katherine N. (2001), “E-Service and the Consumer,” International Journal of Electronic Com- merce 5:3, 85-101. Satisfaction in the Context of Customer Co-Production: A Behavioral Involvement Perspective David Hunt, University of Wyoming, USA Stephanie Geiger Oneto, University of Wyoming, USA Philip Varca, University of Wyoming, USA

Extended Abstract a high concentration of CSA locations. One-hundred ninety-eight Customer satisfaction has a decades-long history of research individuals, serving on a panel at a large marketing research firm, in marketing. Scholarly interest has been sustained by evidence completed an online survey. Results showed several significant that satisfaction leads to loyalty (Suh and Yi 2006), efficiency of differences between CSA and non-CSA members. First, CSA promotional programs (Luo and Homburg 2008), and financial users were found to have greater levels of satisfaction with their performance (Anderson, Fornell, and Mazvancheryl 2004; Fornell, vegetables than traditional grocery shoppers. Second, CSA members Mithas, Morgeson, and Krishnan 2006). reported more behavioral involvement in food-related activities than Against this backdrop of the established importance of sat- traditional supermarket shoppers. Third, the relationship between isfaction, marketing appears to be undergoing a paradigm shift CSA membership and product satisfaction was found to be mediated from goods dominant logic to services-dominant logic (S-D Logic: by behavioral involvement in food-related activities. Finally, this Vargo and Lusch 2008; Vargo and Lusch 2004). That is, marketing mediated effect is more robust with time. In other words, continued scholars and practitioners have shifted their focus from tangible behavioral involvement increases the likelihood of continued CSA resources, to intangible resources, the co-creation of value, and membership and increases in product satisfaction. relationships (Vargo and Lusch 2004). A cornerstone of S-D Logic Our findings suggest that the relationship between greater is the assumption that consumers are integrated in value creation customer co-production and greater satisfaction can be explained from the initial stages of design through the entire usage life of a by a dissonance-reduction framework. The effort demanded from product (Lusch, Vargo, and O’Brien 2007). co-production produces dissonance that is reduced by strong feel- This development reflects a dramatic shift in researchers’ inter- ings of satisfaction with the product. These findings are consistent est in consumer behaviors that occur after a market transaction to with the inherent value from co-production suggested by Vargo and consumer behaviors that are wholly integrated throughout produc- Lusch (2004). Lusch, Vargo, and O’Brien (2007) argue that con- tion and consumption. This wholly integrated role of consumers sumers add value to product experiences through both pre-purchase likely is not devoid of implications for consumers’ evaluations of co-production and post-purchase consumption activities. That is, their experiences with goods. The influence of behaviors on a broad consumers collectively create value through both co-production and range of experiences is well established (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). value-in-use activities (Merz, He, and Vargo 2009). By demonstrating However, despite evidence that behaviors influence attitudes and significant relationships between satisfaction and both commitment despite the increasing emphasis on customer value creation, research to co-production and behavioral involvement in the product category, has not addressed the degree to which behavioral engagement in our study provides empirical support for both types of value-adding value creation activities relates to customer satisfaction. activities proposed by service-dominant logic theorists. The present study aims to address this gap by examining the extent to which behavioral commitment to value creation is associ- References ated with satisfaction with the product. Our study differs from past Anderson, E. W., Fornell, C., & Mazvancheryl, S. (2004). Cus- studies in that we examine how behavioral variables, as opposed tomer satisfaction and shareholder value. Journal of Market- to attitudinal variables, relate to customer satisfaction outcomes. ing, 68(October), 172-185. Satisfaction studies grounded in an attitudinal perspective are limited Fishbein, M & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and in the degree to which they can explain how the behavioral demands behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, of customer value creation relate to satisfaction. MA: Addison-Wesley. The produce product category reflects a market landscape Fornell, C., Mithas, S., Morgeson, F. V., & Krishnan, M. S. where some consumers are presented with choices between tra- (2006). Customer satisfaction and stock prices: High returns, ditional market channels or less traditional channels that require low risk. Journal of Marketing, 70(January), 3-14. greater customer co-production. Understanding why consumers Lusch, R. F., Vargo, S. L., and O’Brien, M. (2007). Competing pursue and remain within alternative market channels has obvious through service: Insights from service-dominant logic. Jour- implications for marketing practice. However, a conceptual frame- nal of Retailing, 83(1), 5-18. work for understanding these consumer decisions is a necessary Luo, X. & Homburg, C. (2008). Satisfaction, complaint, and the prerequisite for developing generalizable practices. We argue here stock value gap. Journal of Marketing, 72(July), 29-43. that dissonance theory is an apt framework for examining the co- Suh, J. C. & Yi, Y. (2006). When brand attitudes affect the production effects that occur in non-traditional market channels. customer satisfaction-loyalty relation: The moderating role The purpose of this paper is to add to the current research on of product involvement. Journal of Consumer psychology, consumer satisfaction by 1) using CSAs as a context to test Vargo 16(2), 145-155. and Lusch’s (2004) service dominant logic, 2) offering an initial Vargo, S. L. & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a new dominant conceptual frame for understanding consumer satisfaction in this logic for marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(January), 1-17. CSA context; 3) developing a framework for further research and practical steps for increasing the market for alternative food chan- nels such as CSAs. In order to test our theoretical framework, data were collected in three urban areas using a stratified random sample design. Re- spondents were randomly recruited from zip codes found to have 579 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 The Impact of Emotions on Customers’ Perception of Website Atmospheric Cues: An Empirical Cross-Cultural Investigation Ebrahim Mazaheri, Concordia University, Canada Marie-Odile Richard, University of Montreal, Canada Michel Laroche, Concordia University, Canada

Extended Abstract turn impacted purchase intentions. Moreover, the result suggested Eroglu, Machleit and David (2001) categorized the environ- that the impacts of low-task relevant cues on site attitudes and site mental cues into two groups: high- and low-task relevant cues. involvement are stronger for Chinese customers compared to their They defined high-task relevant cues as all the site descriptors on Canadian counterparts. On the other hand, customers’ perceptions the screen which facilitate the consumer’s shopping goal attain- of high-task relevant cues on site attitudes and involvement was ment and low-task relevant cues as the ones that are “relatively found to be stronger for Canadian customers compared to their inconsequential to the completion of the shopping task” (p. 180). Chinese counterparts. Previous research has studied the importance of site atmo- spheric cues such as site informativeness and entertainment (e.g. References Davis, Wang, Lingridge, 2008; Hausman and Siekpe, 2009; Richard, Davis L., Wang S., and Lindridge A. (2008). Culture influences 2005). It has been suggested that these site atmospheric cues influ- on emotional responses to on-line store atmospheric cues. ence customers variables such as website attitudes, involvement, Journal of Business Research, 61, 806-812. flow, and purchase intentions (Hausman and Siekpe, 2009; Richard Eroglu, S. A., Machleit, K. A., and Davis, L. M. (2001). Atmo- and Chandra, 2005). Surprisingly, the impact of emotions is often spheric qualities of online retailing: A conceptual model and ignored in customers’ evaluation of site atmospheric cues. The implications. Journal of Business Research, 54 (2), 177-184. purpose of this research is twofold: First, consistent with Zajonc’s Hausman, A.V. and Siekpe, J.S. (2009). The effect of web (1980) theory of emotions we propose that the customers’ emotions interface features on consumer online purchase intentions. arise upon the initial Internet experience, which influence other Journal of Business Research, 62, 5-13. affective and cognitive variables. As a result, we investigated the Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of impacts of emotions on customers’ perception of site high-task and the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. low-task relevant atmospheric cues. Then, following the Stimulus- Mehrabian, A., and Russell, J. A. (1974). The basic emotional Organism-Response (SOR) framework developed by Mehrabian impact of environments. Perception Motor Skills, 38, 283- and Russell (1972) and previous literature, we hypothesize the 301. impacts of customers’ perception of site atmospheric cues on other Richard, M.-O. (2005). Modeling the impact of internet atmo- consumer variables such as site attitudes and site involvement, and spherics on surfer . Journal of Business Research, 58(12), purchase intention. 1632-1642. Second, the attempt was made to compare the proposed model Richard, M.-O., and Chandra, R. (2005). A model of consumer between two cultures: Chinese and Canadian. Given the wide reach web navigational : Conceptual development and application. of Internet and the fact that culture does impact the customers’ Journal of Business Research, 58(8), 1019-1029. responses to store atmospherics (Davice, Wang, and Lindridge, Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no 2008); it is crucial to explore the role of culture in customers’ inferences. American Psychologist, 35(2), 151-175. reactions to the online store atmospherics. Based on Hofstede’s (1991) cultural value dimensions, we hypothesized that the impact of high- and low- task relevant cues on customer variables vary across the two cultures. For testing the hypotheses, 8 service industries were chosen: ho- tels, online bookstores, dental services, banks, vacation destination, restaurants, financial investments and plastic surgery. We selected four websites four dental services, two sites for online bookstores, four sites for restaurants, two sites for financial investments, four sites for hotels, four sites for plastic surgery, three sites for vacation destinations and two sites for banks. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of the twenty five websites. They were exposed to a real website of a service company and were asked to surf the site and collect information Data were collected online using a computer lab in a large Northeastern university. After elimination, the data consist of 234 Chinese (54% female and 46% male) and 350 Canadian (58% female and 42% male). The majority of the respondents were undergraduate students (98.3% of Chinese and 98.9% of Canadian) between the age of 18 to 24 (75% of Chinese and 80% of Canadian). The results of multi-group analyses in EQS strongly supported the overall model. Emotions strongly impacted the customers’ perception of high- and low-task relevant cues in both cultures. Customers’ perceptions of site atmospheric cues influenced cus- tomers’ attitudes toward the site and site involvement; which in 580 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 A Meta-analysis on the Effectiveness of Publicity versus Advertising Martin Eisend, European University Viadrina, Germany Franziska Küster-Rohde, Free University Berlin, Germany

Extended Abstract enhance attitude towards message, which enhances attitude towards This study tries to provide an answer to the question whether brand. Positive cognitive responses enhance and negative cognitive and when publicity (versus advertising) is more or less effective. responses reduce attitude towards brand. Attitude towards brand For this purpose, we investigate the trade-off between enhanced enhances purchase/behavioral intention. The total effects show that credibility effects (due to third-party endorsement) and negative the source credibility path explains most of the variance in the de- effects of recipients’ exposure to negative information (due to pendent variables brand attitudes and purchase/behavioral intention; lack of control over media content by the advertiser) by means of the effect is about twice as strong as the effect of the information a meta-analysis. evaluation model, and about five times as strong as the total effect Three models are applied in the literature to explain the ef- of the information processing model. The moderator model showed fects of publicity versus advertising. The source credibility model that the effect of publicity versus advertising on positive cognitions shows that highly credible sources are viewed as more trustworthy and on source credibility decreases significantly for known versus and generate more attitude change than low-credibility sources. The unknown products. If we replace the coefficients in the model with information processing model assumes that intentional exposure to the coefficients for the subgroups of known versus unknown products news and publicity enhances the number of cognitive responses. the results indicate a moderator effect. For unknown products, the Publicity, compared to advertising, also lends greater salience to total effects become stronger. For known products, however, the information. Enhanced information processability can produce total effects become negative with the negativity effect increasing positive responses towards the message and the product being and the source credibility effect even reversing due to a superior evaluated. The information evaluation model assumes that publicity effect of advertising over marketing-oriented publicity. in comparison to advertising will not only lead to enhanced process- The results of the meta-analysis support the effect of public- ing, it is also likely that the increase is higher for negative than for ity over advertising that is due to a source credibility effect, an positive information. Negative information is also more salient. information processing effect, and an information evaluation effect. That leads to more thorough processing of negative information While the last effect is an overall negative effect, both other paths than positive information, which directly impacts object evaluation. show a positive effect, with the source credibility effect being about The literature search for the meta-analysis covered the period twice as strong as the negative effect due to evaluation of negative from 1971 (the publication year of a study that is considered the information. The results show that the trade-off between credibility first empirical study on the topic) up to and including 2009. Only and control is in favor of the credibility of the source. This effect studies that investigated the impact of marketing-oriented publicity is moderated by prior product knowledge, though. The described versus advertising on recipients concerning the following dependent relationship holds and even becomes stronger for unknown products. variables were considered: attitude towards message, attitude towards However, the effect changes for known products where the total effect brand, cognitive responses (total, positive, and negative), message of the source on dependent variables becomes even negative. These processing, purchase/behavioral intention, source credibility, recall, results show that marketing-oriented publicity versus advertising and recognition. This search resulted in 30 independent samples with is superior for products where consumers lack prior knowledge. 257 effect sizes that could be included in the meta-analysis. The Indeed, most studies that have investigated and supported the posi- effect size metric selected for the analysis is the correlation coef- tive effects of media coverage refer to product innovations, product ficient; higher values of the coefficient indicate a stronger effect of pre-announcements, or products with which most consumers are marketing-oriented publicity over advertising on outcome variables. not yet familiar. The meta-analytic results further contribute to the The meta-analytic integration procedures were performed taking a research on the negativity effect as triggered by publicity, because random-effects perspective. The integration of the correlations uses they support this effect but also show that an overall evaluation of variance weights in order to consider the varying sample sizes of publicity effects needs to take different effect paths into account the studies. Furthermore, measurement errors were corrected by in order to produce an overall effect on consumers. By introducing considering reliability coefficients of the dependent and independent prior knowledge as an important moderator for the negativity effect, variables. Weights for multiple measures were considered as well. the findings show that the negativity effect can be outweighed by Study moderator variables are used as predictors in a regression a positive source credibility effect in case consumers do not yet model in order to explain the heterogeneity of the effect sizes of know a product. dependent variables that are based on a sample of at least twenty effect sizes. Furthermore, a structural model analysis was performed. The suggested models include seven variables in total. That is, 28 off-diagonal cells have to be filled in order to produce the input of the correlation matrix for structural equation modeling. Hence, in addition to the results of the effect size integration, the studies were searched for further statistical measures reporting the relationship between the dependent variables. The meta-analytic results show that marketing-oriented public- ity (compared to advertising) has a positive effect on all dependent variables. The structural models show an acceptable fit. All coef- ficients are significant and indicate the assumed direction in the models. That is, marketing-oriented publicity versus advertising enhances source credibility, total, positive, and negative cognitive responses. Both source credibility and total cognitive responses 581 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Bounded Defensive: Advertising Deception, Deception Knowledge, and Meta-cognitive Expectancies Guang-Xin Xie, University of Massachusetts Boston, U.S.A. David M. Boush, University of Oregon, U.S.A. Courtney N. Boerstler, University of Oregon, U.S.A.

Extended Abstract on attitude toward ads. The moderation effects of all other exog- Advertisers often emphasize positive product attributes and enous variables were not significant at p <. 05. In comparison, the promise superior value. When consumers’ experience falls short attitude differences toward brands differed significantly across the of expectations, the perceived discrepancies are often ascribed to average, the difference of optimistic expectancy in high- and low- advertising deception (Russo et al. 1981). Using the framework of deceptiveness ads conditions, as well as the individual difference the Persuasion Knowledge Model (Friestad and Wright 1994), we in NFC. The proposed moderation effect was found in the attitude propose that consumers’ deception knowledge and meta-cognitive towards the brands, but not in the attitude toward advertisements. expectancies influence their attitudes toward ads and brands in two The results suggest that optimistic expectancy can function ways: while the expected seriousness of the consequences of being as both a moderator and mediator of the attitude difference toward misled aggravates the negative effect of deception, the optimistic brands between high- and low-deceptiveness ads. The advertised tendency to trust the claims attenuates this effect. claims (deceptive or not) may have caused more optimistic ex- pectancy, which in turn, leads to less negative attitude toward the Experiment 1 advertised brands. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (deception knowledge: more salient vs. less salient, between) x 2 (high- vs. low-stake, between) x 2 Discussion (high- vs. low- deceptiveness ads, within) mixed design. Participants In two experiments, we demonstrate that consumer deception (N=133) were asked to carefully evaluate six print advertisements knowledge and expectancies may not only undermine advertising (pre-tested) presented on PC screens. For each ad, they were asked effectiveness as widely acknowledged, but also regulate the effect to identify the brand name first, and then answered attitudinal of deceptiveness in favor of the advertised brands. The salience of questions on 9-point scales. Deception knowledge salience was deception tactics schema can significantly increase the perceived manipulated by the priming instructions at the beginning of the deceptiveness of ads but the salience does not necessarily lead questionnaire. The one-page instructions described the nature of to more negative attitude toward the ads. More interestingly, the deception knowledge, common deceptive tactics, and cues to detect optimistic expectancy can be both a moderator and mediator for advertising deception. Participants in the control condition were not the negative effect of advertising deception on attitude toward the primed. The seriousness of expected consequences and deceptiveness brands. A possible explanation is that the optimistic expectancy were manipulated by having the participants view different types of serves two functions. The mediation effect occurs because expec- print ads. In the high-stake condition (more serious consequences), tancy is a significant motivating factor in favor of the brands (but the participants rated six ads: three were high in deceptiveness and not the ads). In comparison, the moderation effect occurs as a result three were low in deceptiveness (within-group). This was repeated of individual difference in the extent to which consumers would in the low-stake condition (less serious consequences). like to think positively about the brands. Even when the advertised Participants in the primed condition (M=5.17) rated the ads as claims are perceived more deceptive, those with more optimistic more deceptive than those in the unprimed condition (M=4.61), F (1, expectancy would have less negative attitude toward the brands. 130)=4.23, p=.032. The interaction between manipulated deceptive- ness and deception knowledge salience was not significant, F (1, References 130)=.38, p=.35. But the deceptiveness had a significant negative Cacioppo, John T., Richard E. Petty, and Chuan Feng Kao impact on attitude toward the ads: the attitude (M=3.35) was more (1984), “The Efficient Assessment of Need for Cognition,” negative toward high-deceptiveness ads than low- deceptiveness Journal of Personality Assessment, 48 (3), 306-07. ads (M=4.62), F (1, 128)=75.22, p<.001. The interaction between Friestad, Marian and Peter Wright (1994), “The Persuasion deceptiveness and high- vs. low-stake situation was significant: the Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion At- negative attitude (M=2.84) was significantly stronger toward the tempts,” Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (1), 1-31. deceptive than non-deceptive ads (M=4.83) in the high-stake condi- Judd, Charles M, David A. Kenny, and Gary H. McClelland tion, F (1, 130)=38.93, p<.001. In the low-stake condition, however, (2001), “Estimating and Testing Mediation and Moderation attitude toward deceptive ads (M=4.60) was not significantly dif- in Within-Subject Designs,” Psychological Methods, 6 (2), ferent from non-deceptive ads (M=4.64), F (1, 130)=.02, p=.89. 115-34. Russo, J. Edward, Barbara L. Metcalf, and Debra Stephens Experiment 2 (1981), “Identifying Misleading Advertising,” Journal of The purpose of Experiment 2 (N=176) is to examine the ef- Consumer Research, 8 (2), 119-31. fect of optimistic expectancy and need for cognition in relation to the outcome expectancy of deception. We followed the same procedure as that in Experiment 1. In addition, the optimistic ex- pectancy scale was asked for each advertisement, and participants also completed the Need for Cognition (NFC) scale (Cacioppo et al. 1984) at the end. Structural equation modeling was used to test mediation/moderation effects following the methods suggested by Judd et al. (2001). In the best-fit model, the expected seriousness of consequences moderated the effect of advertising deceptiveness 582 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Match-Up Effects Happen for a Reason: The Impact of Activating Persuasion Knowledge on Endorser Effectiveness Leen Adams, Hogeschool-Universiteit Brussel, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University, Belgium Tina Tessitore, Ghent University, Belgium

Extended Abstract To investigate the impact of depth of processing, we imple- An experiment was set up to clarify the when and why of mented a distraction task (Williams, Fitzsimons, and Block 2004). endorser effectiveness. We found that match-up effects are more To manipulate the level of PK activation, we used TV ads versus likely in case of high than low activation of persuasion knowledge product placements (Balasubramanian, Karrh, and Patwardhan (advertising vs. product placement) due to differences in perceptions 2006). Within these formats, real-life stimuli showing either of fit. The depth of processing did not contribute… congruent (i.e., healthy model and healthy food) or incongruent The use of endorsers is a common ad tactic. Research on en- product-endorser (i.e., healthy model and unhealthy food) combina- dorser effectiveness has put forward the match-up hypothesis which tions were sought. To prevent confounds, we set out standards for states that the message conveyed by the image of the endorser and of content and execution style and selected several (i.e., four) stimuli the product should converge (Kahle and Homer 1985). However, the per condition (Jackson, O’ Keefe, and Jacobs 1988). An online results of empirical studies testing this hypothesis are inconclusive. pretest with our target group (i.e., female respondents between 18 Therefore, researchers started to investigate moderators. and 26 years old) showed that the selected stimuli contained the For example, Kang and Herr (2006) recently showed that the intended level of product-endorser fit. depth of processing and/or the sensitivity to source biases moderate In the main experiment, run in a lab, 252 young females par- the impact of endorsers on persuasion. More specifically, in case ticipated. In two seemingly independent studies, we first randomly of heuristic processing and/or in case of low sensitivity to source exposed them to one of the 16 stimuli, whether or not accompanied biases, endorsers merely serve as cues, whereas in case of in-depth by the distraction task, and then asked stimulus related questions processing and/or in case of high sensitivity to source biases, the (attitudes and attention). A second study with filler and target ques- link between the source and the product becomes important and tions concerning product considerations and purchase intentions match-up effects on persuasion arise. followed. Finally, we incorporated questions about mediators, Although prior studies already tested moderators related to manipulation checks and covariates. the depth and the type of processing, they did not examine the As predicted, we found that in a clear persuasive context, the relative weight of each antecedent in the formation of match-up difference between a product-endorser fit and a non-fit was clearly effects yet. The contribution the current research would like to perceived, which led to a significantly more favorable attitude to- make is to integrate the different prior perspectives and further wards the congruent versus the incongruent stimulus and towards clarify the conditions in which match-up effects can be expected the accompanying endorser. Moreover, the congruent combinations and why in particular. were perceived to be more appropriate than the incongruent ones, Therefore, we turn to the Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) also partially explaining the match-up effects. In a context in which of Friestad and Wright (1994). Research built on the PKM shows the persuasive intent was less obvious, there was no significant that the depth of processing only explains skeptical responses to difference in perception of product-endorser fit. As a result, no persuasion to the extent that it also leads to a more intense activation match-up effects were found. of PK (Campbell and Kirmani 2000). Based hereupon, we predict As such, we demonstrated the usefulness of the PKM for the that the activation of PK, rather than the mere depth of processing, endorsement domain (Friestad and Wright 1994). Based on this drives the perception of the level of product-endorser fit, and as such, model, we were able to clarify the type of processing that leads determines the persuasiveness of product-endorser combinations to the perception of a match versus a mismatch between products used in marketing campaigns. and endorsers, and as such, extend prior research (Kang and Herr Additionally, we also look into the role of specific perceptions 2006). Further research could study whether the perception of of tactic appropriateness next to the more general perceptions of product-endorser fit and the perceived appropriateness of a product- persuasive intent (i.e., activation of PK), as the results of Kang endorser combination are independent concepts and examine their and Herr (2006) also indicate that a product-endorser match gen- relative contribution. erally leads to highly favorable attitudes, even after an endorser Despite the contributions of this study, we did not find the bias is primed. This is counter-intuitive given the assumption that same results on product related responses as on ad related responses. the activation of PK leads to resistance to persuasion and thus, to However, prior research has encountered the same issue (Till and unfavorable responses (Campbell and Kirmani 2000). However, Busler 2000). Explanations could be found in the differences between concerning the latter, Wei, Fischer, and Main (2008) showed that these dependent measures, as, for example, they tend to result from the activation of PK only had a strong negative impact on evalua- a different type of processing (i.e., rational vs. emotional, conscious tions when respondents perceived the stimulus to be inappropriate. vs. unconscious). So, perceptions of tactic appropriateness also seem to determine The current study also suffers from the limitation that we used consumer responses to persuasion attempts. ads versus product placements to manipulate PK activation. We Therefore, we set up an experiment with a 2 (level of product- controlled for several potential confounds (e.g., type of creative endorser fit: non-fit vs. fit) x 2 (level of PK activation: high vs. low) strategy: transformational and positive), but from a theoretical point x 2 (depth of processing: high vs. low) between-subjects design of view, this was not the cleanest manipulation. Further research in the context of promoting foods as healthy by means of healthy- could, therefore, manipulate PK activation in a more conservative looking endorsers. We also measured perceived product-endorser way. However, using several real-life stimuli has the advantage that fit and perceived appropriateness of the persuasion attempt to test they enhance the external validity of the results. whether they mediate match-up effects on persuasion.

583 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 584 / Match-Up Effects Happen for a Reason: The Impact of Activating Persuasion Knowledge on Endorser Effectiveness References Balasubramanian, Siva K., James A. Karrh, and Hemant Pat- wardhan. (2006), “Audience Response to Product Place- ments: An Integrative Framework and Future Research Agenda,” Journal of Advertising, 35(3), 115-41. Campbell, Meg C. and Amna Kirmani. (2000), “Consumers’ Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects of Accessibility and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of an Influence Agent,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27(1), 69–83. Friestad, Marian and Peter Wright. (1994), “The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope With Persuasion At- tempts,” Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1), 1-31. Jackson, Sally, Daniel J. O’Keefe, and Scott Jacobs. (1988), “The Search for Reliable Generalizations About Messages: A Comparison of Research Strategies,” Human Communication Research, 15(1), 127-42. Kahle, Lynn R. and Pamela M. Homer. (1985), “Physical At- tractiveness of the Celebrity Endorser: A Social Adaptation Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, 11(4), 954-61. Kang, Yong-Soon and Paul M. Herr. (2006), “Beauty and the Beholder: Toward an Integrative Model of Communication Source Effects,” Journal of Consumer Research, 33(1), 123- 30. Till, Brian D. and Michael Busler. (2000), “The Match-up Hypothesis: Physical Attractiveness, Expertise, and the Role of Fit on Brand Attitude, Purchase Intent and Brand Beliefs,” Journal of Advertising, 29(3), 1-13. Wei, Mei-Ling, Eileen Fischer, and Kelley J. Main. (2008), “An Examination of the Effects of Activating Persuasion Knowl- edge on Consumer Response to Brands Engaging in Covert Marketing,” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 27(1), 34-44. Williams, Patti, Gavan J. Fitzsimons, and Lauren G. Block. (2004), “When Consumers do not Recognize “Benign” Inten- tion Questions as Persuasion Attempts,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31(3), 540-50. Mere Proactivity Effects of Sales-related Service Offerings: A Field Experiment Walter Herzog, WHU-Otto Beisheim School of Management, Germany Mike Hammerschmidt, University of Mannheim, Germany

Extended Abstract of the brand, age, gender, price of the current car, and number of Excellent post-sales services are considered to be an effective purchased cars of the brand. strategy for stimulating customer loyalty. However, as relationships For compliers we find that a proactive product trial strategy evolve, customers’ repurchase intentions become increasingly initiated by the dealer directly boosts brand loyalty-creating a di- salient making so-called pre-sales services for existing customers rect upstream spillover to the aggregated manufacturer level-and an important feature of relationship marketing. For example, a car indirectly enhances brand loyalty via increasing dealer satisfaction, dealer might offer the opportunity to test drive a new car in temporal i.e. creating an indirect upstream spillover. The increased brand proximity to a prospective repurchase decision (Bhattacharya and loyalty in turn enhances repurchase probability. Therefore, at a Bolton 2000). To the best of our knowledge, pre-sales services have first glance, the predominant goal of dealers’ proactive strategies been the subject of scientific inquiry only in the context of customer could be to encourage customers to use a service (product trial) acquisition but not in the context of relationship marketing. Pre-sales that they would otherwise not use. However, this focus neglects the services like product trials can either be provided reactively, i.e. in fact that compliers only account for a very small proportion of the response to customer requests, or they can be provided proactively, customer base and hence exclusively targeting this group hinders i.e., the firm takes the initiative to contact customers and offer the the deployment of economies of scale. Moreover, it neglects that– product trial (Challagalla, Venkatesh, and Kohli 2009). Despite the against intuition–significant effects can also occur for customers enormous relevance of pre-sales services in the repurchase phase whose service usage decision is independent from dealers’ actions of a customer’s buying process, it is not clear if suppliers should (always-takers and never takers). really offer these services proactively or remain with their traditional In support of our hypotheses, we not only find significant reactive strategy. In the present paper, we answer this question for proactivity effects for compliers but also for always-takers and product trials by existing customers. never takers, i.e. we find mere proactivity effects. Specifically, we At first glance, a positive effect of a proactive strategy could find that for never-takers and always-takers satisfaction with the be fully attributed to the fact that some customers (so-called “com- dealer fully mediates the proactivity-brand loyalty link, i.e. we only pliers”) are encouraged to test the product, which in turn enhances observe indirect upstream spillovers. With respect to always-takers, their loyalty. This argument implies that the effect of proactively by providing proactive offers the dealer can not only enhance cus- offering a product trial on customer loyalty is completely mediated tomer evaluations for the own business but indirectly facilitates the by the customer’s increased probability to experience the product generation of favourable manufacturer-related evaluations although (Jo 2008). However, we propose that this argument neglects that the manufacturer does neither provide nor control the proactive of- “the mere act of a supplier proactively reaching out to customers” ferings. For the never-takers, we find that the frustration following (Challagalla et al. 2009, 73) produces psychological and behavioral a proactive (i.e. intrusive) action is not only targeted to the dealer effects above and beyond the effects of using the service (product but subsequently also to the brand. trial). More specifically, we argue that there are two mere proactivity It has to be noted that the observed positive dealer- and brand- effects: First, a proactive strategy results in a significant proportion related effects for the always-takers are exclusively caused by of customers rejecting the offer as they do not have interest in a proactively offering a service that is used anyway by the consumer, product trial (so-called “never-takers”). We argue that never-takers, i.e. it is the incremental effect of mere proactivity beyond and above who do not test the product independent of any company activities, the effect of using the offered test drive. At the other hand, the are likely to perceive the offer as an intrusive tactic which under- negative response of never takers to a proactive strategy (negative mines their loyalty (Deci, Koestner, and Ryan 1999). Second, there mere proactivity effect) is exclusively caused by the unsolicited are customers trying the product independent of the company’s offer of a service that they would never use. strategy (“always-takers”). We assume that always-takers, due to their intrinsic interest in the product, are likely to perceive a firm References proactively and voluntarily offering product trials as likeable and Bhattacharya, C. B. and Ruth N. Bolton (2000), “Relationship empathic (Palmatier et al. 2009), which should increase their loyalty. Marketing in Mass Markets,” in Handbook of Relationship Our hypotheses are tested by means of a large-scale field Marketing, ed. Jagdish N. Sheth and Atul Parvatiyar, Thou- experiment with more than 3000 customers of a car manufacturer. sand Oaks, CA: Sage, 327-54. The experiment consisted in proactively offering a test drive to a Challagalla, Goutam, R. Venkatesh, and Ajay K. Kohli (2009), randomized set of customers by means of a personalized invitation “Proactive Postsales Service: When and Why Does It Pay by their respective car dealers (proactive condition) and withholding Off?” Journal of Marketing, 73 (March), 70-87. the offer from the remaining customers (reactive condition), i.e. the Deci, Edward L., Richard Koestner, and Richard M. Ryan latter group could conduct a self-initiated test drive under the very (1999), “A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examin- same conditions. Our analysis combines experimental, psychometric, ing the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation,” and behavioral data. We used the principal stratification approach Psychological Bulletin, 125 (6), 627-68. (based on Rubin’s Causal Model) to estimate the effect of proactive Frangakis, Constantine E. and Donald B. Rubin (2002), “Prin- strategy on repurchase behavior via relationship satisfaction with cipal Stratification in Causal Inference,” Biometrics, 58 the car dealer and brand loyalty for the three latent customer classes (March), 21-29. or “principal strata”: compliers, always-takers, and never takers (Jo Jo, Booil (2008), “Causal Inference in Randomized Experiments and Muthén 2001; Frangakis and Rubin 2002). The identification of With Mediational Processes,” Psychological Methods, 13 principal stratification models requires the inclusion of covariates (December), 314-36. predicting class membership (Mealli and Rubin 2002). In this study, we consider perceived value of test-driving, perceived importance 585 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 586 / Mere Proactivity Effects of Sales-related Service Offerings: A Field Experiment Jo, Booil and Bengt O. Muthén (2001), “Modeling of interven- tion effects with noncompliance: A latent variable modeling approach for randomized trials,” in New developments and techniques in structural equation modeling, ed. George A. Marcoulides and Randall E. Schumacker, Mahwah, NJ: Law- rence Erlbaum Associates, 57-87. Mealli, Fabrizia and Donald B. Rubin (2002), Discussion of “Estimation of Intervention Effects with Noncompliance: Alternative Model Specifications” by Booil Jo, Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 27 (Winter), 411-15. Palmatier, Robert W., Cheryl Burke Jarvis, Jennifer R. Bechkoff, and Frank R. Kardes (2009), “The Role of Customer Grati- tude in Relationship Marketing,” Journal of Marketing, 73 (September), 1-18. Conflicting Selves and the Role of Possessions: Exploring Transgenders’ Self-Identity Conflict Ayalla Ruvio, Temple University, USA Russell Belk, York University, Canada

Extended abstract identity (“this is who I am”). Possessions played different roles While the notion of possessions as an extension of the self has in the variety of coping strategies utilized (Lazarus and Folkman received extensive research attention (e.g. Belk 1988; Hirschman 1984) such as denial (dressing like their original sex), acceptance and Labarbera 1990), most of the literature has focused on posses- (dressing according to their alternative gender identity), and self- sions as reflecting a holistic self or specific aspects of the self (e.g., control (keeping their alternative gendered possessions private). uniqueness). However, according to Erikson (1956), conflicts between However, in order to resolve the conflict, transgerders had to accept different aspects of their self-identity are experienced by all individu- and build their alternative gender identity and develop its public als throughout their lifetime. Though some argue that possessions presentation (“to pass”). play an important role in cases of self-conflict (Csikszentmihalyi and In the fourth stage, coming out to others, the participants Rochberg-Halton 1981), there have been very few studies on this disclosed their transgender identity to significant others (spouses, subject. Taking a qualitative approach, this study seeks to understand family, friends), and often experienced rejection as a result (Lev the role possessions play in the formation, development, coping and 2004). Passing in this stage was not enough for them as they felt the resolution of the conflict between different selves using an extreme need to present a convincing public image of cross-gender identity. example of gender identity conflict--transgendersim. As part of the new self, possessions were presented as embedded Since gender is one of the most defining characteristics of the in the new gender identity. self (Gagne, Tewksbury and McGaughey 1997; Rudacille 2006), Striving to find their “true” identity, most of our informants incongruencey between gender identity and one’s genital configura- reached the final stage ofconflict resolution. They explored vari- tion leads to a gender identity conflict. The establishment of gender ous identities in an attempt to achieve a coherent identity in which identity occurs during early childhood, becomes an internalized transgenderism was only a part. Decisions regarding to what extent aspect of one’s self and is virtually immutable. Transgender people to cross over (e.g., have full surgery, just take hormones, etc.) were experience a gender identity conflict which compels them to develop made in order to finalize their private and public identity. Possessions an alternative gender identity and enact a gender presentation that were no longer perceived as a means to project gender identity but does not coincide with their sex (Gagne et al. 1997). In this study, as a means to express a new congruent self-identity. using grounded theory analysis and interpretation of five in-depth, Our study can be viewed in the context of the over arching unstructured interviews with male-to-female transgenders, we ex- theory of the extended self. The findings indicate that a person’s plore the way transgenders utilize material possessions in negotiating process of dealing with self-conflict is reflected in the use of pos- their gender conflict. We assert that insights gathered from these sessions. As the conflict evolves, the role of possessions changes. extreme cases of self-conflict can educate us about more common They surface the conflict to the level of consciousness, are part or usual behaviors (Katz 1998). of the coping process, and reflect the conflict’s resolution and the The formation of an alternative gender identity requires trans- eventual formation of a new self-identity. We posit that our find- genders to cross over either temporarily or permanently from one ings can be generalized to many other self-conflicts such as those sex/gender category to another (Gagne et al. 1997; Lev 2004). In involving athleticism, overt sexiness, and class affiliation, thereby Western society, dominated by the binary perceptions of gender, contributing to the literatures on transgenders and the extended self. the act of crossing over challenges the cultural and structural social order, exposing the person to social sanctions. Several multiple stage References developmental models have been used to describe this process, Belk, Russell W. (1988), “Possessions and the extended self,” building on Erikson’s (1956) social development theory. Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (September), 139-168. Our findings are consistent with Gagne et al.’s (1997) integra- Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly and Eugene Rochberg-Halton (1981), tive model. In its first stage,conflict emergence, our informants The Meaning of Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self. experienced transgendered feelings, but have not labeled them Cambridge University Press as such. This stage occurs during childhood, and our informants Erikson, Erik H. (1968), Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: reported feeling that something was wrong with them (Bockting Norton. and Coleman 2007; Katz 1998). The gendered meaning of posses- Gagne, Patricia, Richard Tewksbury and Deanna McGaughey sions (such as clothing and toys) raised their feelings to the level of (1997), “Coming out and crossing over: Identity formation conscious awareness. Possessions also defined the boundaries of of proclamation in the transgender community,” Gender and socially accepted behaviors. While using possessions the “wrong Society, 11(4), 478-508. way” (e.g., a boy wearing a skirt) resulted in acts of correction or Hirschman, Elizabeth C. and Pricilla A. Labarbera (1990), punishment from others in an attempt to address the “problem”, “Dimensions of possession importance,” Psychology and at the same time they allowed the informants to engage in initial Marketing, 7(3), 215-233. cross-gender socialization. Katz, Steven M. (1998), Twenty Million New Customers: Under- Identity exploration, the second stage, involved an extensive standing Gay Men’s Consumer Behavior. New York: The information search in an effort to label the source of the conflict as Haworth Press,. well as reach out to similar others. Our informants reported building Lazarus, Richard S. and Susan Folkman (1984), Stress, Apprais- a parallel world that enabled them to practice the performance of al, and Coping. New York: Springer. their new identity. Possessions (e.g., a secret cosmetics box) helped Lev, Arlene (2004), Transgender Emergence: Therapeutic them segregate their conflicting identities, and thus, minimize and Guidelines for Working with Gender-Variant People and Their control their conflict. Families. New York: The Haworth Clinical Practice Press. In the third stage, coming out to one’s self, our informants Rudacille, Deborah (2006), The Riddle of Gender: Science, Ac- coped with and internalized the meaning of their new transgender tivism, and Transgender Rights, New York: Pantheon. 587 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Conflicting Imperatives of Modesty and Vanity Among Young Women In The Arabian Gulf Rana Sobh, Qatar University, Qatar Russell Belk, York University, Canada Justin Gressel, University of Texas-Pan American, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT researcher observed clothing and adornment practices in private Muslim women’s clothing is a visible form of public consump- spaces as well (homes, social gatherings, fashion shows, weddings tion, and has been the subject of much debate within social science and other women’s parties). Projective techniques were used and literatures. A large body of work has looked at the diverse mean- consisted of showing participants a set of stimulus pictures of girls ings and connotations of the Muslim veil and the practice of hijab wearing different types of abayas and using adornment practices (observing Muslim women’s dress code) in many Muslim countries across the spectrum from vain to modest. including Egypt (e.g., El-Guindi, 1999b), Turkey (Sandikci and Ger, Our findings reveal that young women resolve conflicting 2007; Secor, 2002; Gole, 2002), Mali (Shultz, 2007), Cote D’Ivoire tensions between the conflicting imperatives of the transnational (leBlanc, 2000), Indonesia (Jones 2003), South India (Oseall and consumer ideology and traditional local values through a number Osealla, 2007), and London (Tarlo, 2007b). However, the black of appropriation and adaptation processes. Informants construct abaya within oil-rich Gulf countries is embedded in a different idiographic meanings of prevalent religious, cultural and fashion contemporary local context and is increasingly associated with discourses informed by the two conflicting ideologies. They status and wealth (Abaza, 2007). Young Muslim women’s dress in negotiate dominant values in the Western ideology, adopting and the Gulf States of Qatar and United Arab Emirates (UAE) is both adapting some while resisting and rejecting others. They appropri- emotionally and politically charged. ate global fashion trends to create local glamorous fashion trends The Gulf States are unique for several reasons: 1) There is and symbolically charged clothing practices that give them a sense a distinct and strong ethos of traditional dress for both men and of uniqueness and superiority over expatriates and foreigners. In women, 2) There is an omnipresent awareness of Islam and religious effect they out-global the global consumer culture representatives, values in shaping identities and informing behavior, 3) There has at least in some respects. Young women also enact Western style been a rapid increase in wealth due to petrodollars, and 4) There is a identities in uncontrolled spaces and settings such as in women-only dramatic presence of foreigners from both Western and Non-Western gatherings and gender segregated spaces where tensions between cultures, such only around 17% of Qatar residents are Qataris and the traditional and modern and the modest and vain are alleviated. 16% of Emirates residents are Emirati. The latter conditions create While accepting and acknowledging the local value systems, a situation unique in the immigration literature in which there is they manipulate and reinterpret some of the meanings to justify pressure for the locals to acculturate to the immigrant rather than their clothing practices and condemn those of others. Regardless the more normal reverse situation. Locals increasingly fear the dis- of their degree of religiosity, Islam was used by all informants to solution of their ethnic identity and therefore strive to emphasize justify their clothing practices whether vain, modest or somewhere their authenticity and ethnic affiliation distinction through wearing between the two extremes. Informants negotiate their need for ethnic dress but also through other consumption styles such as ex- beauty display in public within the Islamic discourses of beauty travagant conspicuous and luxurious consumption that foreigners and the legitimacy of good self-presentation and enjoyment of life. in general cannot afford. Furthermore, the main acculturative agent Besides, young women seem to reconcile opposing pressures in our context is not the dominant host culture as opposed to the by injecting Western symbols such as designer names and fashion minority or immigrant culture, but rather the forces of globaliza- trends and patterns into traditional garments in order to rejuvenate tion and more specifically transnational Western consumer culture and bestow modernity on them. This reinvention of tradition gives and its underpinning ideology that fundamentally conflicts with them a feeling of connection with the youth consumer culture and the local religious and patriarchal principles. Hence, new clothing engagement in the world of fashion while still maintaining con- styles and adornment practices are increasingly adopted by young nections to local traditions that they are proud of. The purpose of women in the region and reflect the conflicting forces of Western wearing the abaya is also manipulated to be more aligned with values that emphasize display of women’s beauty and sexuality Western ideologies and beauty discourses. Ironically, the abaya in the public sphere and traditional values requiring modesty and is interpreted by locals as a camouflage garment that makes them promoting a virtuous public domain. The abaya itself has been look taller and thinner, hence enhancing their beauty and hiding gradually reinvented and has evolved from being a concealing their body imperfections, tendencies which are in accordance with garment that hides women’s sexuality and beauty in public to an Western fashion discourses. Playing with meanings and altering embellished fashionable, trendy haute couture garment that enhances the original uses and meanings of the abaya can be interpreted as beauty and reveals sexuality, all supposedly without undermining unintentional resistance (Ger and Belk 1996) of the local hegemony the local look. We propose to understand the dynamics underlying emphasizing social conformity and as an affirmation of young conflicting imperatives of modesty and vanity and to probe the women’s power in managing their appearances and enacting their ambivalence inherent in such performative constructions of identity identities in public. Following Blumer (1969), the abaya fashion and conceptions of the self as well as explore how young women seems to help young women mediate cultural contractions they are negotiate and reconcile resulting tensions. subject to in some Arab Gulf countries and to adjust in a disciplined In-depth interviews were conducted with twenty four middle and orderly way to their fast moving society to help cope with the class university students in business from Qatar University (12) major social changes their countries have been undergoing as a and American University of Sharjah (12). The informants ranged result of globalization. in age from 17 to 22. In addition to interviews, all researchers used observations of clothing and adornment practices in public places by young women (e.g., university, malls, restaurants) and the female

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Extended Abstract manifestation of negotiated influence and compromise between This research examines everyday food consumption relation- the immigrant and native spouses, with the bi-national family unit ships and compromises in contemporary bi-national and mono- providing a unique setting for harmony, resourcefulness, ingenuity national homes. In this study, a bi-national household consists of and ultimately enhanced food consumption experiences. spouses from differing countries of origin (e.g., China and the U.S.), Implications are drawn for the family decision making lit- whereas a mono-national household has partners from the same erature and consumer/brand relationships. Conflict and negotiated country of origin. Building on the studies and methodological ap- compromise are seen to be manifested not through major purchase proaches of Fournier (1998) and Coupland (2005), this study seeks decisions, but through everyday food consumption decisions. The to further our understanding, as researchers and consumers, of the analysis demonstrates that while there are clear similarities between significance of food purchases and food consumption patterns in mono-national and bi-national households, there are also key differ- bi-national homes. To better understand food consumption practices ences in everyday consumption experiences. This research highlights in the home, this research uses a combination of interviews, obser- the importance of considering household characteristics and cultural vation and photographic documentation to take a deeper look at the diversity within the home as key factors in better understanding contents of consumers’ food storage areas. The following research family decision making and consumption. questions are asked: 1) How are consumption compromises mani- This study also augments the findings of researchers such as fested in bi-national and mono-national families in the context of Fournier (1998) and Coupland (2005), by showing that partners who everyday food consumption? 2) What symbolic role does food play were born and raised in different countries, and even in different in the formation and maintenance of the individual and collective regions within the U.S., expend maximum effort to satisfy their identities within the bi-national family unit? specific consumption preferences. Participants expressed aversion The findings suggest that everyday food purchases and to substitution, an aversion often intensified after a less than positive consumption behavior in participant families can be indicators of substitution experience. In several cases brand preferences seemed relative influence and negotiation in the household. Food is a key to be strengthened after substitution and then substitution at the cultural expression (Alba 1990, Mintz and Du Bois 2002, Peñaloza same brand or preference level was no longer an option. These 1994) and offers an opportunity to examine household consumption findings have implications for brand relationships when there’s in a new context: bi-national families. Aspects of Miller’s (1998) limited accessibility and advocate future research on the effect theory of shopping as essentially about sacrifice, and ultimately of accessibility and substitution on brand preference and loyalty. about relationships, are seen to be applicable when examining The findings also emphasize the paradox within the home the trade-offs that take place between spouses in the participating to build the collective unit versus the effort to retain the indi- households, with differing implications for consumption compro- vidual identities of the spouses. Compromise in food consumption mises, depending on the type of household. choices and offerings is both a means of achieving harmony and We find that compromise happens not at the individual pur- a manifestation of respect for what each culture has to offer. The chase level as the family decision making literature assumes, but bi-national family is an aggregate entity, but an entity with a role over time and in response to other decisions. When cultures interact and requirements that transcend those of the family members of within the confines of the family, consumption decisions take on which it is composed. Individual preferences are both encouraged meaning beyond simply what is purchased and why. There is a and contained, as the bi-national household as a unit accommodates, blending process taking place in bi-national families, as well as an unifies and eventually develops into a distinct entity that is greater alternative type of juggling–juggling of consumption preferences than the sum of its founding partners. based on cultural differences. The usual compromises spouses face are amplified when one spouse is an immigrant to the native REFERENCES spouse’s homeland. 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EXTENDED ABSTRACT a ‘virtual intercultural learning’ process and present two conceptual Over the past two decades, consumer researchers have taken models to demonstrate how in ‘confrontation with other cultures’ timely steps in uncovering the complexities associated with glo- (Ger 1998), young Iranians compare and contrast themselves with balization and their findings have delicately supported some of the other people around the world. Reading consumer practices against key debates on the globalization of consumption culture; that is, the socio-cultural and political background of Iran, we discuss that ‘consumptionscapes’ (Ger and Belk 1996) and the proliferation of this kind of reflexivity becomes extremely problematic in society. identities via the commodification of consumer goods (Friedman Reflexivity, as Archer (2007) states, depends on a ‘subject-object’ 1994). Based on their key contributions, the existing seminal studies relationship. That is, whilst the subjects (agents) aspire to shape could fall within at least three thematic categories: 1) addressing their lives based on their own tastes and needs, their life-design Wilk’s (1995) notion of ‘global structures of common difference’ projects depend on the “objectivity of their social circumstances (Askegaard and Kjeldgaard 2002; Kjeldgaard and Askegaard 2006) which, through their own descriptions, will encourage them to follow 2) addressing Robertson’s (1992) proposed concept of ‘glocalization’ one course of action rather than another” (Archer 2007, 34). The (Kjeldgaard and Ostberg 2007) 3) addressing consumers’ ‘identity examination of such interplay between social structure and agency salience’ (Kjeldgaard 2009; Sandikci and Ger 2002; Thompson and (Giddens 1994) suggests that these individuals’ critical vision is Arsel 2004; Russell and Russell 2006). rejected in Iran. Whilst these young people seek to subjectively These studies have genuinely enriched the consumption culture define their own intended lives based on a large number of sources literature on globalization; yet, they focus mainly on Western or, at (offered to them by cultural globalization), the objectivity of their least, secular contexts in which consumers are viewed as emanci- socio-cultural context acts as a deterring force. Although such pated individuals whose ‘liberatory consumption’ choices (Firat and restraints are also rooted in the society’s mindset (concatenated Venkatesh 1995) provide them with a broad array of opportunities to with history and tradition), they are strongly related to the grand exploit a choice of lifestyles. None of these studies has investigated narratives of the state that forces them to believe that their culture is consumers’ interactions with globalization in a non-secular society, unrivalled. We acknowledge the fact that such ideology (exaggeration widely disciplined according to a set of non-secular socio-cultural of identity) is not an exclusive characteristic of Iranian society as and political ideologies. Moreover, these investigations have gen- it is indicative of an ‘imagined community’ (Anderson 1983). Yet, erally examined the contents and consequences of globalization. what becomes paradoxical in this case is the obvious opposition That is, they have analyzed either the ways by which consumers of this mentality with the solid teachings of Islam explicitly stated use the global contents (market resources) to create meanings (i.e., in the Holy Koran. identities) or the ways these people react to the manifestations of Scrutinizing our informants’ consumption practices in the con- globalization (e.g., brandscapes and global styles). Therefore, the text of a political/ideological Islam, we argue that quite contrary to processes in which “tensions between local and global meanings common belief (i.e., globalization threatens Islamic values), Islam systems and institutions” (Arnould and Thompson 2007, 12) occur itself fuels globalization as it essentially deems ‘self-reflexivity’ a have been considerably overlooked in consumer research. It is these progressive human practice. Also, reflecting on Islam as a ‘discur- traits that underpin our study as we analyze the mechanisms of the sive tradition’ (Wong 2007), we discuss that unlike other Islamic global-local interactions. societies (e.g., Turkey and Malaysia) where political secularity has We present an analysis of ‘cultural globalization’ (Appadurai provided a relatively tolerant state-citizen relationship, the state’s 1990; Ger and Belk 1996) in order to examine consumption practices political ideology of Islam in Iran has resulted in discrepancies and lifestyle choices of young adult individuals in Iran, a society in between the state’s objective structure and the citizens’ subjective which globalization is highly contested and problematic. In so doing, agencies. Consequently, consumption has become a problematic site we analyze the processes in which the consolidating forces of the of socio-cultural conflict; one in which consumers’ very personal life local socio-cultural and political context clash with the dynamics practices are extensively affected by the state’s omnipresent social of cultural globalization and tackle individuals’ ‘self-actualization’ policies. Therefore, the real clash happens to be not merely between projects (Giddens 1991). Iran offers an interesting context to study the local and global institutions, but between the local and local such issues because reposed on theories of cultural imperialism systems of meanings because globalization only acts as a catalyst. (Mattelart 1994), globalization is populistically demonized as an Based on our findings, we propose our conceptual models as useful invasive project of neo-colonialism (Czinkota and Ronkainen 2001). analytical tools to systematically investigate consumers’ multiple Given the paucity of research in Iran, the complexities associ- interactions with global and local dynamics in other societies as well. ated with the sensitivity of the topic and political situation of the country, we embarked on an inductive theory building process using in-depth interviews, participatory observation and memo writing. Following Glaser and Strauss (1967), we analyzed our data (col- lected from Tehran and Karaj over a period of six months) through a systematic process of constant comparison. Our findings indicate that through its influx, cultural global- ization has produced a strong basis of ‘knowledge’ (Kim 2005) for Iranian youth. It has generated an excess of ‘signs’, ‘images’, ‘meanings’, ‘lifestyles’, and ‘identities’ (Nijman 1999; Friedman 1994) whereby reflexivity, as a way of ‘self-analysis’ and ‘self- confrontation’ (Beck 1994) is fostered. We theorize this reflexivity as

593 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Negotiating the Boundary between the Self and the Other: Individuation and Association through Socially-visible Brand Use Heather Schulz, University of Texas at Austin, USA Patricia Stout, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Extended Abstract The symbolic meanings attached to brands are cultural markers. Recent research in consumer culture theory has focused on Therefore, if one is able to possess that brand, one can indirectly the role of the brand as an instrument in the interpretation of social possess that cultural meaning. Therefore, during impression man- interactions. In this paper, we expand this stream of research be agement, socially-visible brands are a tool utilized to create one’s examining how consumers use socially-visible brands to create identity for the self and to communicate one’s identity to others. and communicate their identity. Here we define a socially-visible Forty-one informal face-to-face interviews were conducted brand as a brand located on or near an individual’s body that is with graduate and undergraduate students at a university in the visible to another individual in the public atmosphere. Socially- southwestern U.S. Most of the interviews lasted about 30 min- visible brand use is centered on the everyday and even mundane utes. The structure for the interview protocol consisted of asking brands all consumers use during their daily routines. It is argued respondents about the individual and social aspects of their identity, that socially-visible brands are a strategic tool consumers can use top-of-mind brand awareness, the specific brands they own for for impression management. Socially-visible brands offer identity socially-visible items such as clothes, shoes, sunglasses, etc., and cues to others about one’s self-concept, but they also assist in the the socially-visible brands the respondent was currently wearing. bonding relationships one has with others. Overall, socially-visible From these interviews, a Boundary Negotiation Framework is brands serve in the identity negotiation process between an indi- presented that can be used as a guide to gain a better understanding vidual and society. of how individuals use socially-visible brands in order to develop We briefly explain how three social psychology theories, their self-concept and various levels of social identity. The results namely social identity theory, self-verification theory, and impres- show how people use socially-visible brands in order to associate sion management theory, juxtapose with consumer culture theory with other individuals, reference groups, and society as a whole in general and self-extension theory in particular. The goal is to during interpersonal interactions. Using this Boundary Negotiation impart a framework for understanding the interaction of people, Framework, individuation and associations interactions can be their possessions, and society. Every individual faces the conflicting analyzed at the dyadic, reference group, and societal level. This task of connecting with other individuals in pro-social interactions Boundary Negotiation Framework can be utilized in the future to (i.e., association), while at the same time maintaining a comfortable analyze post-purchase behavior of consumers with their socially- boundary so the individual self remains intact (i.e., individuation). visible brands. In addition, advertisers can use this framework while The individuation side of this self-other boundary negotiation has crafting their branding and communication strategies. been discussed in previous consumer research literature topics such as a “consumer’s need for uniqueness,” “counter-conformity” REFERENCES (Tian, Bearden, and Hunter 2001), and “identity signaling” (Berger Argo, Jennifer J. and Kelley J. Main (2008), “Stigma by As- and Heath 2007). The association side of this self-other boundary sociation in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because negotiation has also been discussed in several ways, but can best be of Others,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (December), described as communal consumption. This can occur at the dyadic 559-572. level (Argo and Main 2008; Ramanathan and McGill 2007; Tan- Belk, Russell W. (1988), “Possessions and the Extended Self,” ner, Ferraro, Chartrand, Bettman, and Van Baaren 2008) and at the Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (September), 139-168. reference group level (Epp and Price 2008; Escalas and Bettman Berger, Jonah and Chip Heath (2007), “Where Consumers Di- 2005; Luna, Ringberg, and Peracchio 2008; White and Dahl 2007). verge from Others: Identity Signaling and Product Domains,” Social identity theory argues that one’s personal identity (the Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (August), 121-134. individual self) and one’s social identities (the collective selves) Epp, Amber M. and Linda L. Price (2008), “Family Identity: A combine to form one’s total identity (Hogg 2003). Through the Framework of Identity Interplay in Consumption Practices,” process of identity negotiation, people maintain social group mem- Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (June), 50-70. bership and distinctiveness. Swann (1987) argued that people engage Escalas, Jennifer Edson and James R. Bettman (2005), “Self- in identity negotiations in order to obtain “existential security” (p. Construal, Reference Groups and Brand Meaning,” Journal 1039). Individual self-concepts are the lens people use to under- of Consumer Research, 32, 378-389. stand their world and their place in the world. They desire stable Goffman, Erving (1959), The Presentation of Self in the Every- self-concepts, and engage in activities that will provide them with day Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc. feedback from others confirming their self-concept. He called this Hogg, Michael (2003), “Social Identity. In Handbook of Self and process “self-verification.” One technique utilized by individuals Identity, ed. Mark Leary and June Tangey, New York: The during times of incongruence is impression management (Goffman Guilford Press, 304-332. 1959). During this process, individuals attempt to exert control over Luna, David, Torsten Ringberg, and Laura A. Peracchio (2008), the perceptions others may have of them. Using a theatric metaphor, “One Individual, Two Identities: Frame Switching among Goffman explained how people put on shows for one another by Biculturals,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (August), managing their impression through the use of social cues. 279-293. Self-extension theory describes the items used during impres- Ramanathan, Suresh and Ann L. McGill (2007), “Consuming sion management, which can include setting, clothing, appearance, with Others: Social Influences on Moment-to-Moment and words, and nonverbal actions. In terms of mass communication, Retrospective Evaluations of an Experience,” Journal of self-extension theory looks at how consumers use the possession Consumer Research, 34 (December), 506-524. of specific brands in order to express their identity (Belk 1988).

594 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 595 Swann, Jr., William B. (1987), “Identity Negotiation: Where Two Roads Meet,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (6), 1038-1051. Tanner, Robin J., Rosellina Ferraro, Tanya L. Chartrand, James R. Bettman, and Rick Van Baaren (2008), “Of Chameleons and Consumption: The Impact of Mimicry on Choice and Preferences,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (April), 754-766. Tian, Kelly Tepper, William O. Bearden, and Gary L. Hunter (2001), “Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness: Scale Develop- ment and Validation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (June), 50-66. White, Katherine and Darren W. Dahl (2007), “Are All Out- Groups Created Equal? Consumer Identity and Dissociative Influence,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (December), 525-536. Copycats as Uncertainty Reducing Devices Femke van Horen, University of Cologne, Germany Rik Pieters, Tilburg University, The Netherlands Diederik A. Stapel, Tilburg University, The Netherlands

EXTENDED ABSTRACT to imagine being in Being, China, or in their home country, looking Purchase decisions are often made under conditions of varying for a coffee shop. Next, they evaluated a copycat logo, which was uncertainty regarding product quality. When the context induces a clear imitation of the “Starbucks” logo and a visually differenti- such uncertainty, consumers tend to seek additional information ated logo that did not share any similarities with the Starbucks to reduce these feelings. Copycat brands may benefit under these logo. Further, they were asked to indicate whether their evaluation circumstances. of the coffee shops was guided by familiar cues. In support of the Copycats imitate the trade-dress of a leading brand in order to hypothesis, copycat evaluation was dependent on country-induced leverage the positive associations that the latter has in the mind of uncertainty: when people imagined to be in a foreign country, the the consumer (Loken, Ross, and Hinkle 1986; Zaichkowsky 2006). copycat was evaluated more positively and chosen more often than Research has demonstrated that consumers generally dislike blatant the visually differentiated product, whereas the opposite pattern copycats, especially when these are blatant and awareness of the emerged when people imagined to be in their home country. These imitation strategy is high (Van Horen, Pieters and Stapel 2009; War- results were mediated by reliance on familiar cues and were not lop and Alba 2004, study 4). Surprisingly little is however known due to source confusion. Study 2 tested whether the same effects about the circumstances under which consumers actually like blatant appeared when uncertainty was manipulated through store-type. copycats even when fully aware that the copycat is imitating. The Half of the participants were asked to imagine doing shopping in extant research has focused on how package similarity influences a typical discount store, whereas the other half in a typical high- copycat evaluation and purchase, but has not yet tested the potential end store. Then, they were asked to evaluate a copycat chocolate influence of contextual factors on evaluation and choice of copycats. bar (“Milka” look-alike) as compared to a visually differentiated In the current research, we posit and show that copycat evaluation brand. The results reveal that–compared to a visually differentiated is critically dependent on contextually induced uncertainty. product–a copycat was evaluated more positively in a discounter, Consumers are often faced with uncertainty about product than in a high-end store. These effects were shown not to be due to quality when choosing between competing brands. Uncertainty source confusion. In study 3 uncertainty was directly manipulated, refers to situations in which consumers do not know which choice to instead of indirectly through specific situations, to provide further make (Lipshitz and Strauss 1997, Muthukrishnan and Kardes 2001). support for the idea that uncertainty is the key factor. Two packages When feeling uncertain, consumers are likely to search for signals (a copycat and a visually differentiated product) were created within to assess quality in order to reduce these feelings of uncertainty. the product category “Energy drinks”. In the uncertainty (certainty) Information about the price, packaging, and brand image can then condition participants were asked to imagine doing shopping in an serve as such signals (Dawar & Parker, 1994; Kirmani & Rao, 2000). unknown (well known) supermarket, in which they were uncertain As copycats imitate the trade-dress of leading national brands and (certain) about the quality of the products. Again, participants were packaging is an important component of stored product knowledge, asked to evaluate both energy drinks and to make a choice. As imitation can activate knowledge associated with the leader brand predicted the copycat energy drink was evaluated more positively and serve as a signal. Thus, when consumers are uncertain about the and chosen more often when uncertainty was induced than when quality of products and are looking for familiar cues to guide them certainty was induced. These results provide direct support for the in decision-making, copycats may be able to profit most. However, underlying “uncertainty reduction” mechanism. when consumers feel certain about the quality of products and These results contribute to the literature on trademark infringe- do not need to rely on familiar cues, copycats may be interpreted ment in several ways. First, the present research is, to our knowl- negatively. When consumers are aware that a copycatting strategy edge, the first to demonstrate that, besides package similarities, the is being used, similarity may be perceived as a intentional ploy to specific shopping situation critically determines copycat evaluation mislead consumers about product quality (Campbell and Kirmani and choice. This underlines the importance of moving beyond the 2000; Warlop and Alba 2004). similarities between copycat and leader brand in package design to Three studies demonstrate that consumers systematically understand copycat effects. Furthermore, it shows that even when prefer copycats to visually differentiated products when the situa- fully aware and thus “not tricked”, consumers may still prefer and tion induces feelings of uncertainty about the quality of products, choose copycats to reduce feelings of uncertainty. Hence, whereas whereas the reverse is true when the situation induces feelings of consumers generally prefer differentiated brands to copycats, the certainty. In addition, we show that the positive evaluation of copy- reverse holds under conditions of uncertainty. cats in uncertainty inducing situations is due to consumers’ reliance on familiar cues that signal quality. Two situations are explored References that are likely to induce different levels of uncertainty. The first, Campbell, Margaret C. and Amna Kirmani (2000), “Consumers’ more explicit, situation is when people are abroad as compared to Use of Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects of Accessibil- being at home. When consumers are visiting another country and ity and Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of an Influence are unacquainted with the available brands, they are likely to feel Agent,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (1), 69-83. uncertain about product quality. A second, more subtle situation is Dawar, Niraj and Philip Parker (1994), “Marketing Universals: store-type. As compared to high-end stores, the quality of products Consumers’ Use of Brand Name, Price, Physical Appear- at discounters is more variable and perhaps lower, which should ance, and Retailer Reputation as Signals of Product Quality,” activate consumers’ feelings of uncertainty. Journal of Marketing, 58 (2), 81-95. Study 1 tested the influence of being abroad or at home on copycat evaluation and choice. Participants were either instructed

596 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 597 Foxman, Ellen R., Darrel D. Muehling, and Phil W. Berger (1990), “An Investigation of Factors Contributing to Con- sumer Brand Confusion,” The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 24 (1), 170-89. Kapferer, Jean Noel (1995), “Brand Confusion: Empirical Study of a Legal Concept,” Psychology & Marketing, 12 (6), 551- 69. Kirmani, Amna and Akshay R. Rao (2000), “No Pain, No Gain: A Critical Review of the Literature on Signaling Unobserv- able Product Quality,” Journal of Marketing, 64 (2), 66-79. Lipshitz, Raanan and Orna Strauss (1997), “Coping with Uncer- tainty: A Naturalistic Decision-Making Analysis,” Organi- zational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69 (2), 149-63. Loken, Barbara, Ivan Ross, and Ronald L. Hinkle (1986), “Con- sumer ‘’Confusion’’ of Origin and Brand Similarity Percep- tions,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 5, 195-211. Muthukrishnan, A. V. and R. Kardes Frank (2001), “Persistent Preferences for Product Attributes: The Effects of the Initial Choice Context and Uninformative Experience,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 89-104. Warlop, Luc and Joseph W. Alba (2004), “Sincere Flattery: Trade-Dress Imitation and Consumer Choice,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14 (1&2), 21-27. Zaichkowsky, Judy L. (2006), The Psychology Behind Trade- mark Infringement and Counterfeiting, New Jersey: Law- rence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Reputable Brand Names can Improve Product Efficacy Moty Amar, Ono Academic College & Duke University, USA Dan Ariely, Duke University, USA Maya Bar-Hillel, The Hebrew University, Israel Ziv Carmon, INSEAD, France Chezy Ofir, The Hebrew University, Israel

Extended Abstract bearing either the prestigious brand name or a less prestigious one. Common sense suggests that the efficacy of products should They listened to a recording of an announcer reading a list of 62 be a function of how they are designed and produced. Brand names, unrelated words, read on the background of a very loud and noisy on the other hand, can presumably only influence expectations and construction site and were asked to identify the words as they subjective assessments of efficacy. However, we illustrate that the heard them. As predicted, participants whose earmuffs bore the brand name that products carry can also influence rather than merely more prestigious brand name identified more words correctly and reflect objective efficacy. We thereby extend Shiv, Carmon, and fewer words incorrectly than those whose earmuffs carried the less Ariely’s (2005) pioneering work on placebo effects of marketing prestigious brand name. Note that in this task it is not clear what a actions, to a different type of marketing action (branding), study motivated participants could do in order to improve performance it with several new types of tasks, less likely to be influenced by over a less motivated participant. voluntary control. In particular, across four experiments, each con- Altogether, this paper illustrates that in addition to coloring ducted in carefully controlled conditions, we show that attaching preferences and expectations the commercial reputation that is a prestigious brand name to a product can boost the performance embodied in brand names can also influence objective efficacy in of those who consume the product. a manner that is difficult to attribute to volitional effort. The results In experiment 1, participants repeatedly held the same titanium can have significant managerial and public policy implications. framed eyeglasses bearing either a prestigious or the less prestigious As one example, firms may be able to boost the efficacy of their brand name in one hand, then held one of several paperweights products by attaching more reputable names to them. Analogously, each weighing slightly less or slightly more than the eyeglasses the findings suggest that generic medications may in fact not be with no cue to its weight in the other hand, then judged which was as effective as branded ones, putting into question the common heavier—the eyeglasses or the paperweight. Several aspects of the practice of substituting one for the other. experimental design made it difficult to be insincere, thus reducing the likelihood of demand effects. As predicted, results showed that participants underestimated the true weight of the frame bearing the prestigious brand name more frequently and overestimated its weight less frequently, suggesting that the glasses seemed lighter when they bore the more prestigious brand. In experiment 2, all participants first drank a cup of the same chamomile tea that was described as soothing to body and mind, which carried either a prestigious brand name or a less prestigious one. After a few minutes they were asked to complete as many puzzles as they could during a limited timeframe. As predicted, results showed that participants whose tea bore the more prestigious brand name gave more correct answers and fewer incorrect answers than those whose tea bore the less prestigious brand name. In experiment 3, all participants faced a glaring light and were asked to read printed words as accurately and as quickly as they could, receiving compensation proportional to their performance. As predicted, those wearing sunglasses bearing a reputable brand name were able to read more quickly and with fewer errors than those wearing sunglasses bearing a less reputable brand name but were otherwise identical. Note that there are two ways that a participant who believes he or she is wearing quality sunglasses might perform better, to fulfill the expectation caused by the prestigious brand name. One is to try harder. That could account for the smaller number of errors, but not for the faster rate. Since both were recorded, willful effort seems to be ruled out. The other is to contract the pupil more, thus cutting out more glare. But our experimenters were instructed to make sure that participants did not do this. More importantly, inasmuch as the pupil is under voluntary control, it seems that putting one’s faith in one’s sunglasses would lead to the opposite inclination: One need not contract one’s pupil as much when one has effective sunglasses as when one does not. Whatever happens in this task, then, is not trivial. In experiment 4, all participants wore the same pair of ear- muffs said to reduce noise while assisting in hearing conversations,

598 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Guilt Appeals in Green Advertising: Influences of Issue Proximity and Environmental Involvement Chun-Tuan Chang, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan Yu-Kang Lee, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan Ting-Ting Chen, National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan

Extended Abstract Compared with individuals with low environmental involvement, With increasing public concern about the environment and those with high environmental involvement are less likely to be not corporate social responsibility on environmental sustainable influenced by the advertising appeals. The results are consistent development, the 1990s was declared the decade of environmentalism with the observation by Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius (1995). The (Drumwright, 1994; Kangun, Carlson, and Grove, 1991). study here also echoes that guilt can generate negative responses Consequently, recent studies have begun to examine potential factors and disrupt the advertiser’s intended objectives as well (Cotte et that might affect the effectiveness of green marketing campaigns al., 2005; Shrum et al., 1995). and how consumers respond to green marketing initiatives (e.g., Third, the effectiveness of guilt and positive appeals depends Chan, 2000; Obermiller, 1995; Schuhwerk and Lefkof-Hagius, on issue proximity and environmental involvement simultaneously. 1995). One influential variable that has been identified to determine Instead of blindly applying any type of advertising appeal, the success of green marketing is its advertising (e.g., Karna et advertisers should pay particular attention to perceived proximity al., 2001). Emotional appeals are widely used to “cut through the of the environmental issue and consumers’ individual differences clutter” and arouse persuasive communication. Among them, guilt in environmental involvement. When facing individuals with low appeals are identified as popular, especially in the contexts related environmental involvement, the guilt appeal performed better than to public service announcement. the positive appeal in promoting an issue with high proximity. Thus, This article contributes to this evolving stream of research by when dealing with a problem people regard as relatively important applying guilt appeals in green marketing campaigns to demonstrate or about which they are self-relevant, the impact of guilt appeal that guilt appeals are not equally persuasive in all conditions, and can may offer advantages. As Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius (1995) be influenced by the impacts of issue proximity and environmental note that consumers pay attention to external cues such as how involvement. A fictitious product, leftover-grounds printer, was an ad is framed when they do not possess strong beliefs about the developed as the test product. An experiment with 2 (advertising environment. Alternatively, when concern for the issue is low (low appeal: guilt appeal vs. positive appeal) X 2 (issue proximity: low issue proximity), no differences of advertising effectiveness between vs. high) X 2 (environmental involvement: low vs. high) factorial a guilt and positive appeal can be found. Because of weak impetus design was conducted. The first two factors were manipulated and to process the message and less well-developed green product the final one was measured. Therefore, four experimental ver- schema, the less involved consumers may not be able to identify the sions were produced. Participants were randomly assigned to one differences between the two appeals. When facing highly involved of the conditions above. After successful manipulation checks, a consumers, the guilt appeal was more persuasive than the positive series of analysis of variance were conducted to examine proposed appeal in promoting a less proximal issue. However, this observation hypotheses. appears to be reversed when the ad was presented to less involved The results indicate that focusing on the comparison between consumers. The guilt appeal may offer a redundant warning, or guilt and positive appeals may be overly simplistic. Indeed, the worse, cause a boomerang effect. Consistent with prior work on findings presented here establish that the influence of guilt appeals involvement and skepticism about advertisers’ environmental claims, on consumer response is relatively complex and contingent on issue environmentally involved individuals may engage in more effortful proximity and environmental involvement. Three observations are and elaborative processing and discount the received information. noteworthy. In such cases, the positive appeal is preferable. The implication is First, in terms of the relative effects of issue proximity, this that advertisers must be careful not to arouse guilt feelings through study shows systematic effects on consumer responses by comparing the ads. If such care is not taken, a backlash may occur whereby the low and high issue proximity. High proximity made a difference consumers develop negative attitudes toward the promoted product. in advertising effectiveness; a local issue, as opposed to a foreign In any event, advertisers are advised to adopt a situational perspective issue in a less familiar region, yielded more favorable evaluation by taking the possible interaction effect among advertising appeal, and higher behavioral intention. This perspective is conceptually issue proximity, and environmental involvement. consistent with social impact theory and signaling theory. The reason Findings from this investigation are informative both could lie in the notion that the local community is more salient to theoretically and pragmatically. This study contributes to the consumers—regardless of the advertising appeal. No differences academic literature and industry by increasing our understanding are found between a guilt and positive appeal in advertising of guilt appeals in a green marketing context by proposing issue effectiveness of high-proximity issue. This idea does not suggest, proximity and environmental involvement as factors that moderate however, firms only address local issues and neglect global or the relationships between guilt appeal and consumer responses foreign issues because advertising appeal may not be a concern in toward the promoted product. The findings underscore the their advertising campaign when presenting a local issue. When importance for green marketers to learn more about whether guilt an issue is perceived as less proximal, the tactic of guilt appeal appeals work, and in turn describe how practitioners can avoid allows a firm to enhance consumers’ attitudes toward the product negatively toward guilt appeals. The present research should serve and purchase intention. a starting point for entry into this under-researched area. Second, that effects of advertising appeal are contingent on environmental involvement is noteworthy. This construct delineates the boundary conditions for the guilt appeals on persuasion. A guilt appeal works for those with low environmental involvement. 599 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Metaphors in Advertising: Cognitive Flexibility Matching Perspective Kyung-Jin Kim, The University of Suwon, Korea Jongwon Park, Korea University Business School, Korea

EXTENDED ABSTRACT that a (difficult) metaphor was more effective for individuals in Prior research suggests that a metaphor in advertising can have the positive mood condition than for those in the negative mood a positive effect on evaluations of the target product (McQuarrie and condition when the product was evaluated for purchase in the distant Phillips 2005; Moreau, Markman, and Lehmann 2001). However, future, whereas the difference was reversed when the product was the effect tends to be restricted to the metaphors which are easy considered for a near-future purchase. Finally, experiment 5 assessed to interpret (Gregan-Paxton and John 1997; Roehm and Sternthal the level of comprehension about the metaphor based on participants’ 2001). Yet, it is common that companies employ complicated, thought protocols. A mediation test confirmed that the effect of idiosyncratic, and difficult metaphors in their advertising. This temporal distance on the effectiveness of a difficult metaphor was discrepancy can be resolved, however, if we consider both the level mediate by its influence on the extent to which participant actually of cognitive flexibility required to process the metaphor and the level comprehended the meaning of the metaphor. of individuals’ actual cognitive flexibility at the time of metaphor Thus, collectively, results from five experiments provide processing as determinants of the effectiveness of a metaphor. consistent evidence for our cognitive flexibility matching The present research proposes a cognitive flexibility matching hypothesis. At the same time, the research identifies moderators hypothesis that the match between the required and actual level (product knowledge and mood state) for the diametrically opposite of cognitive flexibility is a key determinant of the metaphor’s effects observed in the experiments. Theoretical and managerial effectiveness. That is, when the level of cognitive flexibility necessary implications of these findings are discussed. to comprehend a metaphor matches the level of individuals’ actual cognitive flexibility at the time of metaphor processing, using the REFERENCES metaphor in an ad could be beneficial for evaluations of the target Donnelly, C. M. and M. A. McDaniel (1993), “Use of Analogy in product. When the individuals’ actual cognitive flexibility is either Learning Scientific Concepts,” Journal of Experimental Psy- below or above the required level to process a metaphor, however, chology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19 (4), 975-987. using the metaphor could be detrimental. Forster, Jens, Ronald S. Friedman, and Nira Liberman (2004), To test this proposition, we borrow from research based on “Temporal Construal Effects on Abstract and Concrete temporal construal theory that a distant-future perspective (vs. a Thinking: Consequences for Insight and Creative Cogni- near-future perspective) increases individuals’ cognitive flexibility tion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87 (2), momentarily (Forster et al. 2004; Trope and Liberman 2003). 177-189. Based on this, we hypothesize that a difficult metaphor, compared Gregan-Paxton, J. and D. R. John (1997), “Consumer Learning to its easier version or a literal message counterpart, can lead to by Analogy: A Model of Internal Knowledge Transfer,” Jour- more favorable product evaluations when people consider the nal of Consumer Research, 24 (December), 266-284. target product for a distant-future purchase, but would produce Hirt, Edward R., Erin E. Devers, and Sean M. McCrea (2008), less favorable evaluations when they consider it for a near-future “I Want to Be Creative: Exploring the Role of Hedonic Con- purchase. To put it differently, an increase in temporal distance is tingency Theory in the Positive Mood–Cognitive Flexibility expected to increase the effectiveness of a difficult metaphor, but Link,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (2), to decrease the effectiveness of an easy metaphor. 214–230. These hypothesized (diametrically opposite) effects were Isen, Alice M., Kimberly A. Daubman, and Gary P. Nowicki confirmed in five experiments in which participants evaluated (1987), “Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solv- a target product described by either a difficult meteor, an easier ing,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 version of the metaphor, or its literal message counterpart, while (June), 1122-1131. considering the message for a possible purchase of an advertised Jaffe, F. (1988), “Metaphor and Memory: A Study in Persua- product either next day (near-future condition) or next year (distant- sion,” (Doctoral Dissertation, Northwestern University) Dis- future condition). Moreover, the effects generalized over different sertation Abstracts International, 49, p. 2311. products and metaphors and were evident regardless of whether the Kats, A. N., Paivio, A., and M. Marschark (1985), “Poetic Com- level of difficulty of a metaphor was manipulated by employing parisons: Psychological Dimensions of Metaphoric Process- different versions of a metaphor, by varying individuals’ knowledge ing,” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 14 (4), 365-383. to process a metaphor, or by varying their mood state. Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson (1980), Metaphor We Live By, Chi- Experiment 1 demonstrated that a difficult metaphor, compared cago: University of Chicago Press. to a literal message that has a same implication of the metaphor, led Liberman, Nira and Yaacov Trope (1998), “The Role of Feasi- to a more favorable evaluation of the target product in the distant bility and Desirability Considerations in Near and Distant future condition, whereas this difference was reversed in the near Future Decisions: A Test of Temporal Construal Theory,” future condition. Experiment 2 replicated these results and in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 5–18. addition showed that a difficult metaphor was more effective than an Marschark, M. and R. Hunt (1985), “On Memory for Metaphor,” easy metaphor as well in the distant future condition, whereas this Memory & Cognition, 13, 413-424. difference was reversed in the near future condition. Experiments McQuarrie, E. F. and B. J. Phillips (2005), “Indirect Persuasion 3a, 3b, and 3c investigated the role of individuals’ knowledge to in Advertising,” Journal of Advertising, 34 (2), 7-20. process the metaphor and found that a (difficult) metaphor was more effective for low-knowledge individuals than for high-knowledge individuals when the product decision was made for a distant future, whereas the difference was reversed when the decision was made for a near-future. Similarly, Experiment 4a and 4b demonstrated 600 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 601 Moreau, C. P., A. B. Markman and D. R. Lehmann (2001), “”What Is It?” Categorization Flexibility and Consumers’ Responses Really New Products,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (March), 489-498. Murray, N., H. Sujan, E. R. Hirt, and M. Sujan (1990), “The influence of Mood on Categorization: A Cognitive Flexibility Interpretation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychol- ogy, 59, 411–425. Richards, I. A. (1981), The Philosophy of Rhetoric, Philosophi- cal Perspectives on Metaphor, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Roehm, M. L. and B. Sternthal (2001), “The Moderating Effect of Knowledge and Resources on the Persuasive Impact of Analogies,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (September), 257-272. Sopory, Pradeep and James Price Dillard (2002), “The Persua- sive Effects of Metaphor,” Human Communication Research, 28 (3), 382-419. Trope, Yaacov and Nira Liberman (2003), “Temporal Construal,” Psychological Review, 110 (3), 403-421. Whaley, B. (1991), “Toward a Comprehensive Model of Analogy in Persuasion: A Test of the Persuasive Role of Analogy,” (Doctoral Dissertation, Purdue University) Dissertation Abstracts International, 53, p. 20. Testing Phonetic Symbolism Effects on Brand Name Preference for Bilinguals Across Multiple Languages L. J. Shrum, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA Tina M. Lowrey, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA Dawn Lerman, Fordham University, USA David Luna, Baruch College, USA Min Liu, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA

Extended Abstract received brand name stimuli that were constructed using either Good brand names can enhance memorability, create favorable alphabetic letters or logographic symbols in order to test possible images, and increase preference for the products, and are an differences in the two presentations. Our focal hypothesis was that important component in building brand equity (Aaker 1996; Keller preference for front versus back vowel sound words as brand names 1993). When investigating the construction of the brand names, would vary as a function of product category: front vowel sound researchers found that not only the semantic meaning, but also words should be preferred over back for 2-seater convertible and phonetic symbolism, which refers to a non-arbitrary relation between knife, and back vowel sound words should be preferred over front sound and meaning, may influence brand preference (Klink 2000). for 4 X 4 vehicle and hammer. Note that the elicitation of a brand In its simplest form, phonetic symbolism suggests that phonemes name preference for each product category does not directly elicit (the smallest unit of sound) can convey meaning apart from their a judgment regarding concepts such as size, speed, or sharpness configuration in words or syllables. Research on the relation between (cf. Bentley and Varon 1933). Rather, the predicted effects should phonetic symbolism and brand name preference has shown that be noted only if participants form perceptions of these concepts brand name preference and brand attitudes are more positive when spontaneously and then apply them to their preference judgments. the fit between phonetic symbolism and the product attributes is The results of the ANOVA indicated that there was a significant maximized. Although previous research has been successful at interaction between vowel sound and product category as we documenting phonetic symbolism effects in brand names, the predicted, whereas the effect of experiment was not significant. processes underlying these effects have remained elusive. First, as These findings indicate that phonetic symbolism effects are robust some critics have pointed out, phonetic symbolism effects do not across the different languages and cultures we tested, including necessarily occur spontaneously, but only when specific dimensional logographic representations in Chinese. The results also show that judgments (e.g., size, shape, brightness) are elicited (Bentley and these general relations were for the most part unaffected by whether Varon 1933), suggesting that the effect may be a methodological participants completed the experiment in their native language or artifact. Second, the effects that have been obtained with determining a foreign language, and were also unaffected by their proficiency the meaning of foreign words (e.g., matching pairs of antonyms in a in that language. foreign language with comparable English antonyms; Brown, Black, The studies we have presented make a number of contributions and Horowitz 1955) are eliminated if both sets of stimulus words to the consumer behavior literature, but they also contribute to the are in languages foreign to the participants (Maltzman, Morrisett, more general fields of cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics. and Brooks 1956). Besides, there are in fact some reasons to think We replicate the phonetic symbolism effects noted in previous stud- that phonetic symbolism effects would not hold for some forms ies (Lowrey and Shrum 2007; Yorkston and Menon 2004), but also of language. For example, in the Chinese written language, there show that a) these effects generalize to languages other than English, are important differences in how alphabetic and logographic word b) generalize to languages in which presentation is non-alphabetic representations are processed (Schmitt, Pan, and Tavassoli 1994; (logographic), c) hold for second-language as well as first-language Tavassoli 2001), and there is considerable debate as to whether participants, d) these latter effects are observed regardless of level phonetic information in logographic characters can even be activated of proficiency of participants, and e) the effects are spontaneous prior to some semantic activation (Chua 1999; Zhou 1978). rather than a function of being elicited by the research method. The goal of this paper is to extend previous research on the existence of phonetic symbolism and its application to brand nam- REFERENCES ing by testing the generalization of these findings across languages, Aaker, David A. (1996), Building Strong Brands, New York: The and testing the extent to which fluency may moderate the phonetic Free Press. symbolism effects. On the one hand, if the phonetic symbolism Bentley, Madison and Edith J. Varon (1933), “An Accessory effects are indeed universal (Ultan 1978), fluency may have little Study of ‘Phonetic Symbolism’,” American Journal of Psy- effect. On the other hand, research shows that form and meaning chology, 45 (January), 76-86. in a second language, even for fluent bilinguals, are not as tightly Brown, Roger W., Abraham H. Black, and Arnold E. Horowitz connected as for a first language (Luna and Peracchio 2001). If so, (1955), “Phonetic Symbolism in Natural Languages,” Jour- then we would expect to see weaker effects for less fluent second- nal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 50 (3), 388-93. language learners. Chua, Fook Kee (1999), “Phonological Recoding in Chinese Three experiments were conducted to determine the extent to Logograph Recognition,” Journal of Experimental Psychol- which phonetic symbolism effects are spontaneous and generalizable ogy: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25 (July), 876-91. to other languages, and the extent to which non-native speakers Keller, Kevin L. (1993), “Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Man- are influenced by second-language fluency. In experiments 1–3, aging Customer-Based Brand Equity,” Journal of Marketing, Spanish-, French- and Chinese-speaking participants who were 57 (January), 1-22. fluent in English expressed preferences between brand name pairs that differed only in their primary vowel sound (front vs. back), and did so as a function of product category (2-seater convertible, knife, 4 X 4 vehicle, hammer). In addition, Chinese-speaking participants 602 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 603 Klink, Richard R. (2000), “Creating Brand Names With Mean- ing: The Use of Sound Symbolism,” Marketing Letters, 11 (1), 5-20. Lowrey, Tina M. and L. J. Shrum (2007), “Phonetic Symbolism and Brand Name Preference,” Journal of Consumer Re- search, 34 (October), 406-14. Luna, David and Laura A. Peracchio (2001), “Moderators of Language Effects in Advertising to Bilinguals: A Psycho- linguistic Approach,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (September), 284-95. Maltzman, Irving, Lloyd Morrisett, Jr., and Lloyd O. Brooks (1956), “An Investigation of Phonetic Symbolism,” Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 53 (September), 249-51. Schmitt, Bernd H., Yigang Pan, and Nader T. Tavassoli (1994), “Language and Consumer Memory: The Impact of Linguistic Differences between Chinese and English,” Journal of Con- sumer Research, 21 (December), 419-31. Tavassoli, Nader T. (2001), “Color Memory and Evaluations for Alphabetic and Logographic Brand Names,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7 (June), 104-11. Ultan, Russell (1978), “Size-Sound Symbolism,” in Univer- sals of Human Language: Vol. 2: Phonology, ed. Joseph H. Greenberg, Charles A. Ferguson, and Edith. A. Moravcsik, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 525-68. Yorkston, Eric A. and Geeta Menon (2004), “A Sound Idea: Phonetic Effects of Brand Names on Consumer Judgments,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (June), 43-51. Zhou, Y.-G. (1978), “To What Degree are the “Phonetics” of Present-Day Chinese Characters Still Phonetic?” [In Chi- nese], Zhongguo Yuwen, 146, 172-77. What Makes Things Cool? How Autonomy Influences Perceptions of Coolness Caleb Warren, University of Colorado, USA Margaret C. Campbell, University of Colorado, USA

Extended Abstract ism. Consequently, we hypothesize that the level of autonomy Coolness is a socially desirable trait often pursued by consum- considered cool–i.e., the point at which the curvilinear function ers and marketers (Belk, Tian, and Paavola 2008; Dar Nimrod et between autonomy and perceived coolness peaks–will be higher al. 2008; Kerner and Pressman 2007). Both people and brands can for consumers higher in counterculturalism. become cool, although it is not well understood how this occurs. Our second study tests whether the relationship between Leading theories suggest that coolness comes from conforming autonomy and perceived coolness is curvilinear, and whether to behaviors desired within a particular subculture (Danesi 1994; the amount of autonomy considered cool varies depending on O’Donnell and Wardlow 2000; Thornton 1996) or by quickly counterculturalism. Participants read about a target person who mimicking the behaviors of other cool people (Gladwell 1997; was described as displaying either a low (e.g. “she rarely would Lupiono-Misdom and de Luca 1998). These theories, however, assert her independence”), moderate (e.g., “she occasionally would provide an incomplete explanation because they do not account for assert her independence”), high (e.g., “she often would assert her the origins of coolness nor do they explain how coolness diffuses independence”), or extreme (e.g., “she always would assert her across subcultures. independence) level of autonomy. Participants rated perceived Building on prior work in cultural studies, sociology, and psy- coolness of the target person and completed a scale measuring their chology (Frank 1997; Heath and Potter 2004; Pountain and Robins level of counterculturalism. As hypothesized, perceived coolness 2000), we hypothesize an alternative way people and brands can initially increased as autonomy increased from a low to moderate become cool: display bounded autonomy from mainstream society. level, but decreased as autonomy moved from a high to extreme In other words, we suspect that people and brands can become cool level. Additionally, however, participants higher in countercultural- by going their own way, rather than following society’s conventions. ism considered higher levels of autonomy cooler than participants We test this hypothesis in three experiments. lower in counterculturalism. Autonomy cannot be directly observed. Rather, it must be Our third study explores when consumers will desire cool inferred by observing the extent to which a person or brand adheres brands. Because displays of autonomy lead to perceptions of cool- to society’s norms. People and brands that resist or ignore these ness, we suspect that consumers can use cool brands to signal an norms will likely be seen as more autonomous than people and autonomous identity. Individualistic consumers will want to signal brands that conform. Consequently, we hypothesize that rebellion their autonomy, and hence will be most likely to prefer cool brands, and uniqueness will influence perceptions of autonomy, which will when their identity as an autonomous individual has been threatened influence perceptions of coolness. (Brewer 1991; Gao, Wheeler, and Shiv 2009). Our first study tests whether people who are more rebellious In this study we test whether American consumers whose and unique are perceived to be cooler than people who are less autonomous identity has been threatened are more likely to prefer rebellious and unique. Furthermore, we test whether these effects cool brands. We threatened the autonomous identity of some partici- are mediated by perceived autonomy. Participants read descriptions pants by making them feel undifferentiated from others by priming of target people who either described themselves as fairly rebellious their interdependent self (e.g., Aaker and Lee 2001). Subsequently, or not rebellious and fairly unique or not unique. Rebellion and participants indicated whether they preferred a cool winter hat brand uniqueness were fully crossed and manipulated between-subjects. (i.e., one displaying bounded autonomy) or an uncool winter hat For example, one target person was either described as “not afraid brand (i.e., one displaying low autonomy). Participants primed with to go against the grain” or “careful not to go against the grain,” an interdependent self were more likely to select the cool hat brand depending on whether the participant was in the high or low (68%) than participants primed with an independent self (44%). rebellion condition, respectively. After reading the descriptions, Desire to express autonomy was higher for participants primed participants rated their perceptions of the target person’s autonomy with an interdependent self, and this measure mediated the effect and coolness. As expected, target people who seemed more rebel- of the self-construal prime on brand preference. lious were considered cooler than target people who seemed less Following subcultural norms and mimicking cool people are not rebellious (M=6.9 vs. 4.6). Uniqueness had a similar effect (M=6.8 the only ways to become cool. People and brands can also become vs. 4.8). Importantly, both main effects were mediated by percep- cool through displays of bounded autonomy. Identifying autonomy tions of autonomy. as an additional antecedent of perceived coolness suggests where Next we investigate whether the relationship between autonomy coolness originates and how cool trends diffuse across subcultures. and perceptions of coolness is strictly increasing or curvilinear. Things first become cool when they are seen as autonomous from Social norms exist in part to prevent destructive, anti-social behavior mainstream society and cool trends typically diffuse from outsider (Rousseau 1994). Consequently, we suspect that showing extreme subcultures and consumers higher in counterculturalism to more levels of autonomy by completely disregarding these norms will mainstream subcultures and consumers lower in counterculturalism. not be seen as cool. Thus, the relationship between autonomy and Our research suggests that consumers and brands that want to be perceived coolness will likely be curvilinear: perceived coolness cool should be rebellious and unique, but be careful not to go too far. will initially increase with displays of autonomy, but will begin to decrease as displays of autonomy become too extreme. REFERENCES Individuals differ in terms of the extent to which they value Aaker, J. L. and A. Y. Lee (2001), “”I” Seek Pleasures And “We” autonomy and, consequently, the amount of autonomy they will Avoid Pains: The Role of Self-Regulatory Goals in Infor- consider acceptable. Individuals higher in counterculturalism, an mation Processing and Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer ideology centered on the belief that societal institutions promote Research, 28, 33-49. widespread conformity while repressing individuality, will likely value autonomy more than individuals lower in countercultural- 604 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 605 Baron, R. M. and D. A. Kenny (1986), “The Moderator Mediator McCracken, Grant (1986), “Culture and Consumption-a Theo- Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research-Con- retical Account of the Structure and Movement of the Cul- ceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations,” Journal of tural Meaning of Consumer-Goods,” Journal of Consumer Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-82. Research, 13, 71-84. Belk, Russell W., Kelly Tian, and Heli Paavola (2008), “Con- Milgram, Stanley (1963), “Behavioral-Study of Obedience,” suming Cool: Behind the Unemotional Mask,” Working Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 67, 371. Paper, Toronto: York University. Nancarrow, Clive, Pamela Nancarrow, and Julie Page (2002), Berger, Jonah and Chip Heath (2007), “Where Consumers Di- “An Analysis of the Concept of Cool and Its Marketing Im- verge from Others: Identity Signaling and Product Domains,” plications,” Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 1, 311-22. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 121-34. O’Donnell, Kathleen A. and Daniel L. Wardlow (2000), “A Brewer, Marilynn B. (1991), “The Social Self-on Being the Theory on the Origins of Coolness,” Advances in Consumer Same and Different at the Same Time,” Personality and Research, 27, 13-18. Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475-82. Oyserman, D. and S. W. S. Lee (2008), “Does Culture Influence Brooks, David (2000), Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class What and How We Think? Effects of Priming Individualism and How They Got There, New York: Simon and Schuster. and Collectivism,” Psychological Bulletin, 134, 311-42. Chartrand, T. L. and J. A. Bargh (1999), “The Chameleon Effect: Pountain, Dick and David Robins (2000), Cool Rules: Anatomy The Perception-Behavior Link and Social Interaction,” Jour- of an Attitude, London: Reaktion. nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1994), Discourse on the Origin of Cialdini, Robert B., C. A. Kallgren, and R. R. Reno (1991), “A Inequality, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refine- Ryan, R. M. and E. L. Deci (2000), “Self-Determination Theory ment and Reevaluation of the Role of Norms in Human and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Develop- Behavior,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, ment, and Well- Being,” American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. 201-34. Tian, Kelly Tepper, William O. Bearden, and Gary L. Hunter Danesi, Marcel (1994), Cool: The Signs and Meanings of (2001), “Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness: Scale Develop- Adolescence, Toronto ; Buffalo, N.Y.: University of Toronto ment and Validation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28, Press. 50-66. Dar-Nimrod, Ilan, I. G. Hansen, T. Proulx, and D. R. Lehman Thornton, Sarah (1996), Club Cultures: Music, Media, and Sub- (2008), “Where Have You Gone James Dean? An Empirical cultural Capital, Hanover, NH: University Press. Investigation of Coolness,” Working Paper, University of British Columbia. Frank, Thomas (1997), The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gao, Leilei, S. Christian Wheeler, and Baba Shiv (2009), “The ‘Shaken Self’: Product Choices as a Means of Restoring Self-View Confidence,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 29-38. Gladwell, Malcolm (1997), “The Coolhunt,” The New Yorker, 11. Grossman, Lev (2003), “The Quest for Cool,” Time, 162. Heath, Joseph and Andrew Potter (2004), Nation of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture, New York: HarperCollins. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1993), “Ideology in Consumer Research, 1980 and 1990-a Marxist and Feminist Critique,” Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 537-55. Hogan, Patrick Colm (2001), The Culture of Conformism: Un- derstanding Social Consent, Durham: Duke University Press. Hollander, E. P. (1958), “Conformity, Status, and Idiosyncrasy Credit,” Psychological Review, 65, 117-27. Jones, Edward E. and Keith E. Davis (1965), “From Acts to Dispositions–The Attribution Process in Person Perception,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 219-266. Kerner, Noah and Gene Pressman (2007), Chasing Cool: Stand- ing out in Today’s Cluttered Marketplace, New York: Atria. Leland, John (2004), Hip, the History, New York: Ecco. Lupiono-Misdom, Janine and Joanne de Luca (1998), Street Trends: How’s Today’s Alternative Youth Cultures Are Creat- ing Tomorrow’s Mainstream, New York: Collins. Mailer, Norman (1957), The White Negro, San Francisco: City Lights Books. Markus, Hazel Rose and Barry Schwartz (2010), “Does Choice Mean Freedom and Well-Being?” Journal of Consumer Research, Forthcoming. How Asking “Who Am I?” Affects What You Buy: The Influence of Self-Discovery on Consumption Eugenia Wu, Cornell University, USA Keisha Cutright, Duke University, USA Gavan Fitzsimons, Duke University, USA

Extended abstract consumer. Participants then made a second series of choices be- Are you an introvert or an extravert? A dreamer or a realist? tween branded and generic products. As expected, highly reactant Tools that ask and answer such questions are becoming a ubiquitous individuals chose fewer brands when told that they were more part of our lives, seeking to serve a universal thirst for self-discovery. brand conscious than others, and more brands when told that they Stores like Nordstrom and Bloomingdales offer color consulta- were less brand conscious than others. Individuals low in reactance, tions to shoppers so they can learn whether “summer” or “winter” however, chose more brands when told that that they were more colors are better for them. Gyms offer fitness assessments to help brand conscious than others, and fewer brands when told that they consumers understand what type of exerciser they are and which were less brand conscious. activities they should be doing to reach their fitness goals. Self-help While the results of studies 1 and 2 reveal that in response books abound which profess to help consumers learn about the self. to self-discovery findings, independents conduct themselves like Consumers’ drive towards self-discovery makes sense–the high reactants and that interdependents behave like low reactants, better we understand ourselves, the better decisions we can make. we aimed to show a more direct link between self-construal and Interestingly, the process of discovering and defining the self can also reactance in study 3. We expected independents to report increased be seen as a way of placing constraints on the self. If you are Type levels of state reactance in response to the limitations inherent in A, you cannot also be Type B. For individuals who are sensitive to self-discovery findings relative to interdependents. We further the prospect of limitations, the findings from self-discovery may be expected feelings of state reactance to mediate the relationship particularly likely to be viewed as a constraint on who they can be. between self-construal and subsequent choice. Participants first Thus, these individuals may reject such findings. We hypothesize completed the same product choice quiz described in study 2 that individuals characterized by an independent self-construal (for Before being primed to be independent or interdependent (Brewer whom the act of defining the self is inconsistent with their concep- and Gardner, 1996). Next, participants read that they were more tion of the self as an indefinable whole), as well as individuals who brand conscious than average, less brand conscious than average, or are highly reactant, will reject the findings of self-discovery and received no information at all. Participants who received feedback make consumption choices inconsistent with them, even as they then answered four questions about their feelings of reactance actively seek to learn about themselves. Conversely, individuals toward the information (Lindsey 2005). Finally, all participants who are characterized by interdependent self-construals and are made choices between a second series of brands and generics. As low in reactance should accept the findings of self-discovery and expected, independents made product choices that were inconsistent incorporate such into their consumption decisions. with the self-knowledge they received while interdependents made In study 1, participants completed a “personality quiz” con- choices consistent with their self-information. Importantly, reactance sisting of personality items, IQ questions, and Singelis’ (1994) mediated the relationship between self-construal and brand choice Self-Construal Scale. Participants were either told that they were as independents reported stronger feelings of reactance, regardless better than 70% of students in competence and better than 95% of the type of feedback. in excitement, or that they were better than 95% of students in Overall, studies 1-3 suggest that certain individuals may view competence and better than 70% in excitement. As the dependent self-knowledge as constraining, and that this may lead to some un- measure, participants chose between Business 2.0 (low competence/ expected consequences for consumer behavior. Specifically, we find high excitement) or Consumer Reports (high competence/low excite- that independents and high reactants reject self-discovery findings ment) magazines. As expected, interdependents were more likely and make consumption choices inconsistent with them even as they to choose Business 2.0 (low competence) when they received low actively seek to learn about themselves. Thus, this research provides competence feedback. They were more likely to choose Consumer a key theoretical refinement in terms of when individuals will seek Reports (high competence) when they received high competence and yet reject self-discovery findings and establishes how this has feedback. In contrast, independents were more likely to choose significant consequences for consumption. We also contribute to Consumer Reports (high competence) when they received low research suggesting that individuals use consumption to enhance competence feedback and Business 2.0 (low competence) when and express the self, especially when threatened (Gao, Wheeler, and they received high competence feedback. Thus, interdependents Shiv 2009). We show that individuals’ conceptualization of the self made choices that were consistent with the self-information they will determine how they use consumption to express the self in the received while independents made decisions that were inconsistent. face of feedback. This research also brings together the reactance In study 2, we further explore the idea that self-knowledge can and self-construal literatures in a novel way, offering new insights be constraining by demonstrating that individuals who are known regarding when and why they exert similar effects on consumers’ to react against constraints (i.e., highly reactant individuals) also choices. Moreover, our results have important practical implications: react against the limiting nature of self-knowledge. Participants Consumers’ innate desire for self-discovery may be one need that first made a series of selections between pairs of products. Product marketers should be wary of fulfilling, as it may lead to surprising pairs could consist of two branded products, two generic products and unintended consequences. or one branded and one generic product. Participants were then as- signed to one of two feedback conditions. In the ‘brand conscious’ References condition, participants read that they were more brand conscious Brewer, Marilynn B. and Wendi Gardner (1996), “Who Is This” than the average consumer. In the ‘not brand conscious’ condition, We”? Levels of Collective Identity and Self Representations,” they read that they were less brand conscious than the average Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83-93. 606 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 607 Gao, Leilei, S. Christian Wheeler, and Baba Shiv (2009), “The “Shaken Self”: Product Choices as a Means of Restoring Self-View Confidence,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (1), 29-38. Lindsey, Lisa L. Massi (2005), “Anticipated Guilt as Behavioral Motivation,” Human Communication Research, 31 (4), 453- 81. Singelis, Theodore M. (1994), “The Measurement of Indepen- dent and Interdependent Self-Construals,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20 (5), 580-91. Distracted by the Man in the Mirror: Focusing Attention on the Outside Body Reduces Responsiveness to Internal Signals in Food Intake Evelien van de Veer, Wageningen University, The Netherlands Erica van Herpen, Wageningen University, The Netherlands Hans C. M. van Trijp, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Extended Abstract ously been served a high caloric milkshake, they were less likely In Western societies, an increasing number of people is over- to start consuming M&M’s. Interestingly, the effect that the caloric weight or obese (WHO 2004). At the same time, media increasingly content of the milkshake had on the amount of consumption, was emphasize thinness ideals and outward appearance (Wiseman et al. qualified by whether an appearance focus was induced in partici- 1992). In the current study, we test the relation between focusing pants. Under control conditions, participants compensated for the on outside appearance and food consumption. More specifically, caloric content of the milkshake by consuming fewer M&M’s when we hypothesize that focusing on the outside of the body impedes previously served a milkshake of high caloric content than when internal body cues to have an effect on food consumption. served a low caloric milkshake. However, when participants were A wealth of literature shows how internal cues, external cues induced to focus on their outward appearance, the effect of caloric and psychological states separately influence food intake (Wansink content on M&M consumption was (marginally) significant in the 2004), yet little is known on whether and how these cues and psy- opposite direction. That is, participants consumed more M&M’s chological states interact. Our study extends this work by examin- when they had previously consumed a high caloric milkshake than ing consumers’ responsiveness to internal satiety cues in different a low caloric milkshake, indicating counterregulation rather than psychological states. To do so we assess how capable consumers compensation of previous food intake. are of compensating for previous food intake rather than looking The current study makes a number of contributions to the at an absolute amount of food intake at a single point in time. One literature on cues affecting eating behavior. As our findings dem- of the psychological states that has been found to stimulate food onstrate that an appearance focus reduces the extent to which intake is distraction. Whereas it has been repeatedly demonstrated individuals are able to compensate for their previous intake, this that distraction increases food intake within the consumption episode indicates that the psychological state a consumer is in affects the (e.g. Bellisle, Dalix and Slama 2004), there is some recent evidence influence of internal cues on consumption. This extends previous that the effects of distraction may go beyond the consumption epi- work that has looked mostly at how internal cues, external cues sode in affecting subsequent consumption (Higgs and Woodward and psychological states separately affect food intake. The current 2009). We build on this work and, drawing on self-objectification findings provide insight into how a psychological state and internal theory, propose that focusing on outward appearance is a distractor physiological cues can jointly affect consumption. We have done that hinders individuals in compensating for previous food intake. so by looking at compensation for previous intake, rather than at Self-objectification has been defined as the process whereby absolute amounts of food intake. How well individuals are able to individuals observe themselves from a third-person perspective compensate for previous food intake under different psychological and regard their body as an object instead of as a subject (Fred- states, may also provide an understanding of when individuals are rickson and Roberts 1997). Appearance focus is a manifestation able to counteract the negative influences that a range of external of self-objectification. Fredrickson et al. (1998) found that a state cues and psychological states have on consumption levels (Wansink of self-objectification, had detrimental effects on task performance 2004). Finally, our findings suggest that future research may benefit due to a limited availability of cognitive resources. Based on the from assessing both initiation of consumption and the amount of same reasoning, self-objectification theory predicts that focusing consumption, as our findings indicate that they may be affected by on outward appearance reduces responsiveness to bodily cues. different processes. Initial evidence indeed shows that self-reported measures of self- This study has implications for consumers who regularly objectification and responsiveness to bodily cues are negatively focus on their looks to monitor and regulate the potential harm- related (Daubenmier 2005). However, using self-report measures ful consequences of food consumption on body appearance. Our of these constructs seems problematic. In the current study we findings show that the effect may be counterproductive: Focusing have therefore tested this prediction assessing actual consumption. on the outer body diminishes the power of internal satiety cues to In a pilot study we tested and showed that exposure to a mirror regulate food consumption. This could result in a pattern where induces in participants a focus on public observable parts of the consumers overeat, gain weight and subsequently focus even more body, but not on private parts of the body. Thus, the use of a mir- on their looks. On a broader level, the thinness and beauty ideals ror appears to be a good manipulation of an outward appearance that are conveyed through commercials and other media may also focus. In an experiment we subsequently tested the effects of an foster an attentional focus on outward body appearance. These have outward appearance focus on consumers’ ability to compensate the potential of negatively affecting healthy eating patterns as they for the caloric content of previous food intake. Participants were may exert their effects within consumption contexts such as TV served either a high caloric milkshake or a low caloric milkshake commercials, shopping malls or cinema’s. and were either seated in front of a mirror or not. In a second part of the experiment, participants evaluated neutral video fragments with a bowl of M&M’s placed next to their screens. At the end of the experiment, participants’ M&M consumption was assessed. The effects of appearance focus and caloric content of the milkshake were assessed for the likelihood of M&M consumption and for the amount of M&M consumption. The results showed that the likelihood of starting to eat M&M’s was influenced by the caloric content of the milkshake: When participants had previ- 608 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Bandwagon, Snob and Veblen Effects in Luxury Consumption Minas Kastanakis, ESCP Europe, UK George Balabanis, Cass Business School, UK

Extended Abstract be positively related to both independent and inter-dependent self concepts. In addition vanity is an antecedent of a veblen effect (i.e., Conceptualization expensive luxuries), a snob effect (i.e., rare luxuries) and a band- Many years ago Leibenstein (1950) highlighted the importance wagon effect (i.e., through consumption of popular luxuries) as well. of “signaling effects” on consumption, which means that the utility Status-seeking is defined as the “process by which individu- derived from a product is enhanced or decreased due to the fact that als strive to improve their social standing trough the conspicuous “others” are purchasing and consuming it or due to the fact that the consumption of products that confer and symbolize status” (East- product bears a higher or lower price tag. In marketing it was taken man, Goldsmith, and Flynn, 1999). It reflects a social orientation for granted that “people buy luxuries to impress”: most of consumer and it is hypothesized to be positively related to the inter-dependent research has implicitly assumed that luxuries are consumed for self (and negatively to the independent self). In addition, using the social signaling purposes (Kapferer, 2006; Dubois, Laurent, and same argumentation line, status-seeking is hypothesized to be an Czellar, 2001). However, there is a scarcity of empirical support to antecedent of the veblen, snob and bandwagon effects. this claim. This study tries to plug this gap by providing empirical Consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence, refers to support to the possible antecedents of three luxury consumption the need to “identify with or enhance one’s image in the opinion of effects. It aims to improve the existing theoretical understanding significant others” through relevant consumption (Bearden, Nete- of the psychological antecedents and signaling behavior of luxury meyer, and Teel, 1989). This trait reflects a social orientation and, as consumption. such, is hypothesized to be positively related to the inter-dependent Specifically, a veblen effect arises when consumer preference self (and negatively to the independent self). It is an antecedent of for a good increases as a direct function of its price; a snob effect the bandwagon effect and it is negatively related to snob effect. when preference for a good increases as its quantity in the market is decreased; and a bandwagon effect is observed where consumer Method preference for a good increases as the number of people buying it Data were collected by the “drop and collect” survey method is increased. As Vigneron and Johnson (1999) have pointed out, in a probability sample of 431consumers of luxuries in London. these effects are particularly observed in luxury product markets. Three mediated structural models with the following variables were Research on luxuries’ consumption has led to recent evidence estimated: (independent and inter-dependent) self-concepts as ante- (Tsai, 2005) that calls for a distinction between socially and cedents (exogenous variables), need-for-uniqueness, status-seeking, personally-oriented luxury consumers (Wiedmann, Hennigs, and vanity and susceptibility to interpersonal influence as mediators, Siebels, 2007). The origins of these two orientations can be traced and bandwagon, snob and veblen behavior(s) as outcome variables. in an individual’s self-concept. Some individuals focus more on the “internal domain” and their self-related goals or needs (independent Major Findings self-concept); while others are more concerned about the inter- Bandwagon behavior is mostly influenced by inter-dependence. personal domain, the reaction of others and their external “persona” Managers who want to position their products as popular luxuries (inter-dependent self-concept). This literature (Wong and Ahuvia, should focus-with this order-on enhancing their products’ projected 1998) advocates that consumers with an independent self show a status (status from popularity/conformity), normative (fit-in) mes- more personal orientation in the way that they consume luxuries sages, and (physical) vanity/attractiveness appeal; while avoiding (focusing on their hedonic, utilitarian and self-communication goals) “stand-out” (avoidance of similarity) messages. whereas consumers with inter-dependent self care more for the Snob behavior is mostly influenced by independence. Managers social impact of such consumption (the three investigated effects). who want to position their products as exclusive luxuries should The existing work has not paid sufficient attention to the social focus-with this order-on status derived from exclusivity, creating an effects (i.e., the bandwagon, snob, and veblen effects). It is not aura of scarcity and uniqueness, and (physical) vanity/attractiveness clear how exactly the self orientations impact on the consumption appeal; while avoiding conformity (fit-in) messages. of luxuries. Against the previous background, this study proposes Veblenian behavior is marginally influenced by inter-depen- that these effects are driven by both an independent and an inter- dence. Managers who want to boost consumption of their luxury dependent self-concept (they are both personally and socially-driven products using (very expensive) price-signaling should focus-with behaviors) and that a number of relevant traits act as mediators this order-on communicating messages coherent with the traits of between the self-concept(s) and the signaling behavior. these target consumers: status messages (status from prestige-pricing With the help of the literature and qualitative exploratory since, for the purely conspicuous consumer, the satisfaction comes research (interviews with managers of luxury products) the fol- from audience reaction to the wealth displayed), (physical) vanity/ lowing four traits emerge to be related to the bandwagon, snob attractiveness appeals, as well as on scarcity and uniqueness mes- and veblen effects: need-for-uniqueness, vanity, status-seeking, sages based on creative counter-conformity. and susceptibility to interpersonal influence. These results contribute to understanding in depth the anteced- Need-for-uniqueness (NFU) is “the trait of pursuing differ- ents behind the signaling behavior of consumers of luxury goods. entness relative to others through the acquisition, utilization and This behavior is both personally meaningful and socially driven. disposition of consumer goods” (Tepper, Bearden and Hunter, 2001). These findings provide practical help to managers in a) segmenting NFU is positively related to both independent and inter-dependent their markets, and b) evaluating and predicting the reaction of con- self concepts and is hypothesized to be an antecedent of both snob sumers to changes in their offerings and communication campaigns. and veblen effects, while negatively related to a bandwagon effect. Vanity (Netemeyer, Burton, and Lichtenstein, 1995) has a physical and an achievement dimension. Vanity is hypothesized to 609 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 610 / Bandwagon, Snob and Veblen Effects in Luxury Consumption References Duesenberry, J. S. (1949), Income, Saving and the Theory of Alston, W. P. (1975), “Traits, Consistency and Conceptual Al- Consumer Behavior, Harvard University Press, Cambridge. ternatives for Personality Theory”, Journal for the Theory of Eastman, J. K., Goldsmith, R. E. and Flynn, L. R. (1999), “Sta- Social Behavior, 5, 17-48. tus Consumption in Consumer Behavior: Scale Development Amaldoss, W. and Jain, S. (2005), “Conspicuous Consumption and Validation”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, and Sophisticated Thinking”, Management Science, 51 (10), 7 (3), 41-51. 1449-1466. Ellis, J.B. and Wittenbaum, G.M. (2000), “Relationships be- Bagozzi, R.P. and Heathenon, T. F. 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(2002), “Mediation in Experimental and Non-Experimental Studies: New Procedures and Recom- mendations”, Psychological Methods, vol. 7 (4), pp. 422-445. Schumacker, R. E. and Lomax, R. G. (2004), A Beginners Guide to Structural Equation Modelling, 2nd ed., New York: Taylor and Francis Group. Singelis, T. M. (1994), “The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580-91. Solomon, M. R. (2006), Consumer Behavior: Buying, Selling and Being, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Tepper, K. T., Bearden, W.O. and Hunter, G. L. (2001), “Con- sumers’ Need for Uniqueness: Scale Development and Vali- dation”, Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (1), 50. Tepper, K. T. and McKenzie, K. (2001) “The Long-Term Predic- tive Validity of the Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness Scale”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 10 (3), 171-193. Triandis, H. C. (1989), “The Self and Behavior in Differing Cul- tural Contexts”, Psychological Review, 96, 506-20. 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The Power of Positive Thinking: Asymmetrical Affective Perseverance in Consumer Brand Judgments Brent Coker, University of Melbourne, Australia

Extended Abstract Experiment one documents the existence of positive contamination Consumers update their attitudes towards brands as new in- when a positive attitude is replaced by a negative attitude, with an formation in encoded. For example, when reading online reviews absence of negative contamination when the attitude replacement about hotels or restaurants when booking a holiday, consumers will is from negative to positive. Experiment two further documents adjust their attitude in line with the positivity or negativity of the asymmetrical attitude replacement, finding the same effect when reviews being read. In many situations, the valence of information attempts by participants to adjust attitudes to a relative state of encoded about a product or service is mixed. It is rare for instance ambivalence are unsuccessful after participants are told the positive for online hotel reviews to be consistently positive or negative; there information that shaped their attitude was false. are always some patrons who appear to have had a more positive or The second study investigates the mechanisms underlying more negative experience with the hotel than the majority. From a asymmetric affective perseverance. Specifically, experiment 3 further big picture standpoint, the issue of how consumers form attitudes tests the theory by demonstrating how asymmetric perseverance of towards products and services from reading online reviews raises affect is contingent on time trend information. In a simulated task of the more general issue of how consumers adjust their attitudes when evaluation based on online reviews, it is assumed that a consumer information describing the quality of product or service is mixed. should be more forgiving of a brand if negative reviews are relatively The goal of this research therefore is to explore how consumers old, and have been replaced by more recent positive reviews. This update their attitudes towards products and services when informa- pattern should suggest improvement, and therefore less likelihood tion encountered during decision making is of opposite valence. of regret. The results suggest attenuation of positive contamina- Conventional wisdom would suggest that if a consumer has tion when trend information is available. Finally, experiment four a favorable attitude towards a brand, which is then contested by lends support to the theory by showing that asymmetrical affective negative information, the consumer will have control over their perseverance appears to be a function of cognitive elaboration. judgments and adjust their evaluation accordingly. For example, a From a big picture standpoint, our theory is interesting because consumer may hear a rumor about a brand, which they later find to it sheds light on how consumers form attitudes towards brands, be untrue. Similarly, when a consumer encodes positive informa- when influenced by oppositely valenced information. Our theory is tion contesting previously encoded negative information, they will also interesting because it explains inconsistent findings in psychol- also have control over their judgments and adjust their evaluations ogy literature about attitude replacement, which is also relevant to accordingly. The present research argues however that consumers how consumers form brand judgments. Although some research are less successful at adjusting their attitudes in a positive to nega- has found that people are successful at discounting previously tive direction than they are at adjusting their attitudes in a negative formed judgments (Golding et al. 1990), other research has found to positive direction. Specifically, this research proposes a theory that invalidated information may continue to contaminate future of asymmetric affective perseverance, whereby positive attitudes judgments, without the subject being aware (Bekerian and Bowers continue to contaminate judgments towards a brand when replaced 1983; Greenwald and Banaji 1995; Lindsay and Johnson 1989). by negative attitudes, but negative attitudes do not. This leads to the paradoxical finding that consumers’ attitudes towards a brand are positively skewed if they encode positive information before negative information, than if they encode the same information in the opposite order. This research further finds that this asymmetrical perseverance of affect is contingent on trend of information over time, and that it only occurs when information is deeply encoded. When trend information is available, such as when positive reviews are old, and negative reviews are recent, the pattern of results is reversed, and the nature of asymmetric affective perseverance is muted. The phenomenon of asymmetric affective perseverance is attributed to people’s relative difficulty in shifting their attitude in a positive to negative direction, than in a negative to positive direction. Anecdotally, the concept of denial in psychiatric literature describes a similar cognitive process. A person given bad news will often experience the protection mechanism of disbelief, deferral, and dismissal before a relatively negative affective state sinks in (Lubinsky 1994). In contrast, the shift from relative despair to hap- piness is often instantaneous, and has a stronger effect on imagined outcomes than negative factors. In general, human beings prefer to remain optimistic and are more willing and hopeful towards adopting a positive outlook than remaining in a relative state of negativity. The asymmetry in attitude adjustment pertaining to brands is dem- onstrated in two studies comprised of four experiments. The first study demonstrates asymmetric perseverance of positive affect in two hypothetical brand evaluation exercises.

612 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Mood Matching: The Importance of Fit between Moods Elicited by TV Programs and Commercials Joseph Lajos, HEC Paris, France Nailya Ordabayeva, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Nethelands Amitava Chattopadhyay, INSEAD, Singapore

Extended Abstract as information theory makes accurate predictions when people are Previous consumer research suggests that TV viewers have unlikely to have mood expectations. more favorable attitudes toward commercials when they are in a The results of experiment 2 support this hypothesis. In the happy mood than when they are in a sad mood. Research has dem- experiment, we find that, following a sad program clip, viewers who onstrated this effect with moods induced by commercials themselves focused on their mood during the TV watching experience liked (Batra and Stayman 1990; Derbaix 1995; Edell and Burke 1987; sad commercials more than happy commercials, whereas viewers Holbrook and Batra 1987) and with moods induced by TV programs who were distracted from their mood during the experience liked in which the commercials are embedded (Goldberg and Gorn 1987; happy commercials more than sad commercials. Furthermore, we Mathur and Chattopadhyay 1991). This research has revealed two find that a second focus manipulation administered after, rather main effects. All else equal, TV viewers like commercials more than during, the TV viewing experience, did not affect viewers’ when (1) they induce happy moods rather than sad moods, and (2) evaluations, thus providing further evidence that a difference in they are embedded in programs that induce happy moods rather than expectations underlies the aforementioned results. sad moods. These effects are important since attitude toward the ad Our research contributes to theory and practice in three ways.

(AAd) reliably influences brand attitudes and purchase intentions First, we use role fulfillment evaluation theory to identify an effect (MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch 1986; Madden, Allen, and Twible that is at odds with the recommendations of previous research on the 1988; Miniard, Bhatla, and Rose 1990; Mitchell and Olson 1981; attitudinal effects of moods induced by TV programs and commer- see Brown and Stayman 1992 for a review), and is the single best cials. Second, we identify mood expectations during the experience predictor of an ad’s ability to influence sales (Haley and Baldinger as a moderating variable, allowing us to reconcile our main result 1991). However, previous research has not examined whether com- with those of extant research. Third, our results provide guidance mercials that induce a happy mood elicit more favorable responses to advertising managers who seek either to select a program during compared to those that induce a sad mood, irrespective of whether which to air existing commercials, or to produce commercials that the mood induced by the program is positive or negative. This is will be aired during a particular program. Our suggestion that sad the focus of our research. commercials can be more effective when aired during sad programs In this paper, we propose that when TV viewers watch a program than during happy programs seems to go against common advertising that establishes a mood, they expect to continue experiencing that practice. According to Mathur and Chattopadhyay (1991), several mood throughout the duration of the TV viewing experience. We major organizations have policies that prohibit advertising during draw on research on mood as input to role fulfillment evaluation sad programs. Consistent with this, news articles report that many processes (Martin et al. 1997) to hypothesize that TV viewers have groups have pulled their commercials from sad programs. Based on more favorable attitudes toward commercials that support moods our findings, we believe that advertising managers should reassess established by programs than toward those that break established the usefulness of scheduling some commercials during sad programs. moods. Our hypothesis leads to the novel prediction that, during a sad program, TV viewers will like sad commercials more than References happy commercials. Batra, Rajeev and Michael L. Ray (1986), “Affective Responses The results of experiment 1 support our hypothesis. In the Mediating Acceptance of Advertising,” Journal of Consumer experiment, we find that participants liked two sad commercials Research, 13 (September), 234-49. significantly more when they followed sad program clips than Batra, Rajeev and Douglas M. Stayman (1990), “The Role of when they followed happy program clips, and liked two happy Mood in Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Consumer commercials more when they followed happy program clips than Research, 17 (September), 203-14. when they followed sad program clips, albeit not significantly so. Bergkvist, Lars and John R. Rossiter (2007), “The Predictive A key finding of experiment 1 is that, under some conditions, Validity of Multiple-Item Versus Single-Item Measures of the viewers may actually have more favorable attitudes toward commer- Same Constructs,” Journal of Marketing Research, 44 (May), cials when they are aired during sad programs than when they are 175-84. aired during happy programs. This finding may initially seem to be Bower, Gordon H. (1981), “Mood and Memory,” American at odds with mood as information theory (Schwarz and Clore 1983, Psychologist, 36 (2), 129-48. 1988), which proposes that people use their momentary affective Bower, Gordon H. and Paul R. Cohen (1982), “Emotional states as information when making judgments and evaluations, for Influences in Memory and Thinking: Data and Theory,” in example by asking “how do I feel about it?” Mood as information Affect and Cognition, ed. Margaret Clark and Susuan Fiske, theory thus predicts that people will evaluate stimuli more favorably Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 291-331. when they are in a positive mood than when they are in a negative Brown, Steven P., Pamela M. Homer, and J. Jeffrey Inman mood. However, we assert that the apparent contradiction between (1998), “A Meta-Analysis of Relationships between Ad- our predictions and those of mood as information theory can be Evoked Feelings and Advertising Responses,” Journal of reconciled by noting that role fulfillment evaluations are based on Marketing Research, 35 (February), 114-26. an expectation comparison process. Specifically, we hypothesize Brown, Steven P. and Douglas M. Stayman (1992), “Antecedents that role fulfillment evaluation theory makes accurate predictions and Consequences of Attitude Toward the Ad: A Meta-Anal- when people are likely to have mood expectations, whereas mood ysis,” Journal of Consumer Research, 19 (June), 34-51.

613 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 614 / Mood Matching: The Importance of Fit between Moods Elicited by TV Programs and Commercials Burke, Marian Chapman and Julie A. Edell (1989), “The Impact Murry, John P. Jr., John L. Lastovicka, and Surendra N. Singh of Feelings on Ad-based Affect and Cognition,” Journal of (1992), “Feeling and Liking Responses to Television Pro- Marketing Research, 26 (February), 69-83. grams: An Examination of Two Explanations for Media-Con- Derbaix, Christian M. (1995), “The Impact of Affective Reac- text Effects,” Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (March), tions on Attitudes Toward the Advertisement and the Brand: 441-51. A Step Toward Ecological Validity,” Journal of Marketing Russell, James A. (1979), “Affective Space is Bipolar,” Journal Research, 32 (November), 470-79. of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 345-56. 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Extended Abstract attraction (or asymmetric dominance) effect and the compromise Does a restaurant serve meals that are sufficiently large? Is a effect. Consistent with our assumption that positive (negative) mood 640M 2.5GH laptop at $1300 attractive? How one perceives, evalu- results in more (less) attention to the other products in the choice ates, and judges a product is not only driven by characteristics of set, we found that positive (negative) mood resulted in stronger the product itself, but also by the context the product is presented (weaker) attraction and compromise effects compared to the neutral in. The size of a gastronomic nouvelle cuisine meal may look ri- control condition. diculously small on an oversized plate, but sufficiently large when Together the current studies provide strong evidence that served on a normal sized plate (Wansink and van Ittersum 2006; positive mood strengthens and negative mood eliminates the effect Wansink, van Ittersum, and Painter 2006). And the same notebook of context on product judgments and refute a depth of processing is typically perceived as more attractive when it is the middle option account as alternative explanation. Instead, we argue that our ef- in a choice set than when it is an extreme option (Simonson 1989; fects are driven by a shift in attentional scope with positive mood Simonson and Tversky 1992). As pervasive and robust as context promoting broader attention to both the target and the context and effects are, however, we predict that mood critically determines negative mood focusing attention on the target. Study 3 indeed il- the extent to which consumers take the context into consideration lustrated that the effect of mood on context dependence was fully when making product judgments. mediated by attentional scope. Our prediction is mainly based on the assumption that mood We believe that the effect of mood on context dependence alters attentional scope as such that positive mood broadens atten- may have ample implications for consumers and decision makers. tional scope to both the target product and context and negative mood As long as there is a target product to be judged and a context in narrows attentional scope to the target product only. First support which it is presented, the pattern we proposed should hold strong. for this assumption is provided by studies using perceptual tasks We would speculate that a sales assistant who is trying to trick us that contain both broad and narrow visual features. These studies into buying a product by comparing it to a ridiculously overpriced consistently found that happy individuals focused more on the broad alternative, or a product’s television ad featuring poignant music feature and sad individuals focused more on the narrow features and heart-warming scenes will be more successful if we are in a (Basso et al. 1996; Frederickson and Branigan 2005; Gasper and good, than in a bad mood. Our findings suggest that being happy can Clore 2002). In addition, other studies in which participants are make us more susceptible to persuasive communication that relies asked to focus on a central target and ignore flanking distracters on the power of context. However, being happy can also be pretty showed that sad participants were less affected by the distracting useful. Looking at the top and bottom (and left and right) shelves context stimuli and therefore performed better compared to happy in the supermarket can save you money, and make you discover participants (Fenske and Eastwood 2003; Rowe, Hirsh, and Ander- new and potentially better product alternatives. son 2007). Finally, Schmitz, Rosa, and Anderson (2009) provided neuroscientific evidence illustrating that mood alters visual cortical References responses, such that negative affect decreases and positive affect Basso, Michael R., Bruce K. Schefft, M. Douglas Ris, and increases the scope of early perceptual encoding in a visuospatial task. William N. Dember (1996), “Mood and global-local visual So, previous research suggests that attentional scope is fun- processing,” Journal of International Neuropsychological damentally influenced by mood. Therefore, it seems reasonable to Society, 2 (3), 249-55. predict that happy consumers will rely more and sad consumers were Fenske Mark J. and John D. Eastwood (2003), “Modulation of rely less on the context when making product judgments compared focused attention by faces expressing emotion: Evidence to consumers who are in a neutral mood state. We provided support from flanker tasks,” Emotion, 3 (4), 327-43. for this prediction with three studies testing the effect of different Fredrickson, Barbara L. and Christine Branigan (2005), “Positive mood manipulations on a variety of context effects that have been emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action previously observed in consumer behavior. repertoires,” Cognition and Emotion, 19 (3), 313-32. In the first study, we employed the perceptual contrast effect Gasper, Karen and Gerald L. Clore (2002), “Attending to the Big (based on the Ebbinghaus Illusion task) to find initial evidence Picture: Mood and Global Versus Local Processing of Visual for the notion that mood moderates the extent to which product Information,” Psychological Science, 13 (1), 34-40. judgments are affected by the context. After we induced mood, we Rowe, G., J. B. Hirsh, A. K. Anderson, and Edward E. Smith asked participants to estimate the size of a target product (apples, (2007), “Positive Affect Increases the Breadth of Attentional coke cans, bottles of liquid laundry detergent, peanut butter jars) Selection,” PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of that was surrounded by either larger or smaller versions of the Sciences of the United States of America, 104 (1), 383-88. target product. Consistent with our predictions, size estimations Schmitz, Taylor W., Eve De Rosa, and Adam K. Anderson of positive mood participants were significantly more and those (2009), “Opposing influences of affective state valence on of negative mood participants were significantly less affected by visual cortical encoding,” The Journal of Neuroscience, 29 the surrounding stimuli than those of neutral mood participants. (22), 7199-207. In other words, happy participants were more and sad participants Simonson, Itamar (1989), “Choice Based on Reasons: The Case were less susceptible to the Ebbinghaus illusion than neutral mood of Attraction and Compromise Effects,” Journal of Consumer participants. Research, 16 (2), 158-74. In study 2 and 3 we further tested the effect of mood on two well-known and robust context effects in consumer behavior: the

615 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 616 / How Mood Moderates the Effect of Context on Product Judgments Simonson, Itamar and Amos Tversky (1992), “Choice in Con- text-Tradeoff Contrast and Extremeness Aversion,” Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (3), 281-95. Wansink, Brian and Koert van Ittersum (2006), “The Visual Illusions of Food: Why Plates, Bowls and Spoons Can Bias Consumption Volume,” FASEB Journal, 20 (4), A618-A618, Part 1. Wansink, Brian, Koert van Ittersum, and James E. Painter (2006), “Ice Cream Illusions: Bowl Size, Spoon Size, and Serving Size,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31 (3), 240-43. Responses to Animal Anthropomorphism in Advertising Based on Character Similarity to Humans Paul M. Connell, Stony Brook University, USA

Extended Abstract animals should be viewed more positively when presented in anthro- Throughout civilization, people have imbued creatures from pomorphic form due to heightened levels of similarity to humans. the natural world with human traits and motivations. Market- However, researchers have found that construal level can moder- ers have capitalized on this tendency by creating a plentitude of ate the relationship between similarity and attraction. Less similar anthropomorphic animal mascots for a variety of products and objects, because they are psychologically more distant, are construed services. Yet, research examining anthropomorphism on consumer at higher, more abstract levels (Liviatan, Trope, and Liberman 2008). behavior is sparse. The purpose of this research is to understand Likewise, higher similarity leads to lower-level, more concrete which types of animals are portrayed anthropomorphically most construals. Thus, it is possible that nonanthropomorphic images of often in marketing communications (based upon their perceived all animals would be assigned more abstract representations, such similarity to humans) and how consumers’ attitudes are affected as “animal.” Therefore, due to lower similarity to humans among by such anthropomorphism. all animal types in nonanthropomophic portrayals, there may be Anthropomorphism is the process of assigning real or imagined little or no preference for highly similar animals over less similar human characteristics, intentions, motivations, or emotions to nonhu- animals. However, because greater similarity leads to more concrete man objects, often motivated by explaining and understanding the construals with more focus on secondary features, it is possible that behavior of those nunhuman agents (Epley, Waytz, and Cacioppo anthropomorphizing animal images increases salience to the differ- 2008). People do this with a seemingly unending array of things, ences between the high, moderate, and low similarity animals, thus including brands and television characters, to the extent that they leading to differences in preference for anthropomorphic images sometimes form parasocial relationships with them (Fournier 1998; but no preference among nonanthropomorphic images. Russell, Norman, and Heckler 2004). Instead of leaving it up to Additionally, Chen and Kenrick (2002) found that increasing individuals to anthropomorphize objects of consumption, marketers similarity for outgroup members can have a more powerful effect often create advertising mascots with the express intent of imbuing on liking than increasing similarity for ingroup members. The au- them with personality characteristics, in a sense anthropomorphiz- thors argue that these effects are driven by lower levels of baseline ing the brand for the consumer (Aaker 1997). similarity, and thus liking, in outgroups. Thus, enhancing similarity Individuals help to make sense out of their world by organiz- leads to a positive violation of expectations and increased attrac- ing things in categories. Each category and subcategory has mental tion that does not occur for ingroups, whose baseline similarity is prototypes. Objects are stored in memory around these prototypes already high. In the context of this research, relatively dissimilar by both their similarity to the prototype and their similarity to other animals would have lower baseline similarity to humans, whereas items in the category (Tversky 1977). People seem to be particularly moderately animals would have higher baseline similarity to humans, adept at categorizing animals. Henley (1969; see also Tversky 1977) and highly animals would have the highest baseline similarity to devised a study asking participants to rate the similarity of 30 fa- humans. Therefore, it is possible that relatively dissimilar animals miliar animals to each other. The results were plotted on a cognitive would benefit more from anthropomorphism than moderately similar map where the animals that were perceived to be most similar to animals, which would in turn benefit more from anthropomorphism each other were closer to one another (i.e., closer in psychological than highly similar animals. distance) on the cognitive map. While Henley (1969) interpreted The purpose of this research is to explore how anthropo- this cognitive map as having two axes of size and ferocity, one morphized animal images are used in marketing communications could also interpret this cognitive map as indicating each animal’s and how consumers respond to them based on their similarity to similarity to human beings. I characterize these animals as highly humans. Findings of content analyses indicate that animals that are similar to humans (e.g., non-human primates such as monkeys and perceived to be moderately similar to humans are more frequently gorillas), moderately similar to humans (e.g., carnivorous animals used as anthropomorphic mascots than animals that are either such as lions and wolves as well as rodents and rodent-like animals highly similar or relatively dissimilar to humans. However, results such as rabbits), and relatively dissimilar to humans (e.g., hoofed from an experimental study indicate that, while participants are mammals such as horses, goats, and deer). Results from a pilot indifferent between animal types when they are presented non- study support this categorization. anthropomorphically, relatively dissimilar animals gain the most in A large body of research has converged on the finding that terms of attitude favorability when presented anthropomorphically. people like similar others, possibly due to an increased motivation I argue that these results are driven by a lower level of baseline to process information about close others (Aron, Aron, Tudor, and similarity to humans in the nonanthropomorphic form. Thus, enhanc- Nelson 1991). The foundational work in this literature stream was ing similarity to humans via anthropomorphism leads to positive built on attitude similarity (Byrne 1971; Byrne, Clore, and Smeaton violation of expectations and enhanced attraction toward relatively 1986; Heider 1958). This research has been subsequently extended dissimilar animal images. Consequently, animals that are relatively to domains such as similarity in personality traits (Tesser and Camp- dissimilar to humans might be underutilized as anthropomorphic bell 1980; Tesser and Paulhus 1983) and biological characteristics spokescharacters. (Chen and Kenrick 2002). Miller and colleagues (1998) found that even trivial similarities, such as a shared birthday, cause people to view others more favorably. In extending this similarity-attraction principle to animal images, the most obvious prediction would be that high-similarity animals would be viewed more positively than moderate-similarity animals, which would in turn be viewed more positively than low-similarity animals. Furthermore, all types of

617 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Brand Anthropomorphization: A Homocentric Knowledge Activation Perspective Marina Puzakova, Drexel University, USA Hyokjin Kwak, Drexel University, USA Trina Larsen Andreas, Drexel University, USA

Extended Abstract the refinement process of afferent AB as the process through which We describe a four-stage process of brand anthropomorphiza- consumers engage in more complex attribution of human capabilities tion, which begins with primary cognition and proceeds through to the initial afferent AB judgment. The relevant literature and the secondary cognition stages. Two types of anthropomorphized results of in-depth interviews have shown that AB refinement agents brands perceptions are formed–one that is transient and one that such as sociality motivation, effectance motivation, and brand love- lasts longer. Stronger forms of brand anthropomorphization, going dependency operate as drive states which facilitate the perception beyond brand personality attribution (e.g., weaker forms), exist. of brands as human. In turn, high cognitive capacity leads to the Consumers’ perceptions of brands as human may have important correction of the initial perception of brand as a transient human implications in the area of branding. At present, we do not know to the perception of brand as a commercial entity. much about the process that influences the degree to which con- In the refinement stage, we find that consumers project mind, sumers perceive brands as complete human beings. Social science intentions, emotions, and spirit to brands. Consumers also show researchers have considered anthropomorphization an automatic signs of parental solicitude by viewing their brands as little brother psychological process that does not vary among individuals, and or son. That is, individuals feel the desire to treat a brand with the marketing researchers who have explored the notion of humanized same social conventions that they would give to another human. The brands (e.g., brand personality), have also considered the process fourth stage ends with the formation of stable, long-lasting percep- as a chronically occurring consumer judgment (Fournier 1998). tion of brand as a human. Finally, AB perceptions have important However, the anthropomorphization theory introduced by Epley et theoretical and practical implications. Specifically, consumers who al. (2007) posits that the tendency to anthropomorphize objects is a anthromorphize their brands trust the brands more, expect higher phenomenon varying in strength depending on different domains, performance, forgive the brands’ transgressions as they would forgive contexts, and individual differences. a friend, care for them with parental solicitude, and are willing to This research contributes to the literature in the following three spend extra for brands’ accessories. Brands also consciously affect manners. First, we fill a gap in the marketing literature by extend- consumers’ manner to behave. Deeper understanding of the nature ing consumers’ perceptions of brands as fully human, instead of of anthropomorphic brand judgment presents rich material for more as merely possessing personality traits. We show that consumers effective marketing communications. consciously report their anthropomorphic perceptions of brands and This is an exploratory, qualitative study, and future research behave toward them as if they, in fact, possess human traits. Second, should further empirically test the process presented across a wider we go beyond the idea that anthropomorphism is explained by the variety of respondents. We believe that the theory of anthropomor- qualities of the target (i.e., morphological features of a product phism may be extended by incorporating the activation of not only (Aggarwal and McGill 2007)) and show that the characteristics human knowledge structures but also self-knowledge representa- and motivations of perceivers are an important component of the tions. We also believe that there are additional avenues for future process of anthropomorphization. Third, we introduce a process of examination regarding how specific marketing communication brand anthropomorphization. Finally, we delineate the outcomes efforts may impact consumers’ perceptions of brands as empathic of the brand anthropomorphization process for consumer behavior. or moral and, subsequently, influence further inferences regarding Deriving our argument from related research in social and brands in human terms. neuropsychology, and from the results of in-depth interviews (8 focus-group interviews (n = 21) and three one-to-one in-depth References interviews), we posit that the process consists of two phases: Aaker, Jennifer L. (1997), “Dimensions of Brand Personality,” a) primary cognition and b) second-order cognition. In the first Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 347-56. phase, we argue that the concurrent activation of human knowledge Adler, A. and C. Brett (1998), Social Interest: Adler’s Key to (i.e., highly accessible and salient brand personality attributions) the Meaning of Life, Oxford, United Kingdom: Oneworld and a strong emotional arousal triggered at a specific moment of Publications. consumer-brand interaction make individuals anthropomorphize Aggarwal, Pankaj (2004), “The Effects of Brand Relationship brands. Amygdala, the neural structure in the brain, participates Norms on Consumer Attitudes and Behavior,” Journal of in both emotional processing and complex social judgments, in- Consumer Research, 31 (June), 87-101. cluding anthropomorphism (Heberlein and Adolphs 2004). Thus, Aggarwal, Pankaj and Sharmistha Law (2005), “Role of Rela- the processing of social information and emotionally arousing tionship Norms in Processing Brand Information,” Journal of stimuli are causally related. In fact, we observed that respondents Consumer Research, 32 (December), 453-64. experienced strong emotional arousal at their first encounters with Aggarwal, Pankaj and Ann L. McGill (2007), “Is This Car Smil- brands, and, concurrently, they possessed accessible social (e.g., ing at Me? Schema Congruity as Basis for Evaluating An- brand personality) knowledge about the brands that they perceived in thropomorphized Products,” Journal of Consumer Research, human terms. A less stable initial perception of anthropomorphized 34 (December), 468-79. brand (AB) is formed at the end of the primary cognition stage. Birtchnell, J. (1988), “Defining Dependency,” British Journal of In the secondary-order cognition (metacognition) stage, a more Medical Psychology, 61, 111-23. enduring perception of AB is formed. At the metacognition phase, Cacioppo, John T., Richard E. Petty, and C. 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Fiske (2008), “The Brooms in Fantasia: Neural Correlates of Anthropomorphizing Objects,” Social Cognition, 26 (2), 210-23. Harter, S. (1978), “Effectance Motivation Reconsidered: Towards a Developmental Model,” Human Development, 21, 34-64. Haslam, Nick (2006), “Dehumanization: An Integrative Review,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10 (3), 252-64. Heberlein, Andrea S. and Ralph Adolphs (2004), “Impaired Spontaneous Anthropomorphizing Despite Intact Perception and Social Knowledge,” The National Academy of Sciences of the USA, Vol. 101, ed. James L. McGaugh. 7487-91. Higgins, E. T. (1996), “The “Self Digest”: Self-Knowledge Serv- ing Self-Regulatory Functions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1062-83. Kassarjian, Harold H. (1971), “Personality and Consumer Behavior: A Review,” Journal of Marketing Research, VIII (November), 409-18. 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Extended Abstract our exclusively male participants are willed to use a car as a way While there is an increasing body of research on the effects to express themselves. In contrast, as men like female faces better product design and its aesthetics unfold on consumers’ behavior than male faces, are longer looking to them and appreciate them (e.g., Bloch 1995; Chitturi et al. 2007, 2008) the specific aspect according to their attractiveness (Levy et al. 2008), the similarity in of anthropomorphism as a guideline for designers has only at- processing indicates that car fronts cause a feeling of reward directly tracted scattered attention in the scientific study of product design due to attractiveness and not mediated by semantic associations. (Aggarwal and McGill 2007). This is astonishing since it is well Finally, the third question asks for the best liked combination known that the human face posses an evolutionary highly relevant of friendliness and aggressiveness in a car’s front. Our findings stimulus configuration that is processed faster and with more atten- allow the recommendation to give the grille a friendly expres- tion than most other stimuli in the environment (Mondloch et al. sion whereas the headlights should rather look aggressive. From 1999). Both these characteristics constitute basic marketing aims a theoretical perspective it is very interesting to notice that this (Pieters and Wedel 2004). preference pattern was found both in the reward circuit as well as in Although scientific insights into the specific mechanisms the observed behavioral pattern. This points to the conclusion that underlying anthropomorphism are only scattered, this concept this specific combination of emotions unfold a rather direct impact seems nevertheless to enjoy at least in the domain of car design on preference without complex or sophisticated mental processes a high popularity among practitioners. In a detailed exploration mediating this relationship. That is, people seem to have an initial of several car designs and based on interviews with car designers preference for this combination of emotions rather than having to Welsh (2006) for example reaches the conclusion that in practice think intensively about the potential meaning of these emotions. the analogy between human faces and car fronts is a widespread Further research is however needed to clarify the exact nature of source for inspiration and used by almost all car makers as an the underlying mental mechanism to better understand this result. orientation for their designs. While it is appealing to rely on this Cars do have a face–this is the answer to the central question simplified heuristic and go ahead with designing anthropomorphized posed at the outset of this research project. The remarkable simi- cars, it nevertheless leaves open some questions that are both from larity in processing human faces and car fronts indicates that the a theoretical as well as from a practical point of view critical. anecdotic evidence gathered by Welsh (2006) has a substantial basis The present research is aimed at providing insights into detailed and is suited to serve as a valuable source for inspiration when it aspects of anthropomorphizing on a process level and employs comes to design a new car front. This result enables a more intense the neuroscientific method of fMRI to shed light on the involved application of insights gathered in the domain of human facial at- mental processes. Answers to three major questions regarding the tractiveness and, thus, to tap so far unused potentials. Especially specifics of anthropomorphism are intended to be answered by the proportions that constitute an attractive female face seem to be present research endeavor. suited to optimize a car’s front to please the eyes of the beholder. First, whether the reference to human faces is suited to guide a company’s design strategy or whether it is just a scientific construct that is pulled on the shapes that actually unfolds its effect indepen- dently of any emotional interpretation. We found evidence in the neuronal activation pattern that the perception of car and human faces leads to a considerable correspondence in neuronal activity which suggests more of an effect for anthropomorphism than a simple descriptive metaphor that conveys placement and shape of the car’s features. Our findings suggest that people do indeed see cars as having facial expressions in a way that goes beyond simple descriptive metaphor. Second, the question whether different kinds of faces (male vs. female) are equally suited to serve as an inspiration to design a product with the aim of increasing its liking. We found that liking of car faces and female faces can be traced back to similar patterns of activation in the reward circuit while male faces are (at least by male participants) judged on a different basis. In addition to the insight that there are many different kinds of faces and one is well advised to think about anthropomorphism in a more detailed way, this finding also offers some initial hints for the clarification of the underlying motives for a peoples’ preference for certain car designs. In particular, one can clarify whether people are searching for a design that allows them to express themselves in a desired way; thus, literally using the car front as a kind of mask for themselves or whether they simply strive for the most attractive or aestheti- cally appealing design, respectively. Because car fronts activate the reward circuit in a similar way as female faces do, it is unlikely that

620 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Product Involvement vs. Product Motives as Moderators of the Effects of Ad-evoked Feelings: An Analysis of Consumer Responses to 1,100 TV Commercials Maggie Geuens, Ghent University and Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School, Belgium Michel Tuan Pham, Columbia University, USA Patrick De Pelsmacker, University of Antwerp, Belgium

Extended Abstract hold in typical ad exposure settings where the primary source of Many studies have shown that ad-evoked feelings have a posi- involvement or type of motives is not an experimental manipulation, tive influence on consumers’ brand attitudes (e.g., Brown, Homer but merely the product category being advertised. The purpose of and Inman 1998; Burke and Edell 1989, Holbrook and Batra 1987). this research is thus to submit these two lab-derived theoretical While these effects of ad-evoked feelings thus seem well established, predictions to a large-scale “external reality check.” three things are striking: (1) the limited pool of ads in each study, Study 1 examines how the emotions evoked by 413 TV com- raising issues of selection bias (e.g., Aaker, Stayman and Hagerty mercials (featuring 294 different brands across 93 different product 1986, Burke and Edell 1989, Stayman and Aaker 1988), (2) the categories) influence the brand evaluations of a representative set fact that unknown brands are often used (e.g., Burke and Edell of 907 adult consumers. Each respondent evaluated a set of about 1989, Derbaix 1995, Miniard et al. 1991), and more importantly, 20 commercials and each commercial was evaluated by 40 to 60 (3) the fact that product category effects are not considered, even respondents. After seeing each commercial, respondents rated though academics and advertising practitioners generally assume their (1) attitude toward the ad (Aad) (3 items, α=.96), (2) their that the effectiveness of emotional advertising appeals depends cognitive assessments of the ad’s content (2 items, α=.90), and (3) on the product category (e.g., Adaval 2001, Batra and Stephens their attitudes toward the advertised brand (Ab) (2 items, α=.86). 1994, Johar and Sirgy 1991, Malhotra 2005, Morris et al. 2002, These Aad, cognitive assessments (CogAss), and Ab responses Rossiter, Percy and Donovan 1991). The purpose of this research were averaged across respondents for each ad to form 413 ag- is to revisit the role of feelings on brand evaluations using a much gregate ad-level dependent-variable observations. The emotional more comprehensive and representative set of existing commercials content of each ad was assessed on a 15-item emotional scale by (addressing the issue of potential selection bias, fictitious ads and an independent group of 12 judges who were blind to the study’s unfamiliar brands) and testing whether these effects depend—as hypotheses (α=.97). To control for the possibility that ratings of previous experimental lab research would suggest—on the level emotional responses to the ads may reflect some other aspects of of involvement and the type of motives, hedonic versus utilitarian, the ads, such as their originality or creativity, the same 12 judges associated with the product category. also rated all the ads in terms of their originality (5 items, α=.99). Although a dual role of affect has been theorized by several Finally, the 93 product categories represented in the ads were coded researchers in the sense that ad-evoked feelings automatically by another set of six judges. This second set of judges were given transfer to brand attitude under low involvement, whereas under the names of the product categories and asked to rate them on 5 high involvement feelings are assumed to impact brand attitudes ‘product category involvement’ items (α=.94) and 5 ‘utilitarian/ by biasing brand cognitions (e.g., MacInnis and Park 1991, Min- hedonic product motive items’ (α=.95). Inter-judge reliabilities iard et al. 1991, Petty et al. 1993, Olsen and Pracejus 2004), other were high for all items and for all judges. researchers suggest that emotional advertising works better for low The results of a series of regressions show that, even after than for high involvement products (e.g., Lautman and Percy 1984, controlling for respondents’ Aad and cognitive assessments of the Morris et al. 2002, Rossiter et al. 1991). Indeed, it is a classic pre- ad and for the ads’ originality, the emotional content of the ads diction of dual-route models of persuasion such as the ELM (Petty had a significant positive influence on consumers’ brand attitudes and Caccioppo 1986) that feelings should have lower influence on (β=.236, t=4.93, p<.001). Further, the results suggest that, contrary persuasion under conditions of high elaboration likelihood than to what one would predict based on a peripheral-route explanation under conditions of low elaboration likelihood. Our studies will test of affective influences, the effects of emotions on brand attitudes whether this theoretical prediction holds when the source of involve- did not depend on the level of involvement associated with the ment comes from the product category being advertised rather than product category (β Emotion x Involvement=.014, t<1). However, the effects from an external manipulation, as in typical persuasion research. of emotions on brand attitudes were significantly moderated by the

Another stream of research on the effects of affective states in type of motivation associated with the product categories (β Emotion x consumer judgments and decisions suggests that affect is more likely Hedonic=.112, t=3.03, p<.01). to be relied upon when consumers have hedonic motives than when A second study was carried out (1) to assess the robustness they have utilitarian motives (Pham 1998)—a finding that has been and generalizeability of the first study’s findings, and (2) to address replicated in multiple subsequent studies (e.g., Adaval 2001, Yeung a limitation of the first study by controlling for brand familiarity and Wyer 2004). According to a feeling-as-information explanation effects. To this end a different set of 687 TV commercials were (Schwarz and Clore 1983, 2007; Pham 1998), this is because feelings evaluated by a different sample of 427 consumers, keeping the are perceived to be more relevant in light of hedonic/experiential design and methodology largely identical to Study 1. This time the motives than in light of instrumental motives. This finding raises impact of the emotional content of the ad on consumers’ brand at- the question of whether similar moderating effects would occur titudes was fully mediated by Aad. However, the results concerning in typical advertising exposure settings when the type of motives the product category motivational factors remained identical as in comes not from an external manipulation (as in previous studies) Study 1. Again product involvement did not and utilitarian/hedonic but simply from the product category being advertised. product motive did moderate the impact of emotional ad content Therefore, previous experimental laboratory research makes on brand evaluations. The latter finding is consistent with recent very clear predictions about the moderating effects of involvement theoretical suggestions that the selective reliance on feelings as a and types of motives on the effects of feelings on attitudes and function of their relevance is quite flexible (Pham 2004). evaluations. However, it is not clear whether these predictions would 621 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 622/ Product Involvement vs. Product Motives as Moderators of the Effects of Ad-evoked Feelings: An Analysis of Consumer Responses to 1,100 TV Commercials References of Affective States”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Aaker, D. A., Stayman, D. M. and Hagerty, M. R. 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(1983), “Mood, Misattribution, and Judgments of Well-Being-Informative and Directive Functions The Variety Paradox. Why LESS Evokes MORE Anne Klesse, Massricht University, The Netherlands Caroline Goukens, Maastricht Univeristy, The Netherlands Kelly Geyskens, Maastricht University, The Netherlands Ko de Ruyter, Maastricht University, The Netherlands

Extended Abstract twelve chocolate bars and differed only in the variety of different flavors they showed (3 vs. 12). The results confirmed our previous Conceptualization finding: Participants who saw the low-variety advertising sought Nowadays, consumers are used to being spoilt with choice: significantly more variety. Most retailers offer an abundance of product variants since they We use reactance theory to explain the underlying process of acknowledge that consumers prefer stores that provide large assort- our finding. The objective of study 3 (N=67) was to test the effect ments. Some stores, however, (strategically) form an exception. For of reactance directly by measuring participants’ chronic reactance instance, convenience stores trade fulfilling consumers’ need for tendencies. As predicted participants’ chronic reactance tendency convenience against their wish for variety. Accordingly, choice is interacts with the variety manipulation. This suggests that reactance limited to one or two kinds per product category. In this research is the underlying psychological factor driving the effect. The effect we examine whether consumers behave differently when facing of the variety manipulation was accentuated for highly reactive low-variety assortments compared to high-variety assortments. In individuals and attenuated for weakly reactive individuals. particular, we intend to find out whether they will include more We claim the perception of limited choice to be responsible for variety in their subsequent choices to make up for the perception evoking more variety seeking. The objective of study 4 was to test of limited choice triggered through low-variety assortments. this by deliberately manipulating the perception of limited choice. Although consumer researchers have extensively studied the Hence, this study made use of three conditions: one low-variety effects of assortment breadth on choice making (Chernev 2003; condition and two high-variety conditions. One of the high-variety Gourville and Soman, 2005; Iyengar and Lepper, 2000; Kahn and conditions (high-confined) showed some items crossed out indicat- Wansink, 2004; Sela et al., 2009), they have focused on choice- ing that they are no longer available. This evokes the perception specific effects within the assortment. They neglected general of limited choice. The results showed that participants in the low- motivational effects that are triggered through looking at the assort- variety and high-confined condition did not significantly differ ment, linger on, and influence subsequent decisions from different from each other in their variety seeking behavior. However, both choice sets. We know from psychological research that providing sought significantly more variety than the high-variety condition. choices determines consumers’ feelings of autonomy (Deci and This implies that the perception of limited choice is responsible Ryan, 2000). Being able to choose from various options enables for evoking a heightened need for variety. consumers to express themselves as individuals (Kim and Drolet, While the previous studies demonstrate the effect in labora- 2003) and boosts happiness (Patall, 2008). On the contrary, situa- tory conditions, study 5 intended to replicate our findings in a real tions perceived as restricting one’s option to choose freely arouse purchase context, i.e. the coffee shop at the university. One day we reactance (Brehm, 1966), a motivational state that triggers behavior put up advertisings showing a low-variety of pastries in the while on aimed at reasserting one’s personal freedom (Wicklund, 1974). another day we used advertisings showing a high-variety of pastries. Accordingly, we propose that low-variety assortments trigger We compared students’ variety seeking behavior on the two days. the perception of limited choice and evoke reactance. Once the Thereby, we defined variety seeking not as taking several different motivational state of reactance is aroused consumers are increas- products but as trying out something special. Students tried out ingly interested in behavior that functions as a means to regain their significantly more special coffees when they saw the low-variety freedom. Levav and Zhu (2009) showed that spatially confined advertising while they chose more normal coffee kinds when they consumers engage in more variety seeking in order to reassure saw the high-variety advertising. their personal freedom. Thereby, they demonstrated that variety seeking behavior constitutes a means to deal with reactance. Hence, General Discussion we predict that low-variety assortments trigger subsequently more Across five studies we show that facing low-variety assortments variety seeking than high-variety assortments since they evoke the compared to high-variety assortments evokes subsequently more need to offset the perception of limited choice. variety seeking. This is grounded in reactance theory: Low-variety evokes the perception of limited choice and triggers reactance. Ac- Studies cordingly, consumers experience the heightened need to reassure The validity of this prediction is tested in five studies. In the their threatened freedom and engage in variety seeking behavior. first study (N=94) we manipulated the variety that participants saw Our findings hint at a ‘variety paradox’. Although retail- before making a subsequent, seemingly unrelated choice. They ers offer high-variety to cater consumers’ needs for variety, less saw either three (low variety) or eight (high variety) different chips variety is more effective in triggering subsequent variety seeking. flavors. Afterwards, they chose five snacks out of a five item choice Our findings provide some interesting guidelines for retailers and set as a reward for their participation. We measured variety seeking convenience stores: It is important to acknowledge that assort- behavior through the number of different snacks that participants ment variety triggers motivational states which prevail and affect chose. Consistent with our hypothesis participants sought signifi- consumers’ subsequent behavior. For instance, in stores where the cantly more variety after seeing the low-variety assortment than assortment is limited facing the first shelves evokes the perception after seeing the high-variety assortment. of limited choice and triggers consumers to seek more variety. The objective of study 2 (N=68) was to test the robustness These stores could cater this need by providing more variety in of the effect by varying the nature of the stimuli. We used a print the following shelves or offering specialities, new or lesser known advertising depicting chocolate. Second, we kept the overall num- brands. Consumers’ desire to express themselves through their ber of items equal across conditions: both advertisings showed 623 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 624 / The Variety Paradox. 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Extended Abstract quality perceptions drive the effect of assortment variety on pur- Consumer inferences play an important role in marketing chase likelihood. We told participants that they were shopping for (see Kardes, Posavac, and Cronley 2004 for a review). For ex- a digital camera that was found in an assortment variety of either ample, consumers often use observable product attributes to judge three or twenty noncomparable products. In addition to purchase unobservable ones, such as inferring product quality based on its intentions, we also examined participants’ quality perceptions of price (e.g., Huber and McCann 1982), warranty period (Srivastava the digital camera. Analyses show that quality perceptions drive and Mitra 1998), or country of origin (Teas and Agarwal 2000). the effect of assortment variety on purchase intentions. In particular, However, although research has shown that consumers may indeed participants were more likely to purchase the digital camera and often rely on observable attributes or the overall product evalua- had higher quality perceptions of the digital camera that was part tion (e.g., Broniarczyk and Alba 1994) when evaluating products, of a small (vs. large) assortment variety. Quality perceptions fully we currently do not know if, or more specifically, under which mediated the effect of assortment variety on purchase likelihood. conditions, consumer inferences of product quality are based on In sum, we were able to provide evidence for a “jack-of-all- retailers’ assortment variety. This lack in the literature is even more trades-master-of-none” inference strategy that consumers use. We surprising given that assortment variety differs greatly across stores. found that consumers use this inference when evaluating products Based on our proposition of the existence of a lay theory sug- that are found in assortments of noncomparable products, suggesting gesting that retailers with larger product assortment variety cannot that is it variety, and not size, of the assortment that drives this lay know much about the quality of any one product and hence offer theory. We showed that consumers were more likely to purchase lower quality product selections overall, we identify a “jack-of-all- an item when it was found in a small (vs. large) assortment variety. trades-master-of-none” inference strategy as a tool employed by Since we argued that use of this inference would require cognitive consumers when evaluating a product. That is, although normatively resources, we did not expect to find this inference to be utilized quality perception of a product should not differ according to the when consumers were under cognitive restraint. Furthermore, we variety of other noncomparable products sold in the store, we provide evidence that it is the level of comparability of the other propose that consumers are likely to rely on the degree of variety items in the assortment, and not merely the size of the assortment of a retailer’s assortment for quality inferences, which in turn will variety itself that drives consumers to use the “jack-of-all-trades- drive purchase likelihood. Furthermore, because we expect that the master-of-none” inference. Lastly, we provide support that shows “jack-of-all-trades-master-of-none” inference requires cognitive how the relationship between assortment variety and purchase intent resources, purchase likelihood and quality perceptions based on is mediated by consumers’ quality perceptions. this lay theory should be limited to those consumers with available cognitive resources. References To examine the proposed lay theory consumers have regarding Baker, Julie, A. Parasuraman, Dhruv Grewal, and Glenn B. Voss the presence of noncomparable products, we investigated the effects (2002), “The Influence of Multiple Store Environment Cues of the size of the assortment of noncomparable products in the pur- on Perceived Merchandise Value and Patronage Intentions,” chase environment on consumers’ evaluations of a target product. Journal of Marketing Research, 66 (April), 120-41. For our first study, we told participants that they were shopping for Baron, Reuben M. and David A. Kenny (1986), “The Moder- a toothbrush that was found in an assortment with either three or ator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological twenty noncomparable products (such as household cleaners, food Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Consider- items, etc.). Since we expect the proposed inference strategy to ations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), be employed only when consumers have the cognitive resources to 1173-82. do so, we also varied some participants’ cognitive resources with a Bettman, James R., and Sujan, Mita (1987), “Effects of Framing cognitive load task. After the presentation of the hypothetical shop- on Evaluation of Comparable and Noncomparable Alterna- ping scenario, we assessed participants’ likelihood of purchasing tives by Expert and Novice Consumers,” Journal of Con- that product. Our results support the hypotheses that consumers sumer Research, 14(September), 141-54. use a “jack-of-all-trades-master-of-none” inference strategy, and Broniarczyk, Susan M. and Joseph W. Alba (1994), “The Role thus are more likely to purchase a product when it is found in a of Consumers’ Intuitions in Inference Making,” Journal of small (vs. large) assortment variety. However, as hypothesized, Consumer Research, 21 (December), 393-407. this effect occurs only with participants who have the cognitive Chernev, Alexander and Gregory Carpenter (2001), “The Role of resources available. Market Efficiency Intuitions in Consumer Choice: A Case of We extend our findings with our second study, and also demon- Compensatory Inferences,” Journal of Marketing Research, strate that use of the “jack-of-all-trades-master-of-none” inference 38 (August) 349-61. is moderated by the level of comparability of other products in the Cronley, Maria L., Steven S. Posavac, Tracy Meyer, Frank R. assortment. More specifically, participants were told that they were Kardes, and James J. Kellaris (2005), “A Selective Hypoth- shopping for a notebook that was found in an assortment of either esis Testing Perspective on Price-Quality Inference and three or twenty comparable or noncomparable products. Similar to Inference-Based Choice,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, study 1, we also varied participants’ cognitive resources. Consistent 15(2), 159-69. with our hypothesis, we found that the extent of comparability of Hansen, Chris J. and George M. Zinkhan (1984), “When Do the other products in the assortment moderated consumers’ use of Consumers. Infer Product Attribute Values?” Advances in the “jack-of-all-trades-master-of-none” inference. Consumer Research, 11, 187-92. In our third study, we sought to find process evidence for our proposed inference strategy, and to demonstrate that differences in 625 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 626 / The Impact of Assortment Variety on Inferences and Purchase Intentions Huber, Joel and John M. McCann (1982), “The Impact of Infer- ential Beliefs on Product Evaluations,” Journal of Marketing Research, 19, 324-33. Johnson, Michael D. (1984), “Consumer Choice Strategies for Comparing Noncomparable Alternatives,” Journal of Con- sumer Research, 11 (December), 741- 53. Kahn, Barbara and Brian Wansink (2004), “The Influence of Assortment Structure on Perceived Variety and Consump- tion Quantities,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (March), 519-33. Kardes, Frank R., Steven S. Posavac, and Maria L. Cronley (2004), “Consumer Inference: A Review of Processes, Bases, and Judgment Contexts,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14 (3), 230-56. Menon, Geeta, and Priya Raghubir (2003), “Ease-of-Retrieval as an Automatic Input in Judgments: A Mere Accessibility Framework?,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (Septem- ber), 230-43. Mogilner, Cassie, Tamar Rudnick, and Sheena S. Iyengar (2008), “The Mere Categorization Effect: How the Presence of Categories Increases Choosers‘ Perceptions of Assortment Variety and Outcome Satisfaction,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (August), 202-15. Rao, Akshay and Kent B. Monroe (1988), “The Moderating Effect of Prior Knowledge on Cue Utilization in Product Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research, 15(September), 253-64. Srivastava, Joydeep and Anusree Mitra (1998), “Warranty as a Signal of Quality: The Moderating Effect of Consumer Knowledge on Quality Evaluations,” Marketing Letters, 9 (4), 327-36. Teas, R. Kenneth and Sanjeev Agarwal (2000), “The Effects of Extrinsic Product Cues on Consumers’ Perceptions of Qual- ity, Sacrifice, and Value,” Journal of the Academy of Market- ing Science, 28 (2), 278-90. Tellis, Gerard J. and Gary G. Gaeth (1990), “Best-Value, Price- Seeking and Price Aversion: The Impact of Information and Learning on Consumer Choices,” Journal of Marketing, 54 (April), 34-45. Improving the Power of Switching Intent to Predict Actual Switching Behavior-A Construal Level Theory Perspective Yu-chen Hung, National University of Singapore, Singapore Catherine Yeung, National University of Singapore, Singapore Jochen Wirtz, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Extended Abstract ing out a certain action) highlights the feasibility-related aspects Recent research has shown that repurchase intent is often not of an event and encourages a lower-level construal of the event a good predictor of actual repurchase. A number of reasons for this (Zhao, Hoeffler and Zauberman 2007) . We therefore predicted and discrepancy have been suggested in the literature, but have not been found that when process simulation is employed in surveys, it can examined empirically. We propose that one critical distinction be- potentially reduce the inconsistency between responses to intention tween switching intention and actual switching is that the former is measures and actual switching behaviors. Our findings suggest the a response to a hypothetical situation, whereas the latter is an action possibility of an unobtrusive administration of this procedure in that is actually carried out. Recent behavioral research on construal surveys that will improve the predictive power of intention mea- level theory (CLT, see Trope and Liberman 2007 for a review) shows sures of actual switching behavior. These findings have potential that when an event feels psychologically far away (e.g., when the applications beyond the immediate switching behavior application event is going to happen in the distant future, is socially distant, or to any intent-actual behavior measurement context. is hypothetical), people tend to focus on “central” aspects of the event–i.e., aspects that give direct implications to the desirability Reference: of the event. According to CLT, these aspects constitute the “higher Liberman, N., Trope Y., and Stephan, E. (2007), “Psychologi- level construal” of the event. On the other hand, when an event feels cal distance,” In A. W. Kruglanski and E. T. Higgins (Eds), psychologically near (e.g., when it is going to happen in the near Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles, New York: future, is socially near, or when is not hypothetical), people tend to Guilford Press. focus on aspects that are associated with the procedures involved in Zhao, Min, Steve Hoeffler and Gal Zauberman(2007), “Mental carrying out the action (e.g., practicality, feasibility considerations). Simulation and Preference Consistency over Time: the Role These aspects constitute the “lower level construal” of an event. of Process-versus Outcome-Focused Thoughts. ” Journal of We first conducted a longitudinal study surveying cell phone Marketing Research, Aug, 379-388 service subscribers of all three providers in a city state. This approach allowed us to measure satisfaction and other attitudinal variables and switching intent in one period, and subsequently observe actual switching behavior in the next period. The survey was conducted in six waves over a 24 months period. Monetary switching costs (e.g., penalties for switching dur- ing a contractual period) and non-monetary switching costs (e.g., the hassle of going to the service provider to cancel the contract, signing up for a new contract, potentially changing cell phone number) feature highly in switching cell phone service switching. Based on CLT, we expect that monetary switching costs, which are closely related to the desirability of switching, constitute a higher level construal, whereas non-monetary costs constitute a relatively lower level construal of switching. According to CLT, consumers are likely to focus on desirability-related aspects and underestimate the importance of other feasibility-related considerations when they respond to hypothetical situations–to this extent, monetary costs, but not non-monetary costs, are likely to serve as a basis for their response to intention questions. Moreover, non-monetary costs will be taken into account only when consumers consider carrying out actual switching. The findings of our longitudinal study confirm this hypothesis, to the extent that the non-monetary switching cost main effect and its interaction effect with satisfaction are insignificant in predict- ing switching intent. However, for actual switching behavior, the non-monetary switching costs effects explain more variance than the equivalent effects of monetary switching costs. This finding suggests that while non-monetary switching costs are important determinants of actual switching behavior, they may not be taken into consideration when consumers report their switching intention. We then conducted a series of experiments to directly test the CLT and demonstrate how the consideration of non-monetary costs can be facilitated when consumers respond to intention questions. Specifically, recent research has shown that process simulation (i.e., asking respondents to visualize the step-by-step process of carry- 627 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Can Thinking Abstractly Help Choosing From Large Assortments? Jing Xu, Peking University, China Zixi Jiang, Peking University, China Ravi Dhar, Yale University, USA

Extended Abstract found that, when facing a large assortment, consumers who rep- A visit to the supermarket attests to the large assortment or resent options at a lower level find options more dissimilar to one variety in almost any product category. Recent research shows another and competing for different sub-goals. As a result, they findings for the negative effects of assortment size and relies on the considered more distinct dimensions, made more comparisons, and assumption that choosing from large assortments involves making consequently experienced more difficult trade-offs. On the other more trade-offs among the competing advantages and disadvantages hand, representing options at a higher level makes the options in and thus making decision makers generally worse off. Prior research large assortment seen as more similar, less diversified, more substi- has shown that an increase in the assortment size is accompanied tutable in satisfying the same consumption goal, and consequently with an increase in choice difficulty, and consequently a decrease experiences less conflict and less difficult trade-offs. Indeed, our in choice satisfaction (Chernev 2006; Iyengar and Lepper 2000). meditated moderation analysis show that perceived similarity among Besides number of options in the assortment, choice conflict options mediated the moderating effect of mental representation of depends on whether the attribute differences among assortment options on assortment size and choice difficulty. options are seen as linked to competing goals or seen as servicing the To provide a stronger test of our argument, we next explicitly same goal. Specifically, a consumer may experience greater conflict manipulate the perceived similarity among options in Experiment when the options in an assortment are seen as more dissimilar and 2 and Experiment 3. Experiment 2 manipulates perceived similar- being linked to different goals. This is because the more dissimilar ity with same-colored plates vs. different-colored plates for candy are the alternatives to each other, the more distinct dimensions are options. Since different-colored plates highlights the differences considered and compared and require more difficult trade-offs to be among options, consumers with lower level of representation in such made (Shugan 1980). On the contrary, a consumer may find choice condition perceive greater dissimilarities among choice options and less difficult to make when the attributes of the assortment options engage in more trade–off comparisons than when candies displayed are seen as servicing the same objective and options appear to be in same-colored plates. Consequently, consumers with lower level more similar to one another. Thus, holding constant the assortment of representation experience greater degree of difficulty and less options, changes in similarity perception could affect levels of satisfaction with the chosen outcome when candies displayed in difficulty and satisfaction experienced in the choice process. This different-colored plates than in same-colored plates. paper examines how changes in mental representation of choice Experiment 3 manipulates perceived similarity with assortment options in large assortments affect similarity perceptions, and structure. Whereas choosing from feature-based categories subsequently influence choice difficulty and outcome satisfaction. highlights the differences among options and would lead to more We propose that when choosing from large assortments, consumers trade-off difficulty and less satisfaction, choosing from benefit- who represent the options at a higher level are likely to engage in based assortments focuses on the similarities among options and higher-level, alternative-based evaluations and perceive alternatives would lead to less choice difficult and greater satisfaction with in a single category as serving the same higher order goal and choice outcome. The results show that choice difficulty experienced thus more similar and substitutable to one another. In contrast, by consumers with a lower level of representation is mitigated consumers who represent options at a lower level will focus on when perceived similarity among items increases in benefit-based lower-level, feature-based trade-offs and perceive alternatives as assortment structure. As options are perceived as more similar to one attaining different competing sub-goals and thus more dissimilar another in a large assortment, they are seen as more substitutable and unsubstitutable to one another. This reliance on feature level and servicing the same consumption goal. comparisons heightens the level of conflict and choice difficulty The present paper contributes to the existing literature in two experienced when choosing from large assortments. Here, we stress important ways. First, our research provides new insights into the that similarity perceptions of options in a large assortment made by ways in which levels of mental representations affect choice making different levels of representations are construed at different levels. process and choice consequences in large assortments. Second, Specifically, whereas a higher level of representation finds options we provide new perspective of the role of similarity perceptions in a single category more similar in terms of serving the same in comparisons and choice process. Particularly, we show that consumption goal and providing similar benefits, a lower level of different levels of representation construe similarity perceptions representation perceives options as more dissimilar to one another differently. Our results also provide important implications for with respect to the attribute level difference. marketers. Although recent research on assortment size has generally Therefore, we hypothesize that when choosing from a large concluded that large assortments lead to increased choice difficulty assortment, individuals who represent assortment options at a higher and decreased satisfaction, marketers can improve choosers’ level experience less choice difficulty and more satisfaction with experience and satisfaction with large assortments by altering the the chosen option than those who represent options at a lower level. level at which assortment options are represented. Consistent with our proposition, three experiments demonstrated that, when facing large assortments, participants activated with a higher level of representation found options in an assortment more similar to one another, experienced less difficulty while choosing, and reported greater satisfaction with the chosen option than those activated with a lower level of representation. Experiment 1 tests the effect of mental representations of the choice set on choice difficulty and satisfaction in a real choice scenario involving small versus large assortments. Experiment 1 628 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Price-Based Expectations Ayelet Gneezy, University of California at San Diego, USA Uri Gneezy, Univeristy of California at San Diego, USA

Extended Abstract the high quality wine (2005), the higher the participants rated it. Consumers often lack the time, training, or inclination to judge In line with the above predictions, the responses of participants the quality of a product. Consequently, to infer quality, they seek tasting the lower quality wine produced a negative correlation simpler alternative signals (cf. Aaker 1991), such as the product’s between price and quality. country of origin, how heavily it is promoted (Raghubir 1998), or, The results of Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 suggest that high most relevant to the current paper, its price. prices create high expectations, and that these expectations serve as Considerable evidence demonstrates that consumers judge a reference point in subsequent quality judgments. When a product higher-priced products to be of higher quality (Riesz 1979; Huber meets (or exceeds) expectations, quality judgments are high, but and McCann 1982; Gerstner 1985; Rao and Monroe 1989). It ap- when a product falls short of expectations, quality judgments drop. pears that our pleasure from consuming products like wine does not Experiment 3 provides a direct test of the degree to which depend only on our sensors (e.g., smell, taste), but also on extrinsic participants’ expectations are met under each price-quality com- attributes such as price or brand name. bination. We asked participants in this experiment to first taste the One way in which prices can affect quality judgment is wine under the same six conditions as in Experiment 2. Then each through expectations. For example, prices have been shown to participant indicated what they thought about the wine: “disap- produce placebo effects such that discounted products are less pointing,” “meets expectation,” or “exceeds expectations.” The effective than regular-priced products (e.g., Shiv, Carmon, and results support our predictions: the good wine met expectation, Ariely 2005; Waber, Shiv, Carmon, and Ariely 2008). Participants and disappointment in the low quality wine increased with price. in these experiments assigned higher efficacy to the fully priced Even if consumers’ appreciation of a product is positively cor- product, hence the placebo effect. In line with these findings, we related with its price, demand will not necessarily increase. Often can reasonably assume individuals tasting wines are following the consumers approach the winery with a budget constraint, so even if same reasoning: having relatively high expectations when tasting a higher price makes the wine tastier, actual sales may not increase. highly priced wines. Recently, Heffetz and Shayo (2009) investigated the relationship In a between-participants design, we asked three groups of between price, inferred quality and demand by disentangling the participants in Experiment 1 to indicate how much they expected price-quality effect from the budget-constraint effect. Their findings to like our 2004 Cabernet Sauvignon before asking them to taste show that prices do affect the stated willingness to pay. When they it, based only on price ($10, $20, or $40) and appearance. We find considered actual demand, however, quality-judgment elasticities that expectations were positively correlated with price. were smaller than budget-constraint elasticities, and hence, in line What will the effect of high expectations be after tasting the with standard assumptions, the demand function was downward wine? Expectations Confirmation Theory (ECT, Oliver 1977, 1980) sloping. conjectures that the interaction between expectations and perceived How should wine sellers use our empirical findings when or actual performance leads to post-purchase satisfaction. If a prod- pricing their products? The most appropriate way to test the effect uct meets one’s expectations, satisfaction will follow. However, if of expectation confirmation on demand is by conducting a field a product falls short of expectations, the consumer is likely to be study in a real business. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the dissatisfied (Oliver 1980; Spreng et al. 1996). first demonstration of the effect the price-quality heuristic has on One way to consider expectations here is as a reference level demand in an actual market setting. In the winery we study, despite in which people are loss averse and the environment determines the noticeable difference in quality between the 2004 and 2005 endogenously the reference point they use (Ko˝szegi and Rabin, wines, the owner of the winery was planning to price the new wine 2006). By this account, a person’s reference point is the rational at $10 also, primarily because sales were slow and he did not want expectations she held in the recent past about outcomes that are to scare customers away (the experiment was conducted during the consistent with optimal behavior given expectations. In the lan- summer of 2009). Before introducing the higher-quality wine, the guage of our Experiment 1, the model predicts that higher prices owner agreed to experiment with different prices. will increase peoples’ expectations that will be subsequently used We offered winery visitors one of the Cabernet Sauvignon as as a reference point. part of the six wines they tasted (we never had the 2004 and 2005 Moving to a dynamic set up (Ko˝szegi and Rabin, 2009), higher present at the same time). On different days, the wines’ prices var- prices should create higher expectations, and consumers would judge ied: $10, $20, or $40. The dependent variables were the number of the realization (taste of the wine) relative to this reference point. If bottles of Cabernet Sauvignon sold in each of the six treatments, the wine meets or exceeds the high expectation, an individual will and the profits to the winery. We find downward-sloping demand evaluate a wine using the price-quality heuristic, assigning higher for the lower-quality wine. For the higher-quality wine, however, ratings for higher-priced wines. In contrast, if the wine quality falls more people bought the wine at $20 than at $10. short of the expectations, we expect tasters to be disappointed and give the wine a lower rating. Since higher prices result in higher References expectations, the likelihood of disappointment increases with price. Aaker, David A. (1991). Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing To test this prediction, in Experiment 2, we gave six different on the value of a brand name. New York: The Free Press. groups of participants the opportunity to taste and rate the wine. Allison, Ralph I. and Kenneth P. Uhl (1964). Influence of beer Three groups tasted the lower-quality Cabernet Sauvignon, whereas brand identification on taste perception. Journal of Marketing the other three groups tasted the higher-quality Cabernet Sauvignon Research, 1 (August), 36-39. (a pretest confirmed the wines’ quality). Participants were informed that the wines were available for purchase in the winery, for $10, $20, or $40. Consistent with past research, the higher the price of 629 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 630 / Price-Based Expectations Brochet, Frédéric (2001). Tasting. A study of the chemical Waber, Rebecca L., Baba Shiv, Ziv Carmon, and Dan Ariely representations in the field of consciousness. Working paper, (2008). Commercial features of placebo & therapeutic effi- General Oenology Laboratory, Talence Cadex, France. cacy. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Associa- Erdem, Tulin and Joffre Swait (1998). Brand equity as a signal- tion, 299 (9), 1016-17. ing phenomenon. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7 (2), Weil, Roman L. (2001). Parker v. Prial: The death of the vintage 131-57. chart. Chance 14(4), 27-31. Gerstner, Eitan (1985). Do higher prices signal higher quality? Weil, Roman L. (2005). Analysis of Reserve and regular bot- Journal of Marketing Research, 22 (May), 209-15. tlings: why pay for a difference only the critics claim to Goldsteina, Robin, Johan Almenbergb, Anna Dreberc, John W. notice? Chance, 18(3), 9-15. Emersond, Alexis Herschkowitscha, and Jacob Katza (2008). Do more expensive wines taste better? Evidence from a large sample of blind tastings. Journal of Wine Economics, 3 (Spring), 1-9. Heffetz, Ori, and Moses Shayo (2009). How large are non- budget-constraint effects of prices on demand? American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(4): 170-99. Hodgsona, Robert T. (2008). An examination of judge reliability at a major U.S. wine competition. Journal of Wine Econom- ics, 3 (2), 105-13. Huber, Joel and John McCann (1982). The impact of inferen- tial beliefs on product evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 19 (August), 324-33. Janiszewski, Chris and Stijn M.J.Van Osselaer, (2000). A con- nectionist model of brand-quality associations. Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (August), 331-50. Koszegi, Botond and Mathew Rabin (2006). A model of refer- ence-dependant Preferences. Quarterly Journal of Econom- ics, 1221(4), 1133-65. Koszegi, Botond and Mathew Rabin (2009). Reference-depen- dent consumption plans. American Economic Review, 99 ( 3), 909-36. McClure, Samuel M., Jiam Li, Damon Tomlin, Kim S. Cypert, Latané M. Montague, and P. Read Montague (2004). Neural correlates of behavioral preference for culturally familiar drinks. Neuron, 44 (October), 379-87. Oliver, Richard L. (1977). Effect of expectation and disconfirma- tion on post exposure product evaluations - An alternative interpretation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(4), 480. Oliver, Richard L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Mar- keting Research, 17 (November), 460-69. Plassmann, Hilke, John O’Doherty, Baba Shiv, and Antonio Rangel (2008). Marketing actions can modulate neural rep- resentations of experienced pleasantness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 1050-54. Raghubir, Priya (1998). Coupon value: a signal for price? Jour- nal of Marketing Research, 35(3), 316-24. Rao, A.R. and Monroe, K.B. (1989). The effect of price, brand name, and store name on buyers’ perceptions of product qual- ity: an integrative review. Journal of Marketing Research, 36, 351-57. Riesz, Peter C. (1979). Price-quality correlations for packaged food products. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 13 (Winter), 236-47. Shiv, Baba, Ziv Carmon, and Dan Ariely (2005). Placebo effects of marketing actions: consumers may get what they pay for. Journal of Marketing Research, 42, 383-93. Spreng, Richard A., Scott B. MacKenzie, and Richard W. Ol- shavsky (1996). A reexamination of the determinants of con- sumer satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 60 (July), 15-32. Deep Discount or Free? The Effects of Price Promotion on Willingess to Pay Mauricio Palmeira, Monash University, Australia Joydeep Srivastava, University of Maryland, USA

Extended Abstract conditions: control, free, 50 cents and 2 dollars. Thus, the between- Research on price promotions has shown that when a free subject manipulation was the type of promotion (if any) that was product is bundled together with another product, consumers reduce offered with the purchase of a product. In the control condition, their willingness to pay for the free product when it is not being participants were informed about the price of a product (pizza offered for free (Kamins, Folkes and Fedorikhin 2009; Raghubir and tomato sauce), but no mention was made to the price of the 2004). For example, when a pizzeria offers free bread sticks with promoted product (bread sticks and spaghetti). For both products, the purchase of a pizza, consumers expect to pay less for bread we found that participants in the free condition were willing to pay sticks on a subsequent visit when the promotion is no longer in more for the promoted products when they were not in promotion effect. Raghubir (2004) reasoned that when a product is offered as than participants in the 50 cents condition. For bread sticks, even a free gift, consumers infer that the cost of the product is low and a two-dollar price lead to lower WTP than a free price. For both lower their willingness to pay for it when it is not in promotion. products, expected quality was not affected by the price manipulation. In the current research, we examine promotions in which a In study 2, we manipulated two factors: type of promotion product is offered for a low price–but not free–with the purchase (free vs. low price) and price of the required purchase (medium vs. of another product. If a free offer reduces consumers’ reservation high). Participants were randomly assigned to four conditions and price through inferences regarding the cost of the product, it follows asked to consider that they were looking for a gift for a friend who that the impact of a promotion that allows a purchase for a reduced loved wine and to state how much they would be willing to pay for price should be a function of the magnitude of the promoted price. a wine thermometer. Participants also answered a few questions In this sense, free, or zero price, would be an extreme example of related to their expectations of quality. We found main effects for the application of this inference. In other words, compared to a required purchase price and promotion type. More importantly, we situation in which a product is promoted for free, when a product found a significant interaction, as the WTP of a free product was is promoted for a price greater than zero, consumers should infer significantly affected by the price of the main purchase, whereas a higher cost. In turn, we should expect that this type of promotion the WTP of a low price product was not. Together, these studies would have a smaller impact on consumers’ willingness to pay on offer support for our hypothesis. subsequent purchases. Research on several aspects of human psychology has shown References that zero is used in a qualitatively different manner than other Heyman, James, and Dan Ariely (2004), “Effort for Payment: A numbers, often causing discontinuity in the transition from small Tale of Two Markets,” Psychological Science, 15(11), 787- numbers to zero (Heyman and Ariely 2004; Kahneman and Tversky 793. 1979; Shampanier, Mazar and Ariely 2007). This literature suggests Kahneman, Daniel and Amos Tversky (1979), “Prospect Theory: that zero is a special number and the effect of price promotions An Analysis of Decision Risk,” Econometrica, 47, 265-91. on subsequent purchase occasions may not be a direct function Kamins, Michal A., Valerie S. Folkes and Alexander Fedorikhin of magnitude of the discount. We propose that the value of the (2009), “Promotional Bundles and Consumers’ Price required purchase is used as an anchor when consumers estimate Judgments: When the Best Things in Life Are Not Free,” their reservation prices. In addition, when a product is not offered for Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (December), 660-670. free, but for a low price, consumers will also use this low price as an Raghubir, Prya (2004), “Free Gift with Purchase: Promoting or anchor. While a product can’t possibly cost zero, it can conceivably Discounting the Brand?” Journal of Consumer Psychology, have a low price. Thus, we argue that zero will not be used as an 14 (1&2), 181-185. anchor to estimate the price of a product, but a low price will. In Shampanier, Kristina, Nina Mazar and Dan Ariely (2007), this case, the reservation price of a free product will have only one “Zero as a Special Price: The True Value of Free Products,” anchor (value of the required purchase), while the reservation price Marketing Science, 26 (November), 742-57. of a product promoted for a value greater than zero will have both the required purchase and the promoted price as anchors. Our reasoning leads to an interesting effect: a low price can lower reservation prices further than a zero price. Referring back to our opening example, we expect that a promotion that offers bread sticks for free with the purchase of a pizza will have a smaller impact on reducing consumers’ willingness to pay for bread sticks on subsequent visits, than one that offers bread sticks for a low price, like one dollar with the purchase of a pizza. Consistent with an anchoring mechanism, as the promoted price increases, reservation prices also increase and eventually are superior to those of the free condition. Therefore, we predict a discontinuity in the relationship between promoted product price and reservation price at zero, such that a zero price will lead to higher reservation prices than a low price. Our hypothesis was tested in two studies. In our first study, 164 participants answered a series of questions about two promotional advertisements. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four

631 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Europoly Money: The Impact of Currency Framing on Tourists’ Spending Decisions Priya Raghubir, New York University, USA Vicki Morwitz, New York University, USA Shelle Santana, New York University, USA

Extended Abstract the second as a reference: €FF or FF€. Study participants rated their In January 1999, 12 countries decided to adopt the Euro at a likelihood of purchasing 13 different products including toiletries given exchange rate: Belgium, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, and clothing, using the cover story that they had to shop due to Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal their baggage being misplaced by an airline. A repeated measures and Finland. In all of these countries, except Ireland, the nominal ANOVA on the purchase intentions for the thirteen items showed prices of goods were lower in Euros than they were in the prior that people are likely to spend more when the frame is €FF versus local currency. From January 1999 onwards, the 12 participating FF€ (M€FF=2.24 vs. MFF€=1.87, F (1, 22)=3.55, p<.05), and are also countries included prices in Euros along with the prices in their likely to consider a larger set of items (M€FF=5.60 vs. M FF€=3.62, local currencies. The legal tender of Euro was introduced on Janu- F (1, 22)=4.49, p<.05). Study 3 examines the external validity of ary 1, 2002, and countries gradually ended the circulation of their these effects. We analyzed tourist receipts data from 1993–2008 existing national currencies. There was a dual circulation period for 10 of the 12 countries that adopted the Euro (excluding Ireland until the changeover was complete, during which time both the new as the exchange rate is in the opposite direction, and Luxembourg Euro and the old national currency remained in circulation. By the due to data unavailability) compared to a set of six comparable end of February 2002, all 12 countries had discontinued the use of countries that did not: UK, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, their local currency. However, to help people translate prices from and Switzerland. To control for country differences and overall trend one currency into the other, in many countries, a reverse pricing in tourism expenditures, we included GDP, CPI, population, and communication system was adopted: Prices were displayed in unemployment numbers for the year as predictor variables along Euro terms, with the local national currency conversion shown just with whether or not the country had adopted the Euro (0=not, 1=yes), below. It was expected that, over time, consumers would become the number of years prior to or subsequent to the introduction of accustomed to thinking in Euro terms, and would no longer require the Euro (e.g., 1993=-9, 2002=0, 2008=6), as well as the interac- the local currency reference as an aid. This paper examines whether tion between these two variables. The regression was significant 2 that assumption was well founded. (R a=.73, F (8, 196)=66.24, p<.01), with the interaction term posi-

We investigate how framing a price in two nominally different tive and significant β( =4433.93, t196=2.64, p<.05). The positive and (but economically identical) currencies affects consumer-spending significant interaction implies that tourism receipts were higher decisions based on the predictions of the “money illusion,” a ten- after the Euro introduction in 2002 for those countries that adopted dency to over-weight nominal values relative to real values (cf. the Euro as compared to those who did not, controlling for overall Shafir, Diamond, & Tversky, 1997). Prior research has shown that trend and other differences across Euro and non-Euro countries. the money illusion influences spending in foreign currencies: People To summarize, we show that while presenting prices in multiple under spend when one unit of their home currency buys multiple currency frames could lead to a gradual adaptation to the new Euro units of the foreign currency and overspend in the reverse situation currency standard as demonstrated by Marques and Dehaene (2004), (Raghubir & Srivastava, 2002). We extend this line of research by it may not be sufficient. Results of our laboratory experiments de- examining how sequential and simultaneous exposure to multiple termined that there was a systematic error in the price magnitude currencies, that is exposure to a price in French Francs and in Euros, perceptions of the same unfamiliar currency due to differences in affects consumers’ price magnitude perceptions and spending. The prior exposure to another currency (experiment 1), and when prices primary theoretical contribution of this paper is to show that when were presented in more than one currency (experiment 2), suggest- multiple nominal values are available, then the manner in which ing that providing both currencies simultaneously is not adequate people integrate them can lead to “money illusion” biases, and that at attenuating money-illusion effects. these individual level effects have economic consequences with implications for consumer welfare, public policy, and the prices References that companies can charge. Cannon, Edmund S.and Giam Pietro Cipriani (2006), “Euro- We first examine the impact of sequential exposure to foreign Illusion: A Natural Experiment,” Journal of Money, Credit currencies on price perception and intended spending. We propose and Banking, 38(5), 1391-1403. that people will perceive prices in Euros to be cheaper if they are Desmet, Pierre (2002), “A Study of the Potential Effects of first exposed to a currency whose face value is larger than the Euro the Conversion to Euro. Journal of Product and Brand (DM 2 ≅ €1) than if they are first exposed to a currency whose face Management, 11(3), 134-46. value is smaller than the Euro (£0.5 ≅ €1). A one-way ANOVA on Gamble, Amelie, Tommy Gärling, John Charlton, and Rob the total cost of a hypothetical shopping basket using three levels of Ranyard (2002), “Euro-Illusion: Psychological Insights prior currency exposure (DM, £ or Irish Punt 1=€1) was significant into Price Evaluations with a Unitary Currency,” European (F (2, 48)=9.96, p<.01). As predicted, those in the UK £ condition Psychologist, 7(4), 302-11. overestimated the cost of their shopping basket (M=€89.78 vs. Gamble, Amelie, Tommy Gärling, Daniel Västfjäll, and Agneta Actual=€46.96, Control Irish Punt=€52.13), whereas those in the Marell (2005), “Interaction Effects of Mood Induction and German DM condition underestimated it (M=€33.47). Nominal Representation of Price on Consumer Choice. The second experiment examines the impact of simultaneous Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 12, 397-406. exposure to two foreign currencies. We propose that people anchor on the nominal value of the currency that is more salient and display the “money-illusion” effect, even when the original currency is available to them in the context. We provided people prices in two currencies: Euro and French Franc highlighting one and providing 632 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 633 Gaston-Breton, Charlotte and Pierre Desmet (1999), “Perceived Effects of Psychological Price Thresholds According to the Monetary Unit,” Paper presented at the Second Annual Conference of Pricing Research, Fordham University, New York, New York. Jonas, Eva, Tobias Greitmeyer, Dieter Frey, and Stefan Schulz- Hardt (2002), “Psychological Effects of the Euro—Experi- mental Research on the Perception of Salaries and Price Estimations,” European Journal of Social Psychology, 32(2), 147-69. Kooreman, Peter, Riemer Faber, and Heleen M.J. Hofmans (2004), “Charity Donations and the Euro Introduction: Some Quasi-Experimental Evidence on Money Illusion,” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 36, 1121-24. Kühberger, Anton and Alexander Keul (2003), “Quick and Slow Transition to the Euro in Austria: Point of Sale Observations, and a Longitudinal Panel Survey,” Paper presented at the Euro-Workshop (IAREP), Vienna, Austria. Lemaire, Patrick and Mireille Lecacheur (2001), “Older and Younger Adults’ Strategy Use and Execution in Currency Conversion Tasks: Insights from French Franc to Euro and Euro to French Franc Conversions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(3), 195-206. Marini, Giancarlo, Alessandro Piergallini, and Pasquale Scar- amozzino (2007), “Inflation Bias After the Euro: Evidence from the UK and Italy,” Applied Economics, 39, 461-70. Marques, J. Frederico and Stanislas Dehaene (2004), “Develop- ing Intuition for Prices in Euros: Rescaling or Relearning Prices?” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10(3), September, 148–55. Mussweiler, Thomas and Fritz Strack (2004), “The Euro in the Common European Market: A Single Currency Increases the Comparability of Prices,” Journal of Economic Psychology, 25(5), 557-63. Mussweiler, Thomas and Birte Englich (2003),”Adapting to the Euro: Evidence from Bias Reduction,” Journal of Economic Psychology, 24(3), 285-92. Raghubir, Priya and Joydeep Srivastava (2002), “Effect of Face Value on Product Valuation in Foreign Currencies,” Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 335-47. Ranyard, Rob, Carole Burgoyne, Gabriela Saldanha, and David Routh (2003), “ Living With the Euro but Thinking in Punts? A Preliminary Report of Experiences in the Republic of Ireland,” Paper presented at the Euro-Workshop (IAREP), Vienna, Austria. Romani, Simona and Daniele Dalli (2002),”Effects of the Transi- tion from Lira to Euro on Buyers’ Product Evaluations,” Paper presented at the EMAC conference, Braga, Portugal. Shafir, Eldar, Peter Diamond, and Amos Tversky (1997), “Money Illusion,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 341-74. United Nations Environment Programme (2005), “Economic Impacts of Tourism.” http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust- tourism/economic.htm, February 8, 2005. World Tourism Organization (2005), “WTO World tourism ba- rometer,” 3(1), Madrid: World Trade Association, 1-4. Framing and Sales Promotions: Understanding the Characteristics of Present and Prospective Consumers Fei Lee Weisstein, University of Texas-Pan American, USA Kent Monroe, University of Illinois, USA

Extended Abstract online store that they had never patronized before. All participants Economic-based literature suggests that charging loyal custom- were presented the same notebook computer web page with the ers a higher price than prospective customers would lead to greater same product but with a different sales promotion framing format. profits if loyal customers are comparatively more price insensitive Participants were randomly assigned to either the control or various than prospective customers (Chen 1997; Chen, Narasimhan, and framing conditions. After all participants indicated their willingness Zhang 2001; Taylor 2003). Behavioral research, however, shows that to buy the notebook computer, they were told that a friend recently when targeted promotions occur, loyal customers perceive higher bought the same notebook computer from the same online store for unfairness and betrayal when they know that they paid higher prices a much lower price. Finally, participants were asked to evaluate the than non-loyal customers (Feinberg et al. 2002). Targeted promo- dependent measures on nine-point scales. tions may generate a side effect by making the targeted segment In both two studies, price discount and reward framing, com- salient as potential comparison others to those consumers who are pared to an equivalent financial offer without any framing tactics, not offered the promotions. Other consumers (e.g., loyal customers) successfully increased consumers’ perceived transaction dissimilar- will necessarily be at a price disadvantage in relation to the targeted ity, which subsequently increased their perceived price fairness. The segment (e.g., prospective customers). In particular, loyal custom- results confirmed that the degree of perceived transaction similarity ers, knowing that they paid higher prices, exhibit higher perceived is highly related to perception. In addition, price promotion framing unfairness than prospective customers (Tsai and Lee 2007). Loyal tactics work differently across different customer segments. Our customers often perceive that they are entitled to an equal or even a findings suggest that regular customers perceived significantly lower price since they invest comparatively more than prospective higher price fairness when they received a price promotion that was customers in the firms (Cox 2001). These different conclusions from framed as a reward than as a discount. On the other hand, prospec- marketing research raise an interesting and important question: what tive customers perceived significantly higher price fairness when is the effect of sales promotion framing on consumers’ perception they received a promotion that was framed as a discount than as a of price fairness across different customer segments (regular vs. reward. Previous studies suggest that retailers should treat regular prospective)? Recently, a study showed that price framing, presenting customers better since they would be more upset when they learn the same price offer or price change in various formats, may reduce that prospective customers received a better deal than they did. consumers’ negative reactions even when consumers know that We propose an alternative explanation that price-disadvantaged they paid higher prices than other people (Lee and Monroe 2008). regular customers’ negative price unfairness perception might also However, the study did not examine whether using price framing be influenced by the easiness of comparing their own transaction to minimize consumers’ negative perceptions can be implemented to other individuals’ transactions. Our research findings suggest across different customer segments. This research contributes to that price-disadvantaged customers’ negative perceptions toward consumer research by showing that using different price promotion targeted pricing can be mitigated by not only using different price framing tactics can induce price-disadvantaged consumers to have promotion presentation formats but also giving different levels of different transaction perceptions and subsequently increase their promotion to different customer segments so that the offers will perceived price fairness across different customer segments and be less comparable. promotion deal comparisons of different magnitudes. The prediction that consumers generally would prefer segre- gated gains more than reduced losses in their buying decisions was first proposed by Thaler (1985). Diamond and Sanyal (1990) later confirm that sales promotions framed as gains are chosen more often than promotions framed as reduced losses. Their study finds that consumers perceive promotions of equivalent financial magnitude framed as gains as better value than those framed as reduced losses. We propose that for assumed less price sensitive and more emotion- ally attached regular customers, they would be more attracted to a reward promotion (e.g., free gift) framed as a separate extra gain than discount promotion framed as a reduced monetary loss. The additional reward may generate an exclusiveness effect that loyal customers may feel more special than other customers who do not receive any rewards. On the other hand, if prospective customers are more price sensitive and less emotionally attached to the firm, they would be more attracted to a discount promotion (e.g., pure price reduction) framed as a reduced monetary loss. Using two experiments, we examined whether the effect of sales promotion framing can successfully reduce consumers’ negative perceptions of targeted pricing across different customer segments and deal comparison situations. Participants first read a short scenario asking them to consider buying a notebook computer from their all-time favorite and frequently visited online store or an

634 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Consumer’s Motivation of Counterfeit Consumption in China Felix Tang, Hang Seng School of Commerce, China Vane-Ing Tian, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, Simon Fraser University, Canada Extended Abstract were presented the same notebook computer web page with the Economic-based literature suggests that charging loyal custom- same product but with a different sales promotion framing format. ers a higher price than prospective customers would lead to greater Participants were randomly assigned to either the control or various profits if loyal customers are comparatively more price insensitive framing conditions. After all participants indicated their willingness than prospective customers (Chen 1997; Chen, Narasimhan, and to buy the notebook computer, they were told that a friend recently Zhang 2001; Taylor 2003). Behavioral research, however, shows that bought the same notebook computer from the same online store for when targeted promotions occur, loyal customers perceive higher a much lower price. Finally, participants were asked to evaluate the unfairness and betrayal when they know that they paid higher prices dependent measures on nine-point scales. than non-loyal customers (Feinberg et al. 2002). Targeted promo- In both two studies, price discount and reward framing, com- tions may generate a side effect by making the targeted segment pared to an equivalent financial offer without any framing tactics, salient as potential comparison others to those consumers who are successfully increased consumers’ perceived transaction dissimilar- not offered the promotions. Other consumers (e.g., loyal customers) ity, which subsequently increased their perceived price fairness. The will necessarily be at a price disadvantage in relation to the targeted results confirmed that the degree of perceived transaction similarity segment (e.g., prospective customers). In particular, loyal custom- is highly related to perception. In addition, price promotion framing ers, knowing that they paid higher prices, exhibit higher perceived tactics work differently across different customer segments. Our unfairness than prospective customers (Tsai and Lee 2007). Loyal findings suggest that regular customers perceived significantly customers often perceive that they are entitled to an equal or even a higher price fairness when they received a price promotion that was lower price since they invest comparatively more than prospective framed as a reward than as a discount. On the other hand, prospec- customers in the firms (Cox 2001). These different conclusions from tive customers perceived significantly higher price fairness when marketing research raise an interesting and important question: what they received a promotion that was framed as a discount than as a is the effect of sales promotion framing on consumers’ perception reward. Previous studies suggest that retailers should treat regular of price fairness across different customer segments (regular vs. customers better since they would be more upset when they learn prospective)? Recently, a study showed that price framing, presenting that prospective customers received a better deal than they did. the same price offer or price change in various formats, may reduce We propose an alternative explanation that price-disadvantaged consumers’ negative reactions even when consumers know that regular customers’ negative price unfairness perception might also they paid higher prices than other people (Lee and Monroe 2008). be influenced by the easiness of comparing their own transaction However, the study did not examine whether using price framing to other individuals’ transactions. Our research findings suggest to minimize consumers’ negative perceptions can be implemented that price-disadvantaged customers’ negative perceptions toward across different customer segments. This research contributes to targeted pricing can be mitigated by not only using different price consumer research by showing that using different price promotion promotion presentation formats but also giving different levels of framing tactics can induce price-disadvantaged consumers to have promotion to different customer segments so that the offers will different transaction perceptions and subsequently increase their be less comparable. perceived price fairness across different customer segments and promotion deal comparisons of different magnitudes. The prediction that consumers generally would prefer segre- gated gains more than reduced losses in their buying decisions was first proposed by Thaler (1985). Diamond and Sanyal (1990) later confirm that sales promotions framed as gains are chosen more often than promotions framed as reduced losses. Their study finds that consumers perceive promotions of equivalent financial magnitude framed as gains as better value than those framed as reduced losses. We propose that for assumed less price sensitive and more emotion- ally attached regular customers, they would be more attracted to a reward promotion (e.g., free gift) framed as a separate extra gain than discount promotion framed as a reduced monetary loss. The additional reward may generate an exclusiveness effect that loyal customers may feel more special than other customers who do not receive any rewards. On the other hand, if prospective customers are more price sensitive and less emotionally attached to the firm, they would be more attracted to a discount promotion (e.g., pure price reduction) framed as a reduced monetary loss. Using two experiments, we examined whether the effect of sales promotion framing can successfully reduce consumers’ negative perceptions of targeted pricing across different customer segments and deal comparison situations. Participants first read a short scenario asking them to consider buying a notebook computer from their all-time favorite and frequently visited online store or an online store that they had never patronized before. All participants 635 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Purchase Intention Toward Counterfeits–Antecedents And Consequences From Culturally Diverse Countries Bernhard Swoboda, Trier University, Germany Karin Pennemann, Trier University, Germany Markus Taube, Mercator School of Management, Germany Cristian Dabija, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania

Extended Abstract factors. Thus, consumer behavior in the counterfeit context and its antecedents’ impacts are proposed as varying across countries. Introduction The sale of counterfeit products accounted for up to 9% of the Method world trade volume, amounting to an increase of 10,000% in the Our sample included 700 face-to-face consumer interviews past two decades (IACC 2009). Since firms manage their brands in each country of investigation. Enhancing the generalizability of internationally across many markets, marketers should understand the study (Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra 1999), we chose China, how the antecedents’ impacts on consumer behavior vary across Romania and Germany as countries of investigation in view of countries. Even counterfeiting is a cross-national phenomenon; its their differences in economic development, culture, and trademark antecedents have rarely been investigated cross-nationally. legislation, where we note a considerable variation, to make our Brand manufacturers of illegally copied brands sustain dam- hypothesis more suitable for generalization (van de Vijver and age: the brand’s equity is jeopardized and the consumer’s demand Leung 1997). In addition to validity and reliability confirmation, is diverted into gray markets (Green and Smith 2002). Neverthe- we also confirmed partial scalar invariance of the measurement in less, Nia and Zaichkowski (2000) note that the majority of con- comparing country samples (Steenkamp and Baumgartner 1998). sumers “did not believe that counterfeits decrease the demand for Since we operationalized PItC as a formative measurement to in- original, luxury brand name products” (Nia and Zaichowski 2000, clude the main product categories that are counterfeited, we applied 494). Commuri (2009) states that the impact of counterfeiting on the partial least squares approach for its handling of formative and consumers of genuine goods (originals) is little-noticed. Thus, a reflective measurement models and its less stringent assumptions further investigation is needed on counterfeits’ impact on originals. concerning the distribution of variables and error terms (Hensler, In their literature review, Eisend and Schuchert-Güler (2006) Ringle, and Sinkovics 2009). The structural model was estimated note antecedents related to the person, such as demographics, for each country, and differences in path coefficients were tested antecedents related to the product, such as price, social as well as for significance (Keil et al. 2000). cultural context, and also purchase situation, which all stimulate the purchase of counterfeits. They emphasize a more solid theoretical Findings and Discussion grounding for further studies and call for cross-cultural investiga- Our study pursues the call of Eisend and Schuchert-Güler tions to illuminate potential differences between the antecedents (2006) for a better theoretical grounding and a cross-cultural (Eisend and Schuchert-Güler 2006). investigation in further studies on the counterfeit context, and the The purpose of the following study is to examine antecedents call of Commuri (2009) for an examination as to how counterfeits of purchase intention toward counterfeits (PItC) and its influence impact genuine brands. on consumers’ willingness to pay for the original (WtPO). Applying the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991), we examine the antecedents’ impact on PItC and reveal that country Conceptual Framework specifics, such as culture, economic development and Confucian- To develop the conceptual model, we draw firstly upon the ism, matter when investigating consumers’ illicit behavior. Such theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991), secondly on the adaptation- a cross-country investigation amplifies the understanding of level theory (Helson 1964), and thirdly focus on the moderating consumer behavior and thus provides insights for internationally effect of country specifics. implemented actions that are aimed at tackling companies’ losses Armitage and Conner (2001) achieved a higher explained caused by counterfeits. variance for intention using the theory of planned behavior instead In China, where Confucian values are a strong cultural trait, of the theory of reasoned action. Following the theory of planned Fairness to the genuine brand does not lower PItC, whereas in West- behavior, we first hypothesize the impact of subjective norm of ern countries it does. Thus Fairness, which has not been discussed socially legitimate (counterfeit) behavior, and secondly hypothesize previously in the counterfeit context, matters as an antecedent of the impact of perceived behavior control, defined as the ease of PItC when investigating societies where Confucian values are not access to counterfeits, on purchase intention toward counterfeits common. The Asian understanding of copying and of honoring (PItC). Additionally we hypothesize the impact of novelty seek- one’s master differs from Western beliefs and has its roots in the ing, perceived risk, integrity, and fairness toward the original on Confucian set of values and ethical norms purchase intention toward counterfeits (PItC). Integrity has no significant/negative impact for developing We refer to Helson’s (1964) adaptation-level theory linking countries, such as China and Romania, where trademark law was PItC to willingness to pay for the original (WtPO). According to this only established quite recently and its implementation is somewhat theory, exposure to formerly perceived stimuli serves as a reference sporadic. Recently, China has aligned its legal framework within the by which stimuli perceived later are judged. As noted by Cordell, international intellectual property rights treaty and is still revising Wongtada, and Kieschnick (1996), counterfeits are sold at a lower its trademark legislation. Since laws and norms are related, a cross- price, thus we hypothesize a negative impact of PItC on WtPO. national legal alignment is of increasing importance. We suggest that culture (i.e. collectivism, uncertainty avoid- Subjective Norms do legitimate counterfeiting behavior and ance, Confucian values, and holistic thinking), economic develop- have a higher impact on PItC for collectivistic countries, such as ment (GDP per capita) and trademark legislation serve as context China and Romania, than for individualistic countries. Popular 636 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 637 endorsers and opinion leaders are a means of increasing consumers’ awareness of negative outcomes affecting brand manufacturers, as well as society at large. Once counterfeiting is socially disregarded, especially in collectivistic societies, counterfeits will not be used any more to display status and prestige. Following the adaptation-level theory (Helson 1964), we show that the availability of typically low-priced counterfeits lower the reference price for genuine brands in the consumer’s mind. Espe- cially in Romania, brand manufacturers seem to be jeopardized by the visibility level of counterfeits.

References Ajzen, Icek. (1991), Theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human decision Processes, 50 (December), 179-211. Alden, Dana L., Jan-Benedict E.M Steenkamp, and Rajeev Batra (1999), “Brand Positioning through Advertising in Asia, North America and Europe: The Role of Global Consumer Culture,” Journal of Marketing, 63 (January), 75-87. Armitage, Christopher J. and Mark Conner (2001), “Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A meta-analytic review,” British Journal of Social Psychology, 40 (December), 471-99 Commuri, Suraj (2009), “The Impact of Counterfeiting on Genuine-Item Consumers’ Brand relationships,” Journal of Marketing, 73, 86–98. Cordell, Victor V., Nittaya Wongtada, and Robert L. Kieschnick Jr. (1996), “Counterfeit purchase intentions: Role of lawful- ness attitudes and product traits as determinants,” Journal of Business Research, 35 (January), 41-53. Eisend, Martin, and Pakize Schuchert-Güler (2006), “Explain- ing counterfeit purchase: A review and preview,” Academy of Marketing Science Review, 12, 1-21. Green, Robert T. and Tasman Smith (2002), “Executive Insights: Countering Brand Counterfeiters,” Journal of International Marketing, 10 (4), 89-106. Helson, Harry (1964), “Current trends and issues in adoption- level theory,” American psychologist, 19 (1), 26-38. Henseler, Jörg, Christian M. Ringle, and Rudolf R. Sinkovics (2009). The use of partial least squares path modelling in international marketing. Advances in International Market- ing, 20, 277-319. IACC (2009), “Get Real–The Truth About Counterfeiting,” http://www.iacc.org/counterfeiting/ counterfeiting.php. Keil, Mark, Bernard C. Y. Tan, Kwok-Kee Wei, Timo Saarinen, Virpi Tuunainen, and Arjen Wassenaar (2000), “A cross-cul- tural study on escalation of commitment behavior in software projects,” MIS Quarterly, 24 (June), 299–325. Nia, Arghavan, and Judith Lynne Zaichowsky (2000), “Do coun- terfeits devalue the ownership of luxury brands?,” Journal of Product and Brand Management, 9 (7), 485-97. Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E. M. and Hans Baumgartner (1998), “Assessing measurement Invariance in Cross-National Con- sumer Research,” Journal of Consumer Research, 25 (June), 78-90. Opinion Seeking In Consumer Networks Seung Hwan (Mark) Lee, University of Western Ontario, Canada June Cotte, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Extended Abstract ent type of a social network (a seniors’ social club), and measure The importance of social communication in explaining opinion seeking behaviors for a service associated with this club. consumer behaviour has been highlighted across a wide variety of The results of two field studies provide strong support the research streams (e.g., Childers 1986). What is known from prior positive association between network centrality and opinion research is that consumers tend to rely on their social networks (e.g., seeking, as well as, network centrality and opinions sought. With like a network of friends) as resources for product information, regards to degree centrality, out-degree centrality was positively evaluations, and recommendations to make better purchase decisions related to both opinion seeking measures. However, this was not (Brown and Reingen 1987; Gershoff, Broniarczyk, and West the case for in-degree centrality. The results support the notion that 2001). Given the importance of social networks in the consumer’s people who rated themselves as central (social perception) were search process, it is surprising that research has largely ignored associated with having higher opinion seeking tendencies, while the effect of consumer’s position in a social network on opinion people who were central (as rated by others) did not have higher seeking behavior. Studies in this domain have generally ignored the opinion seeking tendencies. In contrast, for the opinions sought possibility that where a consumer is located within a social network measure, a positive relationship was found for in-degree centrality, may influence the degree to which that consumer seeks opinions but not for out-degree centrality. from others. For instance, will the opinion seeking behavior of a With regards to betweenness centrality, the data reveals posi- consumer be any different if he is strategically connected to others tive relationship with both opinion seeking and opinions sought. in the network versus if he is not strategically connected? Will a Results from the two field studies reveal that those occupying a consumer increase her propensity to seek out opinions knowing high betweenness position are most likely to take advantage of she is in a better network position to reach those who could help their brokering opportunities to seek opinions from others; but it her with her information search? These research questions suggest also opens up opportunities for others to seek opinions from them. that as a discipline we do not have a thorough understanding of This is an important finding because it emphasizes the social benefit how network positions influences the opinion seeking behavior of (i.e. increased opportunity to seek out diverse information) from consumers. Therefore, our research focuses on both the structural occupying a betweenness central position. However, it is possible properties of the social network (network centrality), and the that they may also face social costs or burdens as others may come outcomes of those relational characteristics (e.g., how the social to depend on them for information. links affect opinion seeking behavior). Concluding, this research contributes to the literature by Opinion seeking is the act of searching out advice from other recognizing that there are unique opportunities and advantages consumers (Flynn et al. 1996). Our research investigates how of occupying a central position in a social network. Overall, the occupying a certain network position affects the extent to which findings suggest that centrality is positively related to both opinion consumers seek the opinions of others, as well as the extent to which seeking and opinion approachability. We have firmly demonstrated consumers are approached by others for their opinions. One of the the importance of both the number of social ties and the position of ways in which individuals can occupy such an advantageous position those ties in the flow of opinions through a social network. Future is to become central in a network (Lee, Cotte, and Noseworthy researchers can continue to advance on this understanding in both 2010). Network centrality is measured by examining the number of face-to-face and online social networks and communities. The direct relationships an individual has with others, or by assessing the growth in peer-to-peer technologies is fuelling growth in virtual extent to which an individual links otherwise unconnected cliques or social networks, and the opinion-seeking and opinion-sharing that individuals (Freeman 1979). Thus, centrality can be defined by the attend those communities. number (quantity) of ties or the configuration (strategic location) of ties. In this paper, we focus on two common measures of network centrality: degree centrality and betweenness centrality. Occupying a central position, through either degree or betweenness centrality, reflects greater social capital (Burt 2000). Individuals located in central positions have unique social advantages; they can take advantage of their network structure for information and resources (Coleman 1990). We propose that those who are centrally located in a network will exhibit a greater tendency to seek opinions than those who are on the periphery of the network. By tendency, we mean the frequency with which central people approach others for their opinions. In addition, we propose that central individuals are more likely to be approached for opinions than those residing in the periphery. To test our theory, we conducted two network studies using social network analysis. One of the main strengths of social network analysis is that it enables researchers to locate the structural position of individuals in a network (Lee et al. 2010). In study 1, we examine a brand community made of primarily young adults. We measure an individual’s opinion seeking behavior for a product associated with the brand community. In study 2, we extend our theory to a differ-

638 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 The Flow of Cosmetic Routines in Iran Aliakbar Jafari, University of Strathclyde, UK Pauline Maclaran, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK Babak Taheri, University of Strathclyde, UK

Extended Abstract often excessive use of make-up, our informants derived high levels Conceptualizing consumption as an experiential process of satisfaction from their make-up routines. rather than solely a cognitive purchasing behavior (Holbrook and The consumption of cosmetics, as our study reveals, is a way Hirschman 1982; Bloch 1982; Hawkins et al. 1983; Bloch and of sustaining wellbeing for those women who have less exciting Bruce 1984), in the past three decades, researchers have addressed lives. They use their body as an immediate natural environment “consumers’ subjective and emotional reactions to consumption (Tuan 1997) and a great potential source of joy (Csikszentmihalyi objects” (Holt 1995, 2). Among a variety of dimensions of con- 1992; Stebbins 1977, 2009). Their ‘escapist’ (Hirschman 1983) sumption as experience (e.g., emotional, experiential, hedonic, engagement with make-up as a source of ‘flow’ provides them aesthetic) (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; Belk et al. 1989; Celsi et with a sense of solace, pleasure, and creativity (Holbrook and al. 1993), autotelic consumption has gained momentum in studying Hirschman1982; Bloch and Bruce 1984). In the absence of extrinsic recreational activities in which consumption becomes ‘an end in satisfaction and appreciation from their society (Csikszentmihalyi itself’ (Csikszentmihalyi 1975). That is, consumers’ deep involve- 1992; Bloch and Bruce 1984), they continue to engage in their ment with the object of consumption results in their self-defined make-up rituals on a daily basis. Although they do not necessar- form of recreation, pleasure, and flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi ily believe that make-up makes them more beautiful or relate its 1975, 1992; Bloch and Bruce 1984). use to their self-esteem, they still experience ‘significant mood Within consumer research, Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of changes’ (Celsi 1992). For them, flow (i.e., application of make- ‘flow’ has been acknowledged as an important part of autotelic up) becomes its own reward and offers intrinsic satisfaction (Bloch consumption, usually associated with various leisure activities such and Bruce 1984) and brings feelings of serenity and ecstasy. Yet, as games (Holbrook et al. 1984), aesthetic appreciation (Joy and for these women, the real challenge of flow experience lies not in Sherry 2003), sports (Holt 1995; Sherry et al. 2005), extraordinary the task itself (i.e., consumption of cosmetics) (Csikszentmihalyi experiences such as skydiving (Celsi et al. 1993; Celsi 1992) or 1975) but in the consequences of accomplishing the task, which are white water rafting (Arnould et al. 1999), gambling (Cotte 1997), related to the dominant cultural order of their society (Jafari and and even online search experience behaviors (Mathwick and Rig- Goulding 2008). Generally speaking, excessive use of make-up is don 2004). Noticeably, although Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1992) frowned upon in Iran. The state views it as an un-Islamic behavior highlights opportunities for finding flow in non-leisure activities, and a sign of Western decadence. Therefore, women with heavy and perhaps due to the cultural turn’s emphasis on identity issues, make-up are labeled as ‘street women’ and are usually stopped and the more mundane aspects of everyday life have been overlooked in advised by the morality police. Likewise, conservative families do the literature on autotelic consumption. Neither has his point about not approve of their female members’ excessive use of make-up as flow’s context-dependency triggered any cross-cultural research, it signals lack of dignity. Such women are also more susceptible particularly in non-Western societies. Our present study addresses to sexual harassment. these gaps in the literature and scrutinizes consumption of cosmet- Despite all these problems, these individuals accomplish the ics as an everyday life practice among young adult women in Iran. task of wearing make-up with determination. They feel more “alert, In our study, first, we were inspired by the fact that with a concentrated, happy, satisfied and creative” (Csikszentmihalyi and population of only 70 million (25 million women under the age LeFevre 1989, 816). The ‘activation energy’ embedded in their of 35), Iran achieved the seventh rank in global markets for con- autotelic experience (Csikszentmihalyi 1975) focuses them in total sumption of cosmetics and toiletries in 2007 (Euromonitor, 2008). absorption on the task in hand to the exclusion of all else around Also, given the recent political interpretations of Iranian women’s them. Although they know that make-up will do little to change excessive consumption of make-up (as either a silent rebellion their situation in real life, they can escape into a fantasy world for against the political ideology of the Islamic Republic or a sign of some part of the day. They give themselves up to the processes of Western decadence), we were motivated to explore the potential its application, losing themselves in the creative play and artistry symbolic meanings (McCracken 1988; Schouten 1991) embedded that these processes facilitate without giving much thought to final in these individuals’ consumption of cosmetics. Although our non- outcomes. participatory observations and memos provided us with a pool of Based on our findings from this context, we stress that changing ideas, through our in-depth interviews with 15 young adult women socio-cultural dynamics in contemporary societies give rise to new (aged between 21 and 32) in Tehran and Karaj, we gained a deep forms of autotelic consumption which need to be investigated. By understanding of our informants’ consumption practices. Our data extending the application of autotelic consumption to very mundane analysis followed a systematic process of constant comparison life practices, we also emphasize that flow is context-bound and in terms of searching for similarities and differences (Glaser and what may lead to flow for one person in a particular socio-cultural Strauss 1967). context may not necessarily hold true across different socio-cultural Quite contrary to our expectations, our emergent findings re- environments. vealed that our informants’ make-up practices were less to do with identity construction (Schouten 1991; Merskin 2007; Thompson and Haytko 1997; Askegaard et al. 2002; Reynolds et al. 1977; Bloch and Richins 1992; Brownmiller 1984; Ragas and Kozlowski 1998; Peiss 1990) and more to do with a total immersion in the experiential and creative aspects of make-up use and as a way to uplift their tired spirits in a monotonous environment. Despite facing various challenges, including frequent stigmatization on account of their 639 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Caught Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Adult Children’s Consumption of Care Services for Their Elderly Parents Aimee Huff, University of Western Ontario, Canada June Cotte, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Extended Abstract: and to maintain independence from the parent. We suggest that adult There is no shortage of anecdotal or scholarly evidence that children experience stress as an outcome of these tensions, and we adult children experience stress as they engage in care decisions for find that stress is characterized by guilt, exhaustion, and anxiety. their elderly parents. However, adult children are often conflicted We also discuss the cultural ideologies of autonomy and active when faced with the task of translating their respect and love for care management, and suggest how they are related to the context their parents into actual decisions about care. That is, the tasks of of elder care. Autonomy encompasses the strong cultural value choosing and using elder care services are not straightforward or placed on being independent individuals. In the context of elder unproblematic for adult children. care, the independence of both parties (i.e., the adult and the child) The purpose of this paper is to theoretically account for the becomes compromised as the parent’s need for care becomes ap- stress experienced by adult children by attending to the underlying parent. Active care management encompasses the broad, pervasive cultural influences on elder care consumption. We take the position expectation that adult children will employ an active, managerial that adult children are consumers of elder care services because they approach to their parents’ care by taking all steps necessary to are (typically) caregivers for their parents; adult children can choose ensure health and safety. to provide the requisite care themselves, or to consume commercial In our interpretation, we propose that the tensions arise as adult services that provide care. The marketplace for elder care services children encounter these two distinct cultural ideologies, which can has responded to the care-giving needs of adult children by offering have opposing implications for elder care consumption. That is, a variety of care options, ranging from in-home visits to assisted in the context of elder care, consumers experience tensions across living facilities to long-term nursing care. However, although the their individual interpretations of the cultural ideologies because need for elder care services is often inevitable and the marketplace these interpretations push them in different directions in terms of offers a number of solutions, many children find the experience of consumption. The outcome of these tensions is stress, as adult making care decisions traumatic and stressful. children feel torn between the different levels of care that would It is critical that we acknowledge that we are examining only a satisfy them and that would satisfy their parents. sub-set of elder care decisions–those made by the adult children–and, The theoretical contribution of this research is that it demon- in doing so, we implicitly strip agency from the elderly parents. strates that consumers are not always able to satisfactorily resolve Certainly, many seniors make their own decisions about care, and tensions between their interpretations of cultural ideologies. Prior others make decisions in conjunction with their children. In this research has demonstrated that consumers can appropriate discrep- paper, we choose to focus on the experiences of adult children ant ideological positions and discourses to effectively negotiate who play the lead roles in decisions about their parents care. We personalized consumption meanings and shape their individual use the context of making care decisions for an elderly parent to consumption behavior. In this paper, we build on this extant work, reveal how consumers experience stress in the marketplace, and, and we suggest that a particular consumption context can link seem- therefore, do not seek to imply that elder care decisions are the sole ingly unrelated cultural ideologies such that consumers are unable responsibility of adult children. to negotiate an acceptable outcome, and that inability to negotiate The context of elder care is particularly revealing of consump- the discrepancy can result in stress. Further, we demonstrate that tion-related stress because it often does not involve one specific marketplace solutions to consumer needs can, in fact, problematize decision. Rather, elder care consumption involves a cycle of major and complicate consumption; in the context of choosing and using and minor decisions as various care services are chosen, used, and elder care services, many adult children are unable to negotiate then deemed inappropriate. Further, adult children typically want disparate ideologies and are therefore unable to reach a satisfactory to do what is best for their parents, yet are torn between a desire consumption outcome. to keep parents safe (from physical harm, etc.) and a desire to respect their parents’ wishes to live as independently as possible. However, being physically and cognitively self-sufficient can be- come problematic as we age, and many children find themselves worried about their parents on a host of issues including mobility and physical safety, diet and medication, hygiene, finances, and social interaction. Further, many children experience significant lifestyle changes as their parents become more dependent on them to provide and manage their care. This can result in children feeling torn between their responsibilities to their parents and to their own spouses and children. In this paper, we use data gathered from depth interviews with adult children to examine these tensions and to reveal how they are experienced. We find evidence of two dominant tensions in our informants’ narratives. The first is a general awareness that it is not possible to respect a parent’s wishes to live independently and to ensure that s/he is receiving the “proper” level of care. The second tension revolves around an awareness that it is not possible to fulfill the obligations of actively managing a parent’s care needs

640 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Inalienable Wealth and Trauma Resolution: An Explanation of Genealogy Consumption Andrew Lindridge, Open University, UK

Extended Abstract lineage. All the participants were approached via a genealogy Inalienable wealth has been defined as possessions that are website producing a sample group consisting of eight people, aged intentionally kept within a close group, with previous research from 48 to 67, living in Australia or Britain. Participants were in- focussing on certain possessions taking on behavioural dynamics terviewed with open-ended, grand tour style questions exploring of guardianship or temporal orientation (Curasi, Price and Arnould, various inter-related themes including: the participants’ reasons for 2004; Price, Arnould and Curasi, 2000). These perspectives, how- their genealogy research, how they engaged with historical records ever, have focussed on possessions becoming a contested area (including their personal meaning for the participant) and their im- arising from issues of ownership and wanting to maintain and mediate family histories. During the interview process the author perpetuate cherished meanings associated with products. However, probed participants to explore in greater depth personal experiences, this perspective is from a living individual wanting and willingly family myths, stories and traumas, opinions and thoughts and how seeking out ways to engage with later generations by perpetuat- this was reflected in their genealogy research. ing these memories. This paper aims to understand how the living The interviews were then transcribed, analyzed to identify create inalienable wealth by seeking out possessions and informa- emergent themes. Finally to ensure reliability and validity the tion from previous ancestral generations (including photographs, findings were reviewed and discussed with the help of two aca- sharing ancestral data, visiting places and historical documents), demic reviewers–one a consumer behaviorist, the other a qualified even though there may be no living, emotional, linkage between psychotherapist. the generations concerned. We will argue that peoples motivations The findings supported the notion that participants were using to undertake genealogical consumption reflects not only cultural genealogy as a means of creating a sense of identity in response to and societal changes but a fundamental need by individuals to use their irreligious, lack of materialistic traits and need to seek out a genealogy consumption for, conscious and unconscious, resolution community and wider sense of family. Genealogy offered then an of personal and inter-generational traumas. opportunity to substantiate and maintain a sense of identity through The antecedents of genealogical consumption were explored creating inalienable wealth through genealogical consumption. using a Consumer Culture Theory perspective that focussed on Participants discussed how they collected, shared and exchanged the individual’s self-identity and their cultural context. Western ancestral documents, photographs, and stories, often leading to culture has been identified to varying levels with individualism, meetings and trips to shared ancestral locations. These engagements referring to a cultural system that emphasises the rights of the offered an opportunity for a reconstruction of a sense of family and individual over the community and attributed to declining levels of inter-connectedness. The need to seek information from the past is family orientation and, from a British context, declining levels of reflective of the sociological perspective of inter-generational trauma. religiousness (Halman, 1996; *.*, 2005). Previously individualism From a psycho-analytical perspective, only one participant did has been attributed to materialism, reflecting wider dissatisfaction not discuss a personal and /or inter-generational trauma that had within an individual’s life (Burroughs and Rindfleisch, 2002; La motivated them to undertake genealogical research. Personal traumas Barbera and Gurhan, 1997). However, the failure of possessions, ranged from loss of a father, unwanted divorce or a wider need to and hence materialism, to lead to personal happiness may be understand their world, whilst inter-generational trauma included reflective of a deeper, personal, crisis, within the individual. This stories of slavery, death in child birth and loss of aristocratic titles crisis, we argue, motivates the consumer to seek resolution through and lands. Participants by seeking out ancestral documents, stories alternative possession meanings, i.e. obtaining inalienable wealth and myths provided an opportunity to explore, understand and resolve through genealogy. The motivation for these behaviours we argue the cultural, economic and social aspects of their inherited trauma. can be identified with personal and inter-generational trauma, i.e. Genealogy then presented opportunities for participants to seek inherited from previous generations. out and develop the cues, materials and prompts for the individual Inter-generational trauma can be identified from two perspec- to recall particular events to the extent of creating memories that tives. First, the psycho-analytical perspective argues that trauma they may never have experienced. These memories were then ac- is inherited by the child from the parent preventing the child from tively shared and sought out amongst participants and genealogical developing their own, unique, personality, consequently, resulting communities providing a needed and sought affirmation of their in inter-generational trauma (Abraham and Torok, 1994; Praeger, self-identity. Commemorative and other related memory symbols 2003). The second distinct research field draws upon sociological (such as documents and photographs) become then symbolic to the studies, which argues that each generation occupies a particular participants because of their ability to elicit a reaction from individu- social location, allowing for social experiences to be refracted and als; a reaction identifiable with and developing further previous work made meaningful. However, failure by the individual to identify into inalienable wealth by Curasi, Price and Arnould’s (2004) and with and belong to that period of time ensures that they remain Price, Arnould and Curasi’s (2000). The genealogical community traumatized and instead focused on historical experiences and based upon a shared ancestor offered opportunities for intimacy, events (Dilthey, 1924; Mannheim, 1928/1972). creating social networks and resolution of personal and inherited The methodology involved a four year immersion into the ge- traumas but also a means to achieve autonomy and independence. nealogical consumption arena, covering the period January 2006 to January 2010, including access to a variety of genealogical data and References consumption arenas. The sampling procedure employed was theoreti- Abraham, Nicolas and Torok, Maria (1994), The Shell and the cal, relational and discriminative. To achieve this, only participants Kernel, 1. Rand, Nicholas T. (Ed.) Chicago, IL: University of who were related to the researcher were interviewed, regardless of Chicago Press. whether this connection was within his wider extended family or from several generations back. This was assessed by participants having a *.* surname appear within their respective genealogical 641 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 642 / Inalienable Wealth and Trauma Resolution: An Explanation of Genealogy Consumption Burroughs, J. Rindfleisch (2002), “Materialism and well-being: A conflicting values perspective”, Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (3): 348-370. Curasi, Carolyn F., Price, Linda L. and Arnould, Eric J. (2004) “How Individuals Cherished Possessions Become Families’ Inalienable Wealth,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31(3): 609-622. Dilthey,Wilhelm (1924), Gesammelte Schriften, Leipzig: Treub- ner, cited in Schorske, Carl (1978), “Generational tension and culture change: reflection on the case of Vienna”, Daedalus, 107 (4): 111-122. Halman, Loek (1996), “Individualism in Individualized Society– Results from the European Values Surveys”, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, XXXXVII (3):195-214. La Barbera, Priscilla and Gurhan, Zeynep (1997), “The Role of Materialism, Religiosity and Demographics in Subjective Well-Being”, Psychology and Marketing, 14 (1): 71-97. Mannheim, Karl (1928), “The Problem of Generations” 101-138, in Altbach, Philip J. and Laufer, Robert S. (Eds) (1972), “The New Pilgrims: Youth Protest in Transition”, Jed McKay and Company, New York. Praeger, Jeffrey (2003), “Lost childhood, lost generations: the intergenerational transmission of trauma”, Journal of Human Rights, 2 (2): 173-181. Price, Linda L., Arnould, Eric J. and, Curasi, Carolyn F. (2000), “Older Consumers’ Disposition of Special Possessions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (Sep.): 179-201. (2005), ‘Religiosity and the construction of a cultural- consumption identity’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 142-152. The Defensive Trust Effect: Consumers’ Defensive Use of Belief in a Just World to Cope with Decision-Generated Threat Andrew Wilson, St. Mary’s College of California, USA Peter Darke, York University, Canada

Extended Abstract Exp 2 examined conditions wherein consumers experience The Defensive Trust Effect: Consumers’ Defensive Use of threat both pre- and post-choice. Consumers experience conflict in Beliefs in a Just World to Cope with Decision-Generated Threat the pre-decision phase when choice alternative are not differentiable, Consumers cope with many threats in the course of buying, because they cannot find a reason on which to base their choice consuming, and interacting with marketers. Previous research has (Shafir et al. 1993). A non-differentiable choice set was inserted examined how consumers cope with the threat of negative emotions into the scenario described for Exp 1. Under this form of decision (Yi and Baumgartner 2004), potentially misleading persuasion at- conflict, high-BJW consumers again trusted a retail salesperson more tempts (Campbell and Kirmani 2000; Darke and Ritchie 2007), and (PV=5.01) than low-BJW (PV=3.73; β=.429, t=4.428, p<.001), difficult decisions (Luce 2005; Luce, Payne, and Bettman 1999). across both decision phases. Decision-making is inherently threatening to consumers; both in Exp 3 further extended the findings in three important ways: terms of their goal to make accurate decisions (Luce, Bettman, and 1) an experimental priming manipulation of BJW provided causal Payne 1997), and also their goals of maintaining self-esteem and evidence for the effects, 2) a cognitive load manipulation provided self-presenting as competent deciders (Janis and Mann 1977; Luce further evidence that defensive trust coping operates through a 2005). This research introduces a previously unexamined coping pre-conscious process, and 3) a manipulation of ulterior motive strategy consumers engage–termed defensive trust coping–in which established a boundary condition of the effects, such that they were consumers fall back on positive world beliefs to re-construe the extinguished under ulterior motive. situation as one in which they can and should trust marketing agents. Exp 4 provided clearer evidence of the defensive nature of the Drawing on just world theory (Hafer and Begue 2005; Lerner effect by manipulating the level of decision-generated orthogonally 1980), positive illusions research (Taylor and Brown 1988, 1994) along two dimensions, material consequence and psycho-social and cognitive experiential self theory (CEST; Epstein and Pacini threat. Material consequence threat was manipulated by instructions 1999), we develop theory that specifies psychological mechanism to half the participants that a draw would award some participants the and situational moderators. Just world theory specifies that indi- actual digital camera chosen. Psycho-social threat was manipulated viduals are motivated to perceive the world as a place where they by assigning half the participants to role of buyer (high-threat), and get what they deserve (Lerner 1980; Lerner and Simmons 1966). the other half to observer (low-threat). Exp 4’s protocol differed from This belief is more strongly held by some individuals than oth- the earlier studies in that participants shopped for a digital camera ers (Rubin and Peplau 1975). BJW functions as a healthy coping on an actual electronic retailer website. The salesperson interaction mechanism that helps individuals adapt to their own potential occurred through an instant messaging (IM) software protocol that misfortunes (i.e. I am a good person, I deserve good outcomes, so ensured a plausible, but controlled, salesperson interaction. The I will get good outcomes; Furnham 2003; Hafer and Begue 2005). main result was a marginal BJW x consequence x role interaction Our research views BJW as a type of positive illusion (Taylor and (β=.113, t=1.904, p=.058), such that high-BJW participants in the Brown 1988, 1994), which operates through consumers’ trust judg- buyer role/real consequence condition trusted more (PV=5.13) than ments of marketing agents. Past research suggests that consumers all other conditions (PV’s from 4.46 to 4.60). typically respond negatively to threat by becoming less trusting of This research makes a number of contributions to our un- marketers (Campbell and Kirmani 2000; Darke and Ritchie 2007) derstanding of the ways in which consumers cope with decision (Slovic, Flynn, and Layman 1991). In contrast, our model predicts threat. For instance, whereas extant research on consumer coping that high-BJW consumers respond to decision-generated threats by has focused on conscious coping strategies (Duhachek 2005; Duh- falling back on their BJW as a coping resource, leading to buffer- achek and Iacobucci 2005; Duhachek and Oakley 2007), we extend ing–or even positive–effects on trust judgments. The result of four this pursuit by examining a new coping strategy that focuses on a experiments support our conception and predictions. just world belief, which seems to defend consumers against threat Exp 1 used choice as a manipulation of threat, with post-choice without the need for conscious awareness. Moreover, in contrast to serving as the high threat condition. Pre (post) choice participants extant research (Campbell and Kirmani 2000; Darke and Ritchie responded to an adapted seven-point trust scale (Delgado-Ballester 2007; Slovic et al. 1991) which shows threat generally has nega- 2004) before (after) choosing between the two cameras. BJW was tive effects on trust, we identify conditions under which threat can measured as a continuous variable using seven items from an estab- actually lead to positive effects on consumer trust of marketers. lished scale (Dalbert 1999). Participants imagined an interaction with Although this pattern is somewhat counterintuitive, it is nonetheless a retail salesperson culminating in the salesperson recommending predicted by the proposed model of defensive consumer coping. one digital camera over another. Moderated multiple regression analysis (Aiken and West 1996) revealed a significant choice-stage References x BJW interaction (β .259, t=2.422, p<.05), such that high-BJW Aiken, L.S. and S.G. West (1996), Multiple Regression: Testing participants (+1 SD) trusted the salesperson more [Predicted Value and Interpreting Interactions, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (PV)=4.46] than low-BJW (-1SD; PV=3.58), but only in the post- Baron, R. M. and D. A. Kenny (1986), “The Moderator Mediator choice stage, when decision-generated threat was high. A media- Variable Distinction in Social Psychological-Research- tion test (Baron and Kenny 1986), using coded thought listings of Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations,” valanced thoughts as a mediator, supported the assumption that Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6), 1173- defensive trust coping operates through a relatively pre-conscious 82. process, in that it did not require cognitive elaboration.

643 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 644 / The Defensive Trust Effect: Consumers’ Defensive Use of Belief in a Just World to Cope with Decision-Generated Threat Brehm, J. W. (1956), “Postdecision Changes in the Desirability Rubin, Z. and L. A. Peplau (1975), “Who Believes in a Just of Alternatives,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, World?,” Journal of Social Issues, 31 (3), 65-89. 52 (3), 384-89. Slovic, P., J.H. Flynn, and M. Layman (1991), “Perceived Risk, Campbell, M. C. and A. Kirmani (2000), “Consumers’ Use of Trust, and the Politics of Nuclear Waste,” Science, 254 Persuasion Knowledge: The Effects of Accessibility and (5038), 1603-07. Cognitive Capacity on Perceptions of an Influence Agent,” Taylor, S. E. and J. D. Brown (1988), “Illusion and Well-Being-a Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (1), 69-83. Social Psychological Perspective on Mental-Health,” Dalbert, C. (1999), “The World Is More Just for Me Than Psychological Bulletin, 103 (2), 193-210. Generally: About the Personal Belief in a Just World Scale’s — (1994), “Positive Illusions and Well-Being Revisited- Validity,” Social Justice Research, 12, 79-98. Separating Fact from Fiction,” Psychological Bulletin, 116 Darke, P. R. and R. J. B. Ritchie (2007), “The Defensive (1), 21-27. Consumer: Advertising Deception, Defensive Processing, and Yi, S. W. and H. Baumgartner (2004), “Coping with Negative Distrust,” Journal of Marketing Research, 44 (1), 114-27. Emotions in Purchase-Related Situations,” Journal of Delgado-Ballester, E. (2004), “Applicability of a Brand Trust Consumer Psychology, 14 (3), 303-17. Scale across Product Categories,” European Journal of Marketing, 38 (5/6), 573-92. Duhachek, A. (2005), “Coping: A Multidimensional, Hierarchical Framework of Responses to Stressful Consumption Episodes,” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (1), 41-53. Duhachek, A. and D. Iacobucci (2005), “Consumer Personality and Coping: Testing Rival Theories of Process,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15 (1), 52-53. Duhachek, A. and J. L. Oakley (2007), “Mapping the Hierarchical Structure of Coping: Unifying Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17 (3), 218-32. Epstein, S> and R.Pacini (1999), “Some Basic Issues Regarding Dual-Process Theories from the Perspective of Cognitive- Experiential Self-Theory,” in Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology, ed. S. Chaiken and Y. Trope, New York and London: The Guilford Press, 462-82. Furnham, A. (2003), “Belief in a Just World: Research Progress over the Last Decade,” Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 795-817. Hafer, C. L. and L. Begue (2005), “Experimental Research on Just-World Theory: Problems, Developments, and Future Challenges,” Psychological Bulletin, 131 (1), 128-67. Janis, I. L. and L. Mann (1977), Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment, New York, NY (US): Free Press. Lerner, M. J. (1980), The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion, New York: Plenum Press. Lerner, M. J., D. T. Miller, and J. G. Holmes (1976), “Deserving and the Emergence of Forms of Justice,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol. 9 ed. L. Berkowitz and E. Walster, New York: Academic Press., 133–62 Lerner, M. J. and C. H. Simmons (1966), “Observers Reaction to Innocent Victim-Compassion or Rejection,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4 (2), 203-10. Luce, M. F. (2005), “Decision Making as Coping,” Health Psychology, 24 (4), S23-S28. Luce, M. F., J. R. Bettman, and J. W. Payne (1997), “Choice Processing in Emotionally Difficult Decisions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 23 (2), 384-405. Luce, M. F., J. W. Payne, and J. R. Bettman (1999), “Emotional Trade-Off Difficulty and Choice,” Journal of Marketing Research, 36 (2), 143-59. Main, K. J., D. W. Dahl, and P. R. Darke (2007), “Deliberative and Automatic Bases of Suspicion: Empirical Evidence of the Sinister Attribution Error,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17 (1), 59-69. When Does an Attack to the Brand Call for Action? The Role of Self-Brand Connection and Implicit Self-Esteem Monika Lisjak, Northwestern University, USA Angela Y. Lee, Northwestern University, USA Wendi L. Gardner, Northwestern University, USA

Extended Abstract change; whereas implicit self-esteem had no effect. However, In the modern marketplace consumers are often exposed to when the self was activated, participants’ self-brand connection negative brand information. Existing research shows that brand and their implicit self-esteem jointly influenced attitude change. commitment, which reflects consumers’ desire to have a particular In particular, participants with low implicit self-esteem who felt brand, influences how people respond to negative brand informa- connected with Starbucks reported more favorable attitudes toward tion. After reviewing negative brand information, low commitment the brand. We replicated these findings in a follow-up experiment consumer revisit their attitude toward the brand downward, whereas using the implicit association test (IAT; Karpinski and Steinman high commitment consumers tend to counterargue the negative 2006) as a measure of implicit self-esteem. information and resist attitude change (Ahluwalia, Burnkrant and The objective of experiment 2 was to provide converging evi- Unnava 2000). More recent research shows that brand commitment dence for our predictions by using a different brand (Facebook) and is influenced by the extent consumers identify and connect with the to investigate the underlying process. We first assessed participants’ brand (Escalas and Bettman 2003). In this paper, we suggest that to implicit self-esteem and their connection with Facebook by using the understand how consumers respond to negative brand information, same measures as in experiment 1. Participants then wrote an essay it is important to examine the interplay between their connection that activated (or not) the self. Next, participants read a negative with the brand and their implicit self-esteem. editorial about Facebook. Finally, participants were asked to report Research suggests that consumers who are connected with a their attitude change and respond to some process measures. Similar brand include the brand in their self-concept (e.g., Belk 1988; Escalas to experiment 1, the results revealed a significant effect of self-brand and Bettman 2003). Seminal work by W. James (1890) suggests connection, which was qualified by the three-way interaction. When that when objects are incorporated in the self, they elicit the same the self was not activated, no effect was significant. However, when emotional responses and behaviors as the self. Therefore, an attack the self was activated, participants with low implicit self-esteem to the brand is analogous to an attack to the self. When people are had a more favorable attitude toward Facebook compare to their attacked, they use an arsenal of defensive strategies to maintain a high implicit self-esteem counterparts. Participants’ net positive positive self-evaluation. Research shows that when participants cope brand thoughts partially mediated the effect. with threats by affirming important aspects of the self, they are no In our final experiment, we examined whether affirming the self longer defensive (Steele and Liu 1983; Tesser and Cornell 1991), might dissipate the defensive response of low implicit self-esteem suggesting that different defensive strategies are substitutable for individuals. As in experiment 1, participants first filled in a measure one another. People also defend more when the self is activated of implicit self-esteem and reported their self-brand connection with (Steele, Spencer and Lynch 1993). Starbucks. To activate the self, participants were asked to write a People’s defensive responses are influenced by their self- brief essay. Next they were asked to read a negative editorial about esteem. Research suggests that implicit self-esteem, which is an Starbuck. After reviewing the editorial, half of the participants were automatic evaluation of the self, buffers people against threats affirmed while the other half were not. Finally, participants were (e.g., Spalding and Hardin 1999; Greenwald and Farnham 2000). asked to report their attitude change toward Starbucks. We found a Following a threat to the self, people with low implicit self-esteem main effect of self-brand connection, which was further qualified by become defensive, whereas those with high self-esteem are not. the three-way interaction. When participants were not affirmed, we By building on these findings, we suggest that consumers who replicated the results from previous experiment. That is, participants are connected with a brand will defend the brand when it is under with low implicit self-esteem who were connected with Starbucks attack. More importantly, we predict that consumers’ defensive boosted their brand attitude. However, when participants were responses will be accentuated among those with low implicit self- affirmed, low implicit self-esteem participants who felt connected esteem when their self-concept is activated. Finally, we predict that with Starbucks did not defend the brand. It seems that it is possible their defensive response will dissipate if they have the opportunity to buffer low-implicit self-esteem participants against self-threats to self-affirm. We tested these predictions in three experiments. by making them feel good about themselves. In experiment 1, we first measured participants’ implicit self- This research demonstrates the importance of examining the esteem by using the name-liking measure (Gebauer et al. 2008). interplay between consumers’ connection with the brand and their Then, we assessed the connection participants had with Starbucks implicit self-esteem when trying to gain a better understanding of by using the self-brand connection scale (Escalas and Bettman how people respond to negative brand information. After receiving 2003). Next, participants were randomly assigned to write an es- negative brand information, low implicit self-esteem consumers say that either activated or not the self. Finally, participants were who are connected with the brand defend the brand as they would presented with an unfavorable editorial about the Starbucks and defend the self. asked to report how their attitude toward the brand might have changed. Consistent with past research we found a main effect of References self-brand connection, whereby participants who felt connected Ahluwalia, Rohini, Robert E. Burnkrant, and Rao H. Unnava with Starbucks were less likely to devalue the brand after reading (2000), “Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The the negative editorial. This effect, however, was qualified by the Moderating Role of Commitment,” Journal of Marketing three-way interaction between self activation, self-brand connec- Research, 37 (May), 203-214. tion and implicit self-esteem. When the self was not activated, Belk, Russell W. (1988), “Possessions and the Extended Self,” participants’ self-brand connection negatively predicted attitude Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (September), 139-168. 645 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 646 / When Does an Attack to the Brand Call for Action? The Role of Self-Brand Connection and Implicit Self-Esteem Escalas, Jennifer Edson and James R. Bettman (2003), “You Are What They Eat: The Influence of Reference Groups on Consumers’ Connections to Brands,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13 (3), 339-348. Gebauer, Jochen E., Michael Riketta, Philip Broemer, and Gregory R. Maio (2008), “How Much Do You Like Your Name? An implicit measure of global self-esteem,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44 (September), 1346- 1354. Greenwald, Anthony G. and Shelly D. Farnham (2000), “Using the Implicit Association Test to Measure Self-Esteem and Self-Concept,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (December), 1022-1038. James, William (1890), “The Principles of Psychology,” Vol. 1, New York: Henry Holt. Karpinski, Andrew and Ross B. Steinman (2006), “The Single Category Implicit Association Test as a Measure of Implicit Social Cognition,” Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology, 91 (July), 16-32. Spalding, Leah R. and Curtis D. Hardin (1999), “Unconscious Unease and Self-Handicapping: Behavioral Consequences of Individual Differences in Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem,” Psychological Science, 10 (November), 535-539. Steele, Claude M. and Thomas J. Liu (1983), “Dissonance Processes as Self-Affirmation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45 (July), 5-19. Steele, Claude M., Steven J. Spencer, and Michael Lynch (1993), “Self-Image Resilience and Dissonance: The Role of Af- firmational Resources,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64 (June), 885-896. Tesser, Abraham and David P. Cornell (1991), “On the Conflu- ence of Self-Processes,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27 (November), 501-526. “Keeping It Real”: Marketing Implications of Brand Authenticity Melissa Minor, University of Florida, USA Robyn LeBoeuf, University of Florida, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT decreased willingness to pay, and less confidence in their attitudes. Although there is evidence in the literature that being authentic The drops in quality perceptions, willingness to pay, and attitude provides benefits to the firm, most, if not all, of these conclusions confidence were fully mediated by participants’ lower perceptions have been drawn from depth interviews or other qualitative work. of brand authenticity. However these results were unique to the What is missing is experimental evidence that perceptions of brand authentic focal brands. The inauthentic brands actually benefited or product authenticity provide other benefits to the firm. Using an from their connection to a large parent corporation. At Time 2, experimental approach, this paper demonstrates that authenticity is perceptions of authenticity, product quality, and willingness to pay a malleable facet of the brand, and provides evidence that consum- increased among the inauthentic brands. ers’ perceptions of a brand’s authenticity affect other brand-related While studies 1a and 1b, and previous work on brand au- cognitions such as quality perceptions and willingness to pay. This thenticity, seem to suggest that increased authenticity is uniformly paper also shows the potentially ironic consequences of fostering positive for the brand, might there be situations where a brand’s authenticity. authenticity could be detrimental? In study 2, we are interested in Although many definitions of authenticity have been offered determining how authentic brands weather brand transgressions, in the literature, this paper will focus on two main sources of au- and if perceptions of the brand following the transgression are thenticity: inherent qualities of the object and consumers’ subjective affected by the type of transgression committed. Although all judgments about the brand. In general, offerings that are natural, transgressions should be detrimental to any brand, we hypothesize handmade, simple and/or based in fact are generally considered that some transgressions will be especially harmful for authentic by consumers to be more authentic (Groves 2001; Boyle 2003; brands. Specifically, we hypothesize that a transgression directly Munoz, Wood and Solomon 2006; Beverland 2005; Potter 2008). related to the basis of an authentic brand’s authenticity will be more Consumers also make subjective judgments about the authenticity damaging for the authentic brand than an equivalent transgression of a product using contextual information such as information about would be for another brand. the brand’s image and its marketing. Summarized in Gilmore and In study 2, participants were given information about an authen- Pine’s (2007) Polonius Test, brands are considered to be authentic tic or inauthentic brand and were then informed that this brand had if they are “true to self” and/or “are what they say they are”. Being committed one of three types of transgressions (moral, generic, or “true to self” means that a brand is perceived as existing because dangerous ingredient). While each transgression should be damag- of the passion of its founder–not simply for monetary gain. On the ing to any brand, we hypothesize that the ingredient transgression other hand, “being what you say you are” means that to be authentic, will be especially damaging to the authentic brand (Burt’s Bees) a company or offering must live up to its own promises–there must because the transgression undermines its authenticity (all-natural be truth in advertising. ingredients). As hypothesized, following the moral and generic While much attention has been given to the importance of transgressions, both the authentic and inauthentic brands’ quality authenticity to the consumer, limited attention has been paid to the perceptions were damaged to a similar degree. However, following benefit (or detriment) being authentic has for the firm. The extant the ingredient transgression, the authentic brand’s quality percep- literature provides some evidence that judgments of authenticity tions were damaged significantly more than the inauthentic brand’s. have the potential to have a direct and indirect impact on consumers’ This drop in quality perceptions was fully mediated by the decrease search for information, consideration set formation and, ultimately, in participants’ perceptions of the authentic brand’s authenticity. choice (Chalmers 2007; Groves 2001). While existing work suggests Drawing on the importance of “being what you say you are” that consumers’ perceptions of authenticity may affect inferences in consumers’ judgments of brand authenticity, we presented three consumers make about the brand, it does not address the types of studies that demonstrate positives and negatives of brand authen- inferences that consumers make. We hypothesize that consumers will ticity. Our findings show that consumers perceive more authentic infer that more authentic brands are also higher in quality, and that brands to be higher in quality and suggest that they may also be they will be willing to pay more for these products. Additionally, to willing to pay more for them. Additionally, consumers’ confidence the extent that consumers believe that authentic products are more in their opinions about brands is directly tied to the extent to which “real” than inauthentic products, we hypothesize that consumers they perceive those brands to be authentic. However, despite these will be more confident in the inferences they make about authentic advantages, we also demonstrated that authenticity can harm the products than inauthentic products. brand if the brand commits a transgression that undermines its In studies 1a and 1b, authenticity was manipulated by inform- authenticity. 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Potter, Andrew (2008), “Can One Be Authentic without Being a Snob?” Maclean’s, 121 (22) Motivated Consumer Innovativeness: Concept, Measurement and Validation Bert Vandecasteele, Lessius University College and Ghent University, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University and Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School, Belgium

Extended Abstract Sharma (2003) into account, we can reduce the pool to 30 items, Since the early seventies, several researchers have tried to and can confirm the 4 MCI factors. These factors prove to possess predict consumers’ innovative buying behavior by means of differ- high internal validity, sufficient discriminant validity, composite ent scales intended to measure innovativeness as a personality trait. reliability, and average variance extracted. Furthermore, the 4-factor However, most previous research disregards the consumer-product correlated model results in an acceptable overall fit and proves to be relation (Gatignon and Robertson 1985; Goldsmith and Flynn 1992) the best model. Moreover, we can prove convergent validity with and ignores the different motivation sources. By constructing a new Roehrich’s (1994) Hedonic and Social Consumer Innovativeness Consumer Innovativeness scale which incorporates a diversity of scale, and discriminant validity with Baumgartner and Steenkamp’s underlying goals and motivations for buying an innovation, we (1996) Exploratory Acquisition of Products scale and Eysenck, take the notion of product-consumer interactions in Consumer In- Eysenck, and Barrett’s (1985) Extraversion scale. novativeness one step further: Consumers differ not only in level We further refine the scale with a new survey including the of innovativeness (i.e., personality trait of consumers) but also in 30 MCI items. Based on similar procedures, we have to remove type of innovativeness (i.e., motivations to buy the innovation). 10 extra items, resulting in the 20 final MCI items. Again, the fit Consumer innovativeness is “the tendency to buy new prod- indices indicate a good model, which outperforms other models. ucts in a particular product category soon after they appear in the In addition, MCI proves to be stable over time, as we can prove market and relatively earlier than most other consumers in the test-retest reliability. Moreover, MCI is not sensitive to social market segment” (Foxall, Goldsmith, and Brown 1998, 41). This desirability bias. personality trait should provide an explanatory basis for innovative Finally, an innovativeness scale also needs to predict innovative buying behavior, however, predictive validity still is problematic consumer behavior in everyday life. We check this with two studies: with the existing innovativeness scales (Im, Bayus, and Mason First, a predictive validity study is set up with fictitious innovations, 2003). By including a wider spectrum of motivations, we are able which are manipulated towards the four innovativeness motivations. to construct an innovativeness scale that performs better both in Moreover, as we add two existing general innovativeness scales to terms of content validity and predictive validity. Moreover, it may the survey, we can verify whether MCI performs better in predicting help marketing researchers and managers to identify and reach the innovative behavior than existing scales. Second, we have another motivated innovative consumer for their innovation more effectively. study with a list of existing innovations. Both studies prove that We base our conceptualization on general motivation, goal and there is a unique relation between each motivation dimension and value taxonomies (Ford and Nichols 1987; Schwartz 1992) and can the attitude, the buying intentions or buying behavior of consumers conclude that at least four motivational dimensions are of importance regarding innovations that satisfy these specific functional, hedonic, for Consumer Innovativeness: (1) Functionally Motivated Consumer social or cognitive needs. Moreover, we prove that MCI predicts Innovativeness (fMCI) is Consumer Innovativeness motivated by the innovation buying behavior better than the traditional Cognitive functional performance of innovations which focus on task manage- and Sensory Innovativeness scale of Venkatraman and Price (1990), ment and accomplishment improvement. (2) Hedonically Motivated and the recently developed Global Consumer Innovativeness scale Consumer Innovativeness (hMCI) is Consumer Innovativeness of Tellis, Yin, and Bell (2009). motivated by an affective or sensory stimulation and gratification. To conclude, this four-dimensional Consumer Innovativeness (3) Socially Motivated Consumer Innovativeness (sMCI) is Con- scale consisting of a hedonic, functional, social, and cognitive di- sumer Innovativeness motivated by the self-assertive social need for mension is useful for several reasons. First, the eight studies show differentiation. And finally, (4) Cognitively Motivated Consumer that the dimensionality, reliability, convergence, discriminant, and Innovativeness (cMCI) is Consumer Innovativeness motivated by predictive validity of MCI prove satisfactory. Second, MCI mea- stimulation of the mind. These four motives often recur in general sures more than existing Consumer Innovativeness scales: (1) MCI consumer behavior literature (Rossiter and Percy 1997; Sweeney not only measures the intensity of Consumer Innovativeness, but and Soutar 2001), innovativeness literature (Arnould 1989; Fisher also its origin. (2) MCI keeps the middle ground between existing and Price 1992; Simonson and Nowlis 2000; Voss, Spangenberg, and general innovativeness scales, which are unimpressive in predicting Grohmann 2003) or different innovativeness scales (Baumgartner innovative buying behavior, and the domain-specific innovativeness and Steenkamp 1996; Roehrich 1994; Venkatraman and Price 1990), of Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991), which is product-specific and however, hardly any innovativeness scale has been developed that thus not very practical, leading to a better performance in terms of includes a wider array of potential consumer motives. predicting innovative behavior. (3) Moreover, MCI disproves the We develop a 20-item 4-dimensional MCI scale based on a general consensus that younger people are more innovative than combination of eight studies (with about 2,600 respondents in total). older people: Older people are as innovative as younger people We start with an item pool of 254 items, based on literature as far as functional innovations are concerned. As most existing review, existing Consumer Innovativeness scales, exploratory inter- innovativeness scales focus on hedonic and social innovativeness, views and an exploratory quantitative study with 279 respondents and older people are less hedonically and socially motivated to buy who had to indicate to what extent 135 human motives (Chulef, innovations, these scales are not able to capture the innovativeness Read, and Walsh 2001) are applicable to the purchase of innovations. of older people. 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(Papers not presented at the conference) Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 653

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(Papers not presented at the conference) Innovation Aesthetics: The Relationship between Category Cues, Categorization Certainty and Newness Perceptions Miranda Goode, University of Western Ontario, Canada Darren W. Dahl, University of British Columbia, Canada C. Page Moreau, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA

Extended Abstract and its independent effect on newness perceptions in response to Research suggests a disconnect between what marketers deem innovative aesthetics. Specifically, we predict that when categoriza- to be new and innovative versus what consumers actually perceive tion certainty is low (high), an aesthetically innovative new product (Gourville 2006). Many factors may contribute to this, however, we will be rated as less (more) new (hypothesis 1). investigate the factor that has significant potential to first attract a When faced with innovative product design, consumers will consumer to a new product, the product’s visual aesthetic design. first seek to identify the new product’s category. Innovative aesthet- Despite the capacity for innovative product design to elevate a ics may make categorization difficult and reliance on all available company’s success in the marketplace, there has been little attempt category cues will be necessary to identify a product’s category to determine how this may influence newness perceptions. It is ac- with certainty. In our attempt to isolate the effect of innovative knowledged that “product newness is a vital selling point,” (Bloch visual aesthetics on newness perceptions, we treat product function 1995) and “widely respected” (Moreau and Dahl 2005), and visual and brand name as additional sources of category information or design is often a central focus of new product managers; yet when cues, as these may be processed in addition to visual aesthetics to considered together, there is limited insight into the factors that un- confirm a product’s categorization. Thus, we anticipate that when derlie their relationship. While research on innovation adoption has additional diagnostic category cues are available, the more certain identified factors that influence consumer preferences, the majority consumers will be in a product’s categorization and the newer they of the studies assume product newness to be objectively perceived will perceive an innovative product. We predict that categorization and appreciated by participants. In contrast, we introduce a unique certainty will mediate the influence of category cues on newness perspective of consumer response to new products by examining perceptions (hypothesis 2). newness perceptions as a dependent variable that is inherently In studies 1 and 2, we manipulated the availability of supple- comparative, highly subjective and dependent on the certainty of mental category cues, during exposure to a new product, to examine underlying categorization processes. By utilizing a categorization how additional category information affects the relation between framework to examine the relationship between innovative visual categorization certainty and newness perceptions. In study 1, the aesthetics and newness, we are also able to provide support for the number of category cues available to participants was manipulated role of categorization certainty, a type of certainty that may account through the presence or absence of a brand name on the product’s for the somewhat surprising subjectivity of newness perceptions. exterior. In study 2, category cue level was manipulated by having The relation between innovative visual aesthetics and newness participants either view a picture of a new product or a video dem- perceptions has not been well defined. There are at least two reasons onstration. Support for both hypotheses was found in studies 1 and for this. First, studies on new products have typically made visual 2. In study 3, we contrasted two products from the same category, product information non-essential in the evaluation of an innova- through a manipulation of design prototypicality, to further dem- tion by not providing product pictures and focusing participants onstrate that innovative visual aesthetics exacerbates the negative explicitly on written descriptions of a product’s non-visual features, effect of categorization uncertainty on newness perceptions. functionality, and benefits (e.g., Alexander et al. 2008; Castano Prior investigations have not defined or isolated the effect of et al., 2008; Hoeffler 2003; Lajos et al. 2009). Second, research categorization certainty on judgements, like newness perceptions, investigating consumer response to design has used products that that occur early in the new product adoption process, nor examined do not deviate visually in any substantial way from typical category the role of visual aesthetics and availability of category cues as members (Cox and Cox 2002; Page and Herr 2002; Veryzer and antecedents to categorization uncertainty. We demonstrate that if Hutchinson 1998). In contrast, our focus is on innovative visual a consumer cannot categorize a new product with certainty, as can aesthetics. When the exterior of a product differs significantly from happen with innovative aesthetic design, a product’s newness is known category members, identifying the product’s category may likely to be underappreciated. Our findings do not imply that product be difficult, uncertain or impossible. With the innovative Roomba designers should be conservative in the visual design of their new vacuum, for example, even if consumers were provided with the products. In fact, Verganti (2006) points out that radical innovations product’s category, uncertainty in the vacuum label may arise be- actually tend to have longer commercial success, higher margins cause its design is drastically different from that of a prototypical and increased consumer receptivity. Rather, our findings suggest vacuum. It is this uncertainty in a new product’s categorization that there is a potential danger in letting consumers self select and that we predict will explain the influence of innovative aesthetics validate a new product’s category membership. Consistent with Ver- on newness perceptions. ganti (2006), our research emphasizes the importance of “preparing We define categorization certainty as the level of confidence an the public” for “ground-breaking products”. When introducing new individual has in their categorization of a product. This parallels a products with innovative visual aesthetics, this preparation should construct in attitude persuasion, thought confidence (Petty, Brinol, come through the careful and deliberate disclosure of a product’s and Tormala 2002). Similar to how thought confidence is proposed category membership. to influence attitudes, we propose that how certain a consumer is in the categorization of a product will influence newness perceptions. REFERENCES The source of categorization uncertainty may vary. For instance, Alexander, D. L., Lynch Jr., J. G., and Wang, Q. (2008). As time Gregan-Paxton et al. (2005) and Lajos et al. (2009) explored goes by: Do cold feet follow warm intentions for really new categorization uncertainty associated with products that possess versus incrementally new products. Journal of Consumer features and functionality from different categories. We build on Research, 45 (June), 307-19. this, by explicitly defining and measuring categorization certainty 654 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 655 Bloch, P. H. (1995). Seeking the ideal form: Product design and consumer response. Journal of Marketing, 59 (July), 16-29. Castano, R., Sujan, M., Kacker, M., and Sujan, H. (2008). Man- aging consumer uncertainty in the adoption of new products: Temporal distance and mental simulation. Journal of Market- ing Research, 45 (3), 320-36. Cox, D. and Cox, A.D. (2002). Beyond First Impressions: The effects of repeated exposure on consumer liking of visually complex and simple product designs. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30 (2), 119-30. Gourville, J. T. (2006). Eager sellers stony buyers: understanding the psychology of new product adoption. Harvard Business Review, 84 (6), 98-106. Gregan-Paxton, J., Hoeffler, S., and Zhao, M. (2005). When categorization is ambiguous: Factors that facilitate the use of a multiple category inference strategy. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15 (2), 127-40. Hoeffler, S. (2003). Measuring preferences for really new prod- ucts. Journal of Marketing Research, 40 (4), 406-20. Lajos, J., Katona, Z., Chattopadhyay, A., and Sarvary, M. (2009). Category activation model: A spreading activation network model of subcategory positioning when uncertainty is high. Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (June). Moreau, C. Page and Darren W. Dahl (2005), “Designing the Solution: The Impact of Constraints on Consumers’ Creativ- ity,” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (June), 13-22. Page, C. and Herr, P. M. (2002). An investigation of the pro- cesses by which product design and brand strength interact to determine initial affect and quality judgments. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12 (2), 133-47. Petty, Richard E., Pablo Brinol, and Zakary L. Tormala (2002), “Thought Confidence as a Determinant of Persuasion: The Self-Validation Hypothesis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (5), 722-41. Verganti, R. (2006). Innovating through design. Harvard Busi- ness Review, 84 (12), 114-22. Veryzer, R. W. JR. and Hutchinson, J. W. (1998). The influence of unity and prototypicality on aesthetic responses to new product designs. Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (March), 374-94. You Get What You Pay for But I Don’t: Effect of Construal Level on The Price-Quality Relationship Dengfeng Yan, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China Jaideep Sengupta, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China

Extended Abstract Consumers’ reliance on price for making quality inferences will Consider the following scenario: you observe that a friend has be enhanced when the judgment is psychologically relatively distant. bought a well-designed, attractive bag for a surprisingly low price. Information relating to product attributes, on the contrary, will be What inference would you draw regarding the quality of that bag: utilized more when the quality judgment is psychologically closer. high quality (because of its attributes such as design and materials) or low quality (because of the low price)? And would your quality Studies inference be any different given a perspective shift–namely, would A series of five experiments provided convergent support for you be more or less inclined to assess quality on the basis of price these predictions. The first three experiments used the “self” vs. if it were a bag you had bought yourself? Alternately, suppose “other” interpersonal dimension to operationalize psychological you were evaluating the quality of a product for immediate use distance. as compared to future use–when would you give greater weight The first study looked exclusively at the influence of price on to the product’s price, as opposed to its attributes, when forming quality judgments. Participants were asked to predict the quality of your judgment of quality? a series of products whose prices (high vs. low) were given; they In seeking to answer questions such as the above, this paper were told either that the purchase had been made by themselves addresses the key issue of how consumers form inferences regarding (“self” condition, representing low psychological distance) or by product quality; and in particular, the extent to which they base these others (“other” condition, representing high psychological distance). inferences on price as opposed to product attributes. The current Experiment 2 assessed quality inferences after manipulating both research builds on construal level theory (Trope, Liberman, and price and the favorability of product attributes. Specifically, we asked Wakslak 2007) to propose a key contingency as to when the influence participants to judge the tastiness of a dish of fried rice, on the basis of price on quality perceptions may be diminished or enhanced. The of two cues: its price, and its physical attractiveness. In Experiment central idea is that price has greater impact on consumers’ quality 3, we sought to replicate the previous findings obtained on quality judgments of psychologically distant vs. nearer purchases, with the assessments (Experiments 1 and 2) using a selection paradigm. reverse being true for the impact of product attributes. The concept Instead of simply being asked to make a quality judgment based of psychological distance subsumes several dimensions, such as on information about a single product, participants were asked to interpersonal distance (e.g., whether an inference is drawn on the indicate which of two yogurts was tastier: one that was expensive basis of one’s own or another’s behavior) and temporal distance and had an unattractive package, while the other was presented (whether an inference has to do with the immediate or distant as being cheap but attractive. Experiment 4 then operationalized future). Thus, invoking construal level theory allows us to provide psychological distance through a different (temporal) dimension. a unified answer to the seemingly disparate questions raised in the Finally, experiment 5 provided strong support for the posited opening paragraph as to how price may influence quality percep- mechanism by directly manipulating construal level. In line with tions in different scenarios. our hypotheses, and across different product categories, results across from all of these studies showed that participants relied Theoretical Background more on price than on product attributes when predicting product Findings from the construal theory literature suggest that quality from an “other” vs. a “self” perspective; in contrast, the abstract information, compared with concrete information, tends to weight accorded to product attributes followed the reverse pattern. exert more impact on representations and judgments of psychologi- It is noteworthy that convergent support for our predictions was cally distant events, while the reverse holds when the focal judgment obtained across a variety of product categories, different dependent is about psychologically near events (e.g., Liberman and Trope variables (single-option quality judgments as well as the choice 2000). We argue that this premise contains direct implications for paradigm used in experiment 3), pre- and post purchase scenarios, how quality inferences are formed in different situations. Compared and several different manipulations of construal level, including two to specific, concrete product attributes, price can be thought of as a different dimensions of psychological distance (interpersonal and more abstract, general cue, especially with regard to its implications temporal) as well as the direct manipulation used in experiment 5. for quality. One reason for the relatively more abstract nature of the price cue has to do with it being a universal component for practi- cally all products; thus, the price-quality heuristic itself represents a generalized abstraction of a consumer’s many observations and experiences. In contrast, the diagnosticity of attributes is usually specific to different product categories (e.g., hard disk capacity can be used to infer computer quality, but is inapplicable to judg- ments about cars; on the other hand, the physical attractiveness of the packaging is often used for quality judgments of food items, but less so for computers). Indeed, the idea that the price-quality belief is an abstract “theory” while product attributes are more concrete “data” has been widely adopted in previous consumer research (Baumgartner 1995; Broniarczyk and Alba 1994). In light of this distinction, and given the preceding arguments arising from construal level theory, it follows that:

656 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 How Does Construal Level Influence Donations to Individuals and Organizations Danit Ein-Gar, Tel-Aviv University, Israel Liat Levontin, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Israel

Extended Abstract The current research explores the interacting effect of in- STUDY 2 dividuals’ construal level and the donation target (i.e., person or In Study 2 we investigated that the fit between level of con- organization) on willingness to donate time and money. strual and the campaign message’s personalization level increases According to findings from research on construal level (CLT, participants’ willingness to donate time. Trope & Liberman 2003), individuals’ cognitive mindset influences One hundred and twenty two participants were randomly the way they process information and, as a result, their preferences assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (construal level) x 2 and behaviors. It is argued that psychologically proximal events are (personalization) design. mentally represented via low level construal, while psychologically Personalization: Participants were either asked to help an distant events are mentally represented through high level construal immigrant settle-in (personal) or to help at an absorption center (e.g. Trope & Liberman 2003; Chandran & Menon 2004; Bar-Anan, (non-personal). Liberman & Trope 2006; Trope, Liberman & Wakslak 2007). Construal level: Participants were either told that the campaign We suggest that a donation campaign may be processed dif- focuses on helping immigrant students (low level), or that it focuses ferently depending on its psychological distance from the audience. on helping elderly immigrants (high level). For example, a campaign calling for immediate donations is more Finally, participants were asked how many hours they were likely to be processed with a low level of construal while a campaign willing to give per month and how many months they would be that is expected to be launched in the future is more likely to be willing to volunteer as well as report their expectancy and campaign processed with high level construal due to the differences in time importance. distance. Also, a campaign for poor elderly people launched at a As expected, under low construal participants were more university campus is more likely to be processed by students via a willing to contribute time when the message was personalized. high level of construal while a campaign for students in financial Conversely, under high construal participants were more willing need is more likely to be processed via low level construal due to to donate time when the message was non-personalized (Hours: differences in social distance. F(1,118)=5.16, p<.05; Months: F(1,118)=4.27, p<.05). We hypothesize that individuals led to adopt a low-level Furthermore, replicating the results of Study 1, the cross over construal mindset will be more willing to donate to a specific, interaction was found significant for both expectancy (F (1,118)=6.17, rather than general, donation target. A campaign focused on a p<.05) and value (F (1,118)=3.92, p =.05) specific donation target, that is, on a particular individual in need, fits with low level construal representation because it focuses on STUDY specific categories, details and context-dependent information. On Time and money are processed differently (Zauberman and the other hand, individuals led to adopt a high construal mindset Lynch 2005, Malkoc and Zauberman 2006; Liu and Aaker 2008). will be more inclined to donate to a general, rather than personal, Specifically, when thinking about time, compared to money, people donation target. That is so because a campaign focused on a general are more susceptible to biases in decision-making. The current study donation target, such as a charitable organization, fits with high seeks to demonstrate that the fit effect also occurs in willingness level construal processing, as it focuses on broader categorization, to donate money. general descriptions, and de-contextualized information. Three hundred and fifty eight participants were randomly assigned to one of six conditions in a 2 (construal level) x 2 (per- STUDY 1 sonalization) x 2 (gender) design. Expectancy and value are two components of the motivational Personalization: Participants were either asked to help a person force (Vroom, 1964). Thus, donations are based on the expectancy injured in a car accident (personal) or to assist in the department for that a campaign will be successful and on the value of the campaign. rehabilitating individuals injured in car accidents (non-personal). We suggest that the fit between level of construal and the campaign Construal level: When a potential donor’s gender is congruent message’s personalization level increases both expectancy and value. with the target’s gender, information will be processed more with One hundred and thirty two participants were randomly as- low level construal due to high psychological proximity than when signed to one of four conditions in a 2 (construal level) x 2 (per- gender is incongruent. Therefore, participants’ gender was coded. sonalization) design. Match conditions (e.g. male participant and male target) were coded Personalization: Participants were either asked to help an under- as the low level condition while discordant conditions were coded privileged boy (personal) or to assist under-privileged children who as the high level condition. stay in care centers (non-personal) with their school assignments. Finally, participants were asked how much money they were Construal level: Participants were either told that the campaign willing to donate. was expected to be launched in the next month (low level) or at the As expected, a three-way interaction was found (F (1,350)=4.64, beginning of the next year (high level). p<.05). Men were willing to donate more money to injured men in As expected, two-way interactions were found such that in the the low construal condition when the message was personalized. low construal condition, participants indicated a higher expectancy When the message was not personalized, men were willing to donate that the campaign would be successful and assigned more importance more money to injured women under the high construal condition. to it when the message was personalized. Conversely, in the high The same effect was found for women. construal condition, participants demonstrated higher expectancy and attributed more importance to the campaign when the message was non-personalized (Expectancy: F (1,128)=3.23, p=.05; Value: F

(1,128)=4.33, p<.05). 657 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 658 / How Does Construal Level Influence Donations to Individuals and Organizations REFERENCES Bar-Anan, Y., Liberman, N. & Trope, Y. (2006). The Associa- tion Between Psychological Distance and Construal Level: Evidence From an Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135, 609-622. Chandran, S. & Menon G. (2004). When a day means more than a year: Effects of temporal framing on judgments of health risk. Journal of consumer research, 31, Liu, W. & Aaker, J. (2008). The Happiness of Giving: The Time- Ask Effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 543-557. Malkoc, S. & Zauberman, G. (2006). Deferring versus Expe- diting Consumption: The Effect of Outcome Concreteness on Sensitivity of the Time Horizon. Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (November), 618–27. Trope, Y. & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal Construal. Psycho- logical Review, 110(3), 403–421. Trope, Y., Liberman, N. & Wakslak, C. (2007). Construal Levels and Psychological Distance: Effects on Representation, Prediction, Evaluation, and Behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology 17(2), 83–95. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: Wiley. Wakslak, C. & Trope, Y. (2009). The Effect of Construal Level on Subjective Probability Estimates. Psychological Science, 20( 1), 52-58. Zauberman, G. & Lynch, J.G. (2005). Resource Slack and Propensity to Discount Delayed Investments of Time Versus Money. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 23-37. Socially Conscious Consumption and Civic Engagement: Mobilizing Collective Concern through Private Interest Lucy Atkinson, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Extended Abstract such, although the researcher relied on a brief interview guide, the Consumer culture is often criticized for the deleterious effects interviews were allowed to develop freely and naturally. it is assumed to have on civic connectedness and concern for the The results here expand on Soper’s framework by offering an social good. The rising trend of socially conscious consumption, explanation of the process behind the self-interested attention to the such as buying fair-trade products, offers a challenge to this view wider social good. Specifically, it is proposed that consumers engage of consumer behavior. However, little research exists empirically in a process of making pleasurable compromises and trade offs. testing the relationship between socially conscious consumption Socially conscious consumers reap a number of benefits (beyond and civic and political engagement. The modest amount of research the simple acquisition of material goods or services) by engaging that does explore these connections is largely conceptual and as- in prosocial consumption. Across each informant interview, four sumes a negative relationship, with consumer preferences winning particular and interrelated themes emerged: socially conscious out over civic ones. consumption as authentic, as socially embedding, as empowering The research outlined here challenges these shortcomings. and as self-actualizing. For each of the socially conscious consum- Using a series of depth interviews, I demonstrate that pro-social ers interviewed, the reasons behind certain consumer choices were consumer orientations can have a positive influence on civic and clearly energized by personal concerns, such as family health. And political engagement. Accepted wisdom among critics of consumer- while broader social concerns–such as the environment, animal motivated civic involvement holds that this consumer orientation rights–played into their consumption calculus, individuals did not fosters individualism and self-interest at the expense of a collective differentiate between these different collective concerns nor did focus, and that it redirects civic action away from the political realm they prioritize one over the other. These collective benefits were to the corporate arena. The concern is that politically motivated con- thought of as a package and working toward them was part and sumers will be civic-minded only to the degree that their own issues parcel of enacting their own self-interest. This self-interest was can be resolved and will avoid collective action at resolving more tempered through a process of compromises and trade offs that generalized societal issues. The data, which were collected using were rationalized as enjoyable and pleasurable. an existential-phenomenological approach, suggest such fears may Each informant noted how their consumption choices entailed be overstated. Among socially conscious consumers, marketplace a degree of effort and sacrifice, but these sacrifices were made behaviors offer a viable and meaningful springboard to political willingly. Rather than focus on the cost, both literal and figurative engagement. It is by attending to private, individual concerns that of leading a socially conscious consumption lifestyle, the infor- consumers address moral and ethical issues at the collective level. mants concentrated on the enjoyment such compromises brought. Socially conscious consumption taps into and encourages a kind of By reframing the extra effort as a source of potential pleasure to enlightened self-interest whereby concern for the self, as expressed another possible benefit, the informants were able to reconcile the through consumption, breeds concern for the collective. burdensome side of prosocial consumption with the self-interested, This study draws on Soper’s (2008) notion of the alterna- private motivations that underpinned it. tive hedonist to understand how socially conscious consumers Work by Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) offers insight into relate their private consumer practices to their public citizenship how consumers might transform consumption costs into benefits. practices. It relies on a series of depth interviews with socially Hirschman and Holbrook argue that commodities should not conscious consumers aimed at understanding the meanings they be thought of simply in terms of their utilitarian or functional ascribe to their consumer choices. These meanings are uncovered attributes–as object entities–but as subjective symbols. Consum- through existential-phenomenological interviewing and hermeneutic ers engage in hedonic consumption when they impart subjective analysis (Craig J. Thompson, 1997; Craig J. Thompson, Locander, meanings to objects and incorporate emotion into their consumer & Pollio, 1989). practices. This emotional aspect muddies the simple cost-benefit To explore the consumption as politics thesis, a group of white, analysis that rationalizing consumers are assumed to make but also middle-class, college-educated consumers who self-identify as explains why consumers will make decisions that are not always socially conscious were interviewed using the E-P approach about the easiest or most cost effective. their consumer practices and motivations. Literature about socially Instead of focusing on the problematic aspect of the consump- conscious consumption indicates that socially conscious consumers tion act (“the store is difficult to get to” or “I can’t eat strawberries tend to be middle class, well-educated and white, as they are the in January”), the informants emphasized the potential joy (“the individuals likely to have both the means and the opportunity to store delights my senses” or “depriving myself of strawberries engage in socially conscious consumption. makes them taste that much sweeter when I can eat them”). One Informants were recruited from a small Midwestern city in two informant underscores this mental readjustment when she says: phases: first, through the researcher’s extended social network and “We don’t feel like we’re sacrificing anything really. It’s all a gain.” second, through these informants’ social networks. In total, eight By understanding the informants’ consumption practices through informants were interviewed over the course of two months in spring an “alternative hedonist” lens it is possible to understand how 2009. Although all informants were white and middle class, they socially conscious consumers privilege their private desires while represent a relatively diverse group in terms of ages, occupations, also benefiting the collective good. genders and family structure. Six of the interviews took place in the informants’ home, one took place in the researcher’s home and References one took place in a coffee shop. They were all semi-structured and Atkinson, L. (2009). Politics by other means: Marketing, lasted between 35 and 85 minutes, yielding 80 pages of transcribed consumption and engagement. Unpublished Dissertation, interview notes. The interview format was informed by the E-P ap- University of Wisconsin—Madison Madison. proach advocated by Thompson, Locander and Pollio (1989). As 659 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 660 / Socially Conscious Consumption and Civic Engagement: Mobilizing Collective Concern through Private Interest Barnett, C., Cafaro, P., & Newholm, T. (2005). Philosophy and ethical consumption. In R. Harrison, T. Newholm & D. Shaw (Eds.), The Ethical Consumer (pp. 11-24). London: Sage. Brooker, G. (1976). The Self-Actualizing Socially Conscious Consumer. The Journal of Consumer Research, 3(2), 107- 112. Brunori, G. (2007). Local food and alternative food networks: a communication perspective. [article]. Anthropology of Food(6), 430. Cafaro, P. (2001). Economic Consumption, Pleasure, and the Good Life. Journal of Social Philosophy, 32(4), 471-486. Hirschman, E. C., & Holbrook, M. B. (1982). Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts, Methods and Propositions. The Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101. Kozinets, R. V., & Handelman, J. (1998). Ensouling Consumption: A Netnographic Exploration of The Meaning of Boycotting Behavior. Paper presented at the Advances in Consumer Research, Provo: UT. Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a Pyschology of Being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Moore, O. (2006). Understanding postorganic fresh fruit and vegetable consumers at participatory farmersâ?™ markets in Ireland: reflexivity, trust and social movements. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(5), 416-426. Sassatelli, R. (2006). Virtue, Responsibility and Consumer Choice: Framing Critical Consumerism. In J. Brewer & F. Trentmann (Eds.), Consuming Cultures, Global Perspectives: Historical Trajectories, Transnational Exchanges. Oxford: Berg. Soper, K. (2007). Re-thinking the ‘Good Life’: The citizenship dimension of consumer disaffection with consumerism. Journal of Consumer Culture, 7(2), 205-229. Soper, K. (2008). ALTERNATIVE HEDONISM, CULTURAL THEORY AND THE ROLE OF AESTHETIC REVISIONING. Cultural Studies, 22(5), 567-587. Thompson, C. J. (1997). Interpreting consumers: A hermeneutical framework for deriving marketing insights from the texts of consumers’ consumption stories. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(4), 438. Thompson, C. J. (2007). A Carnivalesque Approach to the Politics of Consumption (or) Grotesque Realism and the Analytics of the Excretory Economy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 611(1), 112-125. Thompson, C. J., Locander, W. B., & Pollio, H. R. (1989). Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existential-Phenomenology. The Journal of Consumer Research, 16(2), 133-146. Zavestoski, S. (2002). The Social-Psychological Bases of Anticonsumption Attitudes. Psychology & Marketing, 19(2), 149-165. Fabricating “Green” Meaning: An Empirical Examination of the Role of Indexical and Iconic Cues to Authenticity Douglas Ewing, University of Cincinnati, USA Chris Allen, University of Cincinnati, USA Randall Ewing, Ohio Northern University, USA

Extended Abstract The indexical cue manipulation took the form of recognizable labels Extant consumer concerning authenticity has imbued the or co-brands intended to verify the target quality of “green.” The literature with numerous definitions and conceptualizations of iconic cue manipulation comprised elementary information about authenticity but little in the way of theory about its antecedent/ such features as product composition or usable life to signal the consequent processes (cf. Leigh, Peters, and Shelton 2006). The target quality of “green.” The product type manipulation took the present research attempts to bring authenticity into the lab and form of consumables versus durables. Each participant evaluated pursue the phenomenon in a unique way. We draw on research in 4 consumable brands (2 laundry detergents and 2 batteries) and 4 semiotics (e.g. Grayson and Martinec 2004; Hoshino 1987; Mick durable brands (2 desktop computers and 2 car tires). 1986, 1998) and test explicit hypotheses about how indexical Participants reported their brand attitudes and beliefs via a and iconic cues influence judgments about brands in a context of 7-point semantic differential scale. Attitude items were favorable/ “green” consumption. unfavorable, pleasant/unpleasant, and good/bad. The belief items of Indexical cues are attributes of an object that provide a spatio- primary interest were green/not green, thrifty/wasteful, and natural/ temporal and/or verifiable link to a reference point (Grayson and artificial. Additional items belief items were collected to make Martinec 2004). Their presence provides overarching validation that memory-based comparison more difficult. The dependent variables a consumption object has the appropriate characteristics and abilities retained for subsequent analyses were attitude and green-belief for to bear a “green” meaning. Assuming that individuals recognize the each brand represented by a mean-centered sum of respective items. connection suggested by a “green” indexical cue, they will be more The data were analyzed with linear mixed models using maximum likely to judge an object as having an authentic “green” meaning likelihood estimation to account for potential non-independence leading to increased beliefs that it is “green,” thus yielding more across ratings. favorable attitudes (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975; Lutz 1977). Results indicate that indexical cues and iconic cues had sig- Iconic cues are qualities that suggest “schematic fit” with ex- nificant effects on green beliefs. Participants had more favorable pectations for an authentic object but lack an externally-verifiable green beliefs and attitudes when indexical and iconic cues signaled reference point or “correspondence of fact” (Mick 1986). These a “green” quality. Indexical cues were stronger than iconic cues cues emphasize general congruence with a consumer’s idiosyncratic, in affecting green beliefs but not brand attitude. In addition to the internal frame of reference (Grayson and Martinec 2004; Leigh et cue types alone, results suggested that changes in green beliefs and al. 2006). Provided an individual has some expectations, he/she attitudes towards durables were less sensitive to indexical cues and should judge an object as more authentic to the extent that there iconic cues than were consumables. A mediation analysis indicated is matching between expected and observed iconic cues. As with that green beliefs fully mediated the effect of indexical cues and indexical cues, this should have positive effects on both “green” partially mediated the effect of iconic cues on brand attitude. beliefs and brand attitudes. However, given the straightforward Overall, indexical cues had a more robust effect on green beliefs meaning validation provided by a singular indexical cue, it seems and attitudes and that these effects of both cue types are stronger plausible that these stronger cues will have a greater effect on upon consumables versus durables. Furthermore, the effectiveness of beliefs and attitudes. these semiotic cues varies according to a basic durable/non-durable The efficacy of both indexical and iconic cues is likely to distinction among products and green beliefs fully or partially vary according to relevant characteristics of their associated prod- mediate the effects of indexical and iconic cues manipulations on uct. One very basic product quality is whether it is an infrequently brand attitudes. Hence, it can be said that indexical cues and to a purchased durable or a more frequently purchased non-durable. lesser extent iconic cues activate spontaneous inferences that mani- Durable goods tend to have more features and be larger purchases fest as new beliefs and corresponding brand attitudes. In addition, in terms of cost, both of which may incline consumers to desire the pattern of results generally in line with predictions provides more information and engage in a more extended search (e.g. Brucks evidence that iconic versus indexical cues can be systematically 1985). Thus, it is conceivable the information provided indexical manipulated to affect authenticity judgments. Taken together, the and iconic cues will be less effective for a durable versus a non- results provide evidence supporting a meaning validation process durable. as the basis of authenticity judgments. Beyond predicted effects of indexical and iconic cues and This research conceptualizes authenticity judgments in famil- a differential effect between durable and non-durable goods, a iar terms for consumer researchers; that is, as a process involving general assertion of this conceptualization is that semiotic cues spontaneous inferences about specific brand beliefs that then effect enable a consumer to validate a “green” product meaning. This brand attitudes. Viewed this way, it is possible to bring authenticity “green” meaning should lead to specific beliefs about a product as phenomena into the laboratory and construct a nomological network well as more positive attitudes. Hence, the effect of the indexical to guide theory building. This research represents a first step on that and iconic cues on brand attitude likely operates through brand path. Supplementing extant, interpretive research on authenticity beliefs (Ajzen 2008). with disciplined theory building represents a meaningful opportunity These general predictions were tested in a 2 (Indexical Cue: to inform the debate in a substantive domain where there is broad Green/Non-Green) x 2 (Iconic Cue: Green/Non-Green) x 2 (Prod- researcher and practitioner interest. uct Type: Consumable/Durable) within-subjects design (n=140). Participants evaluated 8 durable or non-durable brands based on visuals and text information embodying indexical and iconic cues. 661 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 662 / Fabricating “Green” Meaning: An Empirical Examination of the Role of Indexical and Iconic Cues to Authenticity References Kleine, Robert E., III and Jerome B. Kernan (1991), “Contextual Ajzen, Icek (2008), “Consumer Attitudes and Behavior,” in Influences on the Meanings Ascribed to Ordinary Consump- Handbook of Consumer Psychology, ed. Curtis P. 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Extended Abstract by exposure to addictive cues (Due et al. 2002; Tapert et al. 2003). Advertising is a ubiquitous and pervasive environmental However, research on the uptake of addictive products by new users cue. The average consumer, for example, is exposed on average points to evidence that addictive product cues, such as advertising, to three thousand ads per day (Schwartz 2004). Under normal do indeed have an effect on non-users (Altman et al. 1996; Pierce circumstances, consumers choose which advertising cues to attend et al. 1991). Thus there remains a debate in the literature as to to both consciously and non-consciously (Bargh 2002; Grunert whether advertising enhances or attenuates the craving response 1996). However for consumers, environmental cues may elicit in users and how it ultimately affects non-users. a unique type of response affecting decision making and driving This brain imaging data indicates neural activation of brain behavior (Bernheim and Rangel 2004). The aim of this research regions that are related to craving and self-control in smokers and is to explore how environmental cues affect addictive product us- non-smokers. For example, there is differential activation in regions ers and non-users using the brain imaging technique developed in associated with craving including the amygdala and the thalamus. neuroscience functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) for Regions associated with self-control including the dorsolateral cue-exposed users and non-users. prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex are also differentially A great deal of debate, both in the literature and among ad- activated with significant deactivation in smokers exposed to cigarette vertisers and public policy makers, centers on how environmental ads. The results show significant differential activation for non-users cues influence people to engage in risky and addictive behaviors when exposed to addictive ad cues versus non-addictive ad cues. In (Pollay 1986; Pollay et al. 1996a). Marketers and manufacturers addition, the results show a different effect when users are exposed argue that advertising and promotional materials offer consumers to addictive ad cues versus non-addictive ad cues. They demonstrate brand options and information that enhance the consumer’s ability to that a cue reactivity response elicits significant activation in brain make choices (Gilly and Graham 1988; Goldberg et al. 2006), while regions associated with craving in both non-users and users. There researchers and public health officials argue that there is a strong is also significant activation in regions associated with cognitive correlation between detrimental behavior and exposure to market- resource depletion for non-users as a result of the increased craving ing for addictive products (Pollay 1986; Pollay et al. 1996b). There activation. This may be due to the fact that non-users underestimate remain unanswered questions regarding how users and non-users the effect of this type of advertising, assuming that because they respond to this type of stimulus. In addition, there are conflicting do not smoke, there ads are not targeted directly to them. However, indications of how craving elicited by cues impacts cognitive pro- because these non-users have not built up the ability to resist the cessing, including cognitive depletion leading to impulsivity outside tempting urge response generated by the addictive product ads, brain the addictive substance domain. Given the ongoing debate there is regions necessary in order to resist the temptations are activated. a need for a better understanding of the underlying psychological Interestingly there is significant deactivation in brain regions of users and physiological mechanisms that drive the reactive response to associated with self-control indicating inhibition of the cognitive advertising cues by users and non-users. resource depletion possibly as a way for users to cope with stimuli The research question addressed in this research is whether that they feel is targeting towards them and an urge response for environmental cues–namely cigarette advertising–cause a reactive which they feel they cannot satisfy at that moment. response in the form of increased craving in users or non-users resulting in downstream impulsive behavior as a result of cognitive REFERENCES resource depletion. The study uses functional magnetic resonance Altman, D. G., D. W. Levine, R. Coeytaux, J. Slade, and R. 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Extended Abstract were expected to eat more than those in the control condition. In A wide variety of consumer judgments, decisions, and behaviors contrast, since trait primes influence self-perception, they should occur automatically, or without conscious awareness or intention have a greater effect on high self-monitors than on low self-monitors. (Bargh 2002, 2007; Dijksterhuis 2010; Dijksterhuis, Smith, Van As a result, we predicted that the level of self-monitoring would Baaren, & Wigboldus, 2005; Wyer 2008). Many different situational moderate the eating behavior of those in the subliminal trait prime cues prime or activate consumer goals and traits in a nonconscious condition in such a way that high self-monitors would eat more manner. Our research contributes to the understanding of prime-to- than low self-monitors. behavior effects by: (a) investigating the influence of subliminal goal All participants were asked not to eat anything and not to drink primes and trait primes, (b) demonstrating that subliminal goal and anything but tea, coffee, or water for at least 3 hours prior to the trait prime-to-behavior effects are influenced by different moderat- study. The subliminal primes (goal, trait, or neutral) were imbedded ing variables, and (c) investigating the influence of subliminal goal in a lexical decision task (LDT). Following the LDT, participants primes and trait primes related to money. were asked to perform a taste test in which they evaluated two types Prior research on subliminal priming has demonstrated that of candy. They were instructed to eat as much as they wanted in subliminal goal primes are influential only when the goal is already order to comparatively evaluate the two types of candy. Following active (e.g., Strahan, Spencer, and Zanna 2002). Theoretically, how- the taste test, participants completed the 18-item Self-Monitoring ever, the influence of subliminal trait primes on behavior should not Scale (Snyder and Gangestad 1986) and performed a subliminality depend on goal activation. Instead, the Active-Self model suggests check to insure the integrity of the priming manipulation that the influence of trait primes on behavior should depend on the The primary dependent variable was the amount of candy eaten extent to which these primes alter self-perceptions via selective by the participants during the taste test. To test our hypotheses, we processing of self-relevant information or on the extent to which submitted this measure to a hierarchical regression analysis using these primes expand the self-concept (Wheeler, DeMarree, and the prime conditions, the self-monitoring score, and their interac- Petty 2007). Both of these processes are influenced by individual tions as predictors. As expected, the presence of both goal and differences in self-monitoring, or the extent to which consumers trait primes had a significant positive main effect on the amount of attempt to control their behavior to influence the impressions that candies eaten. Further, the interactions revealed that participants in others form of them (Snyder 1974). High self-monitors adapt their the trait prime condition ate more candies as self-monitor scores behaviors to their social environments, whereas low self-monitors increased. Self-monitoring had no influence on participants in the behave consistently across situations. goal prime condition. Although prior research has shown that trait prime-to-behavior Study 2 was designed to replicate that effect from study 1 as effects are often greater for low self-monitors than for high self- well as demonstrate that goal primes but not trait primes depend monitors (DeMarree, Wheeler, and Petty 2005), Wheeler et al. on whether the goal is already active at the time of priming. The (2007) suggest that trait primes should have a greater influence on primary difference in the procedure between study 1 and study high self-monitors when social norms are invoked or when ought 2 was the addition of a cookie taste test to manipulate satiation. primes are activated. In addition, because the attitudes of high self- Participants in the satiated condition performed the cookie taste test monitors frequently serve the social-adjustive function (Lavine and at the beginning of the study before the LDT and candy taste test. Snyder 2000), trait primes pertaining to the social-adjustive function Participants in the hungry condition performed the cookie taste test should have a greater influence on high than on low self-monitors. after the LDT and candy taste test. Money frequently serves a social-adjustive function because money Consistent with study 1, participants in the trait prime can be used to impress others (a self-presentational strategy) or to condition ate more candies as self-monitor score increased, but attain goals without assistance from others (the self-sufficiency self-monitoring had no effect on participants in the goal prime principle; Vohs, Mead, and Goode 2006). Further, a strong associa- condition. Also, consistent with our predictions, participants in the tion between money and consumption behavior has been illustrated goal prime condition ate more candies when they were hungry than in prior research. Briers et al. (2006) demonstrated that money when they were satiated, but satiation had no effect on participants related-supraliminal primes increased the consumption of candies. in the trait prime condition. In two experiments, we show that subliminal priming of goals Both these experiments contribute to the existing literature and traits influence consumption behavior in goal-consistent and by providing further support for the strong cognitive link between trait-consistent ways. Subliminal goal primes were influential only money and consumption, extending prior findings from supraliminal when a relevant goal was already active, regardless of individual priming to subliminal priming, and demonstrating that trait and goal differences in self-monitoring. Conversely, subliminal trait primes primes operate under different boundary conditions. were more influential when self-monitoring is high rather than low, regardless of the level of goal activation. 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Extended Abstract experiences of perceived manipulation by editorial support. Such In public relations and marketing, positive media articles about “tacit” knowledge about manipulative or covert ad strategies can companies or brands are considered to be “gold standard”. Yet, work as a readily available quick heuristic that could alert consum- other than what has been learned from anecdotal evidence, little is ers to intended manipulation. MacKenzie and Lutz (1989) pointed known about their success with consumers. In two experimental to the fact that, in low-involvement situations, an attitude can be studies we thus focus on two critical questions: shaped not only by the features offered but also by the advertising

Does coupling positive news stories with advertisements context. However, we focus first on BrandA since we are interested leverage ad memory and attitudes toward the advertised brand? in natural exposure situations in which AAd may not be the best Could coupling advertisements and editorial content actually indicator of immediate ad effectiveness (Coulter and Punj 1999). backfire and damage brand and/or media brand image? Weighing all arguments, we find stronger theoretical bases for a negative effect of couplings: Research on Effects of Editorial Content on Brands in Con- sumer Research H2: If a positive news story about a brand appears in the same Positive news stories about companies or brands are often medium as an advertisement for the brand, consumers’ attitudes deemed to be more effective in influencing attitudes than adver- toward the brand will be more negative than if the news story tisements (Jo 2004; Putrevu 2005; Çelebi 2007). This has been were to stand alone. explained by the higher credibility of editorial content due to a lack of “manipulative intent” (Hallahan 1999). Only a few stud- The Persistence of Editorial Support Effects Over Time ies deal explicitly with ads and editorial content about a brand in Most studies on persistence of attitudes are based on the the same medium. Loda and Coleman (2005) and Micu (2005) sleeper effect, positing that negative evaluations caused by the tested whether sequencing of the same message presented either message source (in our case, the coupling of ad and news story) as an ad or as news has an impact on persuasion. Both established can phase out over time. However, two critical conditions for such mildly positive effects of supporting ads with positive news stories. an effect are not met here: the discounting cue “editorial support”, However, the studies lacked realistic contexts and relied solely from which consumers could gather possible vested interests, is on forced exposure procedures in which subjects were asked to not conveyed beforehand, and the ability or motivation to think examine the stimulus material closely and didn’t have the chance about the message and its context is usually low in standard media to avoid exposure altogether. exposure situations. In such low-involvement situations, a second contact with the brand by way of supportive editorial support (e.g., Repetition and “Memory Trace Refreshment” Effects on in the course of a second survey), which was evaluated negatively Brand Recall after the first contact, could even trigger a reinstatement effect From the perspective of memory research, coupling means which could intensify the negative affective reaction to the ad itself repeating a brand message. Information that is perceived successively and to the brand. Thus: from two different sources (ad and news), and thus in two different contexts, leaves more “memory traces” to facilitate retrieval than H3: If a positive news story about a brand appears in the same information presented in only one context. Thus: medium as an advertisement for the brand, after two weeks, consumers’ attitudes toward the brand and to the ad will be H1: If a positive editorial report about a brand appears in the more negative than if the news story were to stand alone. same medium as an advertisement for the brand (“article/ advertisement coupling”), consumers’ recall of the brand will The Problem of Realistic Experimental Designs in Advertising be higher than if the editorial report were to appear alone. Research Experimental designs in advertising and media research dif-

Effects of Supporting Ads with News Stories on ABrand fer from natural settings in two ways. In the first place, the stimuli The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure often lack realistic contexts. Secondly, the typical paradigm in ex- should lead to a more positive attitude toward the object (Zajonc perimental advertising effectiveness research uses forced exposure, 1968). Familiarity of the message is increased by repetition in both and this creates a risk that consumers start hypothesis-guessing ad and news story, and coupling multiple sources leads to a “truth and potentially adapt their behavior accordingly. Forced exposure effect” (Roggeveen and Johar 2002). Based on these theories, a provides no opportunity for non-selection of the medium, thus ruling positive effect on ABrand could be hypothesized. out ad avoidance and making ad and ad context processing gener- Expecting a positive effect is based on the assumption that ally more likely than in biotic media contact situations (Schuman consumers do not notice the connection between a news story and and Thorson 1990). Consequently, in a pretest, we tested for the an ad at all (due to typical low-involvement situations). If consum- effects of exposure in experimental research on editorial support ers do consciously notice the connection, or if they just feel that by comparing forced exposure with quasi-biotic exposure (where there might be manipulative intent behind the editorial support, a consumers know that they take part in a study but they are not negative effect can be hypothesized. Friestad and Wright (1994; informed that the stimuli are part of the design). 1995) posited that consumers possess knowledge about persuasion strategies used in advertising. The use of such knowledge typically Key Findings requires cognitive processing of messages. However, even when Our two studies show that news stories consistently do not consumers are not willing or able to elaborate on persuasive mes- improve the impact of ads on brand image. On the contrary, over sages, it is possible that they would unconsciously draw on former time, the image of ABrand deteriorates due to the coupling, and H3 669 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 670 / Revealing an Advertising Myth: How Supportive is Editorial Support? finds support. When consumers’ active involvement with the medium is low, ABrand deteriorates if the ad receives editorial support (H2 is supported). Thus, we presume to have observed a peripheral or heuristic process to be at work. In both studies we found a positive effect of coupling ad and news story on recall, thus confirming H1. However, the second study shows that this result can also be achieved by adding a reminder spot to a commercial break, because familiarity seems to be the reason for the improved recall rather than a multiple source effect. From a methodological perspective, the forced exposure designs commonly used in advertising research run the risk of exaggerating positive evaluations of ABrand. On the other hand, forced exposure experiments tend to downplay the memory effects. Market Scarcity and Persuasion: An Information Congruity Perspective Feng Shen, Saint Joseph’s University, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT because a connection between the ad and the advertised category is In advertising theory and practice, atypicality is considered to immediately established upon exposure, and the ad category serves be an effective creative strategy to break through the clutter, and to as a useful retrieval cue (Goodman 1980), they are recalled well, boost ad evaluations and memory for the ad and brand (Heckler and even after brief exposures. Recall performance of atypical ads, Childers 1992; Smith and Yang 2004). However, research on this in contrast, is relatively poor after brief exposures, but strongly issue is limited (Smith and Yang 2004). Moreover, most advertising improves when additional processing leads to ad comprehension research used long and forced ad exposures of up to thirty seconds (Bransford and Johnson 1982). Because atypical ads cannot be or longer to investigate advertising processing and effectiveness immediately identified, they retain attention longer, such that (reviewed by Meyers-Levy and Malaviya 1999), whereas attention memory should be good. In case of typical-other ads, rapidly iden- to ads is much shorter in practice, typically a few seconds or less tified inconsistencies between the initial identification and newly (Pieters and Wedel 2004). It remains unclear whether the positive processed information motivate people to prolong attention to the effects of atypicality carry over to these much shorter durations. ad. However, recall performance remains relatively poor for these In fact, considering people’s basic need for certainty (Loewenstein ads despite additional time attending, because of source-confusion 1994), there is reason to believe that the effects of atypicality may (Roediger and McDermott 2000). Recognition performance, in be different at shorter exposures. contrast, is poor after very brief exposures for all three ad types, The present research focuses on information processing within but strongly improves with additional time attending (Loftus and the first exposure to the ad, from 100 ms onwards. Motivated to Bell 1975), except for typical ads, that remain relatively difficult identify the stimuli they are exposed to, people attempt to identify to discriminate from other ads. Due to their typicality, these ads the ads that they encounter, i.e., what they are for. In three experi- appear familiar regardless of whether they were presented or not, ments, we show that, depending on the typicality of the ad, this increasing false recognition (Silva, Groeger, and Bradshaw 2006). identification process can take different forms over the course of a We tested and found support for our predictions about the single exposure, which in turn influences how evaluations develop dynamic identification, evaluation and memory processes within over time (experiment 1 and 2), the attention devoted to the ad a single exposure in experiments 1 and 2, where we systematically (experiment 3), and subsequent memory (experiment 2). varied the exposure duration of ads between-conditions from 100 Typical ads display objects and scenes that are expected for ms (which is less than a single eye fixation) up to 10 seconds (cf. the advertised category (Mervis and Rosch 1981), such as a car in Donders 1868). Finally, support for the prediction that atypical a car ad. The product category of these ads is rapidly identified and and typical-other ads retain attention longer than typical ads was with certainty in 100 ms or even less (“Ha, it’s a car ad”; Pieters and provided in experiment 3, where participants freely viewed a large Wedel 2009), and this identification certainty contributes to an im- set of ads. These findings are the first to provide insights into the mediately positive ad evaluation (Loken and Ward 1990). Additional rapid advertising processes from 100 ms onwards. They reveal that information that becomes available after the first glance confirms the effects of typicality critically depend on the exposure duration, the immediate identification, leaving the ad evaluation at relatively and require revision of the idea of atypicality as a universal creative high levels of positivity, until boredom eventually befalls these ads. strategy to improve advertising effectiveness. Although we observe We distinguish two types of atypical ads, hereafter referred to as the benefits of atypical ads, we also find that their effectiveness “atypical” and “typical-other” ads. Atypical ads display objects and crucially depends on their ability to retain the consumer’s attention. scenes that do not immediately bring up a product category, leading Typical ads, in contrast, do not require such sustained attention in to identification uncertainty (“What is that ad for?”). This negatively order to develop positive ad evaluations and memory traces for affects the initial ad evaluation. When exposure to the ad continues, the ad and brand. Moreover, we argue for careful consideration additional information and cognitive integration contribute to ad of the type of atypicality, since typical-other ads failed on almost comprehension reducing identification uncertainty (“Aha, it’s a car all accounts in the present research. We believe that the proposed ad”). This increased certainty is appreciated, leading to a positive theory and methodology are applicable to other situations where updating of the evaluation. Finally, typical-other ads display objects initial feelings may be rapidly updated, and point to repeated ad and scenes that are typical for another category, such as a lady exposures as a relevant area of future research. misting her face in a car ad. These ads are initially identified with certainty (“Ha, it’s a fragrance ad”), which is liked. However, new REFERENCES information that becomes available during exposure disconfirms Bransford, John D. and Marcia K. Johnson (1972), “Contextual the initial identification, which needs to be revised (“Oh no, it is a Prerequisites for Understanding: Some Investigations of car ad”). 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Childers (1992), “The Role of and we predict different effects depending on whether recall or Expectancy and Relevancy in Memory for Verbal and Visual recognition performance is assessed. Typical ads do not retain at- Information: What is Incongruency?” Journal of Consumer tention well, since they are immediately identified and additional Research, 18 (March), 475-92. processing does not provide much “new” information. However,

671 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 672 / Market Scarcity and Persuasion: An Information Congruity Perspective Loewenstein, George (1994), “The Psychology of Curiosity: A Review and Reinterpretation,” Psychological Bulletin, 116 (1), 75-98. Loftus, Geoffrey R. and Susan M. Bell (1975), “Two Types of Information in Picture Memory,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104 (2), 103- 113. Loken, Barbara and James Ward (1990), “Alternative Approach- es to Understanding the Determinants of Typicality,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 111-26. Mervis, Carolyn B. and Eleanor Rosch (1981), “Categoriza- tion of Natural Objects,” Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 89-115. Meyers-Levy, Joan and Prashant Malaviya (1999), “Consum- ers’ Processing of Persuasive Advertisements: An Integrative Framework of Persuasion Theories,” Journal of Marketing, 63 (Special Issue), 45-60. Pieters, Rik and Michel Wedel (2004), “Attention Capture and Transfer in Advertising: Brand, Pictorial, and Text-Size Ef- fects,” Journal of Marketing, 68, 36-50. (2009), “Gist in a Glance: Determinants of Immediate Advertising Identification,” Unpublished manuscript, Tilburg University. Roediger, Henry L. and Kathleen B. McDermott (2000), “Distor- tions of Memory,” in Endel Tulving and Fergus I.M. Craik (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 149-62. Silva, Mariana M., John A. Groeger, and Mark F. Bradshaw, “Attention-Memory Interactions in Scene Perception,” Spa- tial Vision, 19 (1), 9-19. Smith, Robert E. and Xiaojing Yang (2004), “Toward a General Theory of Creativity in Advertising: Examining the Role of Divergence,” Marketing Theory, 4 (1/2), 31-58. Generation Y’s Representations of Who They Are and How They Give Caroline Urbain, University of Nantes, France Marine Le Gall-Ely, ICI, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, France Christine Gonzalez, LEMNA Université de Nantes, France

Extended abstract with questions on identity (sex, age…), including “give five words The emergence of each successive generation raises new which come to mind to describe your generation”. The free as- questions on the transmission, continuity and rupture of social sociations generated were analyzed with the software EVOC2005. behaviors (work, consumption, daily life…). Also referred to as These results show both an individualistic Generation Y and a the E-generation, Net Generation or Millennial Generation, the very mobile generation seeking links which is united around tech- generation Y is composed, in the western world, of individuals born nology and the consumer society. This generation is not marked by between the late 1970s and the mid 1990s who grew up with the collective events (as previous generations may have been). Festivity excesses of the consumer society and amidst the astounding devel- appears to be a structuring element. opment of the information society. This generation takes the social Over and above this specificity, Generation Y givers and and societal transformations of the 1960s and 1970s for granted, or non-givers express convergence in their representations of giving: even considers them obsolete, and is immersed in growing debates on ecology, the harmful effects of globalization and tomorrow’s - A vision of giving which is becoming institutionalized: uncertainties (Allain, 2009). Socialized in a world in profound associations and volunteering are terms which structure the mutation, it is made up of young adults liable to develop new and representation. unexpected solidarity and giving representations and practices. - The strong presence of a relationship with others: at the center In the face of the emergence of these new lifestyles and mindsets, or close to the representation we find the notions of solidarity, and of growing debate over monetary donation collection methods, sharing, aid, charity and gifts. how should associations and charities approach this generation? - A freely consenting act: a free gesture, or a gesture belong- This question brings out two preliminary lines of investigation ing to a gratuitous approach, which reflects an individualist which are the focus of this research: dimension.

How do the individuals of this generation define themselves? Illness is the prominent element against which giving can be How do they represent giving? mobilized: it appears first, far ahead of poverty for instance. This risk is no doubt conveyed by the media more frequently than eco- Several conceptions of giving emerge from the human and logical risks or natural disasters (telethon, AIDS, cystic fibrosis…) social sciences literature: an instrument of power for the giver and is more easily associated with the person’s close entourage. (Mauss, 1923-1924), of domination (Weiner, 1992) making the Givers and non-givers have a pragmatic vision of giving: the receiver dependent, or even alienated (Testart, 1982), a sacrifice objects of giving of blood, money and organs are central elements (Lévinas, 1987, 1995), a deprivation, an impossibility (Derrida, of the representation. Nevertheless, non-givers insist upon this 1991), a purely disinterested, altruistic gesture, a free exchange functional component (blood and money are quoted significantly but which creates links, obligations, debts (Mauss, 1923-1924; more). One hypothesis is the media coverage of giving blood or Lévi-Strauss, 1949; Titmuss, 1970; Sahlins, 1972; Godbout and money, non-givers thus expressing a “media-broadcast” vision of Caillé, 1992). This polysemy shows that giving is both a collec- giving (they more frequently employ the term telethon). Furthermore, tive and an individual phenomenon which is represented by a wide givers show a collective apprehension of giving, seen as a system, range of practices (Authors, 2009b). Our work is assimilated with while, in an emerging trend, non-givers have a more personal vision. the comprehensive research trend which has developed within Finally, two results are worth emphasizing. First, the almost Consumer Culture Theory (Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Giving complete absence of terms expressing a negative vision of giving. is thus regarded as a system (Sherry 1983) and revolving aroud Secondly, the notions of constraint and commitment were rarely consumption (Giesler, 2006 ; Marcoux, 2009). touched upon. This conception of giving is distant from the notion Our research focus on social representations (SR), known as of obligation presented in the literature on the subject (Sahlins, allowing individuals to interpret reality in their physical and social 1972; Sherry, McGrath and Levy, 1993; Marcoux, 2009). This rep- environment and direct their behaviors and social relations (Abric, resentation of giving is coherent with the way in which Generation 1994). SR studies can mobilize different methodological approaches Y describes itself: turned towards others, free, largely unconcerned (Viaud and Roussiau, 2002; Doise, Clemence and Lorenzi-Cioldi, with notions of duty and effort. Commitment and investment must 1993). The free association technique, already employed in market- undoubtedly be a pleasure. ing (authors, 2009a), was selected for this study. This technique From a managerial point of view, these results are the first to “consists, based on an induction word (referring to the object of the shed light on the factors liable to cause members of this generation SR), of asking the informant to provide all the words, expressions to give : use of social networks such as Facebook or Twitter, use or adjectives which come to mind” (Abric, 1994). of factors such as pleasure, festivities and efficiency to encourage In order to answer the research questions, an exploratory them to adhere to causes and actions rather than recourse to guilt quantitative study was conducted on a convenience sample of 276 and duty, encourage them to “work for the association” using their individuals born between 1979 and 1991 (people belonging to Gen- skills to improve its offer. eration Y aged 18 plus as they were presumed to have autonomous giving practices). In French language, the questionnaire began with the following open question: “Generally speaking, what does the term giving evoke for you?”, in response to which informants were asked to provide five words. It carried on to cover giving practices, exchange behavior, entourage, knowledge of associations, to finish 673 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Exploring the Everyday Branded Retail Experience- The Consumer Quest for ‘Homeyness’ in Branded Grocery Stores Sofia Ulver-Sneistrup, Lund University, Sweden Ulf Johansson, Lund University, Sweden Extended Abstract and emerging ideology which more spectacular arenas may strive This paper extends consumer culture theories of branded retail for in their quest for an overwhelming consumer experience. Thus, environments by analyzing the meanings that experiences of the the powerful and distinctive experience of homeyness demands an everyday site of the branded grocery store hold for consumers. ideology-neutral surrounding supported by marketplace-crafted In consumer culture theory (CCT) (Arnould & Thompson 2005), myths. despite a growing interest in branded retail environments, little We discuss the alternative understanding of the data had we interest has been paid to the ordinary and everyday experience of selected another group of respondents. Additional research is needed the grocery store. While this site has been the predominant focus to see if and how the constellation of homeyness is applicable in in more evidence-based consumer marketing research (e.g. Burt & other national, gender, class, ethnic and lifestyle contexts. Hence, Carralero-Encinas 2002; Choi, Chan and Coughlan 2006; Collins- the conceptual implications of our analysis for consumer research Dodd & Lindley 2003; McGoldrick 2002; Richardson, Jain and Dick concern on one hand the possible transferability and appropriation 1996), in CCT, marketplaces of more spectacular character have of the specific constellation of ‘homeyness’ to other important made out the arenas of investigation (Borghini et al 2009; Kozinets consumer cultural contexts, and on the other hand more generally et al 2004, 2002; Thompson & Arsel 2004; Sherry 2008). Among the importance for consumer cultural researchers to not primarily these the development of the concept ‘themed flagship brandstore’ always aim for the spectacular but also direct their eyes towards (Kozinets et al 2002, 2004; Borghini et al. 2009) is of extra inter- experiences of the more ordinary, yet culturally rich, kind. est for our investigation, as it looks at the mythological appeal in the physical as well as symbolic structure of the store. However, REFERENCES as the symbolic properties of such spectacular brand venues were Arnould, Eric J. and Craig J. 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Jr (1998), “The Soul of the Company Store- Nike Town Chicago and the Emplaced Brandscape,” in Services- capes: The Concept of Place in Contemporary Markets, ed. John F. Jr Sherry, Lincolnwood, IL, 109-46. Schlosser, Ann E. (1998), “Applying the Functional Theory of Attitudes to Understanding the Influence of Store Atmo- sphere on Store Inferences,” Journal of Consumer Psychol- ogy, 7 (4), 345-69. Thompson, C & Arsel,, Z (2004) The Starbucks Brandscape and Consumers’ (Anticorporate) Experience of Glocalization, Journal of Consumer Research, 31: 631-642 Thompson, Craig J. (1996), “Caring Consumers: Gendered Consumption Meanings and the Juggling Lifestyle,” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (March), 388-407. Thompson, Craig J. (2004), “Marketplace Mythology and Discourses of Power,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (1), 162-80. Rituals in Transition: Reciprocal Pig Feasts in Northeastern Rural China Ann Veeck, Western Michigan University, USA Hongyan Yu, Sun Yat-sen University, China Gregory Veeck, Western Michigan University, USA

Extended Abstract important role in stabilizing and maintaining rural societies through With the rapid globalization and urbanization occurring in the generation of social capital (Bourdieu 1984; Coleman 1988; many parts of the world, many celebratory rituals that have been Putnam 2000). The pig feasts have served to establish and reinforce practiced for generations are likely to become extinct in upcoming a social network of relatives and friends that can be relied upon years. Examining rural traditions in transitional communities offers for assistance throughout the year (Kipnis 1997; Yan 1994). We an opportunity to understand how ritual activities communicate identified four kinds of social capital—identity, moral, emotional, social standing and provide structure to economic processes. At and instrumental—that have provided distinctive, but interrelated, what point do the benefits secured through long-standing rituals benefits to the participants of the social gatherings. cease to be worth the sacrifice of time, labor, and money necessary In less-developed Zhenlai County, the pig feast ritual continues to participate in the traditions? Answering this question can not only to be practiced by every household that we encountered and ap- provide increased understanding of the practice of rituals, but offer pears to continue to provide an important purpose in affirming an insight into the effects of economic development and privatization. informal market that serves to collectivize tasks that are necessary Research on ritualistic acts has shown that ceremonies and for survival in rural villages. In wealthier, better-connected Jiutai celebrations serve to initiate, strengthen, or reproduce social ties County, the pig feast ritual is no longer uniformly practiced. Even (Driver 1991; Marshall 2000; Mathwick, Wiertz, de Ruyter 2008). the households that continue to engage in the tradition do not all feel Consonant with this theme, a number of consumer culture theorists it is necessary to commit the time and labor necessary to sustain have approached some consumption activities as ritualistic practices this ritual on an annual basis. As Jiutai County is becoming more that serve to maintain social cohesion (e.g. Belk and Costa 1998; economically developed, alternative means to acquire social capital Bonsu and Belk 2003; Wallendorf and Arnould 1991). The social have emerged, and a formal economic system is developing that solidarity nurtured through ceremonies makes the instrumental and operates to perform many of the activities (e.g. loans, farm tasks, symbolic value of these ritual events akin to similar benefits derived house building) that previously might have been executed with the from gift giving (Belk 1976; Ruth, Otnes, and Brunel 1999; Sherry help of an informal social network. 1983; Wooten 2000), with ritual ceremonies functioning as “gift The decrease in the practice of the pig feast in Jiutai County systems” (Geisler 2006). In rural settings, in which the roles of raises some broader issues related to globalization, modernization, producer and consumer are tightly interwoven, ritual ceremonies and capitalization, including potential support for western theory can serve to establish embedded economies that operate indepen- that ties modernization to individualization (e.g. Beck 1992; Gid- dently from capitalist markets via norms of reciprocity and trust dens 1991) and substantiation of a link between reciprocal feasts (Gouldner 1960). Some theorists argue that communal activities and egalitarian societies (Durrenberger 2008). Given the prevalence involving private citizens, such as ceremonies and celebrations, of ceremonies involving ritual transaction in most societies, this which produce an abundance of social capital, can help to create research suggests the usefulness of studying the rise and fall of civil societies, which, in turn, provide individuals some protection rituals to gain greater understanding of the rules and meanings of from the vagaries of the external market and the state (Edwards rituals within the larger social and economic order (Arnould and and Foley 1998; Fukuyama 2002; Woolcock 1998). Thompson 2005). With this theoretical backdrop, this research examines the an- nual pig roasts, hosted by Chinese families in Jilin Province during the Spring Festival (lunar New Year). Our fieldwork included sixteen in depth interviews conducted with farm families over the course of two summers. During the first trip, made during the summer of 2008, we conducted in depth interviews with nine families in Zhenlai County, located in western Jilin Province approximately 250 kilometers northwest of Changchun, the provincial capital of Jilin. The first round included five families in the township of Dongping, and four families in the township of Momoge. During the second trip, made during the summer of 2009 and using a slightly revised interview guide, in depth interviews were conducted with an additional seven families in Jiutai County, just fifty kilometers northeast of Changchun. These interviews included three families in the township of Lianhua and four in the townships of Longjiapo. The two counties represent two quite different conditions of rural economic development, with per capita income about twice as high for residents of Jiutai County as for Zhenlai County. Each of the families we interviewed, following a long-standing rural tradition in northern China, raises pigs throughout the year and then slaughters the pig during the period shortly before Spring Festival and cooks part of it to host a feast for friends and rela- tives. Via the descriptions and interpretation of the pig feasts by farmers, we learned that these annual ceremonies have provided an

676 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Cultural In-betweeness and Migrant Identity: Recreating Culture in Online Thirdspaces or Heterotopias Teresa Davis, University of Sydney, Australia

Abstract This Cyberethnographic (Robinson and Shulz 2009) study follows migrant women living over 3 continents Beginning with Babha’s (1994) “thirdspace” and cultural hybridity; this examines disjunctive notions of place, ‘other space’ and time. Foucauldian heterotopia is offered as an explanation of this ‘Other Space’ and as a metaphor for migrant experience.

677 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Opportunity or Challenge? The Impact of Exposure to Similar Extensions on the Extensions of Late Movers Hakkyun Kim, Concordia University, Canada Sharon Ng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

EXTENDED ABSTRACT similar types of subsequent brand extensions by other brands. To This research examines how consumers evaluate brand exten- accomplish this goal, we employed a 2 (Prior Example: Success, sions in the context of rivalry and competition. Specifically, unlike Failure) x 2 (Fit Level: High, Moderate) between-subjects design the extant literature, which has investigated consumers’ responses and measured participants’ evaluations of a new product idea from to extensions with isolated market situations, the current research the BMW brand when the performance of a similar type of exten- investigates how consumers use their knowledge of previous similar sion from the Mercedes-Benz brand varied. Providing support for brand extensions when generating evaluations toward similar exten- our hypothesis, participants in the prior failure condition (i.e., those sions from follower brands. Because any market is shared by multiple who were reminded that the same type of products introduced by competitors, and because consumers can be exposed to competitors’ the Mercedes-Benz brand failed) evaluated a moderate-fit extension actions, it may be wrongful to assume that consumers will generate (sunglasses) from the BMW brand less favorably than participants new product evaluations solely based on fit perceptions (i.e., how in the prior success condition (i.e., those who were reminded that well an extension matches the parent brand). Rather, consumers who the same type of products introduced by the Mercedes-Benz brand have been exposed to similar brand extension examples may use succeeded). However, there was no difference between prior failure this cue when evaluating similar extensions of other brands. Thus, and success conditions in terms of brand extension evaluations this research intends to extend the consumer brand extension model toward a high-fit extension (tires). This pattern of evaluations by incorporating consumer knowledge into the market situation, reflects relational reasoning involving a process by which people which is assumed to be a more realistic approach. transfer their knowledge of a well-known base (prior examples) to Motivated by the importance of considering rivalry and com- a lesser-known target (a new extension). petition situations, this research draws on consumer learning by In a follow-up study, we replicated these findings using a dif- the analogy model (Gregan-Paxton and John 1997), which posits ferent set of brands and extensions. More importantly, we further that consumers attempt to understand and form preferences toward investigated the moderating role of the perceived similarity between something unfamiliar and new by relating it to something familiar. brands. The results from experiment 2 confirmed our premise that Such relational reasoning involves a process by which people the transfer of knowledge is further facilitated as the similarity transfer their knowledge of a well-known base to a lesser-known perception increases. Specifically, by using simple slope tests on target. Moreover, the driving force behind this knowledge transfer extension evaluations when the perception of similarity was centered via analogical reasoning is the perceived similarity between the at 1 standard deviation above and below the mean, we found that base and the target (Moreau, Markman, and Lehmann 2001; Roehm only among participants who perceived these two brands as similar and Sternthal 2001). For instance, when faced with a generic drug, to each other (i.e., +1 SD above case), was the interaction between consumers may be unsure about its performance. However, these prior example and fit level significant, thus replicating our previous people may predict how it will work when they are informed that findings. Therefore, these findings supported our prediction about generic drugs have the same active ingredients as the original formu- the moderating role of the perceived similarity between pioneer lation, and they rely on their knowledge about branded counterparts. and follower brands. Such a human tendency to learn about and evaluate new targets Taken together, these findings add to an emerging stream hints at the possibility that consumers can base their evaluations of research that explores the contextual differences in consumer on prior examples that they know. For instance, when evaluating responses to brand extensions. In addition, the managerial implica- Mercedes motorcycles, consumers may rely on how good (or bad) tions from the current research can be important in that the first- BMW motorcycles have been, since the BMW brand is similar to the movers (extending a new branding category for the first time) have Mercedes brand, and since consumers are aware of the performance to spend a great deal of resources to convince consumers to adopt of BMW motorcycles. Therefore, we reason that consumers who new products from their brands, while other followers can gain an have knowledge of prior similar extensions (e.g., BMW entering advantage by strategically following (or not following) trails of the motorcycle category) may generate evaluations on new exten- pioneer moves. Therefore, the results of the current research imply sions from other brands by relying on such a prior example, but not the possibility of free-riding in a competitive market structure: necessarily on the extension fit perception. Extending the notion second-movers had better simply follow the successful route of that consumers do not generate evaluative judgments in a vacuum, the first-movers, and first-movers (who should avoid free-riders) this research proposes that consumers may have other evaluative have to build uniqueness of their own brands in order to disconnect input on which they can rely more than perceived fit. To be more them from their followers. specific, we show that the performance of prior similar extension exemplars can be a factor more diagnostic than perceived fit. REFERENCES Furthermore, we expect that such an influence of prior examples Aaker, David A. and Kevin Lane Keller (1990), “Consumer (success or failure) will become greater as the base and the target Evaluations of Brand Extensions,” Journal of Marketing, 54 brands are similar to each other. Therefore, we hypothesize that the (1), 27-41. degree of perceived similarity between brands will moderate the Barone, Michael J., Paul W. 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678 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 679 Boush, David M., S. Shipp, Barbara Loken, E. Gencturk, S. Crockett, E. Kennedy, B. Minshall, D. Misurell, L. Rochford, and J. Strobel (1987), “Affect Generalization to Similar and Dissimilar Brand Extensions,” Psychology & Marketing, 225-37. Broniarczyk, Susan M. and Joseph W. Alba (1994), “The Impor- tance of the Brand in Brand Extension,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (May), 214-28. Gentner, Dedre (1983), “Structure Mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy,” Cognitive Science, 7, 155-70. (1989), “The Mechanisms of Analogical Transfer,” in Similarity and Analogical Reasoning, ed. S. Vosniadou and A. Ortony, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 199- 241. Gregan-Paxton, Jennifer and Deborah Roedder John (1997), “Consumer Learning by Analogy: A Model of Internal Knowledge Transfer,” Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (December), 266-84. Keller, Kevin Lane (2002), “Branding and Brand Equity,” in Handbook of Marketing, ed. B. A. Weitz and R. Wensley, London: Sage, 151-78. Kim, Hakkyun and Deborah Roedder John (2008), “Consumer Response to Brand Extensions: Construal Level as a Modera- tor of the Importance of Perceived Fit,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18 (2), 116-26. Loken, Barbara and Deborah Roedder John (1993), “Diluting Brand Beliefs: When Do Brand Extensions Have a Negative Impact?,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (3), 71-84. Monga, Alokparna Basu and Deborah Roedder John (2007), “Cultural Differences in Brand Extension Evaluation: The Influence of Analytic Versus Holistic Thinking,” Journal of Consumer Research, 33 (March), in press. Moreau, C. Page, Arthur B. Markman, and Donald R. Lehm- ann (2001), “‘What Is It?’ Categorization Flexibility and Consumers’ Responses to Really New Products,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (March), 489-98. Mortimer, Ruth (2003), “Fool’s Gold for Marketers?,” Brand Strategy, 168 (February), 20-22. Ng, Sokling and Michael J. Houston (2006), “Exemplars or Beliefs? The Impact of Self-View on the Nature and Rela- tive Influence of Brand Associations,” Journal of Consumer Research, 32 (March), 519-29. Oakley, James, Adam Duhachek, Bala Balachander, and S Sriram (2008), “Order of Entry and the Moderating Role of Comparison Brands in Brand Extension Evaluation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (February), 706-12. Roehm, Michelle L. and Brian Sternthal (2001), “The Moderat- ing Effect of Knowledge and Resources on the Persuasive Impact of Analogies,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (September), 257-72. Völckner, Franziska and Henrik Sattler (2006), “Drivers of Brand Extension Success,” Journal of Marketing, 70 (April), 18-34. Perceived Entitativity and Accessibility- Diagnosticity As Moderators of Reciprocal Extension Effects Joseph W. Chang, Paul R Jackson, Yung-Chien Lou

EXTENDED ABSTRACT study (the high accessibility condition), following previous research (e.g., Loken and John 1993), two fictitious XXX (high-entitative) and Conceptualization YYY (low-entitative) family brands in Consumer Reports’ format Social cognition research has paid considerable attention to were portrayed representing high- and low-entitative family brands the influence of two characteristics of social groups on how they are respectively. Anti-cavity toothpastes and pain relievers were selected perceived (e.g., Crawford, Sherman, and Hamilton 2002; Lickel, as similar and dissimilar brand extensions respectively based on a Hamilton, Wieczorkowska, Lewis, Sherman and Uhles 2000), pre-test which requested respondents to list possible similar and namely variability and entitativity. As the cognitive processes un- dissimilar brand extensions of the hypothesized family brands. The derlying the evaluations of objects and subjects are common ( Loken research design of the second study was similar to the first study, 2006), it is expected that at least some influences on the perception except intervening tasks were added to manipulate the low accessi- of social groups apply also to the perception of family brands, which bility of brand extension information. The accessibility of extension suggests that the feedback effects of brand extensions on high- and information was manipulated by varying the intervening material low-entitative family brands may also be disproportionate. However, between the experimental treatment of extension information and relatively little empirical research has investigated this important family brand evaluations. The intervening materials were confus- issue. Therefore, in addition to categorical similarity and perceived ing tasks designed to decrease the accessibility of experimental variability, this study moves a further step to examine how family treatments (e.g., Feldman and Lynch 1988) including a filler task brand entitativity mediates feedback extension effects on its sub- and a confusing task. sequent family brand evaluations. Crawford and colleagues (2002) proposes the model of group-level trait transference (GLTT; Figure Major findings 1) to discuss the influence of individual members on the group and The study’s results indicated that, when extension information other group members. In the GLTT model, perceived entitativity was highly accessible, family brand images were enhanced and serves as a pre-determinant of a three-stage information processing: diluted by positive and negative extension information respectively, trait abstraction (or trait inference), stereotyping (or group impression regardless of the categorical similarity of brand extension and formation), and trait generalization (or trait transference). As with the perceived entitativity of family brand. However, while both social groups, the attribute transference across brand extensions is high- and low-entitative family brands were enhanced and diluted more likely to occur for high-entitative family brands and induces by positive and negative extension information respectively, the asymmetric effects on family brand evaluations. Given the same dilution and enhancement effects on high-entitative family brands quality of brand extensions, high-entitative family brands shall were different from those on low-entitative family brands. High- be more favorably evaluated than low-entitative family brands (vs. low-) entitative family brands were more significantly diluted because perceivers make more extreme judgments and form more by negative extension information (H2), whereas low- (vs. high-) disproportional polarized impressions on high-entitative groups entitative family brands were more significantly enhanced by posi- (Hamilton and Sherman 1996; Sherman et al. 1999). Therefore, a tive extension information (H3). The asymmetric result was caused high- (vs. low-) entitative family brand is more favorably evaluated by the polarization effect of perceived entitativity on family brand (Hypothesis 1). Based on the cue-diagnosticity model (Skowron- evaluations. Based on the GLTT model, attribute transference should ski and Carlston 1987), as extreme cues receive more weight on be more significant for high-entitative family brands. The abstracted impression formation (e.g., Anderson 1981), the diagnostic cue of attributes of high-entitative family brands transferred across brand positive extension information is perceived as more extreme to, and extensions and, eventually, associated with each individual brand will have more positive impacts on, a low-entitative family brand, extension. The strongly associated attributes across brand extensions which yields extremity and positivity biases (e.g., Skowronski and amplified consumers’ impressions about the attributes of high- Carlston 1987). In contrast, the diagnostic cue of negative extension entitative family brands and led to the result that high-entitative information is perceived as more extreme to, and will have more family brands were more favorably evaluated (H1). The research negative impacts on, a high-entitative family brand, which yields results of the second study paralleled the first study. However, by extremity and negativity biases. In other words, a low-entitative comparisons, highly accessible positive extension information was (or moderate-quality) family brand is expected to be more sig- more diagnostic and, thus, more enhancive than lowly accessible nificantly enhanced by positive extension information, whereas extension information on family brand evaluations, while highly a high-entitative (or high-quality) family brand is expected to be and lowly accessible negative extension information yielded similar more significantly diluted by negative extension information. This dilution effects on family brand evaluations. In conclusion, except result yields asymmetric (or disproportionate) impacts of positive the factor of categorical similarity, the determination about the and negative extension information on family brand evaluations, dilution and enhancement of brand extension information on family which is likely mediated by the prior perceived entitativity of family brands pretty much depended on the cue-diagnosticity of extension brands. Hence, low- (vs. high-) entitative family brands are more information, rather than the accessibility. significantly enhanced by positive extension information (hypothesis 2), whereas high- (vs. low-) entitative family brands are more sig- REFERENCES nificantly diluted by negative extension information (hypothesis 3). 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Sherman, and J.S. Rodgers (2003), “Per- ceiving the groupness of groups: Entitativity, homogeneity, essentialism, and stereotypes,” in Yzerbyt V, Judd CM, and O. Corneille (Eds). The Psychology of Group Perception: Contributions to the Study of Homogeneity, Entitativity, and Essentialism. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 39-60. Lickel, B., D. L. Hamilton, G. Wieczorkowska, A. C. Lewis, S. J. Sherman, and A. N. Uhles (2000), “Varieties of Groups and the Perception of Group Entitativity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 78, 223-246. Loken B (2006), “Consumer psychology: Categorization, infer- ences, affect, and persuasion,” Annual Review of Psychology, 57 (January), 453-485. Loken, Barbara and Deborah Roedder John (1993), “Diluting Brand Beliefs: When Do Brand Extensions Have a Negative Impact?” Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57 (July), 71-84. Milberg, S.J. and F. Sinn (2008), “Vulnerability of global brands to negative feedback effects,” Journal of Business Research 2008, 61(June), 684-690. Rosch, E. (1978), “Principles of Categorization”, In Cognition and Categorization, E. Rosch and B. B. Lloyd, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 27-48. Salinas, E.M. and J.M.P. Perez (2009), “Modeling the brand extensions’ influence on brand image,” Journal of Business Research, 62(January), 50-60. Can Brand Commitment be Harmful to the Brand? The Moderating Role of Psychological Contracts Sekar Raju, Iowa State University, USA Kalpesh Kaushik Desai, State University of New York at Binghamton, USA H. Rao Unnava, Ohio State University, USA Nicole Montgomery, College of William and Mary, USA

Extended Abstract to a brand failure regardless of whether they classify the failure as Research on brand commitment has typically focused on the in-contract or out-of-contract benefits that commitment provides in protecting the brand when brand failures occur (e.g., Ahluwalia 2007; Ahluwalia, et al. 2000; H2: Committed consumers will rate in-contract violations less Raju and Unnava 2008). However, recent research has found that favorably than out-of-contract violations. committed consumers may pose risks for brands, especially when H3: Less committed consumers will rate both in-contract and brand failures occur. Researchers have found that when a brand out-of-contract violations unfavorably. fails to live up to some expected standard, committed consumers under certain circumstances are likely to retaliate, seek revenge, and Study 1 change from loving the brand to hating it (Aaker, Fournier, and Brasel The objective of this study is to demonstrate that consumers 2004; Gregoire, Tripp, and Legoux 2009). A possible reason that who are more versus less committed to a brand will exhibit dif- consumers in strong relationships turn around and retaliate against ferences in the contents of their psychological contracts with a something they love might have to do with the belief that in such preferred brand. Participants either high or low in commitment to relationships the other partner (in our case, the brand) is obligated an existing brand in each of the two categories (online store and to them more than in weak relationships (Ward and Ostrom 2006). bank) participated (n=201). For each category, participants were We suggest that it is not the failure itself but the nature of the asked to provide the name of their preferred brand, after which failure that leads consumers to support or not support the brand. they were presented with the list of promise items obtained from a That is, we propose that failures that violate perceived pacts or pretest. For each item on the list, respondents were asked to report “psychological contracts” between the consumer and the brand the extent to which their preferred brand promised them each item create a greater likelihood of retaliation, while failures that do not using a four-point scale obtained from Conway and Briner (2005). violate such perceived pacts lead to support for the brand. The term Consistent with the idea that psychological contracts exist and psychological contract refers to the beliefs that a consumer has their contents differ for high versus low commitment consumers, the about the reciprocal obligations that exist between the consumer analysis revealed a different pattern of results for high versus low and the brand. These beliefs are based on perceived promises that commitment participants for online stores and banks. Specifically, a the consumer deems the brand has made to them in return for their larger percentage of high versus low commitment consumers indi- patronage of the brand (Rousseau 1989). cated that their preferred brand either strongly suggested the promise We argue that consumers committed to a brand are voluntarily of the item or explicitly promised the item in writing or verbally. restricting their consideration set by being psychologically tied to a brand and excluding other brands (Raju and Unnava 2005). Study 2 Because committed consumers give up something, they are likely This study directly tests whether a violation of an item in the to believe that the brand owes them more than consumers who are psychological contract versus outside of the psychological contract less committed (Gregoire et al. 2009). Because committed consum- results in different effects for high and low commitment consum- ers saddle brands with this reciprocal obligation, we propose that ers. A 2 (commitment: high or low) x 2 (contract item violation: committed consumers are likely to have many more items in their in-contract vs. out-of-contract) between-participants design was psychological contract with the target brand compared than less implemented. committed consumers. Participants were presented with a description of a barbershop/ hair salon that included a brand failure (i.e., unexpected price H1: Committed consumers will report more items in their increase) and to two filler consumption descriptions. The primary psychological contracts than less committed consumers. dependent variable was their evaluation of a fictitious competitive barbershop/salon. Further, if committed consumers believe that the brand is Our expectation was that high commitment consumers would contractually obligated to perform at some level and it fails to do evaluate the competitive brand more favorably if their preferred so, they will view the failure as a breach of the contract. However, brand’s failure pertained to an item in-contract versus out-of-contract. as reviewed earlier, others have found that brand commitment also However, we expected low commitment consumers to evaluate the offers brands a buffering effect from negative information (Ahluwalia competitive brand equivalently, regardless of their inclusion of the et al. 2000). We resolve this apparent discrepancy in the literature violation item in their contract. Consistent with our expectations, by arguing that committed consumers feel betrayed only when the this analysis revealed a significant interaction (F (1, 205)=4.46, brand failure relates to a feature that is part of the psychological p<.05). Low commitment participants that reported that “competi- contract (henceforth called “in-contract”). When the brand failure tive prices” was not an item in their contract (M=5.39) evaluated relates to a feature that is outside the psychological contract (hence- the competitive brand equivalently to participants that reported that forth called “out-of-contract”), we expect that the buffering effects the item was part of their contracts (M=5.23, t (103)=0.68, p>.1), of commitment will occur. In contrast, less committed consumers supporting H3. However, high commitment participants evaluated do not have as strong a tie to the brand as committed consumers; the new brand more favorably when the violation item was included therefore, we do not anticipate any differences in their responses in their contract (M=5.37) versus not perceived as part of their psy- chological contract (M=4.81, t (104)=2.30, p<.05), supporting H2. 682 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 683 The results of the two studies support the idea that the nature of the brand failure-whether it is in-contract or out-of-contract has a major role to play in determining whether committed consumers support or respond negatively to a brand failure. Got to Get You into My Life: Do Brand Personalities Rub Off on Consumers? Ji Kyung Park, University of Minnesota, USA Deborah Roedder John, University of Minnesota, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT that influence response to brand experiences; and (2) examining Consumers often use brands as an instrument to create a the mediating process for why entity theorists, but not incremental more positive self-image. In particular, brands with appealing theorists, are affected by brand experiences. Female undergradu- personalities, such as Cartier (sophisticated) and Harley-Davidson ate students were asked to participate in treasure hunt. To collect (adventurous), are particularly useful for consumers wanting to items during the treasure hunt, they used a Victoria’s Secret shop- enhance a self-image in line with a brand’s personality (Escalas and ping bag or a plain pink shopping bag. After using the shopping Bettman 2003). In this research, we ask the question, “Does using bag, participants were asked about their self-perceptions on traits a brand with an appealing personality enhance the way consumers associated with Victoria’s Secret, and were also asked how much view themselves?” Prior research documents that consumers often they used Victoria’s Secret as signals of one’s identity. prefer and choose brands in an effort to affirm and enhance their The results replicated the findings from study1. Further, a sense of self, but what happens when consumers actually have an mediation analysis revealed that relative to incremental theorists, opportunity to use these brands? entity theorists are more responsive to the signaling value of the We propose that only consumers with certain implicit theories Victoria’s Secret brand experience and this difference mediates the view brand experiences as opportunities to signal that they possess influence of implicit self-theory on self-perceptions. the same appealing traits as the brand, and only these consumers actually perceive themselves more positively after a brand Study 3: Can Entity Theorists Recover From Self-threats Using experience. Implicit self-theories are lay beliefs people hold about Brand Personalities? the malleability of their personalities. Two types have been identified: Entity theorists view personal qualities as something that they entity versus incremental theory (Dweck 2000). Individuals who cannot directly improve through their own direct efforts. Dweck endorse incremental theory (“incremental theorists”) view their and her colleagues suggest that such pessimistic thinking about personal qualities as something they can enhance through their self-improvement reduces emotional and psychological resources own direct efforts at self-improvement. In contrast, individuals available to cope with negative feedback on personal qualities. In who endorse entity theory (“entity theorists”) view their personal study 3, we examined whether or not entity theorists can recover a qualities as something they cannot improve their own direct efforts. threatened self through experiences with a brand associated with Instead, they seek out opportunities to signal their positive qualities an appealing personality in a threat-related domain. After receiving to the self or others. We predict and find that entity theorists (not negative feedback on a GRE test, participants were asked to use incremental theorists) are responsive to the signaling value of brands either a MIT pen or a regular pen, and then completed the self- with appealing personalities. They use a brand associated with an perception measure. appealing personality to signal that they possess the same appealing The results showed that entity theorists recovered negative personality as the brand, resulting in more positive self-perceptions. self-views after brand experiences; they perceived themselves to be more intelligent, harder-working, and more of a leader after using Study 1: Does Victoria’s Secret Make You Feel Better-Looking? the MIT pen (vs. the regular pen). Consumers at a local shopping mall were asked to use a Victoria’s Secret shopping bag (brand experience) or a plain pink Summary shopping bag (no brand experience) during their shopping trip. We identify implicit self-theories as an important moderator This setting provided an initial test of our proposition in a natural of the influence of brand experiences on consumer self-perceptions. environment where consumers could experience the signaling Only entity theorists view use a brand associated with an appealing value of a brand through a common activity of carrying a shopping personality to signal that they possess the same appealing personality bag. Victoria’s Secret was selected because of its appealing brand as the brand, resulting in more positive self-perceptions. personality, associated with traits such as good-looking, feminine, and glamorous. Implicit beliefs about personality were measured References (Implicit Persons Theory Measure: Levy et. al. 1998) prior to the Dweck, Carol S. (2000), Self-Theories: Their Role in Motiva- shopping trip, with self-perceptions regarding personality traits tion, Personality and Development, Philadelphia: Psychology (including those associated with Victoria’s Secret) measured after Press. the shopping trip. Escalas, Jennifer E. and James R. Bettman (2003), “You Are After carrying the Victoria’s Secret shopping bag (vs. plain What They Eat: The Influence of Reference Groups on pink shopping bag), entity theorists perceived themselves to be Consumers’ Connections to Brands,” Journal of Consumer better-looking, more feminine, and more glamorous. However, Psychology, 13 (3), 339-48. incremental theorists were not influenced by their brand experience. Levy, Sheri R., Steven J. Stroessner, and Carol S. Dweck (1998), Differences between these groups were not evident for personality “Stereotype Formation and Endorsement: The Role of Im- traits unconnected to the Victoria’s Secret brand, which rules out plicit Theories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychol- response biases, general affective states, and contextual factors as ogy, 74 (6), 1421-36. possible alternative explanations.

Study 2: Why Are Entity Theorists More Affected by Brand Personalities? Study 2 extends prior findings by: (1) manipulating implicit self-theories to rule out the possibility that individuals who endorse entity or incremental theories may also vary on other dimensions 684 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 It’s all about THE GREENS: Conflicting Motives and Making Green Work Kelly Haws, Texas A&M University, USA Karen Page Winterich, Pennsylvania State University, USA Rebecca Walker Naylor, Ohio State University, USA

Extended Abstract equal, consumers with higher green attitudes are likely to be more Consumers frequently encounter decisions regarding whether concerned with earth (vs. self) benefits. to purchase environmentally-friendly products in place of more To test the effect of benefit framing, students responded to the traditional products (e.g., reusable vs. plastic grocery bags, non- 6-item green scale and were later asked to view an advertisement toxic, biodegradable cleaners). While there has been an increasing for a new natural dish washing liquid and indicate their purchase emphasis on green attributes of products in the marketplace, the likelihood. The benefits of the product were described as leaving potential goal conflicts of engaging in environmentally-friendly your dishes clean and shiny and helping to protect and soothe your purchases are not well understood. We seek to determine how to skin (self benefits) or as posing no threat of harm to the environment identify green consumers, whom we define as those with a tendency and contributing to a healthier planet (earth benefits). to consider the environmental impact of their purchase and con- Results revealed an interaction such that the earth (vs. self) sumption behaviors, and distinguish their preferences from those framing increased purchase likelihood among consumers high in of non-green consumers to aid the marketing of green products, GREEN whereas purchase likelihood did not differ among low considering both product positioning and product pricing. GREEN consumers regardless of benefit framing. For GREEN Though there have been several efforts at identifying green consumers, positioning a green product with earth benefits is more consumers (e.g., Antil 1984; Roberts 1995; Webb, Mohr, and Harris effective than positioning with benefits for oneself, which may be 2008; Webster 1975 over the last few decades, such efforts have led of particular importance to marketers who may decrease green to rather complex and often dated measures. We present a parsi- purchases if they attempt to capture a larger share of the market monious, yet valid measure of green consumer attitudes, enabling by emphasizing self benefits. managers and marketers to better determine potential responses to Study 4. In our final study, we directly examine the inherent green-related efforts based on their consumer base. In doing so, we conflict between the economic and the green motivations of consum- focus on characteristics of consumers that might provide underlying ers by examining environmental products with a price premium. motivations for green consumption. Specifically, we expect those Though we anticipate that green consumers will be more accepting who are more green to be more conscientious of their monetary of price premiums than will nongreen consumers, products that resources and more careful users of physical resources. meet goals of both greenness and frugality will be most favorably Study 1. We first develop a simple six-item measure to suc- received by consumers pursuing these multiple goals. cinctly capture green attitudes. We find our measure correlates Student participants completed the 6-item GREEN scale in positively with socially responsible consumption behavior (r=.69; a battery of unrelated items and then completed the main study a Antil 1984) and negatively with environmental claims skepticism week later. The main study consisted of a one-factor (price premium: (Mohr et al. 1998) and hindrances to buying green (adapted from none vs. 20% premium for more green product) between-subjects Harris Interactive 2008). A separate follow-up study using an adult design. Participants were shown two laundry detergents which were panel further validates the GREEN measure. identical except that one received an excellent environmental score We also assess the relationship of green attitudes with both mon- whereas the alternative product received an average environmental etary and nonmonetary resources. Regarding monetary resources, rating. In the no premium condition, the two products were the same consumers demonstrating a higher level of GREEN were also found price, whereas in the price premium condition, the green product to be more frugal, more self-controlled, and more value and price (high rating) was listed at 20% higher. Respondents indicated which conscious suggesting that consumers who express green attitudes of the two products they preferred on a 9-point scale. are also quite sensitive to the wise use of financial resources. For Results indicated, as expected, an interaction of GREEN and physical resource consumption, product retention tendency and use price premium condition such that GREEN consumers are more innovativeness were positively related to GREEN, suggesting that likely to prefer premium-priced green products than are non-GREEN consumers with strong green attitudes are also reluctant to discard of consumers. However, both GREEN and non-GREEN consumers possessions and likely to find new ways to use existing possessions. significantly prefer the equally-priced green option. The signifi- Study 2. We examined the extent to which GREEN predicted cant decline in the price premium condition, even among GREEN behavioral intentions and product choice. Measuring GREEN three consumers, demonstrates their value on both environmental and weeks in advance of reported behaviors and choice, results indicated economic goals. Though important to equalize price of green prod- participants choosing a reusable grocery bag (green option; n=99) ucts as much as possible, these results indicate there is a segment had a higher average green score than those choosing the pens (non- of consumers willing to pay the premium for green. green option; M=4.23 vs. 3.70, F(1, 235)=11.68, p<.001). GREEN Clearly, understanding the multiple motivations underlying was also positively correlated (r=.73) with reported likelihood of consumers’ decisions regarding green products will help man- engaging in eight green behaviors such as recycling (adapted from agers better market their environmentally-friendly alternatives. Straughan and Roberts 1999).This study provides evidence that Furthermore, theoretical insights are provided by considering the our simple measure of GREEN predicts behavioral intentions and goal conflict inherent in valuing green products while valuing actual behaviors. conservation of monetary resources. Study 3. Though high GREEN consumers conserve monetary and physical resources, they also value environmentally-friendly products. Goldsmith and Dhar (2008) state that green products can be positioned based on two distinct dimensions: self benefits (gentle on your skin) or earth benefits (save the planet). If costs are

685 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 686 / It’s all about THE GREENS: Conflicting Motives and Making Green Work References Antil, John H. (1984), “Socially Responsible Consumers: Profile and Implications for Public Policy,” Journal of Macromarket- ing, 5 (2), 18-39. Goldsmith, Kelly and Ravi Dhar (2008), “Getting Gold by Going Green: The Importance of Fitting the Message to the Mindset,” Advances in Consumer Research. 36, eds. Ann L. McGill and Sharon Shavitt, Duluth, MN: Association for Consumer Research. Mohr, Lois A., Dogan Eroglu, and Pam Scholder Ellen (1998), “The Development and Testing of a Measure of Skepticism Toward Environmental Claims in Marketers’ Communica- tions,” Journal of Consumer Affairs, 32 (1), 30-56. Roberts, James A. (1995), “Profiling Levels of Socially Respon- sible Consumer Behavior: A Cluster Analytic Approach and its Implications for Marketing,” Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, 3 (4), 97-118. Straughan, Robert D. and James A. Roberts (1999), “Environ- mental Segmentation Alternatives: A Look at Green Consum- er Behavior in the New Millenium,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16 (6), 558-575. Webb, Deborah J., Lois A. Mohr, and Katherine E. Har- ris (2008), “A Re-Examination of Socially Responsible Consumption and Its Measurement,” Journal of Business Research, 61 (2), 91-98. Webster, Frederick E. Jr. (1975), “Determining Characteristics of the Socially Conscious Consumer,” Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (3), 188-196. Green Requests: Issue Importance and Compliance with Assertive Language Ann Kronrod, Ben-Gurion University, Israel Amir Grinstein, Ben-Gurion University, Israel Luc Wathieu, ESMT, Germany

Extended Abstract prediction, we found significantly higher ratio of clicking the asser- tive ad after typing in a sea related search word, and significantly Background higher clicking on the non-assertive ad after typing in a general While any request limits the freedom of the addressee (Brown search word. and Levinson, 1987), assertive language is even more restricting, as it leaves the addressee an even smaller option for refusal (Searle, Studies 2 and 3 1969; Vanderveken 1990). Consequently, as it is shown in previous In order to support our socio-linguistic explanation which research, assertive message phrasings typically decrease compliance involves issue importance, we conducted two studies which were with the message, compared with non-assertive messages (e.g., similar in their 2 by 2 design, but different in type of behavior and Dillard and Shen 2005; Edwards, Li, and Lee 2002; Quick and Con- in operationalization. sidine 2008). However, some counterintuitive findings (e.g. Buller, Study 1 used an assertive and a non-assertive message regard- Borland, and Burgoon 1998) imply that compliance with assertive ing an important (water economy) and an unimportant (recycling language can be elevated in situations of higher issue importance. plastic containers) issue for the specific society we examined (www. We show this general phenomenon, employing the example of hh-law.co.il). Participants (N=102) were exposed to a short and messages which relate to environmental behavior. Issue importance simple message, which was either assertive or non-assertive and plays a great role in consumer’s reaction to environmental campaigns related either to water economy or to recycling plastic containers. because environmental issues bear a non-personal character and The assertive message read: “You must economize water/recycle therefore are generally less close to the consumer’s heart. While plastic containers.” The non-assertive message read: “It’s worth the common finding is that assertive environmental messages result economizing water/recycling plastic containers.” After reading the in low compliance (e.g., Lord 1994; Shrum, Lowrey, and McCarty message participants filled out a questionnaire which measured issue 1994), many environment-related issues are being promoted ag- importance and compliance intention. Results revealed a signifi- gressively through assertive messages such as “Use only what you cantly higher compliance intention with the assertive message vs. a need!”–the Denver water economy campaign. non-assertive message calling for water economy. As predicted, for We suggest that issue importance not only diminishes non- recycling messages there was no difference in compliance intentions compliance with assertive messages, but even leads to higher com- between people who read an assertive and a non-assertive message. pliance with assertive messages than with non-assertive ones. The Study 2 manipulated issue importance by addressing two key reason for this suggestion is that when an issue is important, different groups: low issue importance (students of Business an assertive message supports one’s attitude, while a non-assertive school, N=53) vs. high issue importance (students of Agriculture request may have the opposite influence as it implies a non-serious and Environment, N=52). Assertiveness was manipulated using attitude toward the issue. Thus, we hypothesize that when an issue the recycling related materials from Study 1. Our results showed is considered important and the message is assertive, the fit between an interaction for assertiveness and issue importance: while for message phrasing and consumer’s attitude leads to higher compli- Business students there was no difference in compliance as an ef- ance. A non-assertive message in this situation would contradict fect of assertiveness, Environment students showed significantly consumer’s ends and yield lower compliance. However, if an issue higher compliance intentions with an assertive recycling message is not deemed important, a non-assertive message would be a higher than with a non-assertive one. fit than and assertive one, resulting in higher compliance with a non-assertive message. Study 4 We hypothesized that the effect of compliance with an assertive Method message can be created by temporarily elevating issue importance. This is an important point because of its practical implications. In this Study 1–Field Study study we temporarily elevated issue importance using a clip about The purpose of the study was to measure compliance with an air pollution. Participants (N=146) were divided into two groups: assertive versus a non-assertive ad as an effect of issue importance. one group first completed a general environmental issue importance To meet our hypothesis we created a 2 (assertiveness) by 2 (issue questionnaire, then saw the clip, and then completed an air-pollution importance) design in the following way: issue importance questionnaire and compliance intention questions. Assertiveness manipulation: We placed two sponsored links The second group filled out all three measures in a row. in Google Adwords advertising system, calling viewers to sign a Results: While the groups did not differ in general envi- petition to save the Mediterranean Sea: one assertive (You must ronmental issue importance, the group that saw the clip showed save the Mediterranean Sea!) and one non-assertive (You could significantly higher air-pollution issue importance. This evidence save the Mediterranean Sea.) implies that issue importance can indeed be temporally elevated. Issue importance conditioning: Two types of search words Further, the group that saw the clip revealed significantly higher were identified: Sea-related (e.g. Mediterranean Sea pollution) and compliance intention with the assertive pollution message than with General (e.g. knitting machines). We relied on the assumption that the non-assertive message, while the group that did not see the clip people who type a sea-related search word deem higher importance revealed no difference in compliance intention. These results sug- to sea pollution than people who type in a general word. gest that even a temporarily elevated issue importance can affect We then compared the number of clicks on each of the ads, compliance with assertive environmental messages. following a general or a sea-related search word. In line with our

687 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 688 / Green Requests: Issue Importance and Compliance with Assertive Language Summary Lakoff, Robin T. and Sachiko Ide (eds.), Broadening the Horizon When compliance is the goal, issue importance appears to be of Linguistic Politeness. (Pragmatics and Beyond New Series, 139). a central variable in determining message phrasing. This is true not Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2005. only for environmental issues, but also in health related promotion Levin, Irwin P., Sandra Schneider L., and Gary Gaeth J. (1998), (e.g. sunscreen usage), and possibly even in encouraging the public “All Frames Are Not Created Equal: A Typology and Critical Analysis to pay taxes regularly. We therefore hope to further explore this of Framing Effects,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision general and straightforward mechanism of the influence of issue Processes, 76(2), 149-88. importance on perception of assertive requests. Lindsey, Lisa L. 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Green and Guilt Free: The Role of Guilt in Determining the Effectiveness of Environmental Appeals in Advertising John Peloza, Simon Fraser University, Canada Jingzhi Shang, Simon Fraser University, Canada Katherine White, University of Calgary, Canada

EXTENDED ABSTRACT Study 2 (n=119) uses the presence of others as the basis for Virtually every product available on the market can boast at least stimulating anticipatory guilt and promoting response to green some environmentally-friendly attributes. But consumer response marketing appeals. Two brands of granola bars (Kellogg’s and to marketers’ positioning their offerings on the basis environmental Quaker) were used, and offered to participants through either a attributes–so-called green marketing–is relatively unstudied, and has green or performance-based appeal. Participants viewed the ads produced equivocal results. Consumers’ concern for the environment and selected products either alone or as part of a small group. As does not predict responsiveness to green marketing, or marketing expected, those in the group condition favored the green appeals communications that positions itself on the basis of environmental (68% versus 32% selection based on the performance-based appeal). attributes (Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius 1995). One promising In the alone condition, appeals were equally successful (49% green stream of research examines the role of marketing communications versus 51% performance-based), χ2 (1)=4.518, p=.034. in stimulating consumer demand for green products. However, the Mediation analysis again confirms the role of anticipatory guilt efficacy of green marketing strategies remains equivocal (e.g., Kan- in the preference for green appeals. The regression of guilt on set- gun, Carlson and Grove 1991; Montoro-Rios, Luque-Martinez and ting (group versus alone) was significant β( =-.427, t=-2.63, p=.01), Rodriguez-Molina 2008) and research examining how consumers as was the regression of product choice (product corresponding to can be motivated to engage in environmentally friendly actions is either the green or performance-based appeal) on guilt (β=-.831, relatively understudied (Goldstein, Cialdini and Griskevicius 2008). Wald=10.671, p=.001). Product choice was regressed on setting, In this article we examine the process by which the implicit which was also significant β( =.803, Wald=4.452, p=.035), and finally anticipation of guilt leads consumers to make product selections in product choice was regressed on both product category and guilt. favor of marketing communications that highlight environmentally- Product category was no longer significant β( =.570, Wald=2.01, friendly attributes. While previous research has examined explicit p=.156) while guilt was highly significant β( =-.771, Wald=8.95, guilt appeals that directly induce consumer guilt, we find that the p=.003). The Sobel test was significant as well, z=2.052, p=.02. increased prominence of environmental information in advertis- In study 3 (n=111) we manipulate the relevant social norms ing is itself enough to alleviate consumer guilt in situations where and seek to either stimulate perceived expectations to respond to a guilt has been implicitly activated. Across three studies we find green appeal, or give participants “permission” to choose a product that consumers respond most positively to environmental appeals based on performance-based (i.e., self-serving) appeals. The same when the product category is hedonic in nature, when the setting brands of granola from study 2 were used, but prior to the experi- is public, and when relevant social norms are activated. We find ment participants were primed with the relevant social norm (White evidence that green marketing can be successful in guiding consumer and Peloza 2009). As expected, green appeals were more successful choice, and that this effect is mediated through anticipatory guilt. in the environmental norm prime condition (64% versus 36%) but Study 1 used brands in a hedonic category (Chocolate: Mars in the product performance prime, participants responded to the and Cadbury) and utilitarian category (Soap: Dove and Ivory), each performance-based appeal 57% of the time, χ2 (1)=5.020, p=.025. positioned via a green appeal or a performance-based appeal (e.g., Mediation analysis again confirms the role of anticipatory taste, cleansing ingredients). Information in each appeal was held guilt in participants’ product selection. The regression of guilt on constant. The design of either appeal was based on color, images norm manipulation (environmental versus product performance) and prominence given to environmental attributes. was significant β( =-.818, t=-4.309, p<.001), as was the regres- Participants (n=99) in the hedonic category responded more sion of product choice (choice corresponding to either green or positively to the green appeal (74% chose the brand promoted through performance-based appeal) on guilt (β=-.526, Wald=7.318, p=.007). a green appeal versus 26% for the brand that used a performance- The regression of product choice norm manipulation was significant based appeal). Those in the utilitarian category responded more (β=.854, Wald=4.943, p =.026), and finally, product choice was to the performance-based appeal (67% versus 33% for the green regressed on both product category and guilt. Product category appeal), χ2 (1)=22.365, p<.001. Mediation analysis to test for the was no longer significant β( =.534, Wald=1.653, p=.199) while role of anticipatory guilt confirms that the preference for the green guilt was significant β( =-.433, Wald=4.471, p=.034). The Sobel appeal is based on implicit guilt related to the product category. test was significant as well, z=2.689, p=.003. To test for mediation through anticipatory guilt, first guilt was re- gressed on the product category, which was significant β( =-1.996, REFERENCES t=-10.269, p<.001). Next, the product choice (choice corresponding Auger, Pat, Timothy Devinney, Jordan Louviere, and Paul Burke to either the green or performance-based appeal) was regressed on (2008), “Do Social Product Features Have Value to Consum- guilt using logistic regression, which was also significant β( =-1.904, ers?” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 25 (3), Wald=26.124, p<.001). Product choice was regressed on product 183-91. category, which was also significant β( =-2.070, Wald=20.456, Auger, Pat and Timothy Devinney (2007), “Do What Consumers p<.001), and finally product choice was regressed on both product Say Matter? The Misalignment of Preferences with Uncon- category and guilt. Product category was no longer significant strained Ethical Intentions,” Journal of Business Ethics, 76 (β=1.029, Wald=1.565, p=.211) while guilt was highly significant (4), 361-83. (β=-2.239, Wald=22.388, p<.001). A Sobel test (Baron and Kenny 1986) was significant as well, z=4.583, p<.001.

689 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 690 / Green and Guilt Free: The Role of Guilt in Determining the Effectiveness of Environmental Appeals in Advertising Baron, Reuben M. and David A. Kenny (1986), “The Moder- Montoro-Rios, Francisco Javier, Teodoro Luque-Martinez, ator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological and Miguel-Angel Rodriguez-Molina (2008), “How Green Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Consider- Should You Be: Can Environmental Associations Enhance ations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6), Brand Performance?” Journal of Advertising Research, 547- 1173-82. 63. Basil, Debra Z., Nancy M. Ridgway and Michael D. Basil Okada, Erica Mina (2005), “Justification Effects on Consumer (2006), “Guilt Appeals: The Mediating Effect of Responsibil- Choice of Hedonic and Utilitarian Goods,” Journal of Mar- ity,” Psychology & Marketing, 23(12), 1035-54. keting Research, 42, 43-53. Baumeister, Roy F., Harry T. 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(2005), “Three Rs of Interpersonal Consumer Guilt: Rela- Wansink, Brian and Pierre Chandon (2006), “Can ‘Low-Fat’ tionship, Reciprocity, Reparation,” Journal of Consumer Nutrition Labels lead to Obesity?” Journal of Marketing Psychology, 15 (4), 307-15. Research, 43, 605-17. Dahl, Darren W., Heather Honea, and Rajesh V. Manchanda Wertenbroch, Klaus (1998), “Consumption Self-Control by (2003), “The Nature of Self-Reported Guilt in Consumption Rationing Purchase Quantities of Virtue and Vice,” Marketing Contexts,” Marketing Letters, 14(3), 159-71. Science, 17(4), 317-37. Ellen, Pam Scholder, Joshua Lyle Wiener, and Cathy Cobb- White, Katherine and John Peloza (2009), “Other-Benefit Versus Walgren (1991), “The Role of Perceived Consumer Effective- Other-Self-Benefit Marketing Appeals: Their Effectiveness ness in Motivating Environmentally Conscious Behaviors,” in Generating Charitable Support,” Journal of Marketing, 73 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 10 (2), 102-17. (4), 109-24. 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Extended Abstract

Summary of the Paper Previous research has found that compared to men, women are significantly more likely to consider eWOM consumer reviews as informative, and report that they are more likely to use these in their decision-making. Women also exhibit the negativity bias, viz. find reviewers of negative eWOM significantly more trust- worthy than those who write positive reviews, in comparison with men. We investigate the role of gender differences in consumers’ self-construals in influencing these attitudes towards the virtual reviewers writing the eWOM consumer reviews. We find that the differences in a person’s relational-interdependent self-construal is an underlying reason leading to this gendered difference in the trust of a virtual eWOM reviewer.

Conceptualization Based on our research and the extant literature, we propose two hypotheses relating to the effect of gender on the trust of eWOM reviewers. In our first hypothesis, we propose how this relationship between gender and trust of the reviewer may be moderated by review valence and the type of product being reviewed. We draw from previous research (Sen and Lerman 2007; Sen (forthcoming)) and propose that women will more likely exhibit the negativity bias than men, and moreover, be more likely to trust a virtual reviewer writing a negative review for a utilitarian product than for a hedonic product. To investigate the process of this gendered difference, we explore the role played by the subject’s relational-interdependent self-construal (RISC), since literature in social psychology has demonstrated that many gender differences in cognition, motivation, emotion, and social behavior may be explained in terms of men’s and women’s different self-construals (e.g., Sherif 1982; Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Baumeister 1998; Greenwald & Pratkanis, 1984; Markus & Wurf, 1987).

Method A 2 (Gender: male, female) x 2 (Review valence: negative, positive) x 2 (Product type: hedonic, utilitarian) between-subjects experiment was conducted. Proposition 1 was tested using linear regression. Subjects’ relational-interdependent self-construal (RISC) was measured using the scale developed by Cross et al. (2000), and used to test mediation of the effect of gender on the trust of an eWOM reviewer by the subject’s RISC score (Proposition 2). The mediation was tested by using the 3 step regression analysis suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986).

Major Findings We found support for our mediated moderation model in Proposition 2 which posited that relational-interdependent self- construal (RISC) would mediate the effect in Proposition 1 and would be the reason behind the gender differences in trust of the virtual reviewer. Our finding is consistent with Cross and Madson (1997)’s view that individuals’ self facilitates their engagement in and adaptation to the environments, and we believe that in the case of women, their higher RISC motivates them to adapt their attitudes or behavior to the virtual reviewer, to ensure a smooth and harmonious interaction (e.g., having trust in the motivations of the virtual reviewer.)

691 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Conversations Sell: How Dialogical Judgments and Goals Underpin the Success of Viral Videos T. E. Dominic Yeo, University of Cambridge, UK

EXTENDED ABSTRACT This paper proposes that a video becomes a viral phenomenon The potential for online videos to command widespread atten- when it is sufficiently elaborated within a social group and shared tion without the need for extensive resources or interference from ideas begin to emerge. The ability to make conversations about the traditional media gatekeepers has attracted millions of profession- video is arguably the most proximal determinant in this process. als and consumers alike to put up videos on media-sharing sites Tracing the goals and linkages that preceded this goal can illumi- like YouTube in the hope that they will go viral. Highly successful nate the process that leads a video to virality. The studies show that viral videos can command a large following, obtain substantial salient aspects of individuals’ representations of viral videos do not media coverage, and may spawn a slew of remixes that feeds on arise from item characteristics but correspond to the relationships their popularity. But viral phenomena are fraught with uncertainty. between people and the item, and the events represented by these Without a clearer understanding of the forces driving individuals to relationships. They also reveal that the role of media coverage in pass on viral contents or engage in word-of-mouth communications facilitating a video going viral was not in raising the salience of about them, explicit efforts to stimulate buzz through deliberate any particular issue but in helping people understand what went on. viral attempts run the risk of backfiring. The findings suggest that the buzz and virality arising from the This paper illustrates an approach to explicate virality by ex- video were attributable to participants’ goals to create and negotiate amining how individuals make sense of a viral phenomenon, and social relationships through conversations with others in their social engage in interpersonal communication about it. Successful viral group. The need for personal judgments about the video becomes videos are typified by their phenomenological attributes—people extenuated when participants were initially drawn to the video ow- typically mention a viral video by first talking about the elements for ing to others’ recommendations or to a lesser extent because it was its popularity or about the attention it receives. In this way, a highly widely talked about. In such circumstances, participants would rely significant quality for virality is based on how the video becomes on the judgments of others provided that their superordinate goal elaborated within the group it is popular with. What people find was to create conversation topics. This point to the importance of salient, meaningful and useful about the video, and the degree to examining consumers’ goal-directed behaviors when seeking expla- which these knowledge structures are commonly shared within the nations for the persuasiveness of word-of-mouth communication. group are fundamental to the communicative success of the video. 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692 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 When Electronic Recommendation Agents Backfire Joseph Lajos, HEC Paris, France Amitava Chattopadhyay, INSEAD, Singapore Kishore Sengupta, INSEAD, Singpore

Extended Abstract Based on Wilson et al.’s classic finding that when people care- Online nutrition retailers offer consumers an enormous selec- fully analyze the reasons underlying their decisions they become tion of highly nutritious foods, drinks, and dietary supplements. biased to overweight utilitarian considerations and underweight For a novice health and fitness enthusiast, deciding which of these hedonic considerations (see Wilson and Dunn 1985), we predicted categories of products are likely to be helpful, and then choosing that participants in the agent condition would be more likely to choose individual products within those particular categories, can be con- one of the four relatively utilitarian brands compared to participants fusing, even when only a few options are available. For example, in the control condition. The data supported this prediction. The when selecting a nutrition bar, consumers may consider a diverse data also revealed that although the total amount of time that par- array of product attributes, including Calories, fat content, fiber ticipants spent examining the brands did not differ between the two content, glycemic index, protein to carbohydrate ratio, protein conditions (suggesting that participants in the agent condition did quality, and vitamin and mineral content, among others. Typically, not blindly follow the recommendations provided to them), across the product that is best for a given consumer will depend on a these conditions participants who ultimately selected a utilitarian variety of individual factors as well, such as age, eating patterns, brand spent more time on average examining the brands than did exercise frequency and intensity, gender, and strength and weight those who ultimately selected a hedonic brand, consistent with the goals, among others. notion that utilitarian choices result from more intensive processing This example illustrates how the increasing selection of prod- than do hedonic choices (Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999). ucts and product features available in the marketplace, and especially The data further revealed that, in addition to influencing par- online, has increased the complexity of many purchase decisions. ticipants’ brand choices, use of an electronic recommendation agent Since consumers do not want more choices per se, but rather the reduced their satisfaction with the chosen brand. This is consistent more customized options that expanded choice can bring (Pine, with Wilson et al.’s (1993) finding that analyzing reasons can reduce Peppers, and Rogers 2005), it follows that the attractiveness of the post-choice satisfaction. Furthermore, the data revealed that among expanded choice set offered by internet retailers depends on the participants in the agent condition satisfaction was lower among ability of consumers to sort through it efficiently (Alba et al. 1997). those who chose a utilitarian brand than among those who chose a Product recommendation websites assist consumers in making hedonic brand, whereas among participants in the control condition complex purchase decisions in diverse product categories. These satisfaction did not differ between those who chose a utilitarian or websites provide electronic recommendation agents that first ask hedonic brand. These findings suggest that the observed decrease users questions about individual factors and their preferences for in satisfaction among participants who used an agent resulted from product attributes, and then rate available products on the basis of the utilitarian bias that was induced by interacting with the agent. It their responses. The goals of these agents include improving deci- seems that after some time had passed participants’ decision bases sion quality and increasing satisfaction (West et al. 1999). returned to their normal levels, leading those who had selected a Although previous research has extensively examined the influ- utilitarian brand after interacting with the agent to regret their choice. ence of electronic recommendation agent use on decision quality We observed this same pattern of results with a rich set of ad- (e.g., Haubl and Trifts 2000), far less research has examined effects ditional dependent variables, including participants’ taste ratings, on satisfaction. Furthermore, those papers that have examined their likelihood of purchasing the chosen brand, and their likelihood satisfaction have primarily focused on satisfaction with the choice of recommending the chosen brand to a friend. process (e.g., Bechwati and Xia 2003), rather than on satisfaction In a planned second study, which we will conduct before ACR, with the choice itself. However, choice satisfaction is important we will attempt to rule out alternative explanations based on the to marketers, since it has been shown to influence attitudes and content of the agents’ recommendations. In the study, participants purchase intentions (Oliver 1980). who use an agent will either receive a set of recommendations that, In this paper, we examine how use of an electronic recom- unbeknownst to them, has been generated randomly, or, after provid- mendation agent for nutrition bars impacts consumers’ choice ing their responses to the agents’ questions, will receive a message satisfaction, attitudes, and purchase intentions over a period of saying that the recommendation agent server has malfunctioned and one to two weeks, the time frame in which repurchase decisions that the brands will therefore be displayed randomly. for nutrition bars are typically made. By showing that including a product in an electronic recom- We conducted an experiment within the nutrition bar prod- mendation agent can have negative consequences, our results give uct category. The experimental design had two between-subjects a word of caution to managers. In particular, our results suggest conditions (recommendation agent vs. control). People recruited that marketers who manage relatively utilitarian brands within outside a behavioral laboratory near a large, urban university were product categories in which both hedonic and utilitarian brands assigned to one of the conditions and asked to examine descrip- are established should be especially cautious. Although agents tions of eight brands of nutrition bars (four of which were relatively might help increase short-term sales of such products by leading utilitarian, and four of which were relatively hedonic) and to select consumers to overweight utilitarian product attributes and under- one of these brands to sample at home. 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Extended Abstract In four studies, we activate physical balance through a variety Philosophers and linguists have long postulated that meta- of means and observe a consistent increase in the choice share of phorical language is more than a simple cultural construction, but options that offer various forms of parity. In study 1, participants reflects deeper cognitive relationships (Aristotle, circa 335 BCE). played one of three games on the Wii FitTM while simultaneously According to research on embodied cognition, our understanding responding to a verbal survey administered by a research assistant of abstract concepts is grounded in physical experience (Lakoff & that was blind to the hypotheses of the study. Two of these games Johnson, 1999). New, unfamiliar, abstract concepts are understood (Yoga and Penguin Slide) activated significantly more thoughts on through metaphorical association with familiar, physical activities physical balance than the neutral (Jogging) condition. Participants in a process known as “scaffolding” (Williams, Huang, & Bargh selected a printer and a car from a set of three choice options 2009). Because language utilizes neural systems that were developed that included a compromise choice. Participants in the Yoga and for other purposes, the activation of motor behavior can similarly Penguin Slide conditions demonstrated an increased selection of activate the deeper cognitive associations that are scaffolded onto both a compromise printer (M=40% vs. M=23%) and a compro- that motor behavior. Similarly, activation of an abstract concept can mise car (M=55% vs. M=38%). The pooled test was significant activate the motor regions of the brain upon which it was scaffolded. (z=1.99, p=.05). We examine the balance metaphor, which has not been experi- In study 2, physical balance is activated through mental simula- mentally demonstrated to exhibit multi-modal influence. Balance is tion. Participants performed a fifteen second mental simulation of one of the earliest developing and most pervasive physical metaphors either walking across a balance beam in perfect balance, walking (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). Beginning in early childhood, people across a balance beam with poor balance, or swinging around a high learn through repeated experiences the importance of maintaining bar. Those in either of the two balanced beam conditions selected physical balance. To bipedal mammals, balance is so fundamental the compromise computer (M=66% and M=63%) more often for well-being that balance and anxiety disorders share neuronal than those in the high bar condition (M=45%, z=2.04, p=.04). The circuitry and commonly co-occur (Balaban & Thayer, 2001; Fur- results suggest that the strength of activation of balance metaphor man & Jacob, 2001). As a learner encodes the actions required to is not dependent on the kind of physical activation, unbalanced or obtain balance, they are also encoding other relevant information balanced. Furthermore, the results indicate that the activation of the from the learning context. One of the important ways that a standing association between balance and parity occurs even when balance person obtains balance is by equalizing the weight placed across is activated through mental simulation. both feet. In the learning process, the concept of balance and the In study 3, the balance metaphor is activated through supra- need for evenness are encoded concurrently, creating a strong mental liminal exposure to balance symbols. In the balance condition, association between these two concepts. the four corners of the web survey displayed a crude silhouette of The neural connection between physical balance and the more a balance (see Figure 2). In the control condition, no picture was abstract concept of evenness or parity is evidenced by many meta- shown. The survey asked participants to make six meal choices; each phoric phrases from the English language. Accountants “balance the choice set showed two meals, with one meal being more balanced ledger” while chemists “balance equations.” Fair-minded individuals than the other (offering greater parity across food groups). In the ascertain “both sides of the story”, and someone in control of her balance condition, participants chose the balanced meal 68% of the emotions is said to be “even-tempered.” (Many of these metaphors time as opposed to only 56% of the time for the control. A logistic are similar in other languages.) These idioms are best understood in regression on meal choices showed that condition assignment was the guise of a twin-pan balance scale evaluating opposing abstract significant, t(399)=2.3, p=.02. states. The balancing apparatus reaches equilibrium when both pans Finally, study 4 activates semantic representations of the balance hold equal portions. Similarly, accounts are balanced when they metaphor. We asked half the participants to write for three minutes reflect equal parts debits and credits, while truth is ascertained when about a time when their life felt “out of balance”. These participants opposing viewpoints are weighed against each other. choose the compromise computer more often (M=83%) than those These balance-based metaphors arise because of the strong who wrote about their typical day (M=50%), z=2.15, p<.05. neural connections between balance and parity that are encoded Across four studies, we activate balance a number of ways and during infancy. Exposure to balance metaphors causes concurrent demonstrate that such activation consistently leads to an increase activation of the neural systems governing balance and the neural in the choice of options that offer parity. systems governing cognitions about parity, which strengthens the association (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). Repeated exposure to sym- References bolic representations of balance, for example the twin-pan balance Aristotle, The Poetics (circa 335 BCE). scale and the yin and yang symbol, also reinforces the link between Balaban, C.D., Thayer, J.F. (2001). Neurological bases for bal- balance and parity. ance-anxiety links. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 15, 53-79. Given this link between the neural systems governing balance Furman, J.M., & Jacob, R.G. (2001). A clinical taxonomy of diz- and more abstract thoughts on parity, we expect that experiencing ziness and anxiety in the otoneurological setting. Journal of physical balance should consequently access the mental representa- Anxiety Disorders, 15, 9-26. tion of the balance metaphor, which is closely associated with the Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh. New need for parity, and thereby influence choice. Engaging in physical York, NY: Basic Books. balance activities should activate instinctual desires for balance, and thereby enhance the desirability of metaphorically balanced choice options. Specifically, activation of physical balance should increase the desire for choice options that offer some form of parity. 695 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 696 / Balance as an Embodiment of Parity Williams, L.E., Huang, J.Y. & Bargh, J.A.(2009). The scaf- folded mind: Higher mental processes are grounded in early experience of the physical world. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 1257-1267. Zaltman, G. & Zaltman, L. (2008). Marketing metaphoria: What deep metaphors reveal about the minds of consumers. Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard Business Press. Staying Warm in the Winter: Seeking Psychological Warmth to Reduce Physical Coldness Yan Zhang, National University of Singapore, Singapore Jane Risen, University of Chicago, USA

Extended Abstract warm events is reduced when participants were reminded that their On a cold, snowy night, there is nothing better than sitting motivation to reduce coldness will be met through physical means, by the fire and drinking a hot cup of cocoa. It is a basic human indicating that psychological warmth and physical warmth are two drive to seek physical warmth when feeling cold. This research means for satisfying the same goal of reducing a feeling of coldness. explores whether there also exists a drive to seek psychological Our findings support the argument that while people satisfy warmth when feeling cold. On a cold, snowy night, are people their physical goals through physical means, the mapping between especially interested in having a romantic dinner with a loved one mind and body also leads them to satisfy their physical goals through or a phone conversation with a dear friend? More broadly, we ask: psychological means. This research adds to the growing body of When people are physically cold, are they motivated to engage in work supporting a theory of embodied cognition, and specifically to psychologically warm activities? work suggesting that the mental concepts of psychological warmth Psychologically warm events are positive experiences that and social connection are deeply rooted in the sensorimotor experi- promote a feeling of social connection. Recent research on embodied ence of physical warmth. In addition, the present work goes beyond cognition suggests that a link exists between physical warmth and demonstrating a conceptual mapping between the physical sensation psychological warmth (IJzerman & Semin, 2009; Williams & Bargh, of warmth and the psychological experience of warmth. It highlights 2008; Zhong & Leonardelli, 2008). For instance, people perceive the role of goals and motivation in the link between the mind and a target individual to be “warm” (e.g., kind and charitable) when the body. We find that the link leads people to satisfy their physical they are holding a hot cup of coffee (Williams & Bargh, 2008), goal with actions that could satisfy the matching psychological goal. they perceive themselves to be socially close to others when they Namely, when people are motivated to reduce physical coldness, are in a warm room (IJzerman & Semin, 2009), and they report they show interest in events that promote psychological warmth. feeling physically cold when they are socially excluded (Zhong & Leonardelli, 2008). In this research we suggest that psychological warmth, like physical warmth, is perceived as a means of reducing the feeling of coldness. As a result, people are more interested in engaging in psychologically warm activities when they are physically cold. This argument goes beyond the “metaphor” or “priming” domain of embodied cognition research. Instead of asking whether activities will be perceived as psychologically warmer or colder, we focus on the goal-oriented nature of the phenomenon and test whether feeling cold motivates people to seek psychological warmth. We suggest psychological warmth and physical warmth are two means for satisfying the same goal of reducing a feeling of coldness. Study 1 supports the basic prediction by showing that cold participants are especially interested in psychologically warm ac- tivities. Specifically, participants who completed a questionnaire outside in the cold in a Midwestern city’s winter showed more interest in warm events than in non-warm activities, but those who completed the study inside a heated building were equally interested in warm and non-warm activities. Study 2 extends the work to real-world behavior. Beginning a romantic relationship is perhaps the most powerful tool for forging social connection. We find that participants are more likely to start relationships in cold weather than end them. In Study 3, we primed people either with the goal of reducing physical coldness or the concept of coldness. The results showed that priming people with the goal of reducing physical coldness led to greater interest in both physically and psy- chologically warm events (relative to non-warm events), but priming people with the concept of coldness did not, suggesting that it is the motivation to reduce coldness that is central to people’s interest in warm events. Finally, in Study 4, to test whether psychological warmth and physical warmth are two means for satisfying the same goal of reducing a feeling of coldness, we asked participants to fill out the same questionnaire as in Study 1 either outside in the cold or inside a heated building. However, half of the participants were reminded that they would step into a heated building momentarily. We replicated the results of Study 1 in the no-reminder condition, showing that people showed greater interest in psychologically warm events if they were feeling physically cold than if they were not feeling cold; but this increased interest in psychologically 697 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 The Influence of Mirror Decoration on Food Taste Ataollah Tafaghodi Jami, University of Utah, USA Himanshu Mishra, University of Utah, USA

Extended Abstract Lalwani 2001). Accordingly, the second study showed that when Recent studies show an alarming increase in obesity in the participants did not perceive themselves to be responsible for eating United States with 74.1% of the population over 15 years old the unhealthy food (i.e., when they think that there is no choice considered overweight (Streib 2007). Various organizations are and they have to do it), they did not give a lower evaluation to the dealing with this issue and trying different weight-loss strategies taste of the unhealthy food in the mirror condition compared to the such as low-carbohydrate diets, physical exercises, fat burning or no-mirror condition. appetite reducing pills, and fat removal surgeries. At the same time, Research has also found that simplicity of the connection others are looking for more self-driven ways of controlling obesity between cause and effect is an important factor for the attribution by changing people’s eating habits and introducing standards of system; and people tend to attribute the effects to the most plausible healthy eating. The aim of these standards is to promote eating of causes (Duval, Silvia, and Lalwani 2001). Therefore, we expected healthy foods and prevent unhealthy eating practices. Emphasizing that introducing a more plausible cause for the negative affect would by media and many food producers through calorie or fiber intake, move the attribution of discomfort away from the unhealthy food smaller portions, and reduced fat or fat-free products, standards of taste. Study 3 supported this expectation and showed that when we healthy eating have been widely accepted. However, there are still introduced music as a more plausible cause of the negative affect, many people who do not follow these standards though they believe participants did not evaluate the taste of the unhealthy food to be that it is harmful for them. lower in the mirror condition compared to the no-mirror condition. One of the critical aspects of unhealthy foods, which attracts In sum, this research contributes to the extant body of literature people’s attention and convince them to choose it over a healthy on the self-awareness theory by demonstrating the link between option, is the taste of unhealthy foods. Research has shown that the self-awareness and the attribution of feelings induced by the regardless of the actual taste, considering a food as less healthy self-standards comparison system. At a practical level, results of makes it more tasty (Raghunathan, Naylor, and Hoyer 2006). Thus, this research suggest that mirror decoration can be used in food making an unhealthy food less tasty could potentially reduce its consumption settings to decrease unhealthy eating practices as consumption and help people to practice healthy food consumption. mirrors make the consumption of an unhealthy food less pleasant. Therefore, in this research, we investigated the possibility of mak- ing unhealthy foods less tasty without changing their ingredients. References Past research has shown that self-focused people tend to com- Baumeister, Roy F. (1995), “Self and Identity: An Introduction,” pare themselves with standards of correctness (Duval and Wicklund in Advanced Social Psychology, ed. A. Tesser, New York: 1972), and experience positive affect when they act in concert with McGraw-Hill, 50-97. standards, and negative affect when they act in opposition to stan- Beaman, Arthur L., Bonnel Klentz, Edward Diener, and Soren dards (Duval, Silvia, and Lalwani 2001). The person who feels the Svanum (1979), “Self-Awareness and Transgression in Chil- positive or negative affect does not immediately know why he or dren: Two Field Studies,” Journal of Personality and Social she has such feelings (Oatley and Johnson-Laird 1996). Moreover, Psychology, 37 (10), 1835-46. research has shown that self-focused people tend to attribute posi- Carmon, Ziv, Klaus Wertenbroch, and Marcel Zeelenberg (2003), tive events to self and negative events to external factors (Duval, “Option Attachment: When Deliberating Makes Choosing Silvia, and Lalwani 2001). Feel Like Losing,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (1), Since mirror, as a self-awareness enhancing tool, can be 15-29. used as a decorative item in many food consumption settings, this Cohen, Jerry L., Nancy Dowling, Gregory Bishop, and William research examined if, and under what conditions, eating a food J. Maney (1985), “Causal Attributions: Effects of Self-Fo- product in front of a mirror affects its taste perception. According cused Attentiveness and Self-Esteem Feedback,” Personality to the reviewed literature, it is expected that eating a healthy or an and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11 (4), 369-78. unhealthy food in front of a mirror generate positive or negative Diener, Edward and Mark Wallbom (1976), “Effects of Self- feelings since standards of healthy eating are widely accepted. Awareness on Antinormative Behavior,” Journal of Research Therefore, we propose that if people consume their food in a room in Personality, 10 (1), 107-11. decorated with mirrors compared to a room without mirrors, they Duval, Thomas Shelley and Paul J. Silvia (2002), “Self-aware- will attribute the positive affect of eating a healthy food internally ness, probability of improvement, and the self-serving bias,” to self and the negative affect of eating an unhealthy to the food Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (1), 49-61. taste as an external factor. Duval, Thomas Shelley, Paul J. Silvia, and Neal Lalwani (2001), The first study was designed to provide empirical evidence for Self-awareness & causal attribution: a dual systems theory, the proposed effect of mirror decoration on food taste. We used fruit Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. salad and chocolate cake to represent healthy and unhealthy foods. Duval, Thomas Shelley and Robert A. Wicklund (1972), A Results confirmed our expectations and showed that participants Theory of Objective Self-Awareness., New York: Academic. gave a lower overall taste evaluation to the chocolate cake when Federoff, Nancy A. and John H. Harvey (1976), “Focus of Atten- they consumed it in front of mirror compared to the no-mirror tion, Self-Esteem, and the Attribution of Causality,” Journal condition. However, the taste evaluations of the fruit salad were not of Research in Personality, 10 (3), 336-45. significantly different between the mirror and no-mirror conditions. Study 2 and 3 investigated two factors moderating the effect of mirror decoration on food taste. Research has shown that people must perceive themselves responsible for acting against standards in order to experience the negative feelings (Duval, Silvia, and 698 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 699 Gibbons, Frederick X. (1978), “Sexual Standards and Reactions Williamson, Donald A., Eric Ravussin, Ma-Li Wong, A. Wagner, to Pornography: Enhancing Behavioral Consistency through A. Dipaoli, Sinan Caglayan, Metin Ozata, Corby Martin, Self-Focused Attention,” Journal of Personality and Social Heather Walden, Cheryl Arnett, and Julio Licinio (2005), Psychology, 36 (9), 976-87. “Microanalysis of Eating Behavior of Three Leptin Deficient Gross, James J. (1998), “The Emerging Field of Emotion Regu- Adults Treated with Leptin Therapy,” Appetite, 45 (1), 75-80. lation: An Integrative Review,” Review of General Psychol- ogy, 2 (3), 271-99. Heider, Fritz (1944), “Social Perception and Phenomenal Causal- ity,” Psychological Review, 51 (6), 358-74. Heider, Fritz (1958), The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, New York: Wiley. Ickes, William John, Robert A. Wicklund, and C. Brian Ferris (1973), “Objective Self Awareness and Self Esteem,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9 (3), 202-19. Kelley, Harold H., (1973), “The processes of causal attribution,” American Psychologist, 28, 107-128. Kivetz, Ran and Yuhuang Zheng (2006), “Determinants of Justi- fication and Self-Control,” Journal of Experimental Psychol- ogy: General, 135 (4), 572-87. Oatley, Keith and Philip N. Johnson-Laird (1996), “The commu- nicative theory of emotions: Empirical tests, mental models, and implications for social interaction,” in Striving and feel- ing: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation, L. L. Martin and A. Tesser, Eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Raghunathan, Rajagopal, Rebecca Walker Naylor, and Wayne D. Hoyer (2006), “The Unhealthy=Tasty Intuition and Its Effects on Taste Inferences, Enjoyment, and Choice of Food Products,” Journal of Marketing, 70 (4), 170-84. Reber, Rolf, Norbert Schwarz, and Piotr Winkielman (2004), “Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver’s Processing Experience?,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8 (4), 364-82. Scheier, Michael F., Allan Fenigstein, and Arnold H. Buss (1974), “Self-Awareness and Physical Aggression,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10 (3), 264-73. Sentyrz, Stacey M. and Brad J. Bushman (1998), “Mirror, Mir- ror on the Wall, Who’s the Thinnest One of All? Effects of Self-Awareness on Consumption of Full-Fat, Reduced-Fat, and No-Fat Products,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 (6), 944-49. Shiv, Baba and Alexander Fedorikhin (1999), “Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Con- sumer Decision Making,” Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (3), 278-92. Silvia, Paul J. (2002), “Self-Awareness and Emotional Intensity,” Cognition & Emotion, 16 (2), 195-216. Silvia, Paul J., and Crandall, Christian S. (2007), “Attribution and perceptual organization: Testing Heider’s approach to spontaneous causal thinking” Manuscript submitted for publication. Silvia, Paul J. and T. Shelley Duval (2001), “Objective Self- Awareness Theory: Recent Progress and Enduring Problems,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5 (3), 230-41. Streib, Lauren (2007), “World’s Fattest Countries,” (accessed February 22, 2010), [available at http://www.forbes. com/2007/02/07/worlds-fattest-countries-forbeslife-cx_ ls_0208worldfat.html]. Wicklund, Robert A. and Shelley Duval (1971), “Opinion Change and Performance Facilitation as a Result of Objective Self-Awareness,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7 (3), 319-42. Boundary Conditions for Copy Complexity Enhancement Effects Tina M. Lowrey, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA Youngseon Kim, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT ment and complexity was as expected, and was significant (p<.05). Five experiments investigated copy complexity, length, level of Highly involved participants exposed to moderate copy had higher involvement, medium, task attention, and reading level on persua- intentions to order than all other participants. sion. Experiments 1 and 2 investigated involvement, complexity, and length. Experiment 3 investigated involvement, complexity, EXPERIMENT 3 and medium. Experiments 4 and 5 investigated reading level and Experiment 3 involved a 3 (simple/moderate/complex copy) task attention as boundary conditions. X 2 (print/broadcast medium type) manipulation for the same item from Experiment 2. The addition of radio was intended to test the EXPERIMENT 1 hypothesis that the persuasiveness of copy in commercials will Experiment 1 involved a 2 (simple/moderately complex copy) decrease as copy gets beyond moderate complexity. An interac- X 2 (short/long) manipulation of direct mail pieces. Complexity tion between complexity, medium, and involvement (identical to should impact the persuasiveness of the offer but length should not procedures in Experiments 1 and 2) was expected. (although this is a null prediction, it is important to demonstrate Participants were 241 college students participating for credit that complexity, isolated from length, exerts effects on persuasion). in the same laboratory. Participants were randomly assigned to a Motivation should also exert a main effect on order intentions cubicle with a computer monitor, which showed a randomly pre- (high involvement participants will have greater intentions than selected condition. Participants in the print conditions read the offer low involvement participants). Motivation should also moderate on the screen and responded to the questionnaire. Participants in the effect of complexity. An interaction between complexity and the radio conditions listened to the commercial on headsets and involvement is expected, such that intentions will be greatest for responded to the questionnaire. Six print and six radio versions those high in involvement exposed to complex versions. were prepared, adding a very complex version. Order intentions Independent variables included complexity, involvement, and were measured on a five-point scale. length. Involvement was a self-reported measure on two nine-point There was no main effect for complexity but there was one scales, with higher numbers indicating greater involvement. The for involvement (high=2.91 vs. low=2.16; F(1,239)=6.42; p<.05). two scales correlated significantly (.63; p=.000), so were averaged, The interaction between medium, complexity, and involvement was and then dichotomized (M=5.46). The dependent variable was order also marginally significant (F(2,239)=2.37; p<.10). For those high intention on a nine-point scale (higher numbers indicated greater in involvement exposed to the print version, complexity enhanced order intention). persuasion (even at the highest level of complexity), but for those Participants were 85 college students who provided informed high in involvement exposed to the radio version, complexity had consent to participate. Participants participated in groups of 12, a deleterious effect on persuasion. seated at cubicles in a laboratory. Participants read the direct mail offer, then received the measurement booklet. Upon completion, EXPERIMENT 4 the participants were debriefed and were free to leave. Experiment 4 involved a 3 (simple/moderate/complex copy) X A 2 (simple/moderate copy) X 2 (short/long) X 2 (low-/high- 2 (item offered) within-subject design, measured reading level, and involvement) ANOVA was conducted. Complexity contributed to included an instructional manipulation check (IMC [Oppenheimer, order intentions, as expected. Those who received the complex Meyvis, and Davidenko 2009]). An interaction between complexity, versions had higher intentions to order (M=2.98) than those who reading level, and involvement was expected. received the simple versions (M=2.05; F(1,83)=3.99; p<.05). There Participants were 93 college students participating for credit was also a main effect for involvement, as expected, such that in the same laboratory. Participants were randomly assigned to a those who reported high levels of involvement were more likely to cubicle with a computer monitor, which showed a randomly pre- order than those low in involvement (2.96 vs. 2.04; F(1,83)=3.78; selected condition from Experiment 3 (print only). Order intentions p<.05). Length did not contribute to order intentions, consistent were measured on a five-point scale. Participants engaged in a with expectations. non-timed distraction task between presentation of the two offers. Involvement moderated the impact of complexity on order There was no main effect for complexity, reading level, or intentions, as expected. High involvement participants who received involvement for the first offer. All but two participants passed the complex offer had higher order intentions than all other par- the IMC. The interaction between complexity, reading level, and ticipants (F(1,81)=9.24; p<.005). Thus, complexity had a positive involvement was not significant (p>.10). The results for the second impact on those high in involvement. The expected results were offer were difficult to interpret. Given the distraction task was non- obtained, but order intentions were quite low. timed, the low number of errors on the IMC, and the low cell size, Experiment 5 was conducted to replicate the basic design with a EXPERIMENT 2 timed distraction task and a higher sample size. Given this negative response, Experiment 2 used a more inter- esting item (otherwise, the replication was identical). Participants EXPERIMENT 5 were 103 college students participating for extra credit. Experiment 5 replicated Experiment 4, but with a timed dis- Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1—complexity ex- traction task. An interaction between complexity, reading level, and erted a main effect on intentions (moderate=5.00 vs. simple=3.77; involvement was expected. Participants were 117 college students F(1,85)=6.23; p<.05). Involvement also exerted a main effect participating for credit in the same laboratory. (high=5.57 vs. low=3.36; F(1,85)=23.48; p<.001). Length had no There were no main effects for complexity or reading level, effect. The pattern of results for the interaction between involve- but there was one for involvement, such that those who reported high levels of involvement had greater order intentions than those 700 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 701 at low levels of involvement (3.19 vs. 2.60; F(1,116)=5.64; p<.05). Again, errors on the IMC were quite low. The interaction between medium, complexity, and involvement was not significant (p>.10). It would appear that, at least for college student participants, nei- ther reading level nor task attention serve as boundary conditions.

REFERENCES Anand, Punam, and Brian Sternthal (1990), “Ease of Message Processing as a Moderator of Repetition Effects in Advertis- ing,” Journal of Marketing Research, 27 (August), 345-353. Bradley, Samuel D., and Robert Meeds (2002), “Surface-Struc- ture Transformations and Advertising Slogans: The Case for Moderate Syntactic Complexity,” Psychology & Marketing, 19 (July-August), 595-619. Chebat, Jean-Charles, Claire Gelinas-Chebat, Sabrina Hom- bourger, and Arch G. Woodside (2003), “Testing Consumers’ Motivation and Linguistic Ability as Moderators of Adver- tising Readability,” Psychology & Marketing, 20 (July), 599-624. Craik, Fergus I. M., and Robert S. Lockhart (1972), “Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684. Denbow, Carl J. (1975), “Listenability and Readability: An Experimental Investigation,” Journalism Quarterly, 52 (2), 285-290. Flesch, Rudolph (1951), How to Test Readability, New York: Harper and Brothers. Gunning, R. (1968), The Technique of Clear Writing, New York: McGraw Hill. Lowrey, Tina M. (1998), “The Effects of Syntactic Complex- ity on Advertising Persuasiveness,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7 (2), 187-206. Lowrey, Tina M. (2006), “The Relation Between Script Com- plexity and Commercial Memorability,” Journal of Advertis- ing, 35 (3), 7-15. Lowrey, Tina M. (2008), “The Case for a Complexity Continu- um” in Go Figure: New Directions in Advertising Rhetoric, eds. Edward F. McQuarrie and Barbara J. Phillips, Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe, 159-177. McQuarrie, Edward F., and David Glen Mick (1996), “Figures of Rhetoric in Advertising Language,” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (March), 424-438. Oppenheimer, Daniel M., Tom Meyvis, and Nicolas Davidenko (2009), “Instructional Manipulation Checks: Detecting Satis- ficing to Increase Statistical Power,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 867-872. Peracchio, Laura A., and Joan Meyers-Levy (1997), “Evaluat- ing Persuasion-Enhancing Techniques From a Resource- Matching Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (September), 178-191. Petty, Richard E., and John T. Cacioppo (1986), Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change, New York: Springer-Verlag. Color Harmony and Aesthetic Self-Design: Empirical Tests of Classical Theories Xiaoyan Deng, Ohio State University, USA Sam Jui, New York University, USA Wesley Hutchinson, University of Pennsylvania, USA

Extended Abstract shoe while small areas deviate from the basic scheme and “spice In this paper, we aimed at identifying and testing principles that up” the overall design. This shows that when coordinating multiple can explain and predict color harmony perception. Color harmony colors, consumers are guided by intuitions about color harmony is a function of distance between colors in the color space. We first and their intuitions are consistent with the principles of identity, briefly described different models of color space and reviewed the similarity, and contrast. color harmony literature, based on which we summarized three The identification and confirmation of several robust principles classic principles of color harmony (i.e., identity, similarity, and of color harmony provide some practical insights for managers of contrast) that were relatively well-accepted in this literature. Because aesthetic self-design programs. First, these well-defined principles the coordinate system underlying the classic color solids does not can be used as guidelines to design the color palettes. Second, the provide a straightforward distance metric to represent color simi- number of colors included in the color palettes can be greatly reduced larity or difference (i.e., do not satisfy perceptual uniformity), we therefore the size of the solution space of the self-design configura- adopted the theoretical background of a more recent, alternative tor can be largely reduced as well. Third, based on color harmony coordinate system (i.e., CIELAB coordinate system), which was principles, the configurator can be designed to generate automatic designed to approximate human vision thereby provides a straight- recommendations to the user regarding her color choice. Last but not forward distance metric for color perception. We then reviewed prior least, although in this paper we implicitly assume that most people empirical tests of classic color harmony theories that are similar to prefer color harmony, those who are fond of disharmonious color the principles we summarized. Some of these tests were conducted combinations can also benefit from our research findings. Online using the classic cylindrical coordinate system, others using the product configurators include a simple survey about personal color modern CIELAB color space. Nevertheless we found that these taste to categorize their customers and, for some of them, provide tests generate mixed results. “clashing” color palettes. For our own test of the color harmony principles we adopted a unique and realistic context: aesthetic self-design of an athletic shoe (which has seven areas: base, secondary, swoosh, accent, lace, lining, and shox). This specific type of self-design task is especially suitable for testing color harmony principles because, first, the task environment allows for interactive color harmony judgment and, second, color harmony plays a major role in con- sumers’ decision. Based on this context, we proposed hypotheses about the relationships between the observed frequencies of color combinations in self-designed athletic shoes and color distance for identity, similarity, and contrast. Further, we hypothesized that a “small palette” can meet the need for color harmony if it is indeed determined by identity (if a single color is used repeatedly then less colors are needed in the palette) or contrast (colors that are mutually complementary spread evenly in the color space and the number of such colors is limited). Results from our empirical tests provide evidence for our hypotheses. First, the principle of identity was supported for color pairs involving minor shoe areas (e.g., swoosh, lace, lining, and shox). Second, the principle of similarity was supported for the two major shoe areas (i.e., base and secondary). Third, the principle of contrast was supported for color pairs involving a major and a minor shoe area (e.g., base-lining, base-shox). Finally, the “small palette” hypothesis was also supported as the number of colors actually used in self-designed athletic shoes was smaller than the number expected based on assumption of statistical independence. Taking these results together, we can picture the color coor- dination strategy consumers use during the self-design process, in which they make seven sequential color decisions for base, sec- ondary, swoosh, accent, lace, lining, and shox (ordered as such). First, they pick a color for base according to their own preference. Second, anchoring on the base color, they choose a secondary color that is similar to that of base. Third, when making color decisions for the remaining five minor areas, consumers tend to use the same color for most of these areas, and this color oftentimes is a color contrasting to the base color. Taking into account the relative area of the seven shoe components, this strategy leads to a harmonious design where large areas define the overall color scheme of the 702 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 When I becomes We: Interpersonal Ties in Product Co-Creation Adriana M. Boveda-Lambie, RIT, USA Ruby Roy Dholakia, URI, USA

Extended Abstract customers actively engage in that creation using brands as bridges Customer knowledge has been extensively discussed in terms of towards or fences against other people (Douglas & Isherwood, objective and subjective knowledge, where subjective knowledge is 1979; Escalas & Bettman, 2003, 2005; Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001). what the individual perceives s/he knows and objective knowledge is Research on brand communities shows that customers can use com- what they truly know (Alba & J. W. Hutchinson, 2000). Knowledge mercial offerings (brands) and brand associations as ways to create exerts a significant and fundamental influence on customer decision- and further their self-image and shape their reality (Schau & Gilly, making; customers’ decisions vary as a function of what they think 2003). Co-creation may be seen as a way of self-expression through they know (Moorman, Diehl, Brinberg, & Kidwell, 2004). In the production of their own products and experiences, and taking pride case of choosing to co-create, it is their subjective knowledge about while strengthening their self-identity and fulfillment (Holt, 1995). their perceived competence that will drive the process. Customers engaging in co-creation have a tendency to take ownership Customers can use their social networks as an external memory, and pride in their co-creation. blending the social and cognitive seamlessly into a social hard drive holding vast amounts of information (Ward & Reingen, 1990). H5: Customers who choose to engage in co-creation will Viewed under the service-dominant logic definition of co-creation develop stronger self-brand associations. (Lusch & Vargo, 2006), social networks are part of the customer’s operant resources, which means the customer can tap into them to Methodology co-create value. Companies have used the Internet to give customers Two-hundred and forty students from a large northwestern and the opportunity to engage in the production process (Xie et al., 2008). southeastern university participated in an the online survey, where Even with access to Internet, people seem to prefer turning to other they read a pretested scenario to make one of three decisions: (1) people for information (Cross & Sproull, n.d.; Levin & Cross, 2004). purchase what is available at the store (2) engage in individual co- In other words, a customer facing a perceived lack of competence creation or (3) engage in collaborative co-creation . A final sample to complete a task will seek what s/he needs from other individuals size of 233 students was attained. Participants were aged 21–22 (Arias, Eden, Fischer, Gorman, & Sharff, 2000; Salomon, 1993). (58.3%) and between 18 -21 years of age (41.8%). Gender was evenly distributed with 53% males and 47% females. There was no

H1: Customers with higher (lower) perceived competence are university effect on the main dependent variables (F(2,232)=.65, p=.52;

more likely to engage (not engage) in co-creation Levene(2,232)=1.08, p=.34). Competence was significantly different across co-creation groups 2 H2: Customers engaging in individual co-creation will have (F(2,229)=30.10, p<.01, w =.16) with participants’ perceived competence

higher perceived competence than those engaging in collabora- highest among those choosing individual co-creation (MIndCC=7.18,

tive co-creation SD=1.47; MCollCC=6.38, SD=1.64; MNoCC=5.15, SD=2.07). These results support H1 and H2. H3: Customers engaging in collaborative co-creation will elicit The competence of participant’s selected tie(s) was significantly

partners with higher perceived competence higher (t(49)=4.94, p<.01) than participants’ competence (MPartici-

pant=6.35, MTie=7.33), supporting H3. The willingness to engage in co-creation requires a strong degree Involvement was not significantly different across co-creation of product involvement (Bendapudi & Leone, 2003). Customers groups (F(2,232)=1.19, p=.31) although it noted some directional results will not only need to use their knowledge but must also be willing with those choosing Coll CC having higher involvement (M=5.90) to invest their time, which is a scarce and premium resource for than participants choosing IndCC (M=5.69) or purchasing at the store most (Etgar, 2006, 2008). In addition, involvement with the product (M=5.74). Therefore H4 was not supported. category and the brand itself can determine their choice to co-create There were significant differences (L=.815, p<.01; F(1,228)=51.65) since customer’s product involvement can lead to increased percep- between the SBB (MSBB=3.75, SD=1.53) and SBA (MSBA=4.55, tion of attribute differences, greater product importance and greater SD=1.66). commitment (Howard & Sheth, 1968; Zaichkowsky, 1985). When SBB and SBA were significantly different across groups product differences are perceived to be of greater importance, custom- (F(2,228)=20.683, p<.01), with those choosing IndCC (MSBB= 3.75, ers can be more willing to get involved in co-creation and dispense MSBA=4.93) and CollCC ((MSBB= 3.85, MSBA=4.84) having significantly the required effort and time (Etgar, 2008). If under low involvement higher after brand associations (p<.01), supporting H5. individuals involve in minimal searches while high involvement results in extensive searches then it follows that involvement would Discussion also moderate the amount of time a customer is inclined to spend on The results reported bring new challenges for companies want- his/her purchase–in this case, in co-creation. ing to implement co-creation strategies. First, they need to consider a customer’s ability. The companies interface with the customer must H4: Customers with higher (lower) product involvement are be easy or make customers feel competent to take on the task at hand. more likely to engage in co-creation (not engage in co-creation). Second, companies must consider the possibility that customers will not be acting alone, and this can affect not only their relation- Marketers are increasingly interested in how consumers use ship with the individual customer but also gives the company the products and brands to build and maintain a social identity, and opportunity to present themselves to a new set of customers–those previous studies have emphasized that self brand congruence alone invited to help. can determine consumer choice (Malhotra, 1988). Brands, as social objects, are socially constructed and imbued with meaning, and 703 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 704 / When I becomes We: Interpersonal Ties in Product Co-Creation References Hemetsberger, A. (2003). When consumers produce on the inter- Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2000). 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Extended Abstract condition picked items that were significantly more caloric [M=394] We propose that even on so called “objective” scales (e.g. than respondents in the control condition [M=330]. Unlike previous pounds, calories, meters, etc.), many contextual effects, such as studies 1 and 2, in which the numeric contrast effects specified by anchoring, are often best interpreted as scaling effects–reflecting our theory manifest as assimilation effects in the responses (since changes in the use of the response scale rather than a change in a smaller number of units will seem adequate to represent the respondents’ perception of the focal stimulus. We present a theory mass of a giraffe), here the proposed numeric contrast effects are which details how prior responses act as comparative standards for transmitted directly to the overt response. the interpretation and use of other numbers on that scale. In summary, we suggest that objective scales may be susceptible In support of our theory of scale distortion, we first show to the same sorts of response scale effects that plague the interpreta- that a contextual stimulus only affects subsequent judgments that tion of subjective scales. Though judgments on objective scales (such share the response scale. In our first demonstration, we randomly as pounds) are markedly affected by preceding judgments, we find no assigned 467 picnickers to one of three conditions. One group evidence that this effect is accompanied by a corresponding change judged only the weight of a giraffe in pounds. A second did this in the underlying representation of the judged stimulus. Thus, we after first judging the weight of a raccoon in pounds. The third propose that the presence of contextual effects on objective scales group was like the second, except that they raccoon’s weight on a cannot be assumed to reflect changes in the mental representation 7-point heaviness scale. of the target stimulus, and that response scale effects play a much The giraffe estimates averaged 1254 pounds among the group larger role in these results than is customarily acknowledged. Our who made only that judgment, but just 709 pounds among those findings resurrect the challenge of distinguishing representational who first judged a raccoon’s weight in pounds. Thus, the presence effects from response language effects across a broad array of judg- of the raccoon in the judgmental sequence induced a pronounced ments where that distinction formerly seemed secure. assimilation effect when judgments of its heaviness were rendered in units identical to the target judgment. However, when judged on a subjective heaviness scale (from 1 to 7), the raccoon judgment had no effect on estimates of the giraffe’s weight (which averaged 1265 pounds). The second set of studies also implicate a pure scaling effect, by showing that contextual manipulations which affect the target response have no influence on conceptually affiliated judgments of the target stimulus rendered on different scales. All participants then estimated three features of a giraffe: its weight (in pounds), its height (in feet), and its weight relative to a grand piano, on a seven point scale. Half of the 218 respondents made only these judgments. The other half had first estimated the weight of a raccoon in pounds. Again, the giraffe was judged to weigh less by those who had first judged the weight of a raccoon [760 pounds vs. 1117 pounds], but, notably, the raccoon had no appreciable effect on conceptually af- filiated estimates rendered on other scales. The final two studies bear further hallmarks of scale distortion: In one, a total of 157 participants recruited from an online survey site examined a list of fifteen animals ordered by weight, from very small (mouse) to very large (elephant) and were asked to select the one whose average adult weight was closest to 1000 pounds. Half of the participants estimated the weight of an average adult wolf before making this judgment while the other half did not. As predicted, estimating the weight of a (comparatively light) wolf increased the perceived size of the animal corresponding to ‘1000 pounds.’ Respondents in the “wolf” condition selected animals whose true weight averaged 2170 pounds, whereas those in the control condi- tion selected animals whose true weight averaged 1385 pounds. In the second study, a total of 206 students were given a brief paper and pencil survey which listed thirteen food items ordered from least caloric (hard-boiled egg) to most caloric (Burger King Whopper with cheese) and were asked to select the item closest to 400 calories. Half of the participants first estimated the number of calories in an average apple before making this judgment, while the other half did not. The conceptual replication succeeded. Prior estimates of the number of calories in an apple appeared to increase participants’ perception of what ‘400 calories’ means. Respondents in the “apple” 705 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Effects of Alphanumeric Brand Names: A Selective Anchoring Perspective Dengfeng Yan, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China Rod Duclos, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China

Extended Abstract the number of seats in their aircraft. As predicted, subjects in the Airbus A330, 7-Up, Coke Zero, Miss Sixty: these are just a Boeing condition believed their aircraft had more seats than their few examples of the many brands and products featuring numbers counterparts in the Airbus condition. in their name. Given the astronomical and ever growing budgets Seeking to extend these results and test our first boundary spent today on brand-building advertising, this research examines condition, we randomly assigned participants in study 2 to two whether the presence of seemingly innocuous numbers in brand new conditions (Sprite vs. 7-Up) and asked them to estimate the names bears any impact on consumers. More specifically, we focus price, volume, launch year, calories, and vitamin content of their our efforts on understanding how and when alphanumeric brands drink. Whereas both products sell for approximately HK$5 in names (i.e., those containing both letters and numbers) may influ- Hong Kong (i.e., the country where this study was run), subjects ence consumer judgments. in the 7-Up condition estimated their drink to be more expensive Building on anchoring theory, our central proposition is that (and closer in price to HK$7) than their counterparts in the Sprite consumers may use the number contained in alphanumeric brands condition. Importantly, however, the two groups did not differ on as an anchor which can subsequently bias either up- or downward any other dependant variable. These results further confirm our their appreciation of a product’s price, weight, volume, etc. anchoring proposition and shed light on the first boundary condition We qualify this proposition, however, by arguing that such hypothesized earlier: I.e., for anchoring to occur, consumers must anchoring effect should occur mostly when (a) the numeric com- perceive the numeric component of the brand name (e.g., “7”) as ponent of a name appears relevant for the judgment at hand, and related to the attribute under consideration. (b) consumers evaluate attributes on the basis of heuristics (rather Building on the “relevance” argument aforementioned, we than systematic deliberation). asked participants in study 3 to review information about one of two MP3 players (named M-200 vs. M-900) before estimating the Theoretical background price of the product. To test our second boundary condition, we Across industries, marketers dedicate nowadays colossal sums manipulated participants’ processing style (heuristic vs. systematic) of money (i.e., billions of dollars in the US alone) to branding by manipulating the order and lay-out of our study materials. As activities. Not surprisingly, academic research focusing on brand predicted, subjects in the M-900 condition perceived their product naming has soared in the last two decades (Klink 2000; Schmitt to be more expensive. This anchoring effect was reduced, however, et al.1994; Zhang and Schmitt 2001). Interestingly, much of this when subjects processed information systematically. research focuses primarily on linguistics (e.g., understanding the Study 4 mirrored study 3 with the exception of the processing- interplay between morphemes, sounds, and the mental images they style manipulation. To extend our results, we adopted here a classic trigger in consumers). But despite this rich work, little research cognitive-load manipulation known to reliably favor heuristic vs. examines the impact of alphanumeric brand names on consumer systematic processing. While rehearsing an 8- vs. 2-digit number behavior and decision-making. In one of a few exceptions, Pavia for an alleged memory task, participants estimated the price of and Costa (1993) found that alphanumeric brand names are more one of two MP3 players (cf. study 3). As expected, subjects in the suitable for technically complex, manufactured items (e.g., stereos, M-900 condition perceived their product to be more expensive. computers, cameras) and/or unemotional, formulated products such Yet, this effect vanished in the low cognitive-load (i.e., systematic- as vitamin-oriented cereals. processing) condition. Drawing from anchoring theory and previous work in psychol- ogy and BDT, we propose that consumers may sometimes derive Discussion product information from alphanumeric brand names, regardless This research examines how and when seemingly innocuous of the original meaning of the latter. That is, consumers use alpha- alphanumeric brand names (e.g., 7-Up, Coke Zero) can bias a variety numeric brand names as self-generated anchors to infer unknown of consumer judgments (e.g., price estimates) by anchoring them product attributes. For example, consumers may assume that the either up- or downward. In four experiments, we find that consum- Airbus A330 has roughly 330 seats, even though its name has little ers do indeed utilize the numbers contained in alphanumeric brand to do with seat capacity. names as self-generated anchors to infer ostensibly relevant product For this anchoring effect to occur, however, we argue that at attributes. For this effect to occur, however, consumers must process least two conditions should be met. First, consumers must perceive information heuristically, not systematically. the numeric component of the brand name as relevant to the attribute These findings provide new theoretical insights to two distinct under consideration (e.g., “330” in the Airbus example should appear lines of research. First, our results contribute to the brand-naming relevant to the number of seats in the aircraft). Second, consumers literature by proposing another mechanism through which numeric must process information heuristically (i.e., superficially) rather than brand names can influence consumer judgment. Indeed, compared systematically. In the next section, we report four studies aimed to prior work, our conceptualization is more general and therefore at testing our anchoring hypothesis and its boundary conditions. could be applied to a variety of numbers, product classes, and cul- tures. Second, our findings contribute to the psychology and BDT Experiments literatures by showing that anchoring can occur automatically (i.e., Study 1 aimed to demonstrate our basic proposition that the without the need for explicit or heavy-handed manipulations). As number contained in alphanumeric brand names can indeed func- such, our studies suggest that anchoring might be more pervasive tion as an anchor and subsequently bias consumers’ judgments. To in consumer’s daily life than previously assumed. this end, we randomly assigned participants to one of two condi- tions (Boeing B767 vs. Airbus A330) and asked them to estimate

706 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Whether You Win or Whether You Lose: The Differential Risk of Priming the Deliberative and Affective Systems in On-line Auctions Yael Steinhart, University of Haifa, Israel Michael Kamins, Stony Brook University, USA David Mazursky, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Avi Noy, University of Haifa, Israel

Extended Abstract in a game through winning or losing points when completing a Consumers’ decision processes are generally influenced task by deciphering jumbled brand names. After this task, subjects by both emotional and cognitive systems (Damasio 1994; Lee, were then subsequently asked to participate in an auction. Hence, Amir and Ariely 2009; Loewenstein and O’Donoghue 2004). For a winning or losing orientation was independently induced prior example, Loewenstein and O’Donoghue (2004) have developed a to participation in the auction rather than win or loss expectations comprehensive two-system model in which a person’s behavior is for the auction itself. the outcome of an interaction between a deliberative system that In future research, it would be interesting to examine the effect assesses options with a broad, goal-based cognitive perspective and of expected outcomes on different types of products: emotional the affective system that encompasses emotions such as fear and oriented products (such as a wedding ring) and cognitive oriented is primarily driven by affective states that are currently activated. products (such as a scientific book). It is likely to assume that the The present research examines the role of the two-system type of product may differentially prime the influence of cognition model as a basis for further understanding the loss aversion phe- and/or affect in the two model system and possibly make it easier nomenon (Kahneman and Tversky 1979). This is important because to observe field effects. It will also be interesting to explore the as- the marketing literature has paid relatively scant attention to the sociation between this research and the regulatory focus stream of question of how the deliberative system influences loss aversion. research. This research stream suggests that consumers are driven Overall, the marketing literature has focused to-date almost solely by either the prevention orientation (e.g. their duties, obligations, on the affective system. and responsibilities) or the promotion orientation (e.g., their hopes, We posit that each system has an opposite effect on the aspirations, and dreams) (Higgins 1997, Freitas and Higgins 2002). perception of loss aversion and therefore on the price bidders will From a practical perspective, this research offers marketers be willing to pay for a given product. The direction of effect is simple and effective tools for activating the loss aversion effect contingent on the expected outcomes of the auction. In the case among consumers. It shows that inserting a short note within the that the affective system is activated, bidders are proposed to product description from a deliberative or affective perspective pay higher prices when they are primed to anticipate losing the regarding the possible outcomes of winning or losing the product, item rather than winning it. That is, the fear of losing the item is can have a dramatic influence on the consumers’ decision processes expected to override the joy of winning and consequently enhance and behavior. the willingness to pay. On the other hand, when the deliberative system is made more accessible, bidders should pay higher prices if the potential of winning is made salient as opposed to losing. In this case, priming the goals of winning the auction, increases the cognitive focus on the product benefits, and therefore makes the perceived risk of losing the item less acceptable. The first study manipulated two between-subject factors, thus creating a two (winning vs. losing outcome expectation) by two (af- fective vs. deliberative orientation) matrix. Its findings demonstrated the contradicting effects of the two-model system and the expected outcomes of the auction in determining the price bid for the product as well as the perceived risk of losing the item. The perceived risk of losing was also found to mediate the interactive effect of one’s winning expectation and the two-model system on the placed bid. The second study confirmed our expectations in terms of the placed bid, in a field setting. The field study was conducted on eBay over the period of four months. It consisted of four different conditions of actual auctions of the identical product, in which we activated either the affective or deliberative system and the type of outcome expectation via the product description. The third study examined the robustness of the proposed effect when priming the winning or losing orientation in an unrelated prior task. This study is extremely important because it shows that one’s success or failure in environmental tasks can have a behavioral effect on subsequent totally unrelated tasks. Findings supportive of our hypotheses would present the tantalizing suggestion that the way one sees oneself through the looking glass (i.e., as a “winner” or as a “loser”) may have important implications in terms of which orientation is appropriate to use in inducing task specific behavior. Specifically, this study manipulated ones perception of performance 707 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Can I Correct My Errors without Knowing?: The Effect of Nonconscious Priming of a Target Attribute on Judgmental Errors Ki Yeon Lee, University of Toronto, Canada Andrew Mitchell, University of Toronto, Canada

EXTENDED ABSTRACT Experiment 2 extends the findings in Experiment 1 to a different Attribute substitution (Kahneman and Frederick 2002) has judgmental bias, base-rate neglect by using an analogue of the been used to explain why people rely on heuristics and show biases. engineer-and-lawyer problem (Kahneman and Tversky 1973). In Attribute substitution occurs “when an individual assesses a specified the engineer-and-lawyer problem, people are given the base rate target attribute of a judgment object by substituting another property of engineers (e.g., 30 engineers out of 100 individuals) and the of that object—the heuristic attribute—which comes more readily description of a person (e.g., typical characteristics of an engineer to mind” (p53). Substituting the target attribute with the heuristic such as having no interest in political and social issue and spending attribute inevitably introduces systematic errors because these two time in home carpentry). Although the base-rate of engineers in a attributes are different. What would happen if the target attribute given sample is very low (e.g., 30%), people’s estimation of the is more accessible by subliminally priming words related to the probability that a person is an engineer is much higher (e.g., 80%) target attribute? We expect that people are less likely to make the than the base rate due to their tendency to rely on the description errors because the target attribute is made more accessible. The of the person rather than the base rate. The base-rate neglect in purpose of the present research is to examine whether and how probability judgment is problematic because it induces people subliminal priming of a target attribute can reduce the errors (e.g., to violate the fundamental Bayesian rule of statistical prediction. base-rate neglect) and whether this correction process elicited by The procedures in experiment 2 are similar to those in nonconscious priming requires cognitive resources, which implies experiment 1. We used Betsch et al. (1998)’s professor-and-non- the involvement of reasoning. professor item. Participants were randomly assigned to either a Experiment 1 examines whether the subliminal priming control or a target attribute priming condition. After finishing the of a target attribute can correct judgmental errors by using the priming task, participants were given a description of a person. They Kirkpatrick and Epstein (1992)’s jelly beans task which shows the were told that this description was one of a survey sample which ratio-bias (RB) phenomenon. The RB phenomenon refers to “the contained 17.6 % professors and 82.4 % non-professors. Their task perception of the likelihood of a low-probability event as greater was to rate the probability that the person is a professor given the when it is presented in the form of larger (e.g., 10-in-100) rather description of the person and the base rate. than smaller (e.g., 1-in-10) numbers” (Pacini and Epstein 1999, We found that participants primed with the target attribute p303). This phenomenon is attributed to a tendency to focus on were more likely to estimate the probability to be lower (closer to the frequency of the numerator (i.e., heuristic attribute) instead of the base rate of professors) than those who were not primed. This the overall probability (i.e., target attribute). Selecting one of two finding provides further evidence that subliminally priming the trays that offer equal probabilities is, in itself, not a judgmental target attribute reduced the judgmental error. error. However, the preference for a 9% over a 10 % probability is Experiment 3 examines whether the process of correcting (Denes-Raj and Epstein 1994). judgmental errors requires the involvement of System 2 by In experiment 1, participants were asked to choose one of two manipulating cognitive load. Since the processes of System 1 are trays from which they could participate in a lottery where they could automatic and effortless whereas those of System 2 are slow and win $50 if they drew a red jelly bean: tray A (10% tray) containing 1 effortful, if System 2 is involved in the correction process, a high red and 9 white beans and tray B (9% tray) containing 9 red and 91 cognitive load should interfere with this correction process which white beans. Since the target attribute is the ‘objective probability’ is facilitated by subliminally priming the target attribute. of drawing a red bean, if participants choose a tray based on the The procedures in experiment 3 are similar to those in target attribute instead of the number of red jelly beans, they should experiment 2 except the manipulation of cognitive load. Participants be more (less) likely to choose the 10% tray (the 9 % tray). were randomly assigned to a 2 (target attribute priming: no priming Participants were randomly assigned to either a control or a vs. target attribute priming) x 2 (cognitive load: low vs. high load) target attribute priming condition. The priming task was disguised between-subjects design. We manipulated cognitive load by asking as a perception task. Words related to the objective probability participants to memorize either a 2- or 9-digit number. To rule out (e.g., probability, proportion) were subliminally (i.e., 20 ms) shown the alternative explanation of mood effect, we measured their mood to participants depending on the priming conditions. The primed using PANAS scale (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen 1988). words were masked by a string of letters (e.g., addick). Participants Our manipulation check was successful in that participants were asked to identify whether each string of letters presented on found it more difficult to memorize the 9- than the 2-digit number. a computer screen contained two vowels or not. After finishing In the low cognitive load conditions, participants primed with the the perception task, participants were asked to complete the next target attribute were more likely to estimate the probability to be task—the jelly beans task. They were asked to indicate their own lower (closer to the base rate) than those who were not primed. preference between the two trays on a five-point scale. Next, they However, in the high cognitive load conditions, participants’ were asked to choose which tray they wanted to draw from for a probability estimates were equally high (far from the base rate). real drawing. This finding implies that cognitive busyness impairs the process We found main effects of attribute priming in self-preference of correcting the bias (i.e., the base-rate neglect). We ruled out scale and tray choice. Participants primed with the target attribute the alternative account by showing no differences in the PANAS were more likely to prefer the correct 10 % tray than those who scale as a function of cognitive load. The findings of experiment were not primed. Consistent with this result, participants primed 3 suggest that System 2 is involved in the process of correcting with the target attribute chose the 10 % tray significantly more than judgmental errors. those who were not primed.

708 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 709 These studies provide evidence for the idea that priming Gilbert, Daniel T. (2002), “Inferential Correction” in Heuristics the target attribute nonconsciously can reduce judgmental errors. and Biases, ed Gilovich, Thomas, Dale Griffin, and Daniel We believe that this research is important for two reasons: First, Kahneman, New York: Cambridge University Press, 167–84 it contributes to extend our understanding of the underlying Gilbert, Daniel T. and J. Gregory Hixon (1991), “The Trouble of mechanism for reducing judgmental errors by demonstrating that Thinking: Activation and Application of Stereotypic Beliefs,” not only explicit/conscious methods but also implicit/nonconscious Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 509-17. method (i.e., priming a target attribute) can reduce the judgmental Kahneman, Daniel (2002, December), “Maps of Bounded Ra- errors. 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Attainment Versus Maintenance Goals: Differences in Cognitive Processing and Goal Attractiveness Antonios Stamatogiannakis, INSEAD, France Amitava Chattopadhyay, INSEAD, Singapore Dipankar Chakravarti, Johns Hopkins University, USA

Extended Abstract success thoughts, but less context-related failure thoughts relative Consumers and firms across many domains (e.g., dieting, sav- to maintenance goals. Only the first mediate the effects of goal type ing, exercising) use goals to regulate behaviour. For example, HSBC on difficulty. offers the “Premier Investor Savings” account, which requires the The next two experiments examine effects of goal type on goal maintenance of a $25000 minimum balance, but at the same time attractiveness. We predicted that attainment goals will be more at- offers higher interest rates with higher balances. tractive than maintenance goals, because they are perceived as easier. Depending on the relation between the actual and the desired Experiment one uses a 2 x 2 between participants design. state of the goal, these goals are classified in two categories: At- Some participants judged maintenance goals and some attainment tainment and maintenance goals. Attainment goals are those for goals. Further (to draw attention to possible goal difficulties), the which the actual state differs from the desired state (e.g., increase action required for goal achievement was explicitly stated only for your balance to get a higher interest rate). Maintenance goals are some of the participants. Goal attractiveness and difficulty were the those for which the actual and the desired states coincide, but there dependent measures. The goal type x required action interaction was is a time difference between the present and the goal time horizon significant for both. When no action was provided, attainment goals (e.g., maintain your balance to be eligible for this savings account). were seen as more attractive and easier than maintenance goals. Given the mixed use of these two goal types, it is surprising However, when attention was directed to required action, the two that we know very little on how attainment and maintenance goals goal types were seen as equally attractive and difficult. The interac- compare with each other. Recent comparisons between these two tion on attractiveness ratings was mediated by the difficulty ratings. goal types revealed that people are overoptimistic for attainment Experiment two uses a 2 x 2 x 2 between participants design. goals, but not for maintenance goals. As a result, attainment goals Some participants judged maintenance goals and some attainment are perceived as easier than objectively easier maintenance goals goals. Further (to draw attention to possible goal difficulties), some (Stamatogiannakis, Chattopadhyay and Chakravarti 2010). participants rated only goal attractiveness, but some rated goal dif- This paper adds to the above results in two important ways. First, ficulty before that. Finally the difficulty question was negatively it investigates the content of thoughts triggered by attainment versus framed (i.e., “How difficult?”) for some of the participants, but maintenance goals, and tests whether it can account for differences positively framed (i.e., “How challenging?”) for others. The goal type in the perceived difficulty. We predict that people will tend to focus x attractiveness question order interaction effect on attractiveness on the comparison between the actual and the desired state more for was significant. Attainment goals were judged as more attractive attainment goals, relative to maintenance goals. As a result, they will than maintenance goals when the attractiveness question was asked be overoptimistic for attainment goals’ achievement (Dunning 2007), first. However, when the difficulty question was asked first, drawing and will perceive them as easier (Stamatogiannakis et al. 2010). attention to goal difficulty, the results reversed. Finally, difficulty Second, it examines whether attainment or maintenance goals framing did not moderate the above result. are more attractive.. Easier and more achievable goals are more at- To conclude, this paper adds to previous literature comparing tractive (Kruglanski et al. 2002). We predict therefore that attainment attainment with maintenance goals. It demonstrates that maintenance goals will be more attractive than maintenance goals, because they goals evoke more contextual interference thoughts, but attainment are perceived as easier. goals evoke more success plans and actual-desired state comparison To test these two predictions we examine in depth the open thoughts. The latter cause attainment goals to be perceived as easier ended responses collected by Stamatogiannakis et al. (2010), and we and more attractive than maintenance goals. Effects on goal attrac- conduct two scenario based experiments. In all three studies goal type tiveness are attenuated or even reversed, when consumer attention (attainment vs. maintenance) is manipulated between participants. is drawn to possible difficulties for goal achievement. Scenarios about weight, GPA, daily working out time, money, and weekly sales goals are used. REFERENCES Stamatogiannakis et al. (2010) asked participants to rate Dunning, David (2007), “Prediction: The Inside View,” in Social goal difficulty and list their thoughts on what would make goal psychology: Handbook of basic principles (second edition), achievement more or less likely. To uncover differences in thoughts eds. Arie W. Kruglanski, and E. Tory Higgins, NY: Guilford, generation between attainment and maintenance goals, we did an 69-90. in-depth analysis of these thoughts. These were coded across two Kruglanski, Arie, James Y. Shah, Ayelet Fishbach, Ron Fried- dimensions, valence and content. In valence coding, each thought was man, Woo Young Chun, and David Sleeth-Keppler (2002), “A categorised as favorable (i.e., a success thought), unfavorable (i.e., a Theory of Goal Systems,” Advances in Experimental Social failure thought), or neutral (i.e., unrelated thought) for goal achieve- Psychology, 34, 331-78. ment. In content coding, each thought was categorised as related or Stamatogiannakis, Antonios, Amitava Chattopadhyay, Dipankar not to the following: effort/ motivation put for goal achievement, Chakravarti (2010), “Maintenance versus Attainment Goals: the person pursuing the goal, goal context, specific plans for goal Why People Think it Is Harder to Maintain their Weight achievement, and goal level. Finally, statements related to the goal than to Lose a Couple of Kilos”, in Advances in Consumer level were further categorised depending on whether they involved Research, Vol. 37, eds. Margarett C. Campbell, J. Jeffrey In- a comparison between the actual and the desired state, or not. man, and Rik Pieters, Duluth, MN: Association for Consumer The results suggest that attainment goals evoke more thoughts Research. comparing the actual and the desired state, and more plan-related

711 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Maintenance versus Attainment Goals: Influence of Self-Regulation Goal Type on Goal Pursuit Behaviors Napatsorn Jiraporn, State University of New York at Binghamton, USA Kalpesh Kaushik Desai, State University of New York at Binghamton, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT effort because they rely on ‘instrumentality heuristics’, naïve belief The extant goal literature has focused mainly on attainment that higher effort leads to better outcome (Labroo & Kim 2009). goals, in which the desired state is positively discrepant from the Along the same line, we predict that maintainers prefer a disaggre- current state, but has neglected the maintenance goals, in which the gated framing of strategy implementation (e.g. exercise 15 minutes current state is equal to or better than the desired state. This casts for 6 days per week) than an aggregated framing (e.g. exercise 45 doubt on whether the implications of findings from the literature minutes for 2 days per week) (H5b). This is because maintainers can apply to the challenges related to maintenance goals. We ad- might perceive the former as easier to implement. dresses these gaps by contrast the two goal types and examine the In three studies, the two goal types were manipulated. All three mechanisms underlying each of them. Our findings suggest that studies successfully established that maintenance goals are character- consumers in the two groups are attracted to different self-regulation ized with less clear temporal (H1). Study 1 with a 2 (maintenance strategies. Therefore, firms can provide different products for con- vs. attainment goal) x 2 (domain replicates) between-subject design sumers in these two groups. (n =225) tested the consideration set size hypothesis in two goal What differentiate maintenance goals from attainment goals? domains, cholesterol and money saving. The results were consistent First, by their definitions, the two goal types differ in the distance across two domains and showed that maintainers considered fewer between the current and the desired states. Second, the two goal strategies than attainers (MMaintainers = 3.61 vs. MAttainers = 4.12, (F(1, types differ in the clarity about temporal ending of goal pursuit (H1). 207) = 4.16, p <.01). Thus, our H1 & H4 were supported. In case of an attainment goal, achieving the desired state suggests Study 2 (n = 56) replicated the results of Study 1 with stronger end of goal pursuit. However, in case of a maintenance goal, there measures of psychological processes. The analysis revealed that is less clarity about the temporal ending because the current state is attainers engaged more in prospective than prospective thoughts already better than the benchmark. Moreover, some maintenance (MRetro = 4.44 vs. MPro = 5.10, t(28) = 2.14, p <.05) but maintainers goals are to be pursued over long term such as health-related goals engaged in thoughts in both time frames. Thus, H2 was partially (e.g. exercise goal) so these goals are not temporally bound. supported. Further analysis showed that attainers engaged more in

Moreover, the two goal types differ in their underlying mecha- outcome-focused thinking than process-focused thinking (MProc = nisms. We propose that maintenance goals activate retrospective 4.56 vs. MOut = 5.25, t(28) = 3.28, p <.01) but maintainers did not (vs. prospective) thought because maintenance goals indicate the differ between the two thinking styles. Thus, H3 was also partially past actions of consumers were good enough. In contrast, attain- supported. We added measures of whether consumers consider old ment goals activate prospective thought because attainment goals versus new strategies. The results indicated that maintainers con- suggest that the past actions did not bring about the desired state sidered both old and new strategies but attainers tended to consider so consumers focus more on future actions (H2). Moreover, main- new strategies (MOld = 4.31 vs. MNew = 4.93, t(28) = 1.98, p =.06). tenance goals trigger more process-focused (vs. outcome-focused) Study 3 (n = 28) tested our effort-related hypothesis (H5) with thinking while attainment goals trigger more outcome-focused a 2 (maintenance vs. attainment goal) x 2 (aggregated vs. disag- thinking (H3). The reason is that thoughts in retrospection tend to gregated framing) design with framing as within-subject factor. The have richer context (Van Boven, Kane, & McGraw 2009) and make results revealed that maintainers evaluated a disaggregated framing consumers think at more concrete (vs. abstract) level. Thoughts at (workout 15 minutes for 6 days per week) more positively than concrete level involve feasibility aspects and process of means to an aggregated framing (workout 45 minutes for 2 days per week) goal but thoughts at abstract level focus on consequences of means (F(1, 25) = 2.85, Mdisagg = 5.08 vs. Magg = 4.78, p<.1). In addition, or goal (Liberman & Trope 1998; Trope & Liberman 2003). Hence, maintainers rated the former as less effortful than the latter (Mdisagg when considering goal pursuit strategies, maintainers tend to focus = 3.36 vs. Magg = 5.36, t(11) = 2.97, p <.05). However, attainers more on processes of the strategies whereas attainers focus more did not differ in their attitude between the two framings. Thus, H5 on outcomes of the strategies. was partially supported. The two underlying mechanisms lead to different goal pursuit Across three studies, the results showed robust supports that behaviors. First, we predict that maintainers will construct smaller maintenance goals differ from attainment goals in characteristics, consideration set of goal pursuit strategies than attainers (H4). This underlying processes, and pursuit behaviors. The research helps is because maintainers’ retrospective thoughts constrain them with managers recognize that consumers striving different goal types reality (Van Boven et al 2009) and prevent them from choosing are not homogenous and distinct marketing strategies are needed strategies that are less practical. Consistently, process-focused to serve the two consumer groups. thinking makes maintainers consider only strategies with easier implementation process. In contrast, attainers are less constrained REFERENCES by reality and more outcome-driven so they consider any strategies Bagozzi, Richard and Dholakia, Utpal (1999), “Goal Setting and which appear to deliver satisfactory outcomes. Goal Striving in Consumer Furthermore, based on the difference in clarity about temporal Behavior,” Journal of Marketing, 63, 19-32 ending of the two goal types, maintainers will prefer strategies that Baumgartner, Hans and Pieters, Rik (2007), “Goal-directed require less (vs. more) effort because the temporal ending of their Consumer Behavior: Motivation, Volition, and Affect,” in goal pursuit is not clear. On the other hand, attainers might be more Handbook of Consumer Psychology, eds. Haugtvedt, Curtis willing to exert higher effort as they perceive that the goal pursuit P; Herr, Paul M; and Kardes, Frank R., New York, Psychol- is more temporally bound (H5a). In addition, the outcome-focused ogy Press, 367-392 thinking might make attainers prefer strategies that require higher

712 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 713 Blaszczynski, Alex and Lia Nower (2002), “A Pathways Model ------(2003). Temporal construal theory of time dependent of Problem and Pathogological Gambling,” Addiction, 97, preferences. In J. Carillo, I. Brocas, & J. D. Carrill (Eds.), 487-499 The psychology of economic decisions: Rationality and well- Brownell, Kelly D., G. Alan Marlatt, Edward Lichtenstein, and being Oxford, England: Oxford University Press G. Terence Wilson (1986), “Understanding and Preventing Van Boven, Leaf, Kane, Joanne., and McGraw, A.Peter (2009) Relapse,” American psychologist, 41 (7), 765-82. “Temporally asymmetric constraints on mental simulation: Brodscholl, Jeff; Kober, Hedy; and Higgins, Tory (2007), “Strat- Retrospection is more constrained than prospection” In K. egies of Self-Regulation in Goal Attainment Versus Goal Markman, W. Klein, & S.Shur (Eds.), The Handbook of Maintenance,” European journal of social psychology, 37 (4), Imagination and Mental Simulation. (pp. 131-150) Psychol- 628 – 648 ogy Press. Chartrand, Tanya L., and John A. Bargh (2002), “Nonconscious Tversky, Amos and Derek J. Koehler (1994), “Support Theory: Motivations: Their Activation, Operation, and Conse- A Nonextensional Representation of Subjective Probability,” quences,” in Self and Motivation: Emerging Psychological Psychological review, 101 (4), 547-66. Perspectives, ed. Abraham Tesser, Diederik A. Stapel, and Joanne V. Wood, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 13-41 Fishbach, Ayelet and Dhar, Ravi (2005), “Goals as Excuses or Guides: The Liberating Effect of Perceived Goal Progress on Choice,” The Journal of consumer research, 32 (3), 370 Gaine, Graham and La Guardia, Jennifer (2009), “The unique contributions of motivations to maintain a relationship and motivations toward relational activities to relationship well- being,” Motivation and emotion, 33 (2), 184-202 Gilbert, Daniel T., Carey K. Morewedge, Jane L. Risen, and Timothy D. Wilson (2004), “Looking Forward to Looking Backward,” Psychological Science-Cambridge, 15, 346-50 Gollwitzer, Peter M. (1999), “Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans,” American Psychologist, 54, 493-503 Gourville, John (1998), “Pennies-A-Day: The Effect of Temporal Reframing on Transaction Evaluation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (March), 395-408 Hertel, Andrew W.; Finch, Emily A.; Kelly, Kristina M.; King, Christie; Lando, Harry; Linde, Jennifer A.; Jeffery, Robert W.; Rothman, Alexander J. (2008), “The impact of expecta- tions and satisfaction on the initiation and maintenance of smoking cessation: An experimental test,” Health Psychol- ogy, 27(3S), S197-S206 Labroo, Aparna & Kim, Sara (2009), “The “instrumentality” heuristic: Why metacognitive difficulty is desirable during goal pursuit,” Psychological Science, 20, 127–134 Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (1998), “The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future deci- sions: A test of Temporal Construal Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 5-18 Phelan, Suzanne; Hill, James; Lang, Wei; Dibello, Jullia; and Wing, Rena (2003), “Recovery from Relapse among Suc- cessful Weight Maintainers,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(6), 1079-1084 Stamatogiannakis, Antonios; Chattopadhyay, Amitava, and Chakravarti, Dipankar (2009), “Maintenance versus Attain- ment Goals: Why People Think it Is Harder to Maintain their Weight than to Lose a Couple of Kilos,” in Advances in Consumer Research 2009 Taylor, Shelley E., Lien B. Pham, Inna D. Rivkin, and David A. Armor (1998), “Harnessing the Imagination: Mental Simula- tion, Self-Regulation, and Coping,” American psychologist, 53, 429-39. Trope, Yaacov, & Liberman, Nira (2000), “Temporal construal and time-dependent changes in preference,” Journal of Per- sonality and Social Psychology,79, 876–889 Squeezing a Dry Towel: Reducing Consumers’ Optimistic Prediction Biases Kyeong Sam Min, University of New Orleans, USA Hal Arkes, Ohio State University, USA

Extended Abstract less susceptible to our accountability instruction because his or Consumers tend to be optimistic in predicting when they will her responses would be ultimately examined by the experimenter complete an upcoming activity. Optimistic predictions are often as well as the other member of the couple. In Experiment 2 we more problematic than pessimistic predictions, because they not tested how planning difficulty would interact with scenario type: only delay other planned projects, but they also make consumers optimistic versus pessimistic. As predicted, the planning difficulty use unexpected additional resources to complete the current project. effect shown in Experiment 1 was qualified by the type of scenario Even though research to date has proposed various bias reduction that people generated. The optimistic prediction bias decreased aids in the context of optimistic time predictions (e.g., Roy, Chris- when individual planners generated the difficult, as opposed to the tenfeld, and McKenzie 2005), many of them were not empirically easy, optimistic scenario or when individuals generated the easy, supported or earned only mixed support. The purpose of this paper as opposed to the difficult, pessimistic scenario. In Experiment 3 is to propose and test new debiasing strategies that help to reduce we tested how planning difficulty would interact with shoppers’ consumers’ optimistic prediction biases. interpretation of the feeling of ease. As expected, the planning One of the possible causes of the optimistic prediction bias is difficulty effect was qualified by the subjective meaning of ease. that individuals overestimate the likelihood of the occurrence of a Planners who generated a difficult, rather than an easy, optimistic chain of events in completing a project. As shown in the explanation scenario were less likely to exhibit the optimistic prediction bias when bias literature (e.g., Hirt, Kardes, and Markman 2004), people tend they positively interpreted the feeling of ease. In contrast, planners to view a particular outcome as more likely to occur if they have who generated an easy, rather than a difficult, optimistic scenario explained a sequence of steps required to complete the project. were marginally less likely to exhibit the optimistic prediction bias Because individuals often base their judgments upon the informa- when they negatively interpreted the feeling of ease. tion that is readily available, the project that has been explained In sum, across three experiments using “real world” planning is more accessible and thus gets higher likelihood estimates. Thus activities we found support for two important debiasing aids. We consumers who can easily simulate the sequence of an event may be hope our new debiasing strategies will not only help illuminate the optimistic in concluding that the event is likely to take place soon. processes behind the optimistic prediction bias but will also assist Drawing upon the literature in judgment and decision making, all of us in making more realistic plans. we argue that the magnitude of planning difficulty effects will be mitigated when an individual planner’s accountability increases, a References planner write a pessimistic scenario, or a planner is led to believe Briñol, Pablo, Richard E. Petty, and Zachary L. Tormala (2006), that ease is bad. First, accountable individuals tend to thoroughly “The Malleable Meaning of Subjective Ease,” Psychological process the information and do not heavily rely upon heuristics Science, 17, 200-06. such as ease of generation (e.g., Tetlock, Lerner, and Boettger Buehler, Roger, Dale Griffin, and Michael Ross (1994), “Explor- 1996). Thus, we predicted that the influence of planning difficulty ing the ‘Planning Fallacy’: Why People Underestimate Their on optimistic prediction bias would be weaker when individuals’ Task Completion Times,” Journal of Personality and Social accountability for their prediction outcome was high, rather than Psychology, 67, 366-81. low. Second, following up Sanna and Schwarz (2004), we predicted Buehler, Roger, Johanna Peetz, and Dale Griffin (2010), “Finish- that individuals’ optimistic prediction bias would be smaller when ing on Time: When Do Predictions Influence Completion it was easy, rather than difficult, to generate a pessimistic scenario Times?” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision about an upcoming event. Third, building upon Briñol, Petty, and Processes, 111, 23-32. Tormala (2006), we predicted that experiencing ease in generating an Fitzsimons, Gráinne M. and Ayelet Fishbach (in press), “Shifting optimistic scenario would reduce optimism when people interpreted Closeness: Interpersonal Effects of Personal Goal Progress,” ease of generation to be bad, rather than good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Using “real world” planning activities, each of these predictions Hansen, William B., Linda M. Collins, C. Kevin Malotte, C. An- were tested across three experiments, respectively. In Experiment 1 derson Johnson, and Jonathan E. Fielding (1985), “Attrition we examined how planning difficulty would influence individuals’ in Prevention Research,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, optimistic prediction biases. We also tested the role of accountability 261-75. as a debiasing aid. People who were engaged to be married were Hirt, Edward R., Frank R. Kardes, and Keith D. Markman first asked to identify one of their pre-wedding activities that would (2004), “Activating a Mental Simulation Mind-Set Through be completed soon. Then they were told to describe how they Generation of Alternatives: Implications for Debiasing in would complete the activity by writing about it in relatively easy or Related and Unrelated Domains,” Journal of Experimental difficult steps. They were also assigned to one of two accountability Social Psychology, 40, 374-83. conditions. Next the participants estimated the time that the target Kahn, Barbara E., Mary Frances Luce, and Stephen M. Nowlis activity would be completed and then evaluated their planning (2006), “Debiasing Insights from Process Tests,” Journal of processes. Lastly, participants reported their actual completion Consumer Research, 33, 131–38. times when they were contacted 10 days after the predicted deadline Kahneman, Daniel and Amos Tversky (1979), “Intuitive Predic- of the chosen activity. As predicted, people who were engaged tion: Biases and Corrective Procedures,” TIMS Studies in to be married made more realistic time estimates for the project Management Science, 12, 331-27. completion when they were asked to write a relatively difficult, Kruger, Justin and Matt Evans (2004), “If You Don’t Want To Be rather than easy step, optimistic scenario. However, unlike our Late, Enumerate: Unpacking Reduces the Planning Fallacy,” prediction, accountability did not play any moderating role. Each Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 586-98. individual in the high accountability condition seemed to have been 714 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 715 Lilienfeld, Scott O., Rachel Ammirati, and Kristin Landfield (2009), “Giving Debiasing Away: Can Psychological Research on Correcting Cognitive Errors Promote Human Welfare?” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 390-98. Newby-Clark, Ian R., Michael Ross, Roger Buehler, Derek J. Koehler, and Dale Griffin (2000), “People Focus on Opti- mistic Scenarios and Disregard Pessimistic Scenarios While Predicting Task Completion Times,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6, 171–82. Roy, Michael M., Nicholas J. S. Christenfeld, and Craig R. M. McKenzie (2005), “Underestimating the Duration of Future Events: Memory Incorrectly Used or Memory Bias?” Psy- chological Bulletin, 131, 738-56. Sanna, Lawrence J. and Norbert Schwarz (2004), “Integrating Temporal Biases: The Interplay of Focal Thoughts and Ac- cessibility Experiences,” Psychological Science, 15, 474-81. Schwarz, Norbert, Herbert Bless, Fritz Strack, Gisela Klumpp, Helga Rittenauer-Schatka, and Annette Simons (1991), “Ease of Retrieval as Information: Another Look At the Availability Heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 195-202. Tetlock, Philip E., Jennifer S. Lerner, and Richard Boettger (1996), “The Dilution Effect: Judgmental Bias, Conversational Convention, or a Bit of Both? European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 915-34. Tormala, Zachary L., Richard E. Petty, and Pablo Briñol (2002), “Ease of Retrieval Effects in Persuasion: A Self-Validation Analysis,” Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 28, 1700-12. Tversky, Amos Derek J. Koehler (1994), “Support Theory: A Nonextensional Representation of Subjective Probability,” Psychological Review, 101, 547-67. Ülkümen, Gülden, Manoj Thomas, and Vicki G. Morwitz (2008), “Will I Spend More in 12 Months or a Year? The Effect of Temporal Frames on Budget Estimates,” Journal of Con- sumer Research, 35, 245-56. Yates, J. Frank, Elizabeth S. Veinott, and Andrea L. Patalano (2003), “Hard Decisions, Bad Decisions: On Decision Quality and Decision Aiding,” in Emerging Perspectives on Judgment and Decision Research, ed. Sandra L. Schneider and James Shanteau, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 13-63. When Small Steps Become Big Leaps: Goal-Consistency Judgments and the Illusion of Goal Progress Andrea Bonezzi, Northwestern University, USA Alexander Chernev, Northwestern University, USA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT overestimated goal-progress compared to respondents not focusing Goals play a central role in driving consumers’ mental pro- on goal-consistency. This effect was directionally consistent across cesses and ultimate behaviors. Whether consciously held (Bagozzi all three domains. & Dholakia, 1999; Locke & Latham, 1990), or activated outside of In Experiment 2 we provide further evidence for the phenom- awareness (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Chartrand & Bargh, 1996) enon and show that the goal progress overestimation is not a function goals act as motivational drives (Gollwitzer, 1999) prompting people of progress valence. In particular, we show that goal-consistency to engage in actions functional to achieving the desired end-state. judgments lead to overestimating the movement toward a goal pro- An important aspect of achieving a goal involves monitoring duced by a goal-consistent action, as well as the movement away progress toward the desired end-state. Monitoring goal-progress from a goal produced by a goal-inconsistent action. plays a fundamental role in regulating consumer behavior by inform- In Experiment 3 we identify boundary conditions and show ing individuals about the contribution of each action to reaching that the influence of goal-consistency judgments on goal-progress the desired end-state. evaluations is a function of the magnitude of actual progress. In In line with this idea, monitoring goal-progress has been con- particular, goal-consistency judgments lead to overestimating goal- ceptualized as a process involving comparing a behavioral outcome progress only when the actual progress is marginal, but not when with a relevant standard of reference (Carver & Scheier, 1998). the actual progress is large. For example, one can adopt either the initial or the final state as Finally, in Experiment 4 we show that goal-consistency evalua- the standard of reference and monitor goal-progress by consider- tions can be spontaneously triggered by the choice task. In particular ing either what has been achieved so far, or what still needs to be we show that a series of goal-consistent choices is perceived to yield achieved (Koo & Fishbach, 2008). Consequently, perceived goal more progress than a single choice producing the same final result. progress is typically measured by asking participants to indicate Overall, the four experiments reported in this research offer on a Likert scale the extent to which a particular decision contrib- converging evidence for the proposition that goal-consistency judg- utes to advancing toward an active goal (Fishbch & Dhar, 2005; ments bias goal-progress evaluations. In particular, we show that Louro, Pieters, & Zeelenberg, 2007). We refer to such judgments consumers focused on goal-consistency are likely to overestimate as degree-of-progress evaluations. the degree-of-progress granted by an action that provides a marginal Building on previous research we propose that often people contribution toward reaching a desired end-state. Our results point to evaluate progress toward a goal by judging whether their actions the importance of investigating how different strategies consumers are consistent with the active goal (i.e., “Will this help me reach use to monitor progress toward a goal might create the illusion of my goal?”). For example, a person who is trying to save money goal-progress and eventually backfire. could evaluate progress toward the goal by judging whether dining at home rather than at a restaurant is consistent with the goal to References save money, without accurately considering how much money he Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice: Oxford, England: is actually saving. We refer to such judgments as goal-consistency Addison-Wesley. judgments. Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. (1999). Goal setting and goal Goal-consistency judgments are frequently triggered both by striving in consumer behavior. Journal of Marketing, external and internal constraints. Often, the choice task induces 63(Special Issue), 19-32. people to categorize actions as consistent or inconsistent with an Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable active goal. For instance, people are often bounded to choose the best automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54(7), 462- option among the available ones. Moreover, due to limited mental 479. resources, people often tend to simplify judgments by employing Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of mental shortcuts, simplifying rules and heuristics (Tversky & behavior. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press. Kahneman, 1974). Previous research has argued that one simplifying Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automatic activation of approach to judgment involves categorical or qualitative thinking impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious (Rozin, Ashmore, & Markwith, 1996). Thus, people engage in goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. categorization to easily make sense of the complexity of the world Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 464- (Allport, 1954; Fiske & Taylor, 1991). 478. Does engaging in goal-consistency judgments influences Fishbach, A., & Dhar, R. (2005). Goals as Excuses or Guides: degree-of-progress evaluations? In this research, we argue that The Liberating Effect of Perceived Goal Progress on Choice. consumers focused on goal-consistency are likely to overestimate Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 370-377. the degree-of-progress granted by an action that provides a mar- Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). ginal contribution toward reaching a desired end-state. We test the New York: McGraw-Hill. proposition that goal-consistency judgments influence goal-progress Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong evaluations in a series of four experiments. effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493- In Experiment 1 we show that goal-consistency judgments 503. lead to overestimating goal-progress. We test this basic proposition across three domains, representing three different goals: saving money, controlling calorie intake and caring for the environment. We find that respondents making goal-consistency judgments

716 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 717 Koo, M., & Fishbach, A. (2008). Dynamics of self-regulation: How (un)accomplished goal actions affect motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(2), 183- 195. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ US: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Louro, M. J., Pieters, R., & Zeelenberg, M. (2007). Dynamics of multiple-goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(2), 174-193. Rozin, P., Ashmore, M., & Markwith, M. (1996). Lay American conceptions of nutrition: Dose insensitivity, categorical thinking, contagion, and the monotonic mind. Health Psychology, 15(6), 438-447. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124- 1131. Film Festival 2010

The Last Picture Show Russell Belk and Robert Kozinets, York University

Unlike the movie theater in Peter Bogdanovich’s The Last Picture Show, the 2010 ACR Film Festival will not be the last. But after 10 years of co-chairing the Festival, we have turned over the reigns to the very capable hands of Marylouise Caldwell and Paul Henry. Over the past 10 years we have seen videographic consumer research grow, mature, and ripen into something quite amazing. Both the quality and quantity of consumer research videos have grown over this period. The North American ACR Film Festivals have shown more than 125 films and the ACR Conferences in Europe, Latin America, and the Asia Pacific have developed their own exciting and locally-flavored Film Festivals as well. From its inception, the North American festival itself has always had strong international representation among filmmakers and topics. If one of the challenges of consumer ethnography is to make the strange familiar and the familiar strange, consumer videogra- phy has excelled in meeting this challenge. Many of these films have found their way into classrooms and a number of them have been included in special DVD issues of several journals as well as into print journal article and chapter form. With its origins in an ACR Special Session in 2000, the Film Festival is now an ACR institution. We hope that no one could imagine a future ACR that did not offer researchers the option of representing our knowledge of consumer in an audio-visual format. As industry increasingly embraces videographic techniques for representing consumer realities and portraying their marketing research findings, it is useful for our field to follow suit and, in many ways, lead the charge towards finding new, rich forms for understanding the consumer. The format of video and video editing over this period has been non-linear and digital throughout the past decade. Technologies have evolved and have driven the costs of video storytelling down to quite affordable levels. Thanks to the conference chairs, at the 2010 ACR Film Festival we not only had trailers available on the conference hotel CCTV, but also on the conference web site. For the upcoming Beijing ACR Conference in 2011 we will be receiving and reviewing (jurying) Film Festival entries on the Internet. ACR Films over the past decade have gone from standard definition analog VHS tapes to high definition DVDs. Camcorders have become smaller, cheaper, and more sophisticated. Digital still photography cameras are no longer so still. These technologies have also become ubiquitous as even the convergent technologies of mobile phones are capable of capturing high definition video. And editing equip- ment and software that would have been prohibitively expensive for the individual videographer two decades ago is now inexpensive or included free with computer operating systems and cameras. But it is not just technologies that have changed, so have the skills of filmmakers. We don’t mean by this that the ACR videos have been produced by film school graduates (although a few have), but rather that ACR members have learned from practice, by watching other ACR films, through videos on YouTube, Vimeo, and similar sites, and from occasional consumer videography workshops and classes. Over the past decade, we have witnessed dramatic improvements in the quality of Consumer Research Videography as a field. We have been fortunate to watch as several stars of the field emerged and excelled in this medium. The medium of video has allowed experimentation with different ways of representing consumer behavior. Resulting films have varied from two and one-half minutes to ninety minutes. They have represented consumption on every continent. No doubt the me- dium is best used when there is behavior to be shown rather than the talking heads of interviews. Many of these stories are allowed to unfold without much narration or voice-over, but “voice-of-god” storytelling has not disappeared. Much more use is now made of video montages, quick-cuts, music, and other cinematic devices for sustaining audience interest and managing the pace and flow of the video. These techniques too have evolved and kept pace with what’s on TV and what’s on the Internet. Some films have had amusing topics and approaches while others have been deadly serious. Interestingly, both of these extremes have resulted in award-winning films. We have had a People’s Choice Award from the first ACR Film Festival, but over the past six years we have also had a Juror’s Award. The latter award also has a monetary prize, thanks to the generosity of Gary Bamossy, Alladi Venkatesh, the Center for Consumer Culture, and the University of California, Irvine. The criteria for evaluating submitted films and the Juror’s Award have also evolved over the first decade of ACR Films. We have described these criteria in several papers (Belk 2006; Belk and Kozinets 2006a, 2006b; Kozinets and Belk 2005). They include the “Four Ts” of topical, theoretical, theatrical, and technical considerations. This year’s ACR Film Festival showed ten films out of 19 submitted for a 53 percent acceptance rate. The films are a good example of the geographic and cultural diversity noted above. The films focus on consumption phenomena in Botswana, Brazil, China (Tibet), Japan, Qatar, and the United States, with filmmakers from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Japan, Norway, Qatar, Spain, and the U.S. As noted in the abstracts below, the topics were equally diverse, ranging from Twitter, videogamers, and World of Warcraft to Green Consumption, AIDS in Africa, Beer in Montana, Japanese tea ceremonies, Arab Gulf homes, and Shangri-La. This year for the first time, both the People’s Choice Award and the Juror’s Award went to the same film: “Walk the Talk, Talk the Walk,” by Marylouise Caldwell, Ingeborg Kleppe, and Stephen Watson. Congratulations go to these filmmakers for their powerful and moving film about a competition for positive role models for HIV positive men in Botswana. It is fitting that we should turn over the film festival at this time in its history to one of its top award-winning film-makers. We are looking forward to the next decade of successful ACR Film Festivals.

718 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 719 Brief Abstracts

Beer Country Caroline Graham Austin, Montana State University, USA Since the first settlers arrived at the St. Mary’s mission in the mid-19th century, Montanans have loved beer --- they love making it, sharing it, talking about it, and drinking it. In this film, we investigate the historic, economic, cultural and aesthetic values that make Montana America’s own Beer Country.

Retweet: A Digital Meditation on the Power of Twitter Donna Hoffman, University of California, Riverside, USA Thomas P. Novak, University of California, USA The phenomenal growth of Twitter, a popular microblogging application, is testament to consumers’ desires to instantaneously con- nect with other consumers. Though many deride the seeming meaningless of the ‘‘twitter stream,’’ consumers are putting the application to use in surprisingly potent ways. This video offers a brief reflection on the recursive power of Twitter.

Talk The Walk, Walk the Talk Marylouise Caldwell, University of Sydney, Australia Ingeborg Kleppe, Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration Stephen Watson, e+b media, University of Sydney, Australia This documentary shows how HIV+ people in Botswana radically transform themselves from AIDS victims to become public role- models of Positive Living, a health life-style that prolongs infected people’s lives and prevents them from infecting others and reinfecting themselves. They learn to deal with stigma, ignorance and limited social or financial support.

Tea for Two: Luxury in Japanese Tea Ceremony Hiroshi Tanaka, Chuo University, Japan Junko Kimura, Hosei University, Japan This study aims to anatomize the mechanism of luxury generation in the Japanese tea ceremony. Based on detailed interviews, we found that (1) Teamwork, (2) Theme-orientation, and (3) Game, are the three key concepts which depict the interactions between host and the guests and thus lead to generate sense of luxury.

Is Green? Gary Bamossy, Georgetown University, USA Basil Englis, Berry College, USA This film examines consumers’ reactions to the marketing practices of ‘‘Green Washing’’ –representing products as being environ- mentally friendly in ways that result in consumers feeling confused, skeptical, and cynical about those claims, and more generally, about the green movement towards sustainable consumption practices. The public discourse around ‘‘environmentally friendly’’ offerings is becoming increasingly contentious, socially divisive, and politicized, and this film explores these dynamics.

Domains of Privacy in Arab Gulf Homes Sobh Rana, Qatar University, Qatar Russell Belk, York University, Canada Globalization has both ameliorating and exacerbating effects on traditional cultural patterns. Based on ethnographic fieldwork over a three-year period, we analyze how local Islamic cultures affect consumption and marketing amid this swirl of new influences.

Paradise Lost: The Making of Shangri-La Russell Belk, York University, Canada Rosa Llamas, University of León, Spain Once upon a time, there was a peaceful Himalayan Fairyland that was a Garden of Eden, an earthly Paradise, and a Heaven on Earth. Its name was Shangri-La. And now the harried city dweller can vacation there. In 2002 the county of Zhongdian in China’s Yunan Province changed its name to Shangri-La. Based on fieldwork in 2009, we consider the positive and negative effects of this bid to attract tourists and transform the local economy.

Sustainability: A New Consumer Movement Adam Schmidt, Saint Joseph’s University, USA Thomas Ferraro, Saint Joseph’s University, USA Diane M. Phillips, Saint Joseph’s University, USA Consumers define sustainability in different ways and enact a variety of different behaviors to construct, maintain, and enhance their sustainable lifestyles. Further, those resulting multi-dimensional lifestyles are clearly personal. They tap into deeply held values, connect to communities, and evoke strong emotions. Sustainability is a new consumer movement. 720 / Film Festival Gamerz João Fleck, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Stefânia Almeida, Pontifícia Universidade Católica, Brazil Utpal Dholakia, Rice University, USA José Mazzon, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil We aimed at analyzing and understanding the peculiarities of video game consumption interviewing hardcore players that interact in Microsoft Xbox 360 virtual communities. The results allowed us to infer that the virtual experience and the online interaction are key elements presently in the consumption of games.

World of Warcrafters João Fleck, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Carlos Rossi, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Rodrigo Segabinazzi, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Getúlio Reale, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Diego Costa, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Marco Martins, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil We aimed at understanding, through a videographic study, what caused the reputed online game, World of Warcraft, to become such a phenomenon of consumption. Our results indicate that the involvement of players results from the achievement of goals, through the manipulation of an avatar that cooperates with others to compete.

References Belk, Russell (2006), “You Ought to be in Pictures: Envisioning Marketing Research,” Review of Marketing Research, Vol. 3, Naresh Malholtra, ed., Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 193-205. Belk, Russell and Robert Kozinets (2006a), “Camcorder Society: Quality Videography in Consumer and Marketing Research,” in Russell Belk, ed., Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 335-339. Belk, Russell and Robert Kozinets (2006b), “Videography,” in Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, Victor Jupp, ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 318-322. Kozinets, Robert and Russell Belk (2005), “Videography in Marketing and Consumer Research,” Qualitative Market Research, 8 (2), 141-183. Roundtable Summaries

Roundtable Neuroscience, Marketing, and Vulnerable Consumers: Integrative Approaches to Advancing Theory and Social Welfare

Chairs: Dante Pirouz, University of California, Irvine, USA Ab Litt, Stanford University, USA Baba Shiv, Stanford University, USA

Participants: James R. Bettman, Duke University, USA June Cotte, University of Western Ontario, Canada Adam Craig, University of South Carolina, USA Angelika Dimoka, Temple University, USA Laurette Dubé, McGill University, Canada William Hedgcock, University of Iowa, USA Todd A. Hare, California Institute of Technology, USA Ming Hsu, University of California, Berkeley, USA Uma Karmarkar, Stanford University, USA Theo Noseworthy, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Extended Abstract

Topic and Motivation. Two exciting recent developments in consumer research have been the burgeoning use of decision neuroscience to explore unanswered questions about consumer psychology and behavior, and transformative consumer research taking the express aim of investigating and improving personal and collective well-being. For the former, an ongoing undertaking has been the identifica- tion of explanatory niches in which neuroscience can most offer major conceptual advances above and beyond behavioral approaches alone. In contrast, the task of transformative consumer researchers is to identify important questions for consumer welfare, and integrate diverse research strands to best answer those questions and yield new insights. This roundtable centers on a topic that ideally melds these goals of both movements, one that is both a core issue in transformative research and that can be studied with unique and essential depth using neuroscientific techniques: the effects of marketing actions on vulnerable and at-risk consumers, and the consumption patterns exhibited by these individuals. Vulnerable consumers are defined as individuals who have personal or situational disadvantages in the marketplace that can create negative outcomes for either themselves or for society as a whole. These vulnerable consumers include age segments such as children, adolescents, and the elderly; those suffering from addiction and substance-abuse problems; and those with behavioral control problems in other domains such as spending money, gambling, eating and weight management, and even problematic overuse of the internet and video games. Vulnerable consumers also include those compromised by medical conditions, including neurological damage, deficits, or disorders, or by medications and medical interventions meant to deal with such conditions. Such consumers often exhibit distorted patterns of consumption within and across domains, and unusual susceptibility to various types of marketing actions. The typical consumer is exposed to numerous marketing messages every day. Under normal circumstances, consumers are generally able to process which to attend to and which to filter out in order to successfully regulate their overall con- sumption. However, this is often not the case for vulnerable and at-risk consumers. Consequently, an area of critical importance in transformative research and its public policy applications is the protection of vulnerable and at-risk consumers from the adverse effects of products and their marketing. Neuroscientific techniques can provide detailed and direct insight into the most basic biological, pharmacological, and psychophysi- ological mechanisms responsible for the deficits and risk factors characterizing vulnerable consumers. Such efforts can leverage much existing research regarding neurological changes over the lifespan, effects of specific brain impairments, and how different neural circuits predict, adapt to, and develop sensitivity and tolerance to specific stimuli. As such, they can reveal much about the nature, fundamental bases, and underlying conceptual constructs and interactions responsible for diverse decision-maker vulnerabilities. Doing so in a man- ner informed by theories and conceptual constructs from behavioral research, decision neuroscientists can contribute distinctively to the construction of more enlightened and biologically informed policy viewpoints and recommendations. Thus, revealing the bases of con- sumer vulnerabilities is an area where decision neuroscience has clear promise and value to consumer research overall and transformative consumer research in particular, in terms of both generating novel conceptual insights and revealing key results for consumer well-being. This roundtable will be a chance to discuss these possibilities for advancing theory and social welfare, and to develop interesting and promising new research directions from behavioral, neural, and integrative perspectives. We have drawn together a diverse panel of experts in neuroscience, decision research, and transformative consumer research, who are eager to explore these questions and issues regarding vulnerable consumers. Several specific issues already identified to be discussed are:

1. How research should be conducted and communicated when it has both clinical and managerial antecedents and consequences. 721 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 722 / Neuroscience, Marketing, and Vulnerable Consumers: Integrative Approaches to Advancing Theory and Social Welfare

2. Identifying vulnerable consumer groups that can be most effectively studied and whose well-being has most potential for im- provement by integrating neural and behavioral approaches.

3. Discussion of past experiences of panel members who have researched various vulnerable consumer groups using behavioral and neural techniques—what was found, and what couldn’t be ascertained but is important to further explore.

4. How findings from disparate areas may be best communicated both to researchers in distal fields, and more broadly in order to influence critical public policy issues.

5. The most promising conceptual and methodological frontiers for studying vulnerable consumers, both in terms of specific populations deserving deeper study, and novel or integrative approaches with high potential for revealing important new insights.

Interested and Likely-to-Benefit Audiences A wide range of attendees would benefit from attending this roundtable. Those interested in transformative consumer research, clinical consumer research, public policy, and consumer well-being would find this roundtable illuminating and informative regarding results from a burgeoning consumer research sub-field with particular relevance to key questions of interest. In addition, those working in neuroeconomics and decision neuroscience, as well as the larger community of consumer researchers who recognize the growing importance and promise of neuroscientific approaches and results, would also find this roundtable valuable for identifying novel consumer domains in which neuroscientific investigation could offer important insights. To a large degree, each of these groups is only infrequently exposed to the discoveries and approaches of the other. Hence, a key benefit of this roundtable is in bringing these groups together in active discussion.

Facilitating Pre-Conference Discussions The roundtable organizers are committed to fostering vigorous informal discussion amongst participants prior to the conference. We plan to facilitate such discussions primarily using either the ACR Knowledge Exchange forum or through moderated e-mails. Prior to the conference participants will be encouraged to develop and share with the group discussion points of most interest to them, as well as informal summaries of relevant research they have been conducting themselves or are interested in learning more about through discussions. All such materials will be collated by the organizers as needed and distributed to the group, and interactions regarding the issues, questions, and research results brought to the fore will be both encouraged and actively initiated by the organizers. Through these pre-conference efforts we hope to maximize the value and meaningfulness of the session itself. Roundtable Barbara Stern’s Legacy to Consumer Research

Chairs: Cristel Antonia Russell, University of Auckland, New Zealand Stephen J. Gould, Baruch College, USA

Participants: Aaron Ahuvia, University of Michigan, Dearborn, USA Barbara Olsen, SUNY Old Westbury, USA Brett Martin, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Craig Thompson, University of Wisconsin, USA David Mick, University of Virginia, USA Ed Mcquarrie, University of Santa Clara, USA Eileen Fischer, York University, Canada Eric Arnould, University of Wyoming, USA Gita Johar, New York University, USA Jennifer Escalas, Vanderbilt University, USA Jonathan Schroeder, University of Exeter, UK Laurie Meamber, George Mason University, USA Margo Buchanan-Oliver, University of Auckland, New Zealand Mark Ritson, Melbourne Business School, Australia Marla Royne Stafford, University of Memphis, USA Michael Mulvey, University of Ottawa, Canada Sandy Bennett, University of Auckland, New Zealand Steven Kates, Simon Fraser University, Canada

Extended Abstract The purpose of the roundtable is to review and discuss the contributions of Barbara Stern’s literary approach to the field of consumer research. Participants who have worked with Barbara will provide a brief review of her contributions in key areas and solicit participant discussion around each topic. The discussion of Barbara’s legacy has already begun in email exchanges between roundtable participants and the co-organizers. We have created a Barbara Stern listserv’. Once the roundtable is accepted, an online forum will be activated on the ACR website so that anyone will be able to post comments and thoughts. The proposal incorporates contributions from others who, while unable to attend this year’s conference, have shared how Barbara Stern’s work influenced their own research. These scholars will contribute to the discussion via the online board, pre- and post- conference. In Barbara Stern fashion, the proposal begins with an etymological analysis of the word legacy. Legacy is something transmitted from the past. It is also defined as a gift and this second meaning is just as suited to describe Barbara’s contributions to the field of consumer research. Gifted herself, she gifted us with novel insights and theoretical perspectives from English literature. In organizing this roundtable, we solicited statements from scholars who knew Barbara and/or her work. Some worked directly with her, all found her work inspirational. The purpose of the gathering will be to review and uphold her thriving legacy to consumer research. Barbara’s pioneering contributions to consumer research are best stated in Morris Holbrook’s words: “she transformed the possibilities for interpretive work in marketing research. By virtue of her training and experience in critical analysis–her ability to draw on a wealth of literary material not available to the typical marketing scholar–Barb infused her research with an authoritative command of interpre- tive methods not heretofore found in our discipline… She has incorporated key ideas from feminism, has made a case for advertising as a species of drama, has applied influential taxonomic and structural models borrowed from the basic discipline, and has even ventured forth into an exploration … of deconstructionism …. she loads her critical approach with insights into the meaning of consumption and other marketing-related phenomena. These discoveries make her work a constant challenge–and joy–to read … one is constantly impressed by the high level of originality, imagination, creativity, and wisdom that she has brought to her work.” (Holbrook 2009, 6). The roundtable will proceed as an open discussion guided by the topics brought up in pre-conference discussions amongst partici- pants. Since the exchange has already begun, emerging topics are listed here, using or paraphrasing (or quoting but unattributed) the participants’ own words in describing Barbara’s contributions to themselves personally and to the field as a whole. Literary Theory. Barbara’s work brought to light the centrality of the humanities in general and literary approaches to the study of marketing in particular. She covered such topics as the uses of literary devices (allegory, personae, rhetorical irony) in advertising and the relationship of literary criticism to consumer research. In her breakthrough article (JM 1988) Barbara compared advertising to medieval allegory in that it provides didactic instruction to consumers. In 1989 (JCR), she introduced us to the role literary criticism can play in consumer research, etching out the different schools and how they focus on different elements, including author, reader and text (e.g., reader response, genre analysis, deconstruction). She then playfully applied deconstruction to Joe Camel (JCR 1996) in a subversive, destabilizing reading to reveal how his behavior hovers in undecidability (différance) between various gendered-sexualities including dominant masculinity, repressed male homosexuality and implied femininity.

723 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 724 / Barbara Stern’s Legacy to Consumer Research Advertising. Barbara’s research offered new insights into the study of advertising text and narrative. She transformed our under- standing, for instance, of the traditional communications model in advertising (source, message, recipient) by treating advertising as crafted text rather than as mere everyday speech as the model implies (JA 1994). Feminism. Barbara was an “embodiment of the kind of feminist who opened up opportunities for others both because of her ex- emplary scholarship and because of her supportiveness of specific individuals” (female participant). She was “a true 2nd wave feminist as well as having overcome a bad marriage and all the obstacles professional women faced in the 60s. She was pretty fearless” (male participant). This topic will undoubtedly lead to lively discussion about feminism and how it has been manifested in the marketing academy. In 1993 (JCR), Barbara introduced us to feminist-deconstructive reading of ads suggesting that consumers engage in gendered reading such that males and females exhibit different reading styles. Pluralism. Barbara believed that pluralistic research projects drawing from different paradigmatic strengths (Kuhn 1962; Laudan 1984) contributed to each other (Lakatos 1978) in fruitful knowledge exchanges. She viewed the humanities as a source of theoretical insights and hypotheses testable by empirical methods but, although she was intrigued by experimental research, she had no background in it. She walked the talk of synergy between humanities theory and scientific method (Geertz 1988; Holbrook 1987), collaborating with researchers with complementary background to hers in experimental design (e.g., Escalas and Stern 2003). Likely Audience. Seasoned and novice consumer researchers will benefit from attending this session. We anticipate that the discus- sion will evolve more generally from Barbara Stern’s legacy of literary criticism to more general ways in which theory advances and the contribution of other disciplines to consumer research.

Selected References Geertz, Clifford (1988), Work and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press. Escalas, Jennifer Edson and Barbara B. Stern (2003), “Sympathy and Empathy: Emotional Responses to Advertising Dramas, “Jour- nal of Consumer Research, 29 (March), 566-578. Holbrook, Morris B. (1987), “What Is Consumer Research?” Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (June), 128-132. Holbrook, Morris B. (2009), “In Memoriam–Barbara B. Stern,” Marketing Theory, 9(1), 5-7. Hunt, Shelby D. (1989), “Naturalistic, Humanistic, and Interpretive Inquiry: Challenges and Ultimate Potential,” in Interpretive Con- sumer Research, ed. Elizabeth C. Hirschman, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakatos, Imre (1978), The Methodology of Scientific Research Programs, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Laudan, Larry (1984), Science and Values, Berkeley: University of California Press. Stern, Barbara B. (1988), “Medieval Allegory: Roots of Advertising Strategy for the Mass Market,” Journal of Marketing, 52 (July), 84-94. Stern, Barbara B. (1989), “Literary Criticism and Consumer Research: Overview and Illustrative Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (3), 322-334. Stern, Barbara B. (1993), “Feminist Literary Criticism and the Deconstruction of Ads: A Postmodern View of Advertising and Con- sumer Responses,” Journal of Consumer Research, 19 (March), 556-566. Stern, Barbara B. (1994), “A Revised Communication Model for Advertising: Multiple Dimensions of the Source, the Message, and the Recipient,” Journal of Advertising, 23 (June), 5-15. Stern, Barbara B. (1995), “Consumer Myths: Frye’s Taxonomy and the Structural Analysis of Consumption Text,” Journal of Con- sumer Research, 22 (September), 165-185. Stern, Barbara B. (1996), “Deconstructive Strategy and Consumer Research: Concepts and Illustrative Exemplar,” Journal of Con- sumer Research, 23 (September), 136-147. Stern, Barbara B. (1998), ‘Narratological Analysis of Consumer Voices in Postmodern Research Accounts’, in B.B. Stern (ed.) Repre- senting Consumers: Voices, Views and Visions, London: Routledge, 55-82. Roundtable The Evolving Definition of Rationality

Chair: Rajagopal Raghunathan, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Participants: Christopher Hsee, University of Chicago, USA Michel Tuan Pham, Columbia University, USA Ming Hsu, University of California at Berkeley, USA J. Edward Russo, Cornell University, USA Itamar Simonson, Stanford University, USA Dan Ariely, Duke University, USA Eduardo B. Andrade, University of California at Berkeley, USA

Extended Abstract The concepts of rationality and utility are irrevocably intertwined, since rationality is generally defined and conceived as utility maximizing behavior (e.g., Edwards 1954). Thus, to understand what rationality means, it is important to understand what utility means. From a classical economist’s perspective, utility can be taken to mean whatever it is that an individual (or a group) wishes to maxi- mize. In this view, even the so-called “dark” consumption behaviors—such as addiction to drugs or alcohol (Solomon 1980), the inability to save sufficient money for the future (Thaler and Shefrin 1992), or the inability to prevent oneself from compulsive shopping (Rook 1987)—can be conceived as rational. As such, many scholars interested in examining these types of (dark) behaviors have been careful to avoid characterizing these types of behaviors as irrational, and prefer, instead, to use less loaded terms such as, time-inconsistent preferences, or myopia to refer to them (e.g., Hoch and Loewenstein 1991). If utility can mean anything and everything, however, the concept of rationality is rendered meaningless, since any judgment or decision could be considered rational. To circumvent this conceptual impasse, one yardstick that has often been applied is whether the judgment/decision in question conforms to logic (Kahneman 1994); in this view, people are rational if their “beliefs, judgments, choices and actions respect certain standards of logic” (Pham 2007, p. 156). For instance, judgments or decisions that do not satisfy transitivity (Birnbaum 2008) or do not sufficiently account for base-rates (Bar Hillel 1980) would be considered irrational. But is conformance to norms of logic alone enough? Some scholars appear to think so; for instance, Sharif and Leboeuf (2002, p. 492) note that “the predomi- nant theories of rationality are predicated on notions of consistency”; thus, in the eyes of these scholars, even behaviors that would be considered patently irrational by lay-people (e.g., addiction to drugs or extreme impulsivity) could be construed as rational so long as these behaviors are, in some logically justifiable way, consistent and coherent. Other scholars, however, have taken a different stance: by implicitly equating utility to subjective well-being or happiness, they appear amenable to characterizing judgments/decisions that diminish emotional positivity—even if they are logically justifiable—as sub-rational (e.g., Thaler and Sunstein 2008). This perspective, of equating utility to emotional well-being, also appears to be echoed in the work of some other scholars (e.g., Hsee et al. 2003; Wilson and Schooler 1991), in as much as they portray the more (vs. less) enjoyable options as being superior, even though the choice of other options may be logically defendable. A third perspective on rationality adopts a societal-level lens through which judgments and decisions are evaluated; in this view, judgments/decisions that maximize societal (vs. individual) well-being are rational. This, so-called, “ecological” perspective of ratio- nality (e.g., Miller 2009; Haidt 2001, 2007) would characterize judgments/decisions that serve the higher-purpose of enhancing the utility of the society or group to which the decision-maker belongs as rational, even if these judgments/decisions come at a cost to the decision-maker himself. One framework that could prove useful in clarifying the pros and cons of subscribing to a particular definition of utility (and, therefore, rationality), is that offered by Kahneman and his colleagues (e.g., Kahneman Wakker and Sarin 1997). These researchers distinguish between two types of utilities—decision and experienced utility—where decision-utility refers to the “wantability” of options whereas experienced utility refers to the amount of pleasure (minus pain) provided by them. Thus, an option that provides higher levels of pleasure (minus pain) would be the rational choice from the perspective of an individual aiming to maximize experienced utility, and yet be sub-rational from the perspective of someone interested in concerns other than just enjoyment. For example, some people may attach great importance to making choices that appear (to oneself or to others) as justifiable (e.g., Simonson 1989), and to such people, the hedonic superiority of an option may not guarantee its choice. The primary objective of this session is to provide clarity on the various ways in which rationality and utility have been concep- tualized and to shed light on the subtle (and not-so-subtle) ways in which these conceptualizations differ. As a result of such clarity, we expect the audience to be able to judge for themselves the pros and cons of adopting different perspectives of utility and rationality. Time permitting, the panelists in the session may also discuss other related questions, including the following: (1) What is the role of consciousness in making rational judgments or decisions, that is, could a decision be rational if it were made sub-consciously (a la Di- jksterhuis 2004)? Or is it necessary for the decision-agent to have been conscious of the process underlying the calculation of utilities?, (2) What is the role of stability of preferences, and to what extent is the assumption of stability of preferences valid (Ariely, Loewenstein and Prelec 2003)?, and (3) When are preferences constructed and when do they appear to be based on inherent tastes (Simonson 2008)? The session is expected to have broad appeal, since assessing the quality of a judgment or decision (whether one refers to such assessments by the use of the term rationality) is central to all of consumer research.

725 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Roundtable Compliments, Critiques, and Consumption: The Effects of Word-of-Mouth Valence and Social Ties on Peer Advice in Socially-Embedded Settings

Chair: Renee Gosline, MIT Sloan School of Management, USA

Participants: Breagin Riley, Syracuse University, USA Kent Grayson, Northwestern University, USA Aronte Bennett, Villanova University, USA Tiffany White, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA David Dubois, Northwestern University, USA Jeff Lee, Harvard Business School, USA Lora Harding, Northwestern University, USA Omar Woodham, Syracuse University, USA

Extended Abstract The concepts of rationality and utility are irrevocably intertwined, since rationality is generally defined and conceived as utility maximizing behavior (e.g., Edwards 1954). Thus, to understand what rationality means, it is important to understand what utility means. From a classical economist’s perspective, utility can be taken to mean whatever it is that an individual (or a group) wishes to maxi- mize. In this view, even the so-called “dark” consumption behaviors—such as addiction to drugs or alcohol (Solomon 1980), the inability to save sufficient money for the future (Thaler and Shefrin 1992), or the inability to prevent oneself from compulsive shopping (Rook 1987)—can be conceived as rational. As such, many scholars interested in examining these types of (dark) behaviors have been careful to avoid characterizing these types of behaviors as irrational, and prefer, instead, to use less loaded terms such as, time-inconsistent preferences, or myopia to refer to them (e.g., Hoch and Loewenstein 1991). If utility can mean anything and everything, however, the concept of rationality is rendered meaningless, since any judgment or decision could be considered rational. To circumvent this conceptual impasse, one yardstick that has often been applied is whether the judgment/decision in question conforms to logic (Kahneman 1994); in this view, people are rational if their “beliefs, judgments, choices and actions respect certain standards of logic” (Pham 2007, p. 156). For instance, judgments or decisions that do not satisfy transitivity (Birnbaum 2008) or do not sufficiently account for base-rates (Bar Hillel 1980) would be considered irrational. But is conformance to norms of logic alone enough? Some scholars appear to think so; for instance, Sharif and Leboeuf (2002, p. 492) note that “the predomi- nant theories of rationality are predicated on notions of consistency”; thus, in the eyes of these scholars, even behaviors that would be considered patently irrational by lay-people (e.g., addiction to drugs or extreme impulsivity) could be construed as rational so long as these behaviors are, in some logically justifiable way, consistent and coherent. Other scholars, however, have taken a different stance: by implicitly equating utility to subjective well-being or happiness, they appear amenable to characterizing judgments/decisions that diminish emotional positivity—even if they are logically justifiable—as sub-rational (e.g., Thaler and Sunstein 2008). This perspective, of equating utility to emotional well-being, also appears to be echoed in the work of some other scholars (e.g., Hsee et al. 2003; Wilson and Schooler 1991), in as much as they portray the more (vs. less) enjoyable options as being superior, even though the choice of other options may be logically defendable. A third perspective on rationality adopts a societal-level lens through which judgments and decisions are evaluated; in this view, judgments/decisions that maximize societal (vs. individual) well-being are rational. This, so-called, “ecological” perspective of ratio- nality (e.g., Miller 2009; Haidt 2001, 2007) would characterize judgments/decisions that serve the higher-purpose of enhancing the utility of the society or group to which the decision-maker belongs as rational, even if these judgments/decisions come at a cost to the decision-maker himself. One framework that could prove useful in clarifying the pros and cons of subscribing to a particular definition of utility (and, therefore, rationality), is that offered by Kahneman and his colleagues (e.g., Kahneman Wakker and Sarin 1997). These researchers distinguish between two types of utilities—decision and experienced utility—where decision-utility refers to the “wantability” of options whereas experienced utility refers to the amount of pleasure (minus pain) provided by them. Thus, an option that provides higher levels of pleasure (minus pain) would be the rational choice from the perspective of an individual aiming to maximize experienced utility, and yet be sub-rational from the perspective of someone interested in concerns other than just enjoyment. For example, some people may attach great importance to making choices that appear (to oneself or to others) as justifiable (e.g., Simonson 1989), and to such people, the hedonic superiority of an option may not guarantee its choice. The primary objective of this session is to provide clarity on the various ways in which rationality and utility have been concep- tualized and to shed light on the subtle (and not-so-subtle) ways in which these conceptualizations differ. As a result of such clarity, we expect the audience to be able to judge for themselves the pros and cons of adopting different perspectives of utility and rationality. Time permitting, the panelists in the session may also discuss other related questions, including the following: (1) What is the role of consciousness in making rational judgments or decisions, that is, could a decision be rational if it were made sub-consciously (a la Di- jksterhuis 2004)? Or is it necessary for the decision-agent to have been conscious of the process underlying the calculation of utilities?, (2) What is the role of stability of preferences, and to what extent is the assumption of stability of preferences valid (Ariely, Loewenstein and Prelec 2003)?, and (3) When are preferences constructed and when do they appear to be based on inherent tastes (Simonson 2008)? The session is expected to have broad appeal, since assessing the quality of a judgment or decision (whether one refers to such assessments by the use of the term rationality) is central to all of consumer research. 726 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Roundtable Walking the Work-life Tightrope

Chair: Raj Raghunathan

Participants: Darren Dahl, University of British Columbia, Canada Kelly Haws, Texas A&M University, USA Gita Johar, Columbia University, USA Aparna Labroo, University of Chicago, USA Rhiannon MacDonnell, University of Calgary, Canada Himanshu Mishra, University of Utah, USA Vicki Morwitz, New York University, USA Joseph Nunes, University of Southern California, USA Stijn van Osselaer, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Deborah Small, University of Pennsylvania, USA

Extended Abstract Although the economists’ assumption, that “more of a good thing is better” has come under increasing scrutiny and criticism in recent years—for example, it has been shown not to be true for many things, including jam (Iyengar and Lepper 2000), TV channels, and babies (personal experience 2010)—, it seems to be true for at least one thing: happiness. We all want to be as happy as we can be, and the happier we are, well, the happier we feel! But, what does it take to be happy? According to Freud, the two biggest determinants of happiness are: (1) satisfaction with work and, (2) satisfaction with love. So, the more productive we are at work, and the greater the sense of intimacy/belongingness we have with our chosen social circle (which includes our partner, kids and friends), the happier we are likely to be. But, given that being productive at work and maintaining a healthy social-life take time, effort and (sometimes) money, and given that we have a limited pool of these resources, it can be a challenge to maintain a good work-life balance. So, how do we decide how much resource to allocate to work vs. family vs. friends? This is a tough nut to crack, as most of us (especially those with kids) have found out the hard way. Some of us decide to allocate more resources to family/friends, only to feel bad that we haven’t been as productive as we could have been. (And those pesky, super- productive single colleagues don’t help!) Others decide to devote more resources to work, only to feel socially isolated and miserable. In sum, the challenge of leading a happy life—through an ideal mix of “work” and “love”—presents an optimization problem that is more challenging than the health-care problem currently facing the US government (some may disagree with us on this, but we have anecdotal and apocryphal data to back our stance). So, who better to turn to, than the elite set of marketing faculty who have it all—productivity at work, a great family life, an intimate circle of friends, and more! Yes, our esteemed panel members lead enviable, “happily now (vs. ever after)” lives because they have hit the work-life balance sweet-spot! But, before you let that tinge of envy (which is no doubt creeping up your spine) develop into a full-blown bout of uncontrolled jealousy, let me assure you that the happy position in which our panelists find themselves wasn’t easy to achieve. They had to endure a long, harrowing period of struggle, with periodic attacks of spasmodic back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, thou-art-neither-here-nor- there syndrome and spontaneous spousal spurnment. (Some of these are new diseases.) But, despite all the hardships that they had to endure to painfully assimilate their pearls of wisdom, the panelists are eager to share their perspectives on this important topic (bless their hearts!). Each panelist will spend about 5-8 minutes first, outlining their preferred solution to the “work-life balance dilemma”. In the course of doing so, they will share their views on a number of issues, including the following:

What are some creative ways by which one can have “one’s cake and eat it too” (i.e., be productive at work and enjoy a healthy social life)? Who are some people who stand out as good exemplars of maintaining a good “work-life” balance and what are their strategies?

Should the allocation of resources vary depending on where (in which stage) one is? For instance, should one devote more resources to work (vs. social life) before tenure, and more to social life (vs. work) after having kids?

For those who have chosen to devote more time to family (vs. work), how can they cope with feelings of inadequacy that comes with a (hopefully temporary!) dip in productivity?

For those who have chosen to devote more time to work (vs. family), how can one get “one’s groove back” (i.e., develop and maintain healthy social relationships)?

Are there any resources (e.g., books, agencies) that can help us out with this issue?

Once the panelists have had a chance to share their perspectives, the floor will be opened to a question and answer session, which is expected to last about 30 minutes. The session is expected to have broad appeal, since most of us value both our work life and our social life. The session will be particularly valuable for junior faculty (and PhD students) with an active social/family life. 727 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Roundtable Green, Ethical, Sustainable Consumption

Chair: Andrew Gershoff, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Participants: Susan Dobscha, Bentley College, USA Amitav Chakravarti, New York University, USA Julie Irwin, University of Texas at Austin, USA Karen Page Winterich, Pennsylvania State University, USA Michael Luchs, William and Mary, USA Bram Van den Bergh, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Rebecca Walker Naylor, Ohio State University, USA Kelly Haws, Texas A&M University, USA Vladas Griskevicius, University of Minnesota, USA

Extended Abstract Over the last decade there has been a steady increase in sales and consumer interest of environmentally friendly, ethically produced, and so-called sustainable products (Freedonia 2009). Mainstream manufacturers and retailers such as Walmart, Home Depot, P & G, and General Electric have increased their offerings of products labeled “green” and they have altered many business practices in order to decrease or offset their impact on the environment. Research on consumer attitudes and response to green, ethical, and sustainable marketing has also begun to take root in a number of important directions, especially as it becomes apparent that despite positive attitudes toward such products, in many product categories consumers still don’t buy or use them (Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, Raghunathan 2010; UNEP 2005). As a result, questions of when and why these products will be adopted have been on the forefront. For example, a number of researchers have explored questions associated with the traits and indicators of consumers who tend to be green consumers (Haws, Winterich, Naylor 2010; Webb, Mohr, and Harris 2008). Others have asked about consumer response to the real or inferred trades-offs that consumers must make between the green benefits of the products and other primary benefits of the products (Luchs et al. 2010). In addition, many researchers have begun to uncover a potential dark side associated with purchase of green products. For example Ehrich and Irwin (2005) found that consumers may intentionally avoid leaning about a product’s negative ethical connections in order to protect a favored status of a preferred product. Others have shown that a licencing effect appears to occur with either the purchase of green products or beliefs about one’s own past green behavior. This may result in consumers becoming less likely to make subsequent green purchases, and may even be more likely to engage in other immoral or selfish behavior (Becker-Olsen, Bennett, Chakravarti 2010; Mazar and Zhong 2010). Finally, even when people do purchase green products, the benefits they seek may not be associated ethical, nor altruistic goals. Instead, the decision to purchase a green product may be driven by a goal of signaling status (Griskevicius, Tybur, and Van den Bergh 2010). Although a respectable body of knowledge in green and sustainable consumer behavior has clearly been established, this area is still both young enough and important enough to society to merit further inquiry. Rather than simply reviewing the work that has been completed thus far, the purpose of this roundtable will be to discuss and develop key questions and research priorities for future study of green, sustainable, and ethical marketing. At least nine recognized researchers this area have agreed to attend and contribute. Toward developing these research priorities, a number of areas for discussion have been proposed. One area for consideration is consumer response to the way in which green and sustainable benefits are introduced and manifest in the products they consume. For example, products may become more green in a number of ways. First, manufacturing and trans- portation methods may be used by a company to reduce any negative impact on the environment or society but these changes may not alter the product or consumer experience in any way. Second, materials used in the product or package may have a reduced impact on natural resources either by reducing material use, reusing materials, or using alternative materials. These methods may have an impact on the environment, but it may be affect the product experience as well. Third, design of products may be altered so that when used the products have less impact on the environment by reducing their energy consumption or pollution. Finally, products may be designed so that when they are disposed of they have less impact on the environment. Each of these methods may result in a similar impact on the environment, but they may differ in consumer reactions. For instance, tangible and observable aspects of the greenness of products may lead to inferences that the product is less effective in other ways, which may reduce demand, yet it may facilitate public signaling of the purchase, which could increase demand through perceived benefit to status (Griskevicius et al. 2010). Further, even unobservable changes may influence demand for green products depending on where in the consumption stream the change has occurred. For instance, upstream improvements toward the greening of a product (i.e. alterations in manufacturing transportation processes) may be perceived as more desirable than downstream benefits because the greening of the product has already taken place when the consumer makes the purchase decision, while downstream changes (i.e. alterations in design that improve efficiency during use of disposal) may be perceived as more desirable than upstream benefits because they allow the consumer to be a cooperative player in the green benefit being realized. While aspects of the product may be one area for consideration of key research objectives, a second area is in aspects of consum- ers’ identities. Recent work suggests that people have many identities, or self-construals, that may be activated at different times, lead- ing to differences in motivations, information processing, and behaviors (Oyserman 2009). Such identity activation may be important for facilitating consumer compliance with behaviors and purchase of products that benefit a common good, rather than their own self interest. In other domain this has been shown to be effect. For example, identity congruent appeals have been shown to be effective for influencing decisions to exercise and to reduce alcohol and drug use (Martin and Leary 2001; Werch 2007, 2008). 728 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 729 The session is expected to have a very broad appeal as research in this area continues to take off. Further, the questions posed in this line of research also dovetail with many other areas of research including the role of emotions in decision making, common goods decisions, attitude formation and change, and self presentation. As a result it is expected that this session will draw both attendees im- mediately interested in green, ethical and sustainable marketing, as well as those interested in these varied, yet influential, research topics.

References Becker-Olsen, Karen, Aronte Bennett, and Amitav Chakravarti (2010), “The Green-Self Paradox: An Examination of Licensing Ef- fects In Green Behavior,” presented at the Society for Consumer Psychology Conference, St. Pete Beach, Florida Ehrich, K., and J. Irwin (2005), “WIllful Ignorance in the Request for Product Information,” Journal of Marketing Research, 42 (Aug. 2005), 266-277. Freedonia (2009), “Green Building Materials to 2013,” Study 2459, February. Griskevicius, Vladas , J. M. Tybur, and B. Van den Bergh, (in press), “Going Green to Be Seen: Status, Reputation, and Conspicuous Conservation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Haws, Kelly, Karen Page Winterich, and Rebecca Naylor (2010), “It’s all about THE GREENS: Conflicting Motives and Making Green Work,” Working Paper. Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, Raghunathan (in press), The Sustainability Liability: Potential Negative Effects of Ethicality on Product Pre- frerence,” Journal of Marketing. Mazar, N. & Zhong, C. B. , “Do Green Products Make Us Better People?” Psychological Science (in press) Martin, K. A., & Leary, M. R (2001), “Self-Presentational Determinants of Health Risk Behavior Among College Freshmen,” Psy- chology and Health, 15, 1-11. Oyserman, D. (2009). “Identity-Based Motivation: Implications for Action-Readiness, Procedural-Readiness, and Consumer Behav- ior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19, 250-260. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2005), Talk the Walk: Advancing Sustainable Lifestyles through Marketing and Communications. UN Global Compact and Utopies. Webb, Deborah J., Lois A. Mohr and Katherine E. Harris (2008), “A Re-examination of Socially Responsible Consumption and its Measurement,” Journal of Business Research, 61, (February), 91-98. Werch, Chudley E. (2007). “SPORT: A brief program using image to influence drug use and physical activity.” Health Education & Behavior, 34(2), 275-276. Roundtable Developing a Dissertation Idea

Chair: Eduardo B. Andrade, University of California, Berkeley, USA

Participants: Clayton Critcher, Cornell University, USA Jeff Galak, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Chris Janiszewski, University of Florida, USA Peter McGraw, University of Colorado, USA Tom Meyvis, New York University, USA Leif D. Nelson, University of California, Berkeley, USA Joseph P. Simmons, Yale University, USA Stacy Wood, University of South Carolina, USA

Extended Abstract To generate a dissertation idea is a daunting task. Those who have gone or are going through this process know it well. Interest- ingly, there is unfortunately little discussion about (1) how PhD students (should) develop their dissertation ideas and (2) how professors (should) involve themselves in the process. This roundtable is meant to address this issue. Specifically, it will discuss descriptive and normative aspects related to: research topics of interest, hypothesis generation, faculty involvement, and differences between psychol- ogy and marketing departments. Choosing an Area of Interest Within Consumer Research. Given its interdisciplinary approach, consumer research topics can vary dramatically. After being exposed to wide range of areas, how does a student decide on a topic of interest? Moreover, how much is the choice process influenced by intrinsic vs. extrinsic considerations (e.g., passion for the area vs. whom to work with vs. likelihood of publication)? How to balance these two aspects? How variation is there between schools and between students? Are there specific rules of thumb to be followed? Selecting a Specific Idea/Hypothesis. Once a research area is identified, how does the student identify a novel research question and a testable research hypothesis? Are there specific strategies to facilitate this process? Faculty involvement. How much should the faculty adviser be involved? The answer to this question is hotly debated. Should fac- ulty contribute to idea generation or should they merely step back? How should students navigate the considerable cultural differences between universities? Psychology/Consumer Research. The fact that many marketing professors have been trained in psychology also raises the question on whether or not the preceding topics vary systematically depending on the nature of the faculty adviser’s personal training. Where systematic differences exist, is there room for identifying a strategy that synthesizes the best tactics from both? In short, this roundtable will shed light into the different strategies employed by individuals, departments, and disciplines, in the generation and consolidation of a dissertation idea. We hope to attract the interest of senior and junior faculty, and, most importantly, doctoral students.

730 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 Roundtable Understanding Prosocial Behavior Among Consumers and Organizations

Chair: Michal Strahilevitz , Golden Gate University, USA

Participants: David Mick, University of Virginia, USA Deborah Small, Wharton School of Business, USA Carlos J. Torelli, University of Minnesota, USA Andrew M. Kaikati, Terry College of Business, University of Georgia, USA Kelly Goldsmith, Kellogg School, Northwestern University, USA Michael Norton, Harvard School of Business, USA Nicole Verrochi, University of Pittsburg, USA Sankar Sen, Zicklin School of Business, Baruch Colege/CUNY, USA Sergio Carvalho, University of Manitboa, Canada Karen Page Winterich, Pennsylvania State University, USA Christopher Olivola, Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences, University College London, UK Ekant Veer, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Susan Dobscha, Bentley University, USA Uri Simonsohn, Wharton School of Business, USA Wendy Liu, U.C. San Diego, USA Stacy Wood, University of South Carolina, USA Aronte Bennett, Villanova University, USA Andrea Scott, Pepperdine University, USA Jing (Alice) Wang, University of Iowa, USA Lalin Anik, Harvard School of Business, USA Shuili Du, Simmons College School of Management, USA Stefanie Rosen, University of South Carolina, USA Zoe Chance, Harvard School of Business, USA Aditi Grover, Plymouth State University, USA Susan Harmon, Pacific Lutheran University, USA Diane Martin, University of Portland, USA

Extended Abstract The interest in prosocial behavior has increased in the last few years as consumers seek greater meaning in their everyday lives. Many companies and consumers are paying attention to the impact their choices have on society at large, and an increasing number of consumer behavior scholars have begun to look at the causes and consequences of prosocial behavior among consumers and organizations. This roundtable will appeal broadly to those scholars interested in the factors influencing different types of prosocial behavior as well as the effects of different types of prosocial behavior on consumers’ lives. Beyond this, it will also appeal to those interested in research examining the effects of prosocial behavior on the part of organizations and the effects of CSR on both employees and consum- ers. Our relatively large panel of committed attendees purposely includes scholars from a diverse mix of methodological backgrounds as well as a broad range of topics relating to understanding the causes and effects of prosocial behavior. Researchers on our panel are doing research on many important subjects that fit under the “prosocial” umbrella. These include exploring factors affecting charitable giving and volunteerism, the effects of charitable behavior on consumer welfare and satisfaction, cause marketing, sustainability and green consumer behavior, how prosocial activities within organizations affect employee morale and job satisfaction, and the many fac- tors influencing consumer responses to corporate social responsibility (including the type of CSR, the nature of the product, the nature of the consumer, the communication strategy, and prior CSR activities by the organization). Our panel includes scholars with diverse backgrounds and interests, so that we can learn from each other and foster a community that keeps the big picture in mind, rather than focusing on one type of research methodology or paradigm. We aim to encourage dialogue before, during and after the roundtable. This will include identifying key areas of current research, discussing potential synergies between different streams of work, identifying directions for future research and discussing the chal- lenges of doing research in this area. Due to the huge appeal of this topic to many scholars with diverse perspectives, we hope to not only attract a wide range of scholars from different backgrounds and interests, but also to help foster a community that will continue to be active even after ACR 2010 has passed. Due to the diverse backgrounds of those on our panel, this roundtable will be of interest to both qualitative and experimental researchers. The topics covered will be relevant to those interested in broadening our theoretical understanding of prosocial behavior, those dedicated to doing research with prosocial benefits (TCR), and those focused on managerial implications. Indeed, many on our panel are dedicated to doing research that addresses all three of these goals. While many of our confirmed participants are impressive, we are particularly happy to have David Mick, who is considered by many to the be the founder of the currently active Transformative Consumer Research community. In his ACR presidential address several years ago, Mick described transformative consumer research as “consumer research in the service of quality of life” (Mick 2006, p. 3). This roundtable will appeal to a large portion of the TCR community, but will also attract a range of scholars who are not (currently) part of the TCR group. One of the “big picture” questions we will address in our discussion is whether or not it is prosocial 731 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 732 / Understanding Prosocial Behavior Among Consumers and Organizations to study prosocial behavior. Obviously, prosocial behavior is not always motivated by purely by altruistic motives. Indeed, researchers our panel have demonstrated a connection between prosocial behavior and happiness (Liu and Aaaker 2008; Dunn Aknin and Norton 2008), while others have identified the effectiveness of appealing to rather selfish status-seeking motives to encourage seemingly pro- social behavior in certain contexts (Torelli, Monga, and Kaikati, 2010). More and more, nonprofits are focused not only on helping the causes they support, but also on keeping their donors and volunteers feeling appreciated and happy, if not downright entertained (Strahilevitz 2010). Still, understanding that prosocial behavior is not always motivated purely by a desire to help others can still help us to encourage actions that benefit society. Given the importance and “bigness” of these topics, we will ask David Mick to briefly speak on the potential value of doing research in this area, with a focus on work that is both rigorous in terms of theory, but also potentially helpful in terms of service to society. We will also, as a group, briefly discuss strategies for promoting the value of research on prosocial behavior within a business school setting. Before and after the conference, continued dialogue will be facilitated via a combination of email exchanges (facilitated by the roundtable chair), postings on the ACR Knowledge Exchange Forum, and postings on our newly created FaceBook group “Prosocial Consumer Research.” The FaceBook group is open to any scholar interested in research in this area, but will begin with invitations to the roundtable participants. In our pre-ACR dialogue, we will develop a plan for organizing breakout sessions focusing on issues such as factors affecting consumer responses to CSR, causes and consequences of different types of prosocial behavior by consumers, the prosocial nature of research on prosocial behavior, and the challenges that come with research in this area.

References Dunn, Elizabeth, Lara B Aknin and Michael I. Norton, “Spending Money on Others Promotes Happiness,” Science (2008). Liu, Wendy and Jennifer Aaker, “The Happiness of Giving: The Time-Ask Effect,” Journal of Consumer Research (2008). Mick, David Glen (2006), “Presidential Address: Meaning and Mattering through Transformative Consumer Research,” Advances in Consumer Research, 33, 1-4. Strahilevitz, Michal, (in press) “A Model Comparing the Value of Giving to Others to the Value of Having More for Oneself: Implica- tions for Fundraisers Seeking to Maximize Donor Satisfaction,” in The Science of Giving: Experimental Approaches to the Study of Charity. Oppenheimer, D.M., & Olivola, C.Y. (eds.). New York: Taylor and Francis. Torelli, Carlos, Alokparna Basu Monga, and Andrew M. Kaikati, Does It Hurt to Communicate the Good Deeds of a Luxury Brand? Power Concerns and Attitudes toward Luxury Brands Positioned on Social Responsibility, presented at the Society for Consumer Psychology, 2010, St Petersburg Florida. Working Paper Abstracts

The Impact of Preannouncements and Rumors on Consumer Evaluations Jun Wang, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Maria Sääksjärvi, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Erik-Jan Hultink, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Tripat Gill, University of Ontario Institute of Techology, Canada

In the contemporary high-tech markets, products are rarely launched unexpectedly, as new product preannouncements have become common practice (Kohli, 1999; Lilly and Waters, 1997). Besides new product preannouncements, or “formal, deliberate communication” (Eliashberg and Robertson, 1988), informal communication, such as rumors, often take place prior to the launch of a new product. Rumors provide signals on the incoming new product and together with preannouncements develop market anticipations (Schatzel and Calantone, 2006) and build prior-to-launch expectations of the forthcoming new product (Nagard-Assayag and Manceau, 2001). Rumors have become especially important due to the internet, in which rumors spread quickly through online-blogs and various websites. The most active participants of online-blogs often are lead users and early adopters (Dorge, Stanko and Pollitte, 2010), who play an important role in new product adoption (Rogers, 1962). Despite their increasing importance, the role of rumors in new product adoption has received little research attention (Kamins, Folkes, Perner, 1997). The present two studies explore the impact of rumors and preannouncements on consumer evaluations of new high-tech products. Specifically, we investigate the role of two factors–(1) type of innovation (incremental versus radical) and (2) extent of ambiguity of the rumors–on the consumer curiosity and purchase intentions towards high-tech innovations. We propose that rumors stimulate consumer curiosity towards a new product, which subsequently influence consumers purchase intension. In addition, we hypothesize that rumors about a radical innovation involve more novel content that could create greater curiosity than that about an incremental innovation. Study 1 used a content analysis to explore both preannouncements and rumors about two types of innovations: radical versus incremental innovations. We selected the iPhone as a radical innovation as it was the first touch-screen mobile phone that radically changed how consumers interact with their Smartphones. Sony’s PlayStation 3 was chosen as the incremental innovation as it was an improvement over the previous two generations of the PlayStation gaming consoles. We followed the preannouncements and rumors about these two innovations through press releases and blogs from credible sources. As rumors are mainly transmitted through blog postings, we chose Engadget and Gizmodo as the main research sites because of their consistently high ratings, popularity and focus on new product information (Dorge, Stanko, Pollitte, 2010). We collected a sample of 49 postings on the iPhone (1999–2007) and 47 postings on the PlayStation 3 (1999–2006). We analyzed the content as well as the timing of these postings. The content of the postings was classified based on the core elements of the marketing mix: namely, content related to product (including product name and performance features), price, distribution and promotion. The majority of the content was related to the product (iPhone: 80%, PlayStation 3=79%). There were more discussions on the price of PlayStation 3 (16%) than that of the iPhone (6%). Nearly a quarter of the postings discussed launch timing (iPhone 18%, PlayStation 3: 26%), while only a few mentioned distribution (iPhone: 4%, PlayStation 3: 4%) and promotional programs (iPhone: 2%, PlayStation 3: 4%). An analysis of the timing revealed that the rumors started well in advance of the company’s official preannouncement. Rumors on Apple’s iPhone and Sony’s PlayStation 3 started eight and six years, respectively, before the two companies officially preannounced the product releases. One major difference between the preannouncements of the two products was the ambiguity of the information. Apple remained ambiguous in their responses to rumors. It did not discuss product specifics before the official announcements. In contrast, Sony’s executives responded to rumors and made specific comments about the product features in the press. In Study 2, we decided to further investigate the effect of ambiguity of rumors on consumer curiosity and purchase intention. We used a 2x2 between-subjects design manipulating product innovativeness (radical innovation versus incremental innovation) and rumor ambiguity (ambiguous rumor versus unambiguous rumor). Consumer curiosity served as a mediator and the dependent variable was purchase intention. We collected data from 71 participants aged between 18 and 42, who first read a rumor about a new product, and we measured their extent of curiosity about the product. Subsequently, they read an official preannouncement about the product by the firm, and we measured their purchase intentions. The type of innovation (radical versus incremental) and the ambiguity of the rumor (ambiguous versus unambiguous) was manipulated in the scenarios read by the participants. We found a significant effect of product innovativeness on consumer curiosity [F(1,69)=25.612, p<0.001]. The mean score on curiosity towards the radical innovation (M=5.026, SD =0.877) was significantly higher than that for the incremental innovation (M=3.888, SD=1.019), t(69)=5.061, p<0.001. Rumor ambiguity did not have a significant influence on curiosity [F(1,69)=0.067, p=0.797]. We further found an interaction between product innovativeness and rumor ambiguity leading to a positive effect on consumer curiosity (F=8.242, p<0.01). Respondents have stronger curiosity towards the radical innovation in an ambiguous rumor (M =5.253, SD=0.718) than the radical innovation in an unambiguous rumor (M=4.800, SD=0.978). Conversely, respondents are more curious about the incremental innovation in an unambiguous rumor (M=4.244, SD=0.866) than that in an ambiguous rumor (M=3.460, SD=1.051). Finally, we found that consumer curiosity had a positive effect on purchase intention (regression coefficient=0.456, p<0.001). The results of our two studies suggest that new product rumors spread much earlier than the official preannouncements, indicating that consumers’ first impressions of a new product are formed based on rumors rather than on preannouncements. Moreover, the preannouncements for an incremental innovation were less ambiguous than that for radical innovations. Companies intentionally remain ambiguous about radical innovations, while being clear on incremental innovations. This strategy is supported in study 2, which shows that people are more interested in radical innovations when the rumor is more ambiguous, while they are more interested in an incremental

733 Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, © 2012 734 / Working Papers innovation when the rumor is unambiguous. It suggest that companies should be clear about their incremental innovations, while remain ambiguous about their radical innovations in order to make their product interesting in the eyes of the consumers.

References Allport, Gordon W. and Leo Postman (1947), The Psychology of Rumor, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Berlyne, David E. (1954), “A Theory of Human Curiosity,” British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 45, pp.180–191. Berlyne, David E. (1960), Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity, New York: McGraw -Hill Dorge, Cornelia., Michael A. Stanko, and Wesley A. Pollitte (2010), “Lead Users and Early Adopters on the Web: The Role of New Technology Product Blogs,” The Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 27: pp. 66-82 Eliashberg, Jehoshua and Thomas S. Robertson (1988). “New Product Preannouncing Behavior: A Market Signaling Study,” Journal of Marketing Research, 25. 282-292. Garcia, Rosanna and Roger Calantone (2002), “A Critical Look at Technological Innovation Typology and Innovativeness Terminology: A Literature Review”, The Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol.19, pp.110—132 Herr, Paul M., Frank R. Kardes, and John Kim (1991), “Effects of Word-of-mouth and Product Attribute Information on Persuasion: An Accessibility-diagnosticity Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 17 (March), pp. 454-462. Kamins, Michael. A., Valerie S. Folkes, and Lars Perner (1997), “Consumer Responses to Rumors: Good News, Bad News,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 165-187 Kohli, Chiranjeev (1999), “Signaling New Product Announcements: A Framework Explaining the Timing of Announcements,” Journal of Business Research, Vol. 46, pp.45-56. Lilly, Bryan and Rockney Walters (1997), “Toward a Model of New Product Preannouncement Timing,” Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol.14, pp.4-20 Nagard-Assayag, Emmanuelle Le and Delphine Manceau (2001), “Modeling the Impact of Product Preannouncements in the Context of Indirect Network Externalities,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol.18, pp. 203–219. Rogers, Everett M. (1962), Diffusion of innovations, New York: Free Press. Schatzel, Kim and Roger Calantone (2006), “Creating Market Anticipation: An Exploratory Examination of the Effect of Preannouncement Behavior on a New Product’s Launch,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 357- 366

Frisbee for Friends, Furniture for Family: The Influence of Products on Network Activation and WOM Intentions Lalin Anik, Harvard Business School, USA Michael Norton, Harvard Business School, USA

People use different products to signal desired identities to different social networks–iPods to impress their friends, briefcases to impress their employers. We suggest that this behavior causes those products to become linked to specific social networks, such that mere exposure to products can prime different social networks, making some relationships more salient than others. We furthermore explore how people perceive the closeness of these salient networks as a possible mechanism to examine subsequent WOM intentions. Previous research has demonstrated that situational and environmental cues or primes can activate associated representations, making them more accessible (Berger and Fitzsimons 2008; Higgins, Rholes, and Jones 1977). As priming a given construct leads to the activation of related constructs in memory, it can also have impact on the perceptually-related objects, and furthermore on the product choice and evaluations (Lee and Labroo 2004; Whittlesea 1994). In this project, we use products belonging to different categories as our primes, and explore whether exposure to these primes makes certain social networks more accessible. The literature on goal instrumentality previously showed that active goals lead to the activation of different relationship partners, specifically of those who are goal congruent (e.g., Fitzsimons and Shah 2008). We, however, look at the salience of relationship partners in relation to product categories rather than personal goals or motivations. Moreover, we argue that the products as primes influence social perceptions and as a result offer people’s changing perceptions of network closeness as a mechanism for following WOM behavior. To examine this linkage of products to networks to WOM, we ran three studies. In Study 1, we investigated whether exposure to products belonging to various categories make related networks more salient than others in the minds of people. One hundred and thirty-five participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: family, friends, co-worker priming and control conditions where they were presented with products belonging to family, friends, co-worker categories respectively, and asked to indicate their preference in a set of four. Those in the control condition didn’t see any products. Subjects went through a total of twenty trials, viewing eighty different options. Afterwards, participants were asked to write down the initials of the first five people that came up to their mind and subsequently, instructed to indicate their relationship to each of the five people they listed. The dependent variable was the number of family members, friends and co-workers listed in each of the four conditions. Our results showed that participants in the family priming condition listed significantly more family members than those in the friends priming, co-worker priming, and control conditions. These results were parallel for the friends and co-worker priming conditions, such that when primed with friends related products, people thought of their friends more so than when they saw family or work related products. Finally, those people in the co-worker priming condition reported significantly more number of colleagues than the participants in the other conditions. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 735 Having shown the increase in the salience of networks as a result of being exposed to related products, next we wanted to examine whether exposure to products from different categories impacts people’s perception of network closeness, and as a result who they think of passing on information to. In Study 2, one hundred and eight participants were again randomly assigned to one of the four (family, friends, co-worker priming or control) groups and exposed to the same product priming tasks as in Study 1. After the priming tasks, participants were randomly presented with five print ads and asked “Who would you forward this ad to?” With this question, we aimed to capture word of mouth intentions. Participants were furthermore instructed to specify the relationship of the person. We predicted that the priming categories would impact who participants listed as possible recipients of print advertisements. In line with our previous findings, participants who were in the friends priming condition listed more friends who they would forward the ads to than those in the family priming, co-worker priming, and control conditions. Our results again held in the family and co-worker priming conditions as participants in those groups listed many more family members and co-workers, respectively, than those in the other conditions. So far, we showed that exposure to different product categories increases salience of category-related network members, who are then considered more accessible in word of mouth considerations. Next, we tested whether product categories influenced the salience of network members in WOM considerations via changing the perception of network closeness. In Study 3, one hundred and twenty seven participants were randomly assigned to family, friends or no priming conditions where the products task was the same as in the previous two studies. Following the priming task, they were shown three products they had not seen before. Participants were presented with announcements about a new model of each of the three products (printer, MP3 player, coffee maker) and were asked to indicate three people to whom they thought of passing this info. In order to understand whether the WOM intentions were mediated by network closeness, we asked subjects how close they perceived their family and friends networks. Replicating our previous findings, participants in the family priming condition listed significantly more friends and those in the friends priming condition significantly more friends when asked about their WOM intentions than the listings in the other conditions. Additionally, our results showed that people in corresponding priming conditions feel their networks to be both closer to themselves and also closer to each other. Further analysis showed that the relationship between family priming and preference for sharing information with family members was mediated by the perception of family network closeness. Perception of network closeness was also a significant mediator for the friends priming condition. These initial experiments provide insights about how products can influence people’s perception of and interaction with various networks they are a part of. Our investigation demonstrates how the self can be linked to specific networks, which can subsequently alter WOM intentions. We are currently running a field study where we manipulate social interactions of people via product primes and look forward to engaging in deeper discussions about our findings with ACR members.

Selected References: Berger, Jonah and Gráinne M. Fitzsimons (2008), “Dogs on the Street, Pumas on Your Feet: How Cues in the Environment Influence Product Evaluation and Choice,” Journal of Marketing Research, 45(1), 1-14. Fitzsimons, Grainné M. and James Y. Shah (2008), “How Goal Instrumentality Shapes Relationship Evaluations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 319-337. Higgins, Tory E., William S. Rholes, and Carl R. Jones (1977), “Category Accessibility and Impression Formation,” Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 141-154. Lee, Angela Y. and Aparna Labroo (2004), “Effects of Conceptual and Perceptual Fluency on Affective Judgment,” Journal of Marketing Research, 41(2), 151-165. Whittlesea, Bruce W.A. (1993), “Illusions of Familiarity,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19 (6), 1235-53.

Hopelessly Devoted? Word-of-Mouth and Diagnosticity in a Stable Preference Context Martin Pyle, Queen’s University, Canada Peter Dacin, Queen’s University, Canada Ethan Pancer, Queen’s University, Canada

Consumption-related word-of-mouth (WOM) is considered one of the more persuasive forms of information exchange among consumers (Dichter 1966), receiving considerable attention in the marketing literature (e.g., Bearden and Etzel 1982; Herr, Kardes and Kim 1991; Stephen, Lehmann and Toubia 2010). Much of the research on the persuasiveness of WOM occurs in contexts where the audience does not have an initial preference for a product (e.g., innovations), or in which the audience demonstrates no initial commitment to the product (e.g., Herr et al 1991). Many consumers, however, have strong, stable preferences for a given product, leading to questions of whether and how WOM can affect these preferences? We address these questions by examining conditions under which WOM might convince consumers with stable brand preferences to, at least, consider switching brands. We hypothesize two conditions under which stable preferences may be swayed by WOM. These are the motivation of the consumer receiving the WOM and his or her perceptions regarding the diagnosticity of the WOM message. With respect to motivation, based on the concept of naïve realism, we suggest that although consumers may perceive that others use biased reasoning, consumers view their own evaluative judgments as objective and unbiased (Robinson, Keltner, Ward and Ross 1995). Consequently, consumers will tend to process information with an accuracy motivation, and likely view arguments that positively highlight a clear alternative choice, as opposed to suggesting something negative about their preferred brand, as more persuasive. 736 / Working Papers Although accuracy motivations tend to lead consumers to process information with an open mind and give greater diagnostic weight to negative information (Ahluwalia 2002), we argue that when consumers have stable preferences, the diagnosticity of WOM lies not in its valence, but rather in the degree to which it makes it easier for the consumer to provide reasons to discriminate between choices and highlight decisions (Darke and Chaiken 2005, Herr et al 1991). In short, diagnostic messages can provide the reasons to support a new choice (Shafir, Simonson and Tversky 1993). We also argue that the diagnosticity of WOM messages is related to the type of WOM message—be they WOM against the current preference (WOM-ACP) or WOM in favor of an alternate brand (WOM-IFA)—such that WOM-IFA will be seen as more diagnostic by clearly demonstrating reasons for a better choice. In addition, the speaker’s expertise and evident biases will also affect the diagnosticity and persuasiveness of the WOM in that perceptions of WOM messages from a biased source should be neither diagnostic nor persuasive, while WOM messages from experts should be both diagnostic and persuasive. When both bias and expertise are low, however, we expect WOM-IFA rather than WOM-ACP to be more diagnostic and persuasive. In the first of two studies, subjects listed a product that was important to them in a category (personal grooming products) in which pretests revealed consumers develop strong preferences. Participants then read a scenario describing a hypothetical exchange about the product with a colleague. In the scenario, we manipulated three factors, i) speaker’s expertise (high vs. low), ii) speaker’s bias (strong vs. weak), as well as iii) WOM type (WOM-IFA vs. WOM-ACP). We randomly assigned each of 145 participants to one of the eight cells and measured diagnosticity and persuasion (the latter via consideration of switching brands). As expected, there was a significant main effect on persuasion for both bias (weak-bias was more persuasive) and expertise (higher expertise was more persuasive). WOM-IFA was significantly more persuasive than WOM-ACP. That is, when the bias manipulation offered a clear reason to dismiss the message (i.e., high bias) or the expertise manipulation gave a clear reason to accept the message (i.e., high expertise), we found no significant impact of WOM type on persuasion. However, when these reasons were absent, our participants revealed a noticeable difference in both diagnosticity and persuasion and WOM-IFA was more persuasive than WOM-ACP. This supports our expectation for greater persuasion when WOM offers a clear choice. To ensure that accuracy goals formed the basis of the motivation for processing WOM, we conducted a second study in which we manipulated two factors: i) diagnosticity (higher vs. lower) and ii) WOM type (WOM-IFA vs. WOM-ACP). This second study also allowed us to demonstrate that the message valence (i.e., a positivity effect) was not driving the outcomes from Study 1. The procedure mirrored Study 1, as we again asked participants to think about a brand in a given product category (juice) for which they held strong preferences. In the higher diagnosticity condition, WOM either mentioned the alternative brand as the only one using fresh fruit (WOM- IFA) or the current preference as using frozen fruit (WOM-ACP). In the lower diagnosticity condition, WOM mentioned either the alternative brand or current preference as being one of many companies that used a certain process. We also included self-monitoring as a covariate to examine whether effects were driven by social impression goals. With persuasion as the dependent variable the analysis revealed no effect for self-monitoring; no main effect for WOM type; a significant main effect for diagnosticity; and a significant interaction effect between WOM type and diagnosticity. In the lower diagnosticity condition, WOM-ACP was less persuasive than WOM-IFA, while in the higher diagnostic condition there was no difference in effect on persuasion between WOM types. This is consistent with our expectation of participants using an accuracy motivation to maintain their sense of naïve realism. Results also revealed no relationship between message valence and perceived diagnosticity. We posed the questions of whether and how WOM can persuade consumers with stable preferences to consider switching brands. The results demonstrate that many consumers hold strong preferences only so long as they believe they can reasonably support their choice. When presented with unbiased, credible and diagnostic WOM highlighting a better choice, consumers’ accuracy goals are activated, and they are willing to consider another option. Furthermore, reasons for preferring or switching brands do not appear to be rooted in the valence of the message but rather in their ability to clearly specify a better choice.

Selected References Ahluwalia, Rohini (2002), “How Prevalent Is the Negativity Effect in Consumer Environments?,” Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (September), 270-279. Bearden, William O. and Michael J. Etzel (1982), “Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Purchase Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (September), 183-194. Darke, Peter R. and Shelly Chaiken (2005) “The Pursuit of Self-Interest: Self-Interest Bias in Attitude Judgment and Persuasion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89 (6), 864-883. Dichter, Ernest (1966) “How Word-of-Mouth Advertising Works,” Harvard Business Review, 44 (November-December), 147-166. Herr, Paul M., Frank R. Kardes and John Kim (1991), “Effects of Word-of-Mouth and Product-Attribute Information on Persuasion: An Accessibility-Diagnosticity Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (March), 454-462. Robinson, Robert J., Dacher Keltner, Andrew Ward and Lee Ross (1995), “Actual Versus Assumed Differences in Construal: ‘Naïve Realism’ in Intergroup Perception and Conflict,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (3), 404-417. Shafir, Eldar, Simonson, Itamar & Tversky, Amos. (1993), “Reason-based Choice,” Cognition, 49, 11–36. Stephen, Andrew, Donald Lehmann and Olivier Toubia (2010), “Why Do Consumers Talk, Does Anyone Listen, and What Happens?,” in Advances in Consumer Research Volume 37, eds. Margaret C. Campbell and Jeff Inman and Rik Pieters, Duluth, MN : Association for Consumer Research. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 737 Information But at What Cost? The Positive and Negative Impact of Informational Social Influence Kashef Majid, George Washington University, USA Vanessa Perry, George Washington University, USA Johny K. Johansson, Georgetown University, USA

Under conditions of uncertainty the presence of an informational social influence has long been thought to impact consumer judgments (Asch 1955). Originally conceptualized as the influence to accept information from another as evidence of reality (Deutsch and Gerrard 1955, pg. 629), prior work has found that informational social influence can positively impact consumer judgments, encourages product usage, and creates positive perceptions towards products (Cohen and Golden 1972). However, the creation of informational social influence is not without its harmful consequences. A nightclub owner may keep patrons waiting in long lines outside of the establishment in order to signal the popularity of the venue; by doing so potential patrons may be scared away at having to wait for a long period of time or the possibility of not being afforded enough personal space once inside. When assessing the validity of informational social influence consumers must ascertain whether the informational social influence signals a positive or negative outcome. The purpose of the present paper is to explore the conditions under which the deployment of informational social influence causes impacts negative judgments and when informational social influence impacts positive judgments. The context for the present study was a virtual environment. Over 30 years has passed since the pioneering work on informational social influence and product judgments conducted by (Cohen and Golden 1972) as well as (Pincus and Waters 1977). However, the impact of the construct in judgments towards products is as relevant if not more so than ever. The growth of virtual environments and e-commerce in particular, has fueled an environment rich in informational social influence. Much of this influence is deliberately created by consumers as a means to share their experiences and communicate their recommendations, such as the writing of user reviews or the rating of certain products (Chevalier and Mayzlin 2006). However, in a virtual environment, informational social influence is also created inadvertently by consumers. For example, each time a consumer downloads a piece of music or software online that download is accumulated and then displayed to other potential users as a sign that others have made the same decision that the consumer is considering. Thus, when forming a product judgment regarding a product viewed in a virtual environment, consumers must interpret the informational social influence that they are faced with and use it to assess the product either positively or negatively. One of the greatest concerns consumers have when purchasing products in a virtual environment is that the product will appear to be one thing online and then actually be something else once it arrives (Trocchia and Janda 2003). At best the product in question has slight deviations from what was expected; at worse, the product is a fake or a forgery. Through exposure and experience, consumers have gained a level of knowledge that helps them to ascertain the quality of the product before purchase (Pavlou and Gefen 2004). For example, consumers which purchase certain luxury brand name apparel may be apprehensive of purchasing the product online if it is selling for a third of the price that it does at the local retailer regardless of the number of the consumers that have purchased the product before. We argue that when knowledge of the product category is high consumers may be less susceptible to informational social influence and would be more likely to view the negative aspects of the informational social influence. Conversely, when consumers are uncertain as to the quality of the product then we believe that informational influence will play an enhanced role in reducing that uncertainty and will positively impact judgment towards the product. The predictions above were tested using a 2 (familiarity: high vs. low) x 2 (informational social presence: present vs. absent) study design. A total of 133 undergraduate students from a large private university in the South Eastern United States participated in the study in exchange for course credit. Familiarity was manipulated by product category. A total of 22 participants drawn from the same sample as the study population participated in the pretest and were asked to rate their familiarity and purchase frequency of several different product categories. We ultimately chose DVDs and a universal remote control as our products for this study based on the differing levels of familiarity that the sample had of these two products (M_DVD=5.87 vs. M_Remote=3.35, F(1, 43)=4.46, p<0.05) and the high rate of counterfeiting in each of these two product categories. Two popular DVDs were chosen so as to eliminate unique effects of using one DVD that the participants may be familiar with. The research team then searched for versions of these products for sale on the popular online marketplace “eBay.com”. Once found, the web pages displaying these items for sale was then saved and edited by a graphics design team in order to remove any previous feedback the seller of the products had previously received and to standardize the information given by each seller for each of the products. Informational social influence was manipulated by either adding bidders for the item or removing any bidders from the item. In the informational social influence condition several bidders were competing for the item while in the non informational social influence condition there were no other bidders. All of the DVDs were priced at $9.50 while all of the Universal Remote Controls were priced at $79.95. Participants used their personal computers to log into the school’s intranet where they were then able to access the study. Once the study was activated the participants would then see the edited eBay seller page and were asked to state the probability that they thought the product was counterfeit and to state the maximum amount of money that they would pay for the item. Our findings revealed a significant interaction between product familiarity and informational social presence in terms of the product being viewed as counterfeit (F(1, 110=3.95, p<0.05). Participants rated the DVDs as more likely to be counterfeit if others had bid on it (Mdvd_social presence=43.86 vs. Mdvd_social presence absent=35.43); conversely, the universal remote control was viewed as less likely to be counterfeit if others were bidding on it than if there were no other bidders (MRemote_social presence=51.67 vs. MRemote_social presence absent=35.43). Main effects for familiarity or social presence were not significant. For the DVDs the presence of other bidders adds cost increases to the price of the DVDs but provides little value in terms of signaling the authenticity of the product. The presence of others may actually have signaled to consumers that the price was previously lower and thus more likely to be counterfeit. With the unfamiliar good, the universal remote control, the presence of other bidders seems to have provided a signal to consumers that the product is authentic. Furthermore, we tested between group differences on the maximum 738 / Working Papers amount that participants were willing to pay for the both products. A between groups analysis revealed that participants were willing to pay significantly more for the DVDs when there were no other bidders versus the condition where there were multiple bidders (F(1, 59)=7.93, p<0.01, M$DVD_social presence=10.114 vs. M$DVD_social presence absent=7.749). There were no observed differences between the two groups in the willingness to pay for the universal remote control. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that under conditions of uncertainty, informational social influence can enhance the perceived quality of products. However, when consumers are familiar with the products in question, informational social influence can create negative byproducts through its employment which we have demonstrated can decrease the value of the product as well as its perceived quality.

Selected References: Asch, Solomon. E. (1955), Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31-35. Chevalier, Judith A. and Dina Mayzlin (2006), The Effect of Word of Mouth on Sales, Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (3), 345- 354. Cohen, Joel B. and Golden, Ellen (1972), Informational Social Influence and Product Evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 56 (1), 54-59. Deutsch, Morton and Harold B. Gerard (1955), A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636. Pavlou, Paul A. and David Gefen (2004), Building Effective Online Marketplaces with Institution-Based Trust. Information Systems Research, 15 (1), 37-59. Pincus, Steven and L.K. Waters (1977), Informational Social Influence and Product Quality Judgments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62 (5), 615-619. Trocchia, Philip J. and Swinder Janda (2003), How do consumers evaluate Internet retail service quality? Journal of Services Marketing, 17 (3), 243-253.

Investigation of Differences in Diffusion Between Positive and Negative Word-of-Mouth Andreas M. Kaplan, ESCP Europe, France Michael Haenlein, ESCP Europe, France

Extended Abstract Word-of-Mouth (WoM) is a topic that has received regular interest among Marketing researchers over the last 50 years in both traditional (e.g. Day 1971; Katz and Lazarsfeld 1955; Thorelli 1971; Udell 1966) and electronic settings (e.g. Dellarocas 2003; Dwyer 2007; Godes and Mayzlin 2004; Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004; Kozinets 2002). Within this stream of research, we investigate how WoM valence (i.e. positive vs. negative WoM) influences WoM diffusion characteristics based on data from a French virtual world, similar to the US-based “Second Life” application.

Study 1 Study 1 investigates the impact of valence on WoM diffusion frequency (i.e. the number of contacts WoM is spread to) and speed (i.e. the time elapsed between receiving and retransmitting the information). With respect to WoM diffusion frequency, it is commonly believed that negative WoM is spread to more contacts than positive WoM (e.g. Silverman 1997), triggered by several research studies showing that negative WoM from dissatisfied customers exceeds the amount of positive WoM by satisfied clients (e.g. Bearden and Teel 1983; Richins 1983a, b; Westbrook 1987). However, East, Hammond, and Wright (2007) show that differences in aggregated WoM volume are caused by differences in WoM penetration (i.e. the share of the population spreading WoM) instead of differences in individual-level diffusion frequencies. Given that people take account of the needs of others when engaging in information transmission, the same customers are likely to spread both positive and negative WoM (with equal frequency), depending on the information needs of the receiver (East et al. 2007; Mangold, Miller, and Brockway 1999). We therefore assume that WoM diffusion frequency is independent from WoM valence. Regarding diffusion speed, we expect negative WoM to spread faster than positive WoM as unpleasant or potentially dangerous situations lead to a strong negative reaction, the negativity bias (e.g. Ito et al. 1998). This is supported by studies in the Finance discipline showing that stock prices tend to reflect bad news faster than good news (Lobo 2000) and that good news have more pronounced lagged effects than bad news (Marshall and Walker 2002). This leads to the following two hypotheses:

H1: There is no impact of WoM valence on individual-level WoM diffusion frequency.

H2: WoM diffusion speed is higher for negative WoM than for positive WoM.

Study 2 Study 1 provides insight into the impact of WoM valence on basic WoM diffusion characteristics (i.e. how often and when). Study 2 analyzes the influence of social network-related variables on WoM transmission (i.e. to whom). We expect that strong ties are activated more frequently than weak ties in WoM diffusion as strong tie relationships tend to be more influential as information sources (Brown and Reingen 1987; Reingen and Kernan 1986) and their presence leads to higher levels of WoM (Fitzgerald Bone 1992; Wirtz and Chew 2002). Concerning WoM valence, we assume a moderating influence in the sense that this strong-tie preference will be even more pronounced for negative than for positive WoM. One the on hand, we expect people to be reluctant to transmit negative WoM to weak tie relationships as it tends to be associated with unpleasant messages and a notion of complaining, potentially resulting in Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 739 a negative impression that the transmitter may want to avoid (Sperduto, Calhoun, and Ciminero 1978; Tice et al. 1995). On the other hand, WoM to strong ties is likely to be caused by altruistic motives and the desire to help the receiver making better decisions. Given that the sender is likely to have a good level of understanding of the needs and likes of strong ties (Kiecker and Hartman 1994), s/he may be sufficiently confident sharing even negative information (Frenzen and Nakamoto 1993; Wirtz and Chew 2002). This leads to the following two hypotheses:

H3: Strong ties are activated more often than weak ties in the WoM diffusion process.

H4: The preference for strong ties gets stronger with increasing WoM negativity.

Study 3 Studies 1 and 2 analyze WoM diffusion by focusing on messages received by some source and passed on to social contacts of varying degree of closeness. Study 3 addresses the question whether WoM that reflects hearsay shows different diffusion patterns than WoM originating from a personal and direct experience made by the WoM sender. Generally, we expect that personal experiences lead to higher degree of WoM than hearsay as they result in unique and less ambiguous information that people feel more confident to transmit (Fazio and Zanna 1981; Kardes, Allen, and Pontes 1993). With respect to WoM valence, we expect a moderating impact in the sense that information based on hearsay is more likely to be transmitted when it is of negative compared to positive valence. This is based on Kamins, Folkes, and Perner (1997) who showed that consumers are more inclined to spread negative than positive rumors and (Donavan, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1999) who indicate that urban legends with negative information are associated with higher levels of communication intent. This leads to the following two hypotheses:

H5: WoM based on personal experience will be transferred more often than WoM based on hearsay.

H6: For WoM based on hearsay, negative WoM is more likely to be transmitted than positive WoM.

Research Methodology We plan to investigate the aforementioned hypotheses based on data we collected from a French virtual world, which is targeted toward children and teenagers. We chose this setting over traditional laboratory-style experiments as we expect it to provide a higher degree of external validity. Within this virtual world we launched 16 different messages (4 message per cell within a 2 levels of message strength x 2 levels of message valence design) and recorded the resulting WoM activities generated by the virtual world users (diffusion frequency, diffusion speed, type of social tie activation). Currently, we are in the process of coding the data obtained form the virtual world platform (weblogs) in order to prepare our data analysis.

References Bearden, William O. and Jesse E. Teel (1983), “Selected Determinants of Consumer Satisfaction and Complaint Reports,” Journal of marketing research, 20 (1), 21-28. Brown, Jacqueline Johnson and Peter H. Reingen (1987), “Social Ties and Word-of-Mouth Referral Behavior,” Journal of consumer research, 14 (3), 350-62. Day, George S. (1971), “Attitude Change, Media and Word of Mouth,” Journal of advertising research, 11 (6), 31-40. Dellarocas, Chrysanthos (2003), “The Digitization of Word of Mouth: Promise and Challenges of Online Feedback Mechanisms,” Management science, 49 (10), 1407-24. Donavan, D. Todd, John C. Mowen, and Goutam Chakraborty (1999), “Urban Legends: The Word-of-Mouth Communication of Morality through Negative Story Content,” Marketing letters, 10 (1), 23-34. Dwyer, Paul (2007), “Measuring the Value of Electronic Word-of-Mouth and Its Impact in Consumer Communities,” Journal of interactive marketing, 21 (2), 63-79. East, Robert, Kathy Hammond, and Malcolm Wright (2007), “The Relative Incidence of Positive and Negative Word of Mouth: A Multi-Category Study,” International journal of research in marketing, 24 (2), 175-84. Fazio, Russell H. and Mark P. Zanna (1981), “Direct Experience and Attitude-Behavior Consistency,” Advances in experimental social psychology, 14, 161-202. Fitzgerald Bone, Paula (1992), “Determinants of Word-of-Mouth Communications During Product Consumption,” Advances in consumer research, 19 (1), 579-83. Frenzen, Jonathan and Kent Nakamoto (1993), “Structure, Cooperation and the Flow of Market Information,” Journal of consumer research, 20 (3), 360-75. Godes, David and Dina Mayzlin (2004), “Using Online Conversations to Study Word-of-Mouth Communication,” Marketing science, 23 (4), 545-60. Hennig-Thurau, Thorsten, Kevin P. Gwinner, Gianfranco Walsh, and Dwayne D. Gremler (2004), “Electronic Word-of-Mouth Via Consumer-Opinion Platforms: What Motivates Consumers to Articulate Themselves on the Internet?,” Journal of interactive marketing, 18 (1), 38-52. Ito, Tiffany A., Jeff T. Larsen, N. Kyle Smith, and John T. Cacioppo (1998), “Negative Information Weights More Heavily on the Brain: The Negativity Bias in Evaluating Categorizations,” Journal of personality and social psychology, 75 (4), 887-900. Kamins, Michael A., Valerie S. Folkes, and Lars Perner (1997), “Consumer Responses to Rumors: Good News, Bad News,” Journal of consumer psychology, 6 (2), 165-87. 740 / Working Papers Kardes, Frank R., Chris T. Allen, and Manuel J. Pontes (1993), “Effects of Multiple Measurement Operations on Consumer Judgment: Measurement Reliability or Reactivity?,” Advances in consumer research, 20 (1), 280-83. Katz, Elihu and Paul F. Lazarsfeld (1955), Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Kiecker, Pamela and Cathy L. Hartman (1994), “Predicting Buyers’ Selection of Interpersonal Sources: The Role of Strong Ties and Weak Ties,” Advances in consumer research, 21 (1), 464-69. Kozinets, Robert V. (2002), “The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities,” Journal of marketing research, 39 (1), 61-72. Lobo, Bento J. (2000), “Asymmetric Effects of Interest Rate Changes on Stock Prices,” The financial review, 35 (3), 125-44. Mangold, W. Glynn, Fred Miller, and Gary R. Brockway (1999), “Word-of-Mouth Communication in the Service Marketplace,” Journal of services marketing, 13 (1), 73-89. Marshall, Pablo and Eduardo Walker (2002), “Asymmetric Reaction to Information and Serial Dependence of Short-Run Returns,” Journal of applied economics, 5 (2), 273-92. Reingen, Peter H. and Jerome B. Kernan (1986), “Analysis of Referral Networks in Marketing: Methods and Illustration,” Journal of marketing research, 23 (4), 370-78. Richins, Marsha L. (1983a), “An Analysis of Consumer Interaction Styles in the Marketplace,” Journal of consumer research, 10 (1), 73-82. (1983b), “Negative Word-of-Mouth by Dissatisfied Customers: A Pilot Study,” Journal of marketing, 47 (1), 68-78. Silverman, George (1997), “How to Harness the Awesome Power of Word of Mouth,” Direct marketing, 60 (7), 32-37. Sperduto, Gary R., Karen S. Calhoun, and Anthony R. Ciminero (1978), “The Effects of Reciprocal Reactivity on Positively and Negatively Valenced Self-Rated Behaviors,” Behavior research and therapy, 16 (6), 429-34. Thorelli, Hans B. (1971), “Concentration of Information Power among Consumers,” Journal of marketing research, 8 (4), 427-32. Tice, Dianne M., Jennifer L. Butler, Mark B. Muraven, and Arlene M. Stillwell (1995), “When Modesty Prevails: Differential Favorability of Self-Presentation to Friends and Strangers,” Journal of personality and social psychology, 69 (6), 1120-38. Udell, Jon G. (1966), “Prepurchase Behavior of Buyers of Small Electrical Appliances,” Journal of marketing, 30 (4), 50-52. Westbrook, Robert A. (1987), “Product/ Consumption-Based Affective Responses and Postpurchase Processes,” Journal of marketing research, 24 (3), 258-70. Wirtz, Jochen and Patricia Chew (2002), “The Effects of Incentives, Deal Proneness, Satisfaction and Tie Strength on Word-of-Mouth Behavior,” International journal of service industry management, 13 (2), 141

Are Bad Reviews Stronger than Good? Asymmetric Negativity Biases in the Formation of Online Consumer Trust Dezhi Yin, Georgia Tech, USA Samuel Bond, Georgia Tech, USA Han Zhang, Georgia Tech, USA

This research examines biases in the formation of trusting beliefs and intentions in an online environment. Interactions with unfamiliar sellers contain an element of uncertainty and risk (Reichheld and Schefter 2000), but modern consumers have access to various forms of information to help resolve this uncertainty, including online consumer reviews. Empirical studies have demonstrated a negativity bias whereby even a limited number of “bad” reviews from prior consumers have stronger impact than good reviews on sales and price premiums (Ba and Pavlou 2002; Chevalier and Mayzlin 2006). However, measurements of trust and corresponding beliefs are generally unavailable in secondary data. On the other hand, survey-based studies in the trust literature have tended to measure relevant constructs without regard to potential biases. To address this gap, we take an experimental approach and ask the following: Do consumers exposed to online reviews of a seller exhibit bias in the formation of trusting beliefs and intentions? If so, is the bias always negative? Drawing upon prospect theory and models of person perception, we propose that although consumers may exhibit a general negativity bias, the magnitude of this bias will depend on the dimension of seller behavior involved. That tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive information has been established as a general principle of human judgment (Baumeister et al. 2001; Rozin and Royzman 2001). This tendency follows directly from Kahneman and Tversky’s (1979) prospect theory, which posits that people derive value from gains and losses according to a nonlinear “value function” that is concave for gains and convex for losses; losses loom larger than gains. Applied to the risky environment of e-commerce, consumers will be more concerned with potential losses than with potential gains. In particular, when considering positive and negative information related to the trustworthiness of a seller, they will overweight the negative information, and this bias will subsequently lead to more negative trusting beliefs and eventual intentions However, evidence from the arena of person perception suggests that when judging others’ behavior, “bad is not always stronger than good”. For example, Skowronski and Carlston’s (1987) category diagnosticity model separates person-relevant information into ‘competence’ and ‘morality’ domains. The model suggests that most individuals possess schemas in which moral people exhibit moral behaviors all the time; therefore, a single immoral behavior is a reliable indicator of immorality. The same is not true for competence, where even competent individuals occasionally fail; a single success is a more reliable indicator of competence, while a single failure is generally discounted. Online trust literature also breaks trusting beliefs into “competence” and “integrity” dimensions among others Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 741 (McKnight, Cummings, and Chervany 1998). Applying this domain-specific approach to the current setting, we predict that consumers’ trusting beliefs pertaining to a seller’s integrity will be more negatively biased than their trusting beliefs pertaining to a seller’s competence. We conducted two studies to test our hypothesis in a typical e-commerce setting involving word-of-mouth. Study 1 presented 36 undergraduate participants with aggregated profile ‘ratings’ regarding different characteristics of online sellers. The study utilized a 2 (profile dimension: competence, integrity) × 2 (store rating manipulation: treatment, control) within-subject design. Participants were told that they were shopping for a camera and asked to read profiles summarizing consumer reviews of four different online stores. Each store’s profile was composed of two sections, one related to competence and the other related to integrity; each section listed three relevant items along with an average rating for each item. All ratings were presented using a 5-point “smiley face” scale ranging from “very negative” to “very positive”. The ratings for treatment stores’ first profile section were (0, -2, 2) or (0, 2, -2), while those for control stores were all neutral; ratings in the second profile section were identical between treatment and control stores. Participants were asked their competence and integrity beliefs after the first profile section, and their overall trust and purchasing intention after the whole profile of a store. As predicted, results indicated that negativity bias implied by a lower evaluation of the treatment stores was not universal, but rather depended on the category of seller behavior involved. Participants in the integrity condition were negatively biased in their trusting beliefs, overall trust and purchasing intention; however, none of these biases were significant for participants in the competence condition. Study 2 extended our investigation from simple, numeric seller ratings to the more elaborate domain of written reviews. The study involved a mixed design in which participants were asked to read five consumer reviews about a particular online store before deciding whether to buy a camera from that store. The first three ‘baseline reviews’ were the same for all participants and had been pretested to be neutral in their implications regarding the sellers’ competence and integrity. Next, participants read two additional ‘treatment’ reviews pertaining to either competence or integrity, depending on condition. The two treatment reviews were pretested to be opposite in valence and similar in extremity. In order to capture belief changes, participants were asked to report their trusting beliefs and overall trust before and after reading the two treatment reviews. Analysis of belief changes revealed that as predicted, both groups exhibited significant negativity bias, but the extent of bias was dramatically greater for the integrity condition. Furthermore, analysis of overall trust revealed a negativity bias for participants in the integrity condition, but no significant bias for the competence condition. This research contributes to literature on trust formation and e-commerce in several ways. Theoretically, we break new ground by identifying the existence of negativity biases in the formation of trusting beliefs and intentions and by exploring whether “bad is always stronger” in B2C commerce. Our studies indicate that although negativity bias does impact trust formation in this setting, it is much more prevalent for information regarding sellers’ integrity than for information regarding their competence. Our results also have practical implications for retailers seeking to establish trust among potential customers: e.g., negative word-of-mouth regarding integrity is particularly difficult to overcome, and should be handled proactively.

Selected References Ba, S. L. and P. A. Pavlou (2002), “Evidence of the Effect of Trust Building Technology in Electronic Markets: Price Premiums and Buyer Behavior,” Mis Quarterly, 26 (3), 243-68. Baumeister, Roy F., Ellen Bratslavsky, Catrin Finkenauer, and Kathleen D. Vohs (2001), “Bad Is Stronger Than Good,” Review of General Psychology, 5 (4), 323-70. Chevalier, J. A. and D. Mayzlin (2006), “The Effect of Word of Mouth on Sales: Online Book Reviews,” Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (3), 345-54. Kahneman, D. and A. Tversky (1979), “Prospect Theory-Analysis of Decision under Risk,” Econometrica, 47 (2), 263-91. McKnight, D. H., L. L. Cummings, and N. L. Chervany (1998), “Initial Trust Formation in New Organizational Relationships,” Academy of Management Review, 23 (3), 473-90. Reichheld, F. F. and P. Schefter (2000), “E-Loyalty-Your Secret Weapon on the Web,” Harvard Business Review, 78 (4), 105-13. Rozin, P. and E. B. Royzman (2001), “Negativity Bias, Negativity Dominance, and Contagion,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5 (4), 296-320. Skowronski, J. J. and D. E. Carlston (1987), “Social Judgment and Social Memory-the Role of Cue Diagnosticity in Negativity, Positivity, and Extremity Biases,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (4), 689-99.

The Impact of Negative Online Reviews: When Does Reviewer Similarity Make a Difference? Ali Faraji-Rad, BI Norwegian School of Management, Norway Radu-Mihai Dimitriu, BI Norwegian School of Management, Norway

Extended Abstract The advent of the internet has brought major changes to the way consumers search for information and express their opinions about products or services. Message boards, blogs, user review websites, etc. have become increasingly important for today’s online consumers to exchange opinions and experiences related to both companies and their offerings. Although online reviews have been mainly perceived to be anonymous, recent improvements in the design of websites have enabled individuals to have different degrees of profile disclosure (picture, name, age, gender, short biography) which, contrary to the general assumption in the word of mouth literature, introduces cues on which consumers can rely and base their judgments on. We conduct a study to investigate whether the perceived homophily between the reader and the reviewer has any impact on the influence of the word of mouth message. Homophily is defined as “the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are similar with respect to attributes, such as beliefs, values, education, socials status, age, gender, lifestyle, etc”(Rogers & Bhowmik, 1970). We also seek to qualify this effect by focusing on the different nature 742 / Working Papers of hedonic and utilitarian consumption (Adaval, 2001; Batra & Ahtola, 1991). Because utility maximization is considered to be more tangible and objective, consumers should be just as willing to rely on other consumers’ evaluations whether that consumer is similar to them or not. In contrast, the evaluation of hedonic products is linked to expectations which could be subject to individual lifestyle. Therefore, we hypothesize that higher (vs. lower) homophily influences the effect of negative product reviews on product evaluation for hedonic products, but not for utilitarian ones. The hotel industry was chosen as the context of the study. One hundred and eleven bachelor students participated in a 2 (Hedonic vs. Utilitarian) X 2 (Homophilous vs. Non-homophilous) between-subjects experiment in class. The dependent variable was participants’ evaluation of the hotel. After an introductory first page, participants read a scenario which was designed to manipulate the hedonic or utilitarian consumption situations. In the utilitarian case, participants were asked to imagine themselves trying to book a hotel for a stay in Frankfurt with a colleague. In the hedonic scenario, they were asked to imagine themselves going to Paris with their partner and choosing a hotel which would ensure their enjoyment. Participants were then presented with two online reviews about the hotel. Each review included a profile, a comment (one-two lines explaining how the reviewer saw the hotel), and a rating (a star ranking of the hotel given by the reviewer on a seven star system). The first review and its corresponding profile were kept constant for all the groups and was a neutral review (rating of 5 out of 7) coming from a journalist. Negative word of mouth and homophily were manipulated through the second review and its corresponding profile. The negative comment (rating of 2 out of 7) was kept constant for all the groups. For the homophilous group, the reviewer was a business student and in the non-homophilous group the reviewer was a researcher for “a major chemical company”. Next, eleven items measured the product evaluation, manipulation checks and two covariates. Two questions were asked to measure the participants’ product evaluation (good choice; favorable attitude). Homophily manipulations were checked using a three item scale. Two items measured the extent to which participants perceived the hotel to be hedonic (fun; enjoyable and exciting) and two items the extent to which they perceived it to be functional (cover functional needs; practical considerations). The two covariates were the perceived degree of expertise of the reviewer and importance of the decision of choosing the hotel. Manipulation checks and covariate question were presented last in order. An analysis of the data revealed that the manipulations worked as intended. For testing the hypothesis we first ran an ANOVA test with hotel evaluation as a dependent variable and “homophily” and “product type” as independent factors, and using the two covariates mentioned earlier. The expertise covariate had a significant effect on the dependent variable (F(1,105)=3.93), p=.05), whereas the choice importance did not (p>.7).The ANCOVA model suggested that the main effect of “homophily” failed to reach significance(3.86 vs. 4.19, F(1,105)=2.74, p>.1). Meanwhile, the main effect of “product type” was significant, with the evaluation of the hedonic product being significantly lower than the one for of utilitarian one (3.81 vs. 4.23, F(1,105)=4.26, p<.05). Supporting the hypothesis, the interaction was significant (F(1,105)=4.49, p<.04). Planned contrasts analyses revealed that the effect of “homophily” was not significant when the hotel was perceived to be utilitarian (4.28 vs. 4.19, F(1,105)=.13, p>.7). However, when the hotel was perceived to be hedonic, the hotel evaluation was significantly lower when the reviewer was “homophilous” rather than not (3.44 vs. 4.19, F(1,105)=7.26, p<.01). Also, a similar analysis revealed the same results, not including the covariates. Therefore, consistent with the hypothesis, homophily increases the influence of negative product reviews only in case of hedonic products. From a theoretical perspective, this study sheds light on how the cues consumers use in the face-to-face environments map into online environments. To our knowledge, this is also the first research that qualifies the influence of homophily in the word of mouth literature. From a managerial perspective, the study provides insights into how reviews on websites can influence consumers’ product evaluations. It shows that negative word of mouth is riskier for experiential (hedonic) products and that this risk is higher when it comes from similar consumers providing reviews. In terms of segmentation, mangers should be encouraged to pay more attention to consumer complaints about experiential products, especially when they are coming from company’s target or core customers. Such customers are more likely to form a unitary and similar group. This will prevent target customers from engaging in word of mouth that is most harmful for the company.

Selected References Adaval, R., 2001. Sometimes It Just Feels Right: The Differential Weighting of Affect-Consistent and Affect- Inconsistent Product Information. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(1), 1-17. Batra, R. & Ahtola, O., 1991. Measuring the hedonic and utilitarian sources of consumer attitudes. Marketing letters, 2(2), 159170. Rogers, E. & Bhowmik, D., 1970. Homophily-heterophily: Relational concepts for communication research. The Public opinion quarterly, 34(4), 523538.

Best-Seller or Your-Style Recommendation Sign?: Effect of Self-Construal on Inclination Towards Inter- vs. Intrapersonal Norm Jae-Eun Namkoong, University of Texas at Austin, USA Susan Broniarczyk, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Extended Abstract Modern consumers are often loaded with options. Despite the initial pleasure one might feel when provided with many goods to choose from, it is very likely that s/he will feel frustrated by how difficult a choice is to make (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000; Schwartz, 2005). Product recommendations are intended to aid consumers with their decision making process and to promote sales by highlighting a Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 743 particular product. The present research focuses on two broad types of norm-based product recommendations and demonstrates how the level of self-construal determines the way consumers react to these recommendations. Recommendations can be based on intrapersonal norm or interpersonal norm. An intrapersonal norm is realized through a repeated behavioral pattern within a single individual (Kahneman & Miller, 1986). People have the need to act in a coherent manner (Swann Jr, 1983), and technology has allowed retailers to generate recommendations designating a product alternative as “Your-Style” based on consumers’ purchase histories, browsing patterns, and preferences. On the other hand, an interpersonal norm is formed through observing other people’s behavior. Simply observing what other people are doing could influence one’s own decision, even when there is no apparent pressure (Aarts, Gollwitzer, & Hassin, 2004). The most common example of an interpersonal norm in a consumption setting would be the indication of “Best-Seller” that captures consensus between individuals. Which norm-based recommendation is more effective, however, will depend on one’s level of self-construal. An independent construal of the self “requires construing oneself as an individual whose behavior is organized and made meaningful by reference to one’s own internal repertoire of thoughts, feelings, and actions,” whereas the interdependent self-construal entails understanding oneself “as part of an encompassing social relationship and recognizing that one’s behavior is determined, contingent on, and, to a large extent organized by what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others in the relationship” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, pp. 226–227). Because of the differential sensitivity towards internal vs. external repertoires among independent vs. interdependent individuals, we predict that interpersonal (vs. intrapersonal) norm-based recommendations have a stronger effect on recommendation evaluation, choice of the recommendation, and post-choice evaluation among highly interdependent (vs. low interdependent or independent) people. Specifically, we compare inter- and intrapersonal norm recommendations operationalized as Best-Seller and Your-Style recommendation signs, respectively. Three studies examine the moderating effect of self construal via priming (pilot study), measured as a chronic trait (study 1), or operationalized by culture (study 2). A pilot study confirms that evaluation of the two norm-based recommendations differed as a function of self-construal. Participants read a scenario describing either a Best Seller or Your Style recommendation. Self construal was primed using the established scenario of Trafimow, Triandis, and Goto (1991). Supporting our prediction, a Norm Recommendation Type x Self-Construal interaction showed that interdependence-primed (vs. independence-primed) participants reported the Best-Seller (vs. Your-Style) recommendation as more attractive (F(1,90)=3.569, p=.062) and had stronger intentions to follow (F(1,90)=3.698, p=.058). Study 1 examines how the presence of either a Best-Seller or a Your-Style sign affects participants’ choice of office chairs as a function of self-construal. Although the product recommendations were in fact placed on the same product across all conditions, participants were lead to believe that the Best-Seller sign was generated based on the retailer’s customer database and the Your-Style sign based on their own previously revealed preferences. In order to make it a strong test, the recommendation was always placed on the second most attractive product. Self construal was measured using the classic self-construal scale of Singelis (1994). Consistent with our prediction, the Norm Recommendation Type x Self Construal interaction revealed the likelihood of participants choosing a recommended product over the most attractive product was higher when the product recommendation was based on a norm that was highly relevant to their given self-construal (b=1.432, t=1.737, p=.082). Specifically, highly interdependent (vs. independent) participants were more likely to choose the recommended product when presented with a Best-Seller (vs. Your-Style) sign recommendation. Study 2 then explores whether the interaction between norm recommendation type and self-construal extends to post-choice satisfaction. Moreover, instead of examining compliance behavior, study 2 looks at the effect of deviating from recommendations. Norm based recommendation was manipulated similar to Study 1 and self construal was operationalized as individualistic vs. collectivist cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The product stimuli was sofa chairs. In all conditions, the recommendation was placed on an objectively unattractive option so subjects would choose a non-recommended option (93%). This allowed us to gauge the effect of deviating from a recommendation on participants’ choice satisfaction after choosing a non-recommended option. Supporting our conceptualization that the presence of a self-relevant recommendation would impact people’s post-choice evaluations, there was a significant Norm Recommendation Type x Self Construal interaction on post-choice satisfaction (F(1,90)=5.425, p=.022). Specifically, when participants from a highly interdependent (vs. independent) cultural background were presented with a Best-Seller (vs. Your-Style) recommendation and rejected it, they felt lower choice satisfaction. This result suggests that even when a person strongly disagrees with a recommendation and decides not to follow it, the fact that s/he has been presented with and had to forgo a self-relevant recommendation can undermine his consumption experience. The present research introduces self-construal as a meaningful predictor in determining which type of norm-based recommendation has a more powerful influence on people’s evaluation of the recommendation, compliance to recommendation, and post-choice satisfaction after deviating from recommendation. Presenting consumers with a self-relevant norm could be an efficient way to aid consumers’ decision as it increases the appeal of the recommendation and the probability of choosing the recommended item. However, when a relevant norm is misplaced it could also be a source of consumer dissatisfaction and regret. Practical implications and future research extensions are discussed.

References Aarts, H., Gollwitzer, P., & Hassin, R. (2004). Goal contagion: Perceiving is for pursuing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 23-37. Iyengar, S., & Lepper, M. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995-1006. Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological review, 93(2), 136-153. Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review, 98(2), 224-253. Schwartz, B. (2005). The paradox of choice: Why more is less: Harper Perennial. 744 / Working Papers Singelis, T. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 580. Swann Jr, W. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. Psychological perspectives on the self, 2, 33-66. Trafimow, D., Triandis, H., & Goto, S. (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), 649-655.

Prospective Motivated Reasoning in Charitable Giving: Making Sense of Our Future Behavior and Protecting Our Future Self Jae-Eun Namkoong, University of Texas at Austin, USA Julie Erwin, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Extended Abstract The present research also falls under the large umbrella of motivated or biased reasoning (Bem 1972, Greenwald & Ronis 1978, Wicklund & Brehm 1976). It is similar to previous work showing that people alter their attitude to reduce the gap between what they believe and how they have behaved, in order to restore a favorable self-view. However, our design differs from previous research in two ways. First, our research looks at people’s tendency to make sense of their prospective (rather than retrospective) behavior, and second, our findings do not depend on the respondents actually behaving in the way they fear they might behave. While a decision has not yet been made, people may reason in a forward looking manner, preparing a basis or a safety net for their potentially undesirable future behavior. We look into this effect of prospective biased reasoning in the context of donation or charitable giving. Even without the conventional form of “products” involved, the topic of altruistic consumer behavior is highly relevant to marketing because the structure or relationship between providers and suppliers remains largely similar. Moreover, understanding people’s altruistic behavior gives insight into the consumption of ethically enhanced products. Acting against one’s own self-interest to satisfy a moral imperative (such as helping others) is likely to involve struggle or conflict between one’s actual and ideal self. The present research examines how this struggle or conflict plays a role in people’s prospective reasoning–specifically, how people prepare a safe pathway to escape from the perceived obligation to help others, without hurting their positive and moral self-view. In our experiment, participants were told that the study was a collaborative project with a non-profit organization. Before starting, they were given information about this organization to read and learn about its identity, goal, and activity. One group of participants were informed at the beginning of the survey that they will be asked to donate a part of their compensation to the organization at the end of the experiment, while the other group was not told that they would be asked to make donations to this organization. Whether the donation was made by real or hypothetical money was also manipulated as a proxy for motivational strength to talk oneself out of making a donation. Thus, there was a 2 (donation request revealed at beginning vs. not revealed) X 2 (real vs. hypothetical donation) design. We were particularly interested in the change in participants’ beliefs regarding the seriousness of the social issues being addressed by the organization (AIDS and poverty). We found a number of two-way interactions, including for rated seriousness of the AIDS problem (b=.199, t=.230, p=.022) and rated seriousness of poverty (b=.146, t=1.772, p=.078). Participants in the real money condition who were informed (vs. not informed) about the donation opportunity prior to the evaluation of social issues were more likely to believe that the social issues were less serious. (b=-.437, t=-3.005, p=.003 for AIDS and b=-.281, t=-2.039, p=.043 for poverty). We were also interested in the effect on behavior. Those who saw (vs. did not see) the donation information prior to the evaluation questions donated significantly less hypothetical money (b=-.411, t=-2.744, p=.007). However, this behavioral effect was non-significant in the real money condition, probably because most people in this condition did not donate (i.e., a floor effect). Interestingly, however, when participants were asked to donate their real money, those who were informed about the donation opportunity ahead of time perceived higher level of financial constraint, compared to those who were informed about the donation opportunity later (b=.477, t=1.805, p=.076). We also found a mediating pattern where a set of negative moods (e.g. afraid, scared, and hostile) explained why knowing ahead about the donation opportunity led to lowered perception of issue seriousness (z=-1.69, p=.08). Overall, our findings suggest that informing people that they may be asked to donate in the future causes a particular type of “potential dissonance” reduction process in a prospective direction, even when respondents do not donate anyway. That is, knowing about a donation opportunity earlier makes people feel uncomfortable because there is a potential threat on one’s positive self-view in case one decides not behave in an altruistic manner in the future. While people have not yet made any decision, they may still prepare for this potential threat by creating a safety pathway to escape if necessary, while keeping their positive self-view intact. Consequent (proposed) studies aim to discover whether people have already made their decision to donate at an implicit (or may even at an explicit) level once they are informed about the donation opportunity. This will clarify the question about how similar or different the effect is from classic dissonance theories. Another research direction is to examine whether one’s level of self-esteem serves as a moderator, as the motivation seems to come from the restoration or defense of positive self-view. In addition, whether or not the changes in attitudes persist after the experiment also a matter of interest; it would be good to know whether the denigration of the issue and the organization persists after the threat is gone.

References Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1-62). New York: Academic Press. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 745 Greenwald, A., & Ronis, D. (1978). Twenty years of cognitive dissonance: Case study of the evolution of a theory. Psychological Review, 85(1), 53-57. Wicklund, R. A., & Brehm, J. W. (1976). Perspectives on cognitive dissonance: Oxford, England: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Promoting Products versus Outcomes to impact the Decision Making Process: the Power of Recommending One Product Mirjam van Ginkel, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Benedict Dellaert, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Extended Abstract When going online to buy a product, consumers are often exposed to several product variants instantly on the introductory page of the website. This can be a presentation of the web shops’ bestsellers, or a presentation of the available assortment within the specific product category. An immediate confrontation with concrete products may stimulate consumers to buy, but it may suppress consumers’ goal oriented thinking. In other words, consumers may choose a product to buy, but may neglect to formulate personal goals or benefits previously. Although it might have a positive effect on sales, this can be unfavorable in situations in which you want consumers to think about their decision behavior in a structured way. For example, in the current health debate we want to make people more conscious about their food decisions. We distinguish two types of messages in purchase settings. Specific product exposures, on the one hand, recommend specific products because of a certain benefit. Generic messages, on the other hand, recommend a product category because of a certain benefit– for example “Yoghurt is healthy-and are not specific on product level. Within the decision making process of daily goods, we distinguish two decision stages. In the first stage consumers investigate their need for the product being considered and weigh the pros and contras of buying a product. This leads to a goal-oriented mental representation with more attention and better recall of goal related information. The second stage incorporates the decision which of the alternatives consumers prefer. This type of decision making leads to a comparative mental representation (Xu, Wyer, 2008). A message functions as a stimulus, which leads to a mental representation. Exposing consumers to a generic recommendation, moves consumers in a goal-oriented mental representation. Exposing consumers to a specific multiple product recommendation moves consumers in a comparative mental representation (Xu, Wyer 2008). These mental representations in turn impact the processes of benefit activation and choice. A good understanding of the impact of different types of messages on the mental representations in the defined decision stages is still lacking. In this paper a theoretical framework is developed to understand the impact of different types of messages on the decision making process. Our contribution is to give insight in how generic and specific product recommendations can be combined best to steer consumers’ mental representations of daily decisions and therefore to promote the product choices anticipated by the recommender. The first contribution of this paper is that we show that generic recommendations are more effective in activating benefits than specific multiple product recommendations. We give evidence why specific multiple product recommendations are not very effective in benefit activation. Recommendations are more effective in benefit activation when generating a goal-oriented mindset. Specific multiple product recommendations seem to bring people in a comparative mindset. The second contribution is that specific multiple product recommendations are more effective in activating choices, which are anticipated by the recommender, than generic recommendations. The third and main contribution of this paper is that it shows that a specific single product recommendation has best of both worlds; it is able to activate benefits-as well as a generic recommendation-and to translate these activated benefits into choice activation–as well as a multiple product recommendation. In the end we show that the above relationship between recommendation type and task performance is moderated by the focus of the respondent. For example, for respondents with a health focus, health benefit activation is attenuated for the reason that health benefits already are activated. In five experiments under students in between-subject designs, we examined the impact of the different types of health recommendations on health benefit activation and healthy product choice.

Selected references: Dhar, Huber, Kahn (2007) The Shopping Momentum Effect, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 44, p. 370-378 Escalas, Luce (2004) Understanding the Effects of Process-Focused versus Outcome-Focused Thought in Response to Advertising, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 31, p. 274-285 Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, Steller (1990) Deliberative and Implemental Mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 59(6), p 1119-1127 Gollwitzer, P.M. (1990) Action phases and mind-sets. In E.T. Higgins & R.M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 53-92). New York: Guilford Press. Kahneman and Tversky (1979) “Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk” Econometrica, Vol 47, p. 263-291 Xu, Wyer (2007) The Effect of mind-Sets on Consumer Decision Strategies, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 34, p. 556-566 Xu, Wyer (2008) The Comparative Mind-set; From Animal Comparison to Increased Purchase Intentions, Psychological Science, Vol 19 (9), p. 859-864 746 / Working Papers The Use of Rankings in Uncertainty Reduction Efforts: A Basis Paradigm Simon Quaschning, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium Mario Pandelaere, Ghent University, Belgium

During the last years there has been a huge increase in available choice options for customers (Schwartz et al. 2002), a phenomenon called hyperchoice (Mick, Broniarczyk, and Haidt 2004). But confrontation with an overload of alternatives makes decision making more difficult (Schwartz 2004), partly because customers feel more responsible for their choices (Iyengar, and Lepper 2000). The result is a decrease in choice confidence (Chernev 2003), leading to greater uncertainty (Anderson 2003). In addition, consumers often face decisions involving unfamiliar goods (Chocarro, Cortiñas, and Elorz 2009). According to Berger and Calabrese (1975) there is a human drive to reduce uncertainty. Consumer will engage in uncertainty reduction efforts by searching information, where especially the opinions of others are often consulted (Weiss, Lurie, and MacInnis 2008). One possible source of information is rankings. Ranking are applied in an increasing number of situations, yet no relevant research has been conducted so far. In this study we will explore the effect of rankings on consumer decisions. Making a choice in the modern purchasing environment, that is characterized by an ever growing consumption, increasing assortment sizes, and a growing number of brands and products (Mick 2008), requires the access to information. It has repeatedly demonstrated that information search increases systematically with experienced uncertainty (Lanzetta, and Driscoll 1968; Urbany, Dickson, and Wilkie 1989). It enables the decision maker to evaluate alternatives on relevant traits and to make a thoughtful choice, reducing the risk and probability of a non-optimal outcome (Mitchell 1992). Additionally, in situations where the consumer possesses little knowledge about the products, no prior experience is present and it is assumed that consumers depend on information available in the choice itself (Bettman, and Park 1980). One kind of information often consulted for this is the opinion of others. Available in numerous forms, other’s opinion have been shown to influence consumers’ evaluations, when relevant product attribute information was not accessible (Bearden, and Etzel 1982). Information sources in the form of online forums, book recommendations and newspaper columns are therefore of great value for the customer. While former research focused on some of this information sources, we will investigate the effect of rankings. From the New York Times Best Seller list, the Nielsen Ratings and Billboard charts, to the top 10 lists in our local video and music stores, rankings are a part of our everyday life. They structure our ways of thinking about comparisons, contrasts and order and may be another way for consumers to reduce their uncertainty (Hakanen 1998). The purpose of this study is to investigate what role rankings play in the preference formation task. We hypothesize that in a situation of uncertainty, consumers will use rankings in order to form their preferences. In order to test our hypothesis, we administered a questionnaire to eighty-eight respondents, asking them to express their preferences for 10 rather unknown brands of champagne. We randomly divided the respondents into 4 conditions each facing a different ranking. Condition 1 provided a simple top 10 list, while condition 2 additionally included expert scores. Condition 3 also was a simple ranking, but the 2 top brands of condition 1 were ranked as the two “worst” brands, and vice versa. Condition 4 simply was a list, without any ranking implied. Respondents had to indicate their willingness to pay (WTP) for each of the brands. We also included measures concerning the familiarity with the product category and the different brands (showing no familiarity with the brands included), and a scale measuring respondents’ preference for numerical information. In order to test our hypothesis we estimated a multilevel regression model. Our results indicate that rankings may indeed strongly affect consumer preferences. In particular, we found that our respondents’ evaluation of a given brand (expressed by the WTP) depended on the rank of the brand in the list. Respondents are willing to pay more for brands that are ranked higher (versus lower). In addition, for the 10 brands involved, respondents indicate a higher WTP than for those same brands when the order of presentation reflected no ranking (condition 4). We assume that the ranking itself could offer respondents some indication about the value of the brand. Interestingly, the effect of rank was moderated by preference for numerical information (PNI). A high PNI indicates that respondents have an eye for numerical information and use it in their decision making, especially in settings that require only a minimum level of mathematical ability (Viswanathan 1993). Our results show that individuals with a high PNI are more likely to use rankings, compared to individuals with a low PNI. The effect of rank was also moderated by familiarity with the product category. For respondents not familiar with champagne, rankings show less effect. That is, the slope relating rank position and WTP was less steep for them. Finally, we also observed a main effect of product category familiarity: respondents unfamiliar with champagne indicated a lower WTP for champagne brands. To conclude, our results show that rankings have an influence on the preference formulation in uncertain situations. Further research must indicate the robustness and generalizability of the current findings. Investigating the potential moderation by other customer characteristics, such as the difference between maximizers and satisficers or the need for closure on the use of specific rankings would also add to the literature.

References Anderson, Christopher J. (2003), “The Psychology of Doing Nothing: Forms of Decision Avoidance Result from Reason and Emotion,” Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 139-66. Bearden, William O. and Michael J. Etzel (1982), “Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Purchase Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 183-94. Berger, Charles. R. and Richard J. Calabrese (1975), “Some Exploration in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Development Theory of Interpersonal Communication,” Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112. Bettman, James R. and C. Whan Park (1980), “Effects of Prior Knowledge and Experience and Phase of the Choice Process on Consumer Decision Processes: A Protocol Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3), 234-48. Chernev, Alexander (2003), “When More is Less and Less is More: The Role of Ideal Point Availability and Assortment in Consumer Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 170-83. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 747 Chocarro, Raquel, Monica Cortiñas and Margarita Elorz (2009), “The Impact of Product Category Knowledge on Consumer Use of Extrinsic Cues: A Study Involving Agrifood Products,” Food Quality and Preference, 20(3), 176-86. Hakanen, Ernest. A. (1998), “Counting Down to Number One: The Evolution of the Meaning of Popular Music Charts,” Popular Music, 17(1), 95-111. Iyengar, Sheena. S. and Mark R. Lepper (2000), “When Choice is Demotivating: Can One Desire Too Much of a Good Thing?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995-1006. Lanzetta, John T. and James M. Driscoll (1968), “Effects of Uncertainty and Importance on Information Search in Decision Making,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(4), 479-86. Mick, David G., Susan M. Broniarczyk and Jonathan Haidt (2004), “Choose, Choose, Choose, Choose, Choose, Choose, Choose: Emerging and Prospective Research on the Deleterious Effects of Living in Consumer Hyperchoice,” Journal of Business Ethics, 52(2), 207-11. Mick, David G. (2008), “Degrees of Freedom of Will: An Essential Endless Question in Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18(1), 17-21. Mitchell, Vincent W. (1992), “Understanding Consumers’ Behavior: Can Perceived Risk Theory Help?,” Management Decision, 30(3), 26-31. Schwartz, Barry, Andrew Ward, John Monterosso, Sonja Lyubomirsky, Katherine White and Darrin R. Lehman (2002), “Maximizing Versus Satisficing: Happiness Is a Matter of Choice,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(5), 1178-197. Schwartz, Barry (2004), The Paradox of Choice: Why Less is More, New York, NY: HarperCollins. Urbany, Joel E., Peter R. Dickson and William L. Wilkie (1989), “Buyer Uncertainty and Information Search,” Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 208-15. Viswanathan, Madhubalan (1993), “Measurement of Individual Differences in Preference for Numerical Information,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(5), 741-52. Weiss, Allen M., Nicholas H. Lurie and Deborah J. MacInnis (2008), “Listening to Strangers: Whose Responses Are Valuable, How Valuable Are They, and Why?,” Journal of Marketing Research, 45(4), 425-36.

Citations and Herding: Why One Article Makes It and Another Doesn’t Simon Quaschning, Ghent University, Belgium Mario Pandelaere, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium

The information era has brought with it the well-known problem of ‘information explosion’ (Hanani, and Frank 2000): researchers face an ever-increasing amount of information and with the arrival of the internet and search engines they have more options in seeking and obtaining information than ever before (Junni 2007). At the same time, the number of marketing-related journals has increased rapidly in recent years (Baumgartner, and Pieters 2003) and journals expand into broader fields of research. This proliferation of information comes with greater uncertainty (Anderson 2003) and increases the difficulty to select an option (Schwartz et al. 2002). According to the uncertainty reduction theory (Berger, and Calabrese 1975), people will engage in uncertainty reduction efforts to alleviate and eliminate the risk caused by uncertainty and to maximize outcome value. One kind of information often used in these efforts is the number of citations. While the number of citations may not be a perfect indicator of quality (Walter et al. 2003) it does play an important role in the evaluation of academics and papers (Stremersch, Verniers, and Verhoef 2007). In this study we will explore the role of herding in citing behavior. In order to select sources for their research, one has to make a choice out of a seemingly endless amount of articles. In such a context of uncertainty, Parker and Prechter (2005) have seen a default to a herding impulse: people may imitate each other out of a desire to be safe. They may believe that persons before them had better information on the quality of articles than they themselves do, and therefore may include the articles in their own research (Bonabeau 2004). We assume that the number of citations serves as a quality cue for a given paper. As individuals follow the previous citing behavior of others without taking their own information into account, they will concentrate on a limited amount of articles with an established citation record. When this imitation occurs in large numbers, informational cascades can be formed (Banerjee 1992; Bikhchandani Hirshleifer, and Welch 1992). The limited number of papers that is already cited tends to accumulate citations increasingly rapidly while a larger set of initially uncited papers tends to be (virtually) ignored. While former research (Stremersch et al. 2007) focused on static determinants of citations (e.g. quality and domain of the article, visibility and personal promotion), we focus on herding behavior of researchers, a dynamic determinant. In order to investigate our hypothesis, our study will be divided into two parts, the demand and the supply side: On the one hand, we will examine the herding effect of citations by the means of citation counts. On the other hand, we will look at the possible increase in the supply of journals and its articles. For the first part of our study we collected citation data via Web of Science. We sampled six major marketing journals:JCR, JRM, JM, MKS, JCP and IJRM. We inventoried all articles published in these journals in 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005. For each article we tallied the number of citations made in each of the 5 years following its year of publication. The herding effect will be examined by means of a mixed model approach, where the number an article got cited each year is the dependent variable and the year of publication, the year after publication, the journal and the number of citations in the first year serve as independent variables. In the absence of herding, the cites that a paper receives in the first five years after publication should be distributed uniformly over those five years. In case of herding, on the other hand, a steady increase of the number of cites that a paper attracts should be observed. Moreover, this increase should be more pronounced for papers that are already heavily cited in the first year after publication. 748 / Working Papers The results confirm our expectations. We can see a significant increase in the number of citations each year, therefore indicating a more than linear rise in the cumulative number of citations. This herding effect is moderated by the year of publication, the specific journal as well as by the number of citations in the first year. The herding effect is more pronounced in 2005 than in 2000 (p=.07). In addition, stronger herding is observed in 2000 than in 1985, 1990 and 1995; the latter three do not significantly differ. The stronger herding in 2000 and 2005 can partly be explained by the growing use of electronically retrieved information, causing a larger amount of information. The difference between 2005 and 2000 can be explained by the introduction of Web of Science, making citation-oriented search even more convenient and common. The herding behavior observed for JM also differs significantly from that of JCR, JMR, MKS, JCP and IJRM. It exhibits strong herding. We also found stronger herding for articles that are heavily cited in the first year. The second part of the study investigates whether the information supply for researcher has increased over the past decade (years 1998 to 2008). To do so, we developed a list of the different journals that were cited in the 6 target journals. We also tallied how often a specific journal was cited. If the supply of relevant information has increased, we would expect that the number of cited journals has also steadily increased. Our findings confirm this expectation. Interestingly, the number of cites that come from the Top 5–cited journals have increased. This implies that the distribution of citations has become more lopsided: an increasing amount of journals are hardly cited while another, small proportion is heavily cited. This again testifies to the herding phenomenon in citing behavior. To conclude, our results show that citing behavior is characterized by significant herding. In addition, herding has become more pronounced over the past decade. Finally, increased herding may be attributed to the increased supply of relevant information. The latter is exhibited by an increase of the number of used journals.

References Anderson, Christopher J. (2003), “The Psychology of Doing Nothing: Forms of Decision Avoidance Result From Reason and Emotion,” Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 139-66. Banerjee, Abhijit V. (1992), “A Simple Model of Herd Behavior,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(3), 797-817. Baumgartner, Hans and Rik Pieters (2003), “The Structural Influence of Marketing Journals: A Citation Analysis of the Discipline and Its Subareas Over Time,” Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 123-39. Berger, Charles R. and Rik J. Calabrese (1975), “Some Exploration in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Development Theory of Interpersonal Communication,” Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112. Bikhchandani, Sushil, David Hirshleifer and Ivo Welch (1992), “A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades,” Journal of Political Economy, 100 (5), 992-1026. Bonabeau, Eric (2004), “The Perils of the Imitation Age,” Harvard Business Review, 82(6), 45-54 Hanani, Uri and Ariel J. Frank (2000), “The Parallel Evolution of Search Engines and Digital Libraries: Their Convergence to the Mega-Portal. Paper presented at the Kyoto International Conference on Digital Libraries: Research and Practice, 13-16 November 2000. Retrieved from the Bar Ilan University Web Site: http://u.cs.biu.ac.il/~ariel/download/ird665/kyoto.pdf Junni, Paulina (2007). Students Seeking Information for their Master’s Tthesis: The Effect of the Internet. Information Research, 12(2), 1-19. Parker, Wayne D. and Robert R. Prechter (2005), “Herding: An Interdisciplinary Integrative Review From a Socionomic Perspective,” In Kokinov & Boicho (Eds.), Advances in cognitive economics: Proceedings of the international conference on cognitive economics (271-280). Sofia, Bulgaria: New Bulgarian University Press. Schwartz, Barry, Andrew Ward, John Monterosso, Sonja Lyubomirsky, Katherine White and Darrin R. Lehman (2002), “Maximizing Versus Satisficing: Happiness Is a Matter of Choice,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(5), 1178-197. Stremersch, Stefan, Isabel Verniers and Peter C. Verhoef (2007), “The Quest for Citations: Drivers of Article Impact,” Journal of Marketing, 71(3), 171-93. Walter, Garry, Sidney Bloch, Glenn Hunt and Karen Fisher (2003), “Counting on Citations: A Flawed Way to Measure Quality. Medical Journal of Australia, 178(6), 253-54.

Living a Second Life: The Role of Goals and Mental Imagery on Satisfaction Online Diogo Hildebrand, Baruch College, USA Sankar Sen, Baruch College, USA

Online Virtual Environments (OVE), a new technology launched during the late 1980s, are revolutionizing the way products are consumed. OVEs are environments in which synthetic sensory information leads users to perceive the virtual environment as if it was not synthetic (Blascovitch et al. 2002). Because of this unique characteristic, OVEs allow users not only to buy or sell products, but also to consume products online. For instance, in Second Life, a virtual world available on the web, consumers may purchase and drive a virtual Mercedes-Benz, wear virtual Giorgio Armani shirts or visit the Smithsonian’s Virtual Latino Museum. Because of its ability to enable online consumption, OVEs are gradually gaining attention from both managers and consumers. Recently, the CIO of the Smithsonian Institute affirmed that the institution’s investment in the virtual world is supported by the prediction that 80% of active Internet users in 2008 will be consumers in virtual worlds by the year 2011 (Smithsonian Institute 2008). Furthermore, consumers in the virtual world spent, in 2009 alone, around $400 million in products and services from thousands of companies such as Mercedes-Benz, Nike, and Dell. However, although the importance of the OVE as a marketing channel and branding tool is increasing (Barnes and Mattsson 2008), the main determinants of individual satisfaction with online consumption are still unknown (Hoffman and Novak 2009). Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 749 In the present research, we rely on literature from the general web-browsing context to build a model of online consumption. As a starting point, state of flow is a central antecedent of user satisfaction on the web (Hoffman and Novak 1996; Novak, Hoffman and Yung 2000). Furthermore, researchers have presented significant evidence of the importance of website content in inducing state of flow and user satisfaction with online experience (Novak, Hoffman and Duhachek 2003). Building on this basic idea, because use of OVEs is strongly associated with the satisfaction of experiential and symbolic needs (Vicdam and Ulusoy 2008; Yee 2006), we propose that the extent to which the OVE allows users to satisfy experiential and symbolic needs will be an alternative content feature that influences both state of flow and user evaluation of online consumption experience. Moreover, the dynamics of online experiences are structurally different than those of real world experiences. Specifically, unlike in the real world, the consumption in OVEs is reportedly an indirect experience (Hamilton and Thompson 2007). Importantly, in indirect experiences, sensory information is not presented directly, but depends on individual capability to emulate the sensations elicited by the OVE. As a result, the extent to which sensory information is presented in working memory (i.e., level of mental imagery processing (MacInnis and Price 1987)) will be a key moderator of the extent to which an OVE can satisfy aroused individual goals. Particularly, for high mental imagery processing, consumers will process the sensory information elicited by the OVE intensively. In this case, since consumers will have a significant amount of sensory information to support assessments of progress toward their aroused goals, the extent to which the OVE can satisfy these goals will have a positive effect on flow and, consequently, on individual evaluation of the online consumption experience. On the contrary, because under low imagery processing, consumers will process a lesser amount of sensory information, they will have a limited basis to judge the extent to which goals are being satisfied. As a result, even though consumers might still present moderate levels of flow (Novak et al. 2003), consumers under low imagery processing will not be sensitive to the extent to which experiential goals can be satisfied online. We test these hypotheses in one study. We manipulated level of mental imagery and the extent to which goals can be satisfied online and measured individual state of flow and satisfaction with the online experience. Seventy-seven undergraduate students participated in the research. The virtual environment of the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institute was chosen as the OVE. Participants were first asked to write an essay to arouse goals that either could (i.e., learn new things) or could not (i.e., share experience with others) be satisfied online. Next, following previous manipulations of mental imagery (Petrova and Cialdini 2005), participants read the instructions to browse in the museum’s virtual environment, being either encouraged or discouraged to use their imagination. The results of an ANOVA supported the hypotheses. Particularly, the extent to which a goal can be satisfied online had a positive effect on both flow (p<0.05) and evaluation of the online experience (p<0.01). Additionally, we found a significant interaction between the extent to which goals can be satisfied in the OVE and level of mental imagery on both flow (p<0.05) and satisfaction with the online experience (p<0.01). Specifically, individuals in high mental imagery processing felt higher state of flow and evaluated better the online consumption experience when they were able to satisfy aroused goals online. On the other hand, individuals in low imagery processing presented no difference in both state of flow and experience evaluation, regardless of the extent to which their goals could be satisfied in the OVE. Finally, using the bootstrap technique (Preacher, Rucker and Hayes 2007), we verified that flow is a significant mediator of the interaction on the “evaluation of online experience” for individuals in high mental imagery processing but not for those low in imagery processing. The present research is, to the best of our knowledge, the first attempt to unveil the process underlying consumers’ consumption in this novel environment. Past research in psychology and marketing has linked individual state of flow with the pleasantness of the activity. In the present research we show that the extent to which goals can be satisfied in the OVE and level of mental imagery processing will be important variables in the process of online consumption experience.

References Barnes, S. J., & Mattsson, J. (2008). “Measuring Brand Value in Real and Virtual Worlds: An Axiological Approach using PLS”. American Marketing Association Educators’ Proceedings, 19, 374-81. Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A. C., Swinth, K. R., Hoyt, C. L., & Bailenson, J. N. (2002). “Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology”. Psychological Inquiry, 13(2), 103-124. Hamilton, R. W., & Thompson, D. V. (2007). “Is there a substitute for direct experience? comparing consumers’ preferences after direct and indirect product experiences”. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), 546-555. Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (2009). “Flow online: Lessons learned and future prospects”. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23(1), 23-34. Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (1996). Marketing in hypermedia computer-mediated environments: Conceptual foundations. Journal of Marketing, 60(3), 50-68. MacInnis, D. J., & Price, L. L. (1987). “The role of imagery in information processing: Review and extensions”. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(4), 473-491. Novak, T. P., Hoffman, D. L., & Duhachek, A. (2003). “The influence of goal-directed and experiential activities on online flow experiences”. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(1), 3. Novak, T. P., Hoffman, D. L., & Yung, Y. (2000). “Measuring the customer experience in online environments: A structural modeling approach”. Marketing Science, 19(1), 22. Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2005). “Fluency of consumption imagery and the backfire effects of imagery appeals”. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 442-452. Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). “Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions”. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42(1), 185-227. Smithsonian Institute. (2008). Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institute, May 5, http://www. si.edu/about/regents/documents/5-5-08%20Minutes%20for%20Web.pdf. 750 / Working Papers Vicdam, H., & Ulusoy, E. (2008). “Symbolic and Experiential Consumption of Body in Virtual Worlds: from (Dis)Embodiment to Symembodiment”. Virtual Worlds Research: Consumer Behavior in Virtual Worlds, 1(2), 1-22. Yee, N. (2006). “The Demographics, Motivations, and Derived Experiences of Users of Massively Multi-User Online Graphical Environments”. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15, 309-329.

Putting the Roots Back in Grassroots: Consumer Activism through Social Media Pia A. Albinsson, Appalachian State University, USA B. Yasanthi Perera, New Mexico State University, USA

“The existence of united groups of online consumers implies that power is shifting away from marketers and flowing to consumers” (Kozinets 1999:258).

Social movements are activists’ collective efforts to transform the social order (Buechler 2000) often with respect to consumption and marketing (Kozinets and Handleman 2004) in terms of anti-brands (Hollenbeck and Zinkhan 2006) and other forms of resistance to consumption (Penaloza and Price 1993). Such movements organized to resist various industrial or marketing practices, comprises of the goal, the activists, and their adversary (Melucci 1989; Touraine 1981). While activism traditionally entailed activists meeting and engaging in protests, the Internet has given rise to web-based activism. Vegh (2003) classifies web-based, or web-enhanced, activism into three categories: awareness/advocacy, organization/mobilization, and action/reaction. Awareness/Advocacy entail providing contrary information to raise awareness on a given issue, organizing the movement, and engaging in lobbying efforts; Organization/Mobilization may comprise of calling for offline action, and calling for offline action that maybe more effectively conducted through the internet; finally, Action/Reaction involves online attacks on various sites of interest by hackers or “hacktivists” (Vegh 2003). Social media has facilitated the rise of a new form of activist known as the ‘slactivist.’ While this term is somewhat derisive, it aptly describes consumers who care for social causes but only up to a certain point of engagement and effort. These consumers will sign on-line petitions and join Facebook activist pages but do not have the desire, and/or resources to engage in traditional activism such as protests (Caplan 2009). We contend that Internet activists who influence slactivists to the point that they engage in real-life action ways create win-win situations. The consumers win in terms of garnering psychological well-being thorough their contributions towards societal welfare; the corporations win through being rewarded for their efforts to adopt socially responsible practices; the society at large benefits through these practices; and the activists win through achieving their goals of encouraging corporations to adopt socially responsible practices, thereby planting seeds for industry-wide changes. This win-win situation mirrors the latest AMA definition of marketing perfectly and illustrates the power of consumers in today’s world. In this paper we focus on examining the way consumer activists, interested in forming cooperative relationships with firms, engage with other consumers using social media to influence their typical purchasing behaviors in order to create a win-win situation for all involved parties. Therefore, we explore Carrotmob, an online consumer activists’ movement, which exemplifies cooperative consumer activism and word-of-mouth (WOM) activities facilitated by Internet and social media.

Carrotmob Carrotmob, focusing upon fostering cooperation between consumers and corporations, are organized in cities across the US and the world. The organization hosts events that entail businesses competing to do the most social good (e.g., increasing energy efficiency, reducing carbon footprints or start recycling). Carrotmob is essentially a viral phenomenon that is spread through consumer word-of-mouth (WOM) through YouTube, Facebook, Twitter and the Carrotmob blog. Consumers register on Carrotmob’s website, (www.carrotmob. org) and organizers send alerts (through email, blog, Twitter and Facebook) when a local store or firm adopts socially responsible practices. Carrotmobbers then mob the business or perform a “buycott” (Friedman 1996) and purchase products that they normally would en masse. In addition to their primary Facebook site with nearly 6,000 members, organizers create a new page for each town in which a mob is organized (e.g., carrotmob NYC, carrotmob Berlin, carrotmob Portland). As the company’s website notes Carrotmob’s master plan and “model is not threatening, not expensive, not time-consuming, not uncomfortable, not “radical,” not confusing, and not negative.” (www.carrotmob.org). Through engaging in friendly competition, the Carrotmob movements for specific locales generate new ideas, urge new cities to participate, and challenge existing movements to continue their efforts.

Method The authors engage in netnography (Kozinets 2002), otherwise known as online ethnographic research (Maclaran and Catterall 2002) of the Carrotmob website, its blog and affiliated social media pages on Twitter and Facebook and other media coverage of their events. Both authors accessed the above social media cites and made individual field notes of their experiences, thoughts and ideas as they emerged from the member’s interactions and commentaries before any comparisons were made in the analysis stage.

Discussion and Conclusion Our data analysis illustrates how consumers use social media to transform consumer behavior to reward companies that choose engage in practices that benefit the society at large, for example green efforts focusing on benefiting the environment. We present a model of how contemporary social media drive consumer action through the power of viral marketing where consumer activists target other consumers. Due to the widespread use of computers and the Internet, online consumer activists have the means to reach a wide range of fellow consumers through listservs, online communities, and even spam e-mails similar to Kozinets et al.’s (2010) The Network Coproduction Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 751 Model. However, the present research involves consumer activists, not outside marketers, marketing their own events to other consumers in the network. Consumers in the social media network become one-time participants in the events that generate excitement and, we contend, are of some psychological benefit to the participants. In response, companies who wins a bid for a mob event may promote their business as being “more green” to other consumers at a later stage. We contend that the ever-rising popularity and access to the internet has given rise to this class of ‘casual’ activists. Thus, the key to effective consumer activism that targets the casual consumer is to propose action, on the consumers’ part, that does not require much effort. In addition, we posit that Carrotmobs essentially entail value co-creation. While consumers may not co-create an actual product, or a service, they contribute to co-creating the firm’s overall value chain proposition through the firm adopting greener practices that, for this consumer segment, adds value to products or services. In the bargain, these consumers change the industry as corporations compete to gain the carrotmobbers’ business realize that consumers are essentially rewarding them for adopting greener practices. This insight may encourage more firms to become green, thus contributing to changing industry practices, as they realize that socially responsible behavior can be profitable.

References Buechler, Steven M. (2000), Social Movements in Advancec Capitalism, New York: Oxford University Press. Caplan, Jeremy (2009), “Shoppers, Unite! Carrotmobs Are Coller than Boycotts,” Time Magazine, online article, May 15, 2009 available at http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1898728,00.html). Accessed December 15, 2009. Friedman, Monroe (1996), “A Positive Approach to Organized Consumer Action: They “Buycott” as an Alternative to the Boycott,” Journal of Consumer Policy, 19, 439-451. Hollenbeck, Candice R. and George M. Zinkhan (2006), “Consumer Activism on the Internet: The Role of Anti-brand communities,” Advances in Consumer Research, 33, 479-485. Kozinets, Robert V., Kristine de Valck, Andrea C. Wojnicki, and Sarah J.S. Wilner (2010), “Networked Narratives: Understanding Word-of-Mouth Marketing in Online Communities,” Journal of Marketing, 74 (March), 71-89. Kozinets, Robert V., (2002), “The Field Behind the Screen. Using Netnography for Market Research in Online Communities, Journal of Marketing Research, (39) February, 61-72. Kozinets, Robert.V. (1999), “E-Tribalized Marketing? The Strategic Implications of Virtual Communities of Consumption,” European Management Journal, 17 (June), 252-264. Kozinets, Robert V. and Jay M. Handelman (1998), “Adversaries of Consumption: Consumer Movements, Activism and Ideology,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (December), 691-704. Maclaran Pauline and Miriam Catterall (2002), “Researching the social Web: Marketing information from virtual communities,” Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 20 (6), 319-326. Melucci, Alberto (1989), Nomads of the Present, London: Macmillan. Penaloza, Lisa and Linda L. Price (1993), “Consumer Resistance: A Conceptual Overview,” Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 123-128. Touraine, Alain (1981), The Voice and the Eye, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vegh, Sandor (2003), “Classifying Forms of Online Activism: The Case of Cyber Protests Against the World Bank,” in Cyber Activism: Online Activism in Theory and Practice (Martha McCaughey and Michael D. Ayers (Eds)), New York, NY: Routledge.

Source 2.0: Reading Source Cues in Online Communities Catherine Coleman, Texas Christian University, USA Marie-Agnès Parmentier, HEC Montreal, Canada

“Granted when he is actually playing basketball there maybe scowls on Lebron’s face but darn this is Vogue not Sports Illustrated! He should have been in a great suit.

You also have to keep in mind that Vogue has only had a handful of Black People on their covers in their 100 plus history so when they do it stands out. This is the reason why diversity is needed in the editorial rooms of these magazines that we enjoy so much. If I saw the proofs of those pictures I would have vetoed it right away. And maybe just maybe it wouldn’t kill Vogue and other fashion magazines to try models/actresses of different hues on their covers. This is about perspective and the acknowledgement that loyal readers of this magazine have different perspective and that should be taken into account.

Vogue you are not alone in this. There’s plenty of blame out there.” (Style.com; March 27, 2008; online participant DcetStyle30)

The quotation above is from an online discussion of a controversial Vogue magazine cover that some critics deemed racist and derogatory. African American NBA player Lebron James and supermodel Gisele Bündchen are featured together to promote the magazine’s annual “shape” issue celebrating the human body. The controversy arose when an image was circulated online and in the media that juxtaposed the cover with a WWI propoganda poster for the U.S. Army featuring King Kong and its demsel in distress (see appendix). Claims that the two celebrities had re-enacted the essence of the poster and that the black athlete had been portrayed as a dangerous predator of the white woman brought up heated discussions amongst Internet forums posters. In this paper, we develop theoretical insight 752 / Working Papers on how consumers interpret and negotiate source cues both in relation to historical, experiential, and cultural knowledge they bring to the interpretation and in relation to their engament with community and the development of shared meaning. In basic communication models, the source is a person or organization with information to share. In advertising, a source can be the sponsor (i.e., a company or organization), the agency that authors the advertisement, or the persona within the text, often in the form of a spokesperson or model (Arens et al. 2009). The latter source, the spokesperson or model, has been a topic of great interest in scholarly works. To date, the advertising and marketing literatures have focused on experimental research perspectives derived from psychology (e.g., Micu et al. 2009; Bower and Landreth 2001; Kamins 1990; Petty et al. 1983). This stream of research emphasizes individual responses and attends to source characteristics such as credibility (expertise and trustworthiness) and attractiveness (similarity, familiarity and likeability). While we acknowledge the valuable contributions these models have made, we heed the call of McCracken (1989), whose meaning model incorporates cues that include cultural codes such as gender, race and class and how they interact and inform people’s interpretation of the advertisement. For example, if we take the instance described above and adopt the point of view of the source literature to date, we most likely would attend to elements of credibility and trustworthiness of the two celebrities. We would not, however, account for the complex and dynamic ways that audiences may attribute meaning to the celebrity based on their own cultural knowledge, such as historical and contemporary understanding of race, gender, sports, fashion, specific media vehicles, knowledge about celebrity personal and professional lives, and the ways in which these various factors may interact. A more encompassing view of advertising sources is needed because the source literature to date has yet to treat consumers as readers of ads (Scott 1994; Scott and Vargas 2007). McCracken’s model also implies that certain audiences share cultural codes and, because culture is not static, neither are shared meanings. Interpretation and negotiation of sources frequently happens at the collective level via the information, knowledge and opinions that people share. Consumer culture researchers have investigated the influence of interpretive communities in creating meaning in the consumer world (Arnould and Thompson 2005). However, there is still little theoretically and empirically informed insight into the collective reading of source cues. When McCracken developed his meaning model, the web 2.0 had not yet developed. We have found it timely to re-envision the source literature to accommodate more complex aspects of consumer engagement with meaning; with social media we now have the opportunity to observe these effects in sites such as online forums that extend beyond traditional boundaries of space and time. Our inductive, qualitative study thus draws on over 500 pages of netnographic data (Kozinets 2002) collected from two online communities, Foxsports.com and Style.com, following the controversy surrounding the infamous Vogue cover. This context is an ideal site to develop theory about how collectives read source cues. In brief, it is characterized by multiple layers of meaning, emerging from both the ad itself and from the dynamics between online posters who bring in their own knowledge and subjectivity. The intended contribution of this paper is to extend the prior literature by examining interpretive practices of readers of ads in consumer collectives as they negotiate the dynamic interaction of various source cues. It posits that as readers engage in discussions with one another, interpretations of source cues do not remain static but evolve over short periods of time and shape further readings. Data analysis is ongoing but has already begun to illuminate the complex, socially constructed ways in which people engage with and create meaning through source cues. We find that various source cues move from the periphery to the center of the discussion, and back to the periphery again and so on, as readers negotiate interpretations of the cover and its sources’ representations and intentions. For example, race, gender, celebrity meaning, intentionality of image encoding and media context move and develop in relation to the controversy and to audience articulation of subjectivity. We anticipate that our findings will further articulate contemporary reading of source cues and offer nuances of readings in consumer collectives.

REFERENCES Arens, William F, Michael F. Weigold, and Christian Arens (2009), Contemporary Advertising, Boston: McGraw Hill. Arnould, Eric J. and Craig J. Thompson (2005), “Consumer Culture Theory (CCT): Twenty Years of Research,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 868-882. Bower, A.B. and S. Landreth (2001), “Is Beauty Best? Highly Versus Normally Attractive Models in Advertising,” Journal of Advertising, 30 (1), 1-12. Kamins, M.A. (1990), “An Investigation into the “Match-Up” Hypothesis in Celebrity Advertising: When Beauty May Only be Skin Deep,” Journal of Advertising, 19 (1), 4-13. Kozinets, Robert V. (2002), “The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities,” Journal of Marketing Research 39 (1), 61-72. McCracken, Grant (1989), “Who is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural Foundations of the Endorsement Process,” Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (December), 310-321. Micu, Camelia C., Robin A. Coulter and Lindal L. Price (2009), “How Product Trial Alters the Effects of Model Attractiveness,” Journal of Advertising, 38 (2), 69-81. Petty, R. E., J.T. Cacioppo and D. Shuman (1983), “Central and Peripheral Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement,” Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (September), 135-146. Scott, L.M. (1994), “The Bridge from Text to Mind: Adapting Reader-Response Theory to Consumer Research,” Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (December), 461-480. Scott, Linda M. and Patrick Vargas (2007), “Writing with Pictures: Toward a Unifying Theory of Consumer Response to Images,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (October), 341-356. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 753 Appendix

Virtual Worlds: New Marketing Channels or Emperor’s New Clothes? (Consumer Perceptions of Innovation in Product-oriented vs. Service-oriented Companies) Sonja Propopec, ESSEC Business School, France Lakshmi Goel, University of South Florida, USA

Abstract We examine the impact of brand presence in virtual worlds on consumers’ perceptions of brand innovativeness for product-oriented and service-oriented companies. Results from a pilot study show that the consumer’s perception of innovativeness significantly decreases with brand presence in virtual world for product-oriented companies, but significantly increases for service-oriented companies.

Outline Virtual worlds are increasingly gaining attention in popular media as well as academia (Nelson, 2007), and growth in the virtual worlds is now building at a more reasonable and sustainable level. For example, consumers are spending more time online, there is has been an increase in the revenues generated as well as in the number of interactions (McCormick, 2009). Second Life continues to be an active playground for brands and there are more than 1000 virtual worlds in production around the globe (McCormick, 2009). Research on what constitutes a successful strategy for entering and operating in virtual worlds is still limited (Goel and Mousavidin, 2007). Previous research shows that virtual worlds differ from traditional websites along several dimensions in terms of their interface and user experience (Goel et al., 2009), warranting further investigation. To better understand the success of an entry strategy one could look at the change in consumer perceptions after visiting the virtual world store for the first time. More specifically, we examine how the brand presence in virtual worlds impacts consumer perceptions of brand innovativeness, a factor that has been shown as important (Christensen, 1997; Christensen and Raynor, 2003; Keller, 2003). Additionally, our research aims to examine whether consumers in virtual worlds perceive product-oriented and service-oriented companies differently. Majority of the research in virtual words has until now focused on marketing of products (e.g. Goel and Prokopec, 2009; Hemp, 2006). However, with more and more service-oriented companies opening their stores in virtual worlds such as Second Life, it is important to examine whether the consumer perceptions change and if so, in which aspect does the change occur. Services are different from products because they are intangible, unique (heterogeneous) and co-produced with the customer (inseparable) (Anderson, Fornell, and 754 / Working Papers Rust, 1997). The production and consumption of service occurs simultaneously, whereas the production and consumption of products occurs sequentially. Furthermore, customers are often co-producers of the services they consume (e.g. social networking sites)(Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004). Inseparability means that consumers ultimately buy the organization’s capabilities and expertise, not merely their immediate offers. Intuitively, it might seem that presence in a new channel like virtual worlds would be perceived as being innovative. In our research, we propose to explore this line of thought. We argue that perceptions of innovativeness may depend on whether the company is product oriented, or service oriented. In product-oriented companies, a new channel may not yield benefits in terms of consumer perception since innovativeness may be tied to the actual product offering (e.g. a car), and not necessarily the channel (e.g. a dealership/ website). On the other hand, for service-oriented companies, due to the intangibility of the offering and the inseparability between the production and the consumption part of the offering, a consumer visiting the virtual world store (i.e. an university) is more likely to perceive the brand to be more innovative. Thus we hypothesize:

H1: Virtual world brand presence will not impact the perceived level of innovativeness of product-oriented companies.

H2: Virtual world brand presence will positively impact the perceived level of innovativeness of service-oriented companies.

In order to measure the impact of virtual world brand presence, we plan to conduct an experiment that measures consumers’ perceptions of innovativeness before and after they have visited the virtual world. Since there are several factors that need to be considered to ensure internal and external validity of such a study, we conducted a preliminary pilot to help guide our future data collection and analysis. We present details of our pilot next.

Pilot Study Methodology Thirty-five subjects participated in the pilot study. The virtual world selected was Second Life (SL). None of the subjects had a SL avatar prior to the study, although they were very familiar with using computers, the Internet, and social networking sites. A survey was administered to the subjects that asked questions pertaining to their perceptions of brand innovativeness. Of the four companies selected, Toyota1 and Sony/BMG were considered representative of product-oriented companies, and Princeton and University of Southern California (USC) of service-oriented. The subjects were asked the question “Rate the brand on the level of innovativeness” for each of the four companies. Next, the subjects were asked to create SL avatars, and spend two weeks exploring the virtual world. After the subjects had completed their assignment, a second survey was administered with the same question for each of the four companies.

Preliminary Results Given that n=35, we present our results with the caveat that this is intended to be a pilot study. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to measure differences between brand perceptions before and after the virtual world exposure. We find support for H2, i.e. perceptions of innovativeness increased for service-oriented companies (Princeton: MPRE: 3.26, MPOST: 4.11, p<.001 and USC: MPRE: 3.14, MPOST, p<.001). However, for H1, we find that perceptions significantly decreased due to brand presence in virtual worlds for product-oriented companies (Sony/BMG: MPRE: 4.26, MPOST: 3.09, p<.001 and Toyota: MPRE: 4.2, MPOST: 3.20, p<.001). These results, though simple, have significant implications for companies that wish to leverage the new channel of virtual worlds. A significant negative change in perception of innovativeness may result in harming the brand image, rather than helping, and it might be better for such companies to steer clear of the virtual world channel. Though this study is focused on innovativeness, consumer focus, and brand quality were also measured as part of the pre-and post- tests. These factors also significantly dropped for product-oriented companies. However, service- oriented companies, such as universities, would benefit significantly from a presence in the virtual world channel.

Next Steps The study presented is intended to spur a broad research agenda in virtual worlds that includes several brand perception dimensions. We are interested in how consumers react to the virtual world channel, thus providing practitioners with guidelines for entry strategies in virtual worlds. A wider range of product and service-oriented companies need to be sampled to represent different types of products and services (e.g. hedonic, utilitarian etc).

References Anderson , E . W . , Fornell , C . and Rust , R . T . ( 1997 ) ‘ Customer satisfaction, productivity, and profitability: Differences between goods and services ’ , Marketing Science , Vol. 16 , No. 2 , pp. 129–145 . Christensen, C.M. (1997) “The Innovator’s Dilemma,” Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Christensen, C.M. and Raynor, M.E. (2003), “The Innovator’s Solution,” Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Goel, L., Junglas, I., and Ives, B. (2009) “Virtual Worlds as Platforms for Communities of Practice,” Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning, Volume 4, pp. 180-196. Goel, L., & Mousavidin, E. (2007). vCRM: Virtual customer relationship management. Database, 38(4), 56–60. Hemp, P. (2006) “Avatar-based marketing,” Harvard Business Review, pp. 48-57. Keller, K.L. (2003), “Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity,” (2d ed.). Sydney: Prentice Hall. McCormack, A. (2009), “ New Virtual Worlds to cater for brands,” Revolution, http://www.revolutionmagazine.com. Accessed 20 january, 2010. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 755 Nelson, M. (2007). Virtual world marketing gets reality check in 2007. The ClickZ Network online. http://www.clickz.com/ showPage.html?page=3627979. Accessed 23 February, 2010. Prahalad , C . K . and Ramaswamy , V . ( 2004 ) ‘ Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation’, Journal of Interactive Marketing , Vol. 18 ,No. 3 , p. 5 .

Footnote 1The pilot was conducted before the press releases regarding quality issues surrounding Toyota.

Social Production Of Medicine in a Virtual Health Community Organization Handan Vicdan, Eastern Kentucky University, USA

Extended Abstract This research explores new systems of marketing developing as a result of transformations in technology (Web 2.0), consumer/ marketer value systems, forms of discourse and institutional roles. I aim to provide insights into developments in healthcare provision as systems that utilize social networking and engage in reconstitution of roles and relations in healthcare develop. I revisit previous theories of market relations to understand why/how new perspectives need to be incorporated into our frameworks. Scholars have articulated the structure of relationships between consumers and organizations in the market largely exhibiting dialectical processes: (1) Marketer/ Consumer constitution in dominant/dominated dialectic (Peñaloza and Price 1993; Slater and Tonkiss 2001; Zwick et al. 2008), and (2) unidirectional provisioning and hierarchical relations that give control and primacy to the marketer (Firat and Dholakia 2006). These views rest mainly on modern conceptions of power including domination, confrontation (Venn 2007) and unilateral govern-mentality, and emphasize maximizing/normalizing discourses by marketers. Such discourses in healthcare include fear of loss of life, normalization of body and maximization of lifespan (Rose 2007), and make human body an object of one-way surveillance by a superior medical gaze (Foucault 1975). I aim to discover new forms of organizing roles and relationships in healthcare through a non-participatory netnographic inquiry (Kozinets 2002) of a web-based Medicine 2.0 community organization, patientslikeme.com (PLM). PLM is a co-mediated market platform for real-time partnership among patients, physicians, pharmaceutical companies, healthcare researchers, and administrators of the website. PLM cultivates collaboration through proactive and complementary relations, intensifies connectedness among market actors, and contributes to social production of medicine. These relations seem to be qualitatively different from conventional market relations that treat organizations and consumers as distinct entities (Firat and Dholakia 2006; Peñaloza and Venkatesh 2006). Patients actively engage in real-time clinical research and generation of new medical knowledge, and determine their and others’ care along with other market actors. I attract attention to the meso level institution(alization)s or legitimation processes that develop and maintain these new forms of interaction, make people become a part of these systems and enable their continued participation in sharing their private health data and experiences as a result of synergistic discourses among actors with an increasing appreciation for difference, and decreasing desire to contest, confront and establish supremacy. Findings are organized in two core themes: (1) provisioning diluted in healthcare through reorganization of business by PLM, and new roles patients and physicians/researchers adopt in this community, and (2) meso level dynamics of how actors relate to each other and maintain their participation in the market order constructed in PLM, and how these relations influence relations among market actors outside of the community. In doing so, sharing/privacy distinction will be articulated, forms of sharing in PLM–which encourage disclosure of private health information–will be exemplified, and the why and how of sharing/not sharing in this community will be explicated. I reconsider Foucauldian notions of govern-mentality (1982) and biopower (1990) to articulate the theoretical/conceptual explanations of how and why such a system may be attracting patients and other healthcare actors and (re)organizing their relationships, and how their interest and participation in the system are maintained. I attract attention to the shift from government intervention to the multitude of diverse healthcare market actors in organizing sharing of private health information, and negotiating meanings of privacy/disclosure. PLM enables organized decentralization of private health data sharing, and mobilizes market actors as a non-state institution through non-dominating discursive regimes (Rose 2007) (e.g., hope based versus fear based culture, sharing/openness versus privacy, quality of life and personalization). Consumers are governed by and govern through different institutionalizations that produce discourses through which roles and relations are legitimized and institutionalized (Thompson 2004). Through institution(alization)s grown out of these new business models, community participants make decisions to share private health information and stay in the community, which emerge from mutual, non-linear, and multi-way negotiations. Govern-mentality increasingly takes multiple forms that may not be categorized as either top down (domination) or bottom-up (domination over consumers through constituting them as free subjects) (Zwick et al. 2008) perspectives. As we observe the abandonment of unidirectional provisioning and overly deterministic actions of marketers –prominent in dominant marketing approaches –, and the realization that consumers and marketers are both a part of a social system and a market system, reflecting the multifaceted and multilayered nature of organizing roles and governing relations among market actors in the world of social networking necessitate the theorization of govern-mentality in productive and meridian (Cova 2005, p.210) terms. PLM as a meso level institution also becomes the locus of legitimation in sharing and organizing private health information and generating medical knowledge, and contributes to (re)institutionalizing surveillance in healthcare through clinical research with and intensified multilevel connectedness among healthcare actors. 756 / Working Papers References Cova, Bernard (2005), “Thinking of Marketing in Meridian Terms,” Marketing Theory, 5 (2), 205-214. Firat, A. Fuat, and Nikhilesh Dholakia (2006), “Theoretical and Philosophical Implications of Postmodern Debates: Some Challenges to Postmodern Marketing,” Marketing Theory, 6 (2), 123-162. Foucault, Michel (1975), The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception. New York: Vintage Books. (1982), “The Subject and Power,” in H. L. Dreyfus and P. Rabinow (ed.), Michel Foucault. Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics. Harvester Press, 208-226. (1990), The History of Sexuality. New York: Vintage Books. Kozinets, Robert V. (2002) “The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities,” Journal of Marketing Research, 39 (1), 61-72. Peñaloza, Lisa, and Linda L. Price (1993), “Consumer Resistance: A Conceptual Overview,” Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 123-128. , and Alladi Venkatesh (2006), “Further Evolving the New Dominant Logic of Marketing: From Services to the Social Construction of Markets,” Marketing Theory, 6 (3), 299-316. Rose, Nikolas (2007), The Politics of Life Itself: Biomedicine, Power, and Subjectivity in the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press: NJ. Slater, Don, and Fran Tonkiss (2001), Market Society: Markets and Modern Social Theory, Polity Press, London. Thompson, Craig J. (2004), “Marketplace Mythology and Discourses of Power,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (1), 162-180. Venn, Couze (2007), “Cultural Theory, Biopolitics, and the Question of Power,” Theory, Culture & Society, 24 (3), 111-124. Zwick, Detlev, Samuel K. Bonsu, and Aron Darmody (2008), “Putting Consumers to Work: ‘Co-Creation’ and New Marketing Govern-mentality,” Journal of Consumer Culture, 8 (2), 163-196.

Appendix

Theoretical Articulation Based on Initial Findings:

A. How PLM has developed and is functioning in the healthcare market?: Cultivating Biopower-Biopolitical Production-Biosociality Triangle in Healthcare through PLM:

PLM: Co-mediated Market Platform

BIOSOCIALITY

BIOPOLITICAL BIOPOWER PRODUCTION Government acts to protect Patient Patient Privacy (HIPAA) and overly deterministic healthcare market actors

TECHNOLOGY & CULTURE (value systems, forms of discourse) INTERPLAY

B. Based on the themes discovered, this graph shows different levels of governing relations among healthcare actors as a result of connectedness intensified by/through PLM: Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 757

Rethinking Govern -mentality: Meridian Govern -mentality in Healthcare Healthcare Market

Pharmaceutical

PLM Co-mediated Market Co -Analyst Networked Platform Medicine 2.0 Marketer (e.g., Patient Community Physician, Organization researcher)

Government (FDA)

The Consequence of Screening Strategies on Decision Accuracy: The Roles of Perceived Uncertainty and Consideration Set Size Rajani Genesh Pillai, North Dakota State University, USA Xin He, University of Central Florida, USA Raj Echambadi, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Extended Abstract Consumers screen from all available alternatives (Beach 1993) and consider a smaller subset of alternatives for further evaluation, called the consideration set (Bettman 1979; Nedungadi 1990). Two types of screening strategies are commonly utilized by consumers to form consideration sets: an exclusion (rejection) strategy wherein alternatives not worthy of further consideration are eliminated and an inclusion (choice) strategy wherein worthy alternatives are included into the consideration set (Shafir 1993; Yaniv and Schul 1997; 2000). Despite the understanding that an important motivation for consumers to engage in screening is to search and choose the best option (Beach 1993; Beach and Mitchell 1990), there is limited understanding of the consequences of the screening strategy on decision quality. This paper attempts to fill the void by investigating how screening strategies impact decision quality as well as the factors that moderate this relationship. Two outcomes of using the screening strategy that have been investigated are the number of alternatives considered (consideration set size) and the accuracy of the decision (Heller, Levin, and Gorannson 2002; Levin et al. 2001; Yaniv and Schul 1997, 2000). Evidence for the impact of the screening strategy on the size of consideration set is robust, such that sets created by exclusion screening strategy are significantly larger than those created by inclusion (Heller et al. 2002; Levin et al. 2001; Yaniv and Schul 1997, 2000). However, there is little consensus about the impact of the screening strategy on decision quality. Past studies demonstrated that consideration sets created by exclusion strategy are more accurate, but only when the consideration set size is not taken into account. Accuracy in these studies was defined by the outcome of the screening strategy itself (i.e. the percentage of sets that contain the correct answer) which is different from the accuracy of the final choice. In addition, existing research does not consider a wide range of contingent factors that might influence the screening strategy—decision accuracy relationship. In this paper, we focus on the accuracy of the final choice because it is the ultimate performance criterion of the screen strategy employed. We contend that, the accuracy of the decision should be analyzed in terms of the ability of the screening strategy to improve the likelihood of making a good decision, depending on both perceived uncertainty and consideration set size. Consumers frequently experience varying levels of uncertainty while making choices (Hansen 1976; Kahn and Sarin 1988). We argue that highly uncertain consumers who use inclusion screening strategy make more accurate decisions and consumers with low perceived uncertainty are better off using exclusion screening strategy. We draw upon the literature on decision making to suggest that screening by inclusion involves greater search for information (Levin, Huneke, and Jasper 2000). Greater search intensity of the inclusion strategy would facilitate highly uncertain consumers to improve decision accuracy by helping to clarify their preferences. Conversely, it would distract consumers with low perceived uncertainty from making accurate decision because more information encountered during search will dilute their true preferences. Because search intensity of a screening strategy depends on consideration set size, we further argue for an interesting reversal of this interactive effect when consideration set sizes are varied. Since exclusion screening strategy involves greater search than inclusion strategy when forming larger consideration sets, we predict that highly uncertain consumers are better off using exclusion screening strategy in such context while consumers with low perceived uncertainty make better decisions using inclusion screening strategy. 758 / Working Papers Empirical Study We conducted an experimental study (n=130) using an actual choice task that followed a 2 (perceived uncertainty: high or low) x 2 (screening strategy: inclusion or exclusion) x 2 (consideration set size: high or low) design. In this study, perceived uncertainty was measured whereas screening strategy and consideration set size were manipulated. Following Creyer, Bettman, and Payne (1990), the measure of decision accuracy is derived by comparing the weighted additive value of the chosen alternative to that of the best and worst alternatives in the set. Consistent with our predictions, there was a significant three-way interaction among screening strategies, perceived uncertainty, and consideration set size on decision accuracy (F(1,122)=8.34, p<.01). Initial results were directionally supportive for our predictions under smaller consideration sets (such that participants with low perceived uncertainty made slightly more accurate decisions with exclusion strategy while participants with high perceived uncertainty made slightly more accurate decisions using inclusion strategy) although the effects failed to reach statistical significance. More importantly, the pattern of results was reversed when participants formed larger consideration sets. Those with low perceived uncertainty made higher quality decisions with inclusion as compared to exclusion screening strategy when forming larger consideration sets. On the other hand, participants with high perceived uncertainty made more accurate decision with exclusion as compared to inclusion screening strategy and both mean comparisons were significant. Thus, results were generally supportive of our predictions as indicated by a significant three-way interaction, although the effects under large consideration sets seem to be stronger than those under small consideration sets.

Discussion This paper seeks to address the issue of decision accuracy of screening strategies, given the perceived uncertainty consumers experience during the choice process. Further, it also highlights the important moderating role played by consideration set size on the interactive relationship between perceived uncertainty and screening strategy on decision accuracy. Drawing upon literature in consumer decision making, we show that, the process benefits of information search and learning that are obtained by choosing and applying the right screening strategy can greatly enhance the quality of decisions. This paper contributes to our understanding regarding the consequence of using the screening strategies. Decision accuracy is an important outcome of the decision making process and has huge public policy and consumer welfare implications. For instance, this research highlights that consumers could make suboptimal choices through the use of a wrong screening strategy. Such suboptimal choices can have seriously negative and long lasting consequences in various situations like medical decision making, financial and investment decision making, and partner selection that are rife with uncertainty.

References Beach, Lee R (1993), “Broadening the Definition of Decision Making: The Role of Prechoice Screening of Options,” Psychological Science, 4 (July), 215-20. Beach, Lee R and Terence. R Mitchell (1990), “Image Theory: A Behavioral Theory of Decisions in Organizations,” in Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12, ed. B.M. Staw and L.L. Cummins, 12, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1-4. Bettman, James R. (1979), An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice, MA: Addison- Wesley. Creyer, Elizabeth H., James R. Bettman and John W. Payne (1990), “The Impact of Accuracy and Effort Feedback and Goals on Adaptive Decision Behavior,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 3, 1-16. Hansen, Flemming (1976), “Psychological Theories of Consumer Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research, 3 (December), 117-42. Heller, Daniel., Levin P. Irwin, and Martin Goransson (2002), “Selection of Strategies for Narrowing Choice Options: Antecedents and Consequences,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 89 (November), 1194-213. Kahn, Barbara E. and Rakesh K. Sarin (1988), “Modeling Ambiguity in Decisions Under Uncertainty,” Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (September), 265-72. Levin, Irwin .P., Caryn M. Prosansky, Daniel Heller, and Brad M. Brunick (2001), “Prescreening of Choice Options in Positive and Negative Decision Making Tasks,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 14 (October), 279-93. Levin, Irwin .P. , J. D. Jasper, and Wendy S. Forbes (1998), “Choosing Versus Rejecting at Different Stages of Decision Making,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 11 (September), 193-210. Levin, Irwin .P., Mary E. Huneke, and J.D. Jasper (2000), “Information Processing at Successive Stages of Decision Making: Need for Cognition and Inclusion-Exclusion Effects,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82 (July), 171-93. Nedungadi, Prakash (1990), “Recall and Consideration Sets Influencing Choice without Altering Brand Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (December), 263-76. Shafir, Eldar (1993), “Choosing Versus Rejecting: Why Some Options are Both Better and Worse Than Others,” Memory and Cognition, 21 (July), 546-56. Yaniv, Ilan and Yaacov Schul (1997), “Elimination and Inclusion Procedures in Judgment,” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 10 (September), 211-20. Yaniv, Ilan and Yaacov Schul (2000), “Acceptance and Elimination Procedures in Choice: Non Complementarity and the Role of Implied Status Quo,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82 (July), 293-313. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 759 The Influence of Assortment Size on Preference-Consistent Choice Maarten Elen, Ghent University, Belgium Ineke Uyttersprot, University College Ghent, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University and Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium

Extended Abstract Decades of research on the effects of variety and assortment size have focused on the affective and motivational consequences of having personal choice (Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000). Providing consumers with choice has been linked to increases in perceived control, task performance and life satisfaction (Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000). When choosing from a large number of options, the likelihood that decision makers will be successful in finding an option that matches their preferences, increases (Chernev, 2003; Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000). Large assortments also help people satisfy their needs for variety, whether the reason for seeking variety simply reflects some desire for change or having multiple needs to satisfy (Hermann, & Heitmann, 2006). While much of the earlier work on variety provided support for the notion that more variety is better, a growing body of research suggests that more variety does not always lead to better choices. Research on the choice overload hypothesis suggests that having much choice can initially seem desirable, but prove to be demotivating in the end (Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000). Choosing from larger assortments demands a greater amount of cognitive effort from the decision maker and increases choice difficulty (Chernev, & Hamilton, 2009). An increased number of options to choose from has also been associated with greater anticipation of post-decisional regret (Hermann, & Heitmann, 2006; Sela, Berger, & Liu, 2009). These cognitive and emotional costs of decision-making out of large assortments have been shown to lead consumers to defer decision, choose the default option or to simply not choose at all (Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000; Sela et al., 2009; Scheibehenne, Greifeneder, & Todd, 2009). Both positive and negative consequences of assortment size on choice difficulty, choice likelihood and satisfaction are thus well- documented. Studies assessing the impact of assortment size on the option people actually choose are limited. In this study we will examine how assortment size influences the choice of the preferred option and preference-consistent behavior. We argue that assortment size can have an important influence on preference-consistent choice. More specifically, we suggest that in small assortments; where making a choice is less difficult and results from a deliberative decision-making process (Hermann, Heitmann, Morgan, Henneberg, & Landwehr, 2009), people might not always choose their preferred option, even if this option is available. To support this claim, we integrate two research streams; assortment size and deliberation. Studies on the influence of assortment size on decision-making processes have shown that as the complexity of making choices rises, people tend to simplify their decision-making process by relying on simple heuristics (Iyengar, & Lepper, 2000; Hermann et al., 2009). Therefore, we suggest that when choosing from larger assortments consumers will rely on readily available “cues”, whereas in small assortments they will evaluate the alternatives and compare and contrast different attributes before making a choice. Recent research has demonstrated that this kind of conscious thought and deliberation can have an influence on people’s judgments and preferences, often reducing the consistency of preferences over time (Dijksterhuis en Nordgren, 2006; Nordgren & Dijksterhuis, 2009). As heuristics are often used in decision-making in large assortments, we hypothesize that when the most preferred option is available in a choice set, this option will be chosen in case of a large assortment. Consumers will use their initial positive evaluation of this option as a cue to select it. When choosing from a small assortment, the deliberative decision-making process might lead consumers to focus on attributes of the attitude object that seem like plausible causes of the evaluation but were not weighted heavily before (Nordgren, & Dijksterhuis, 2009), resulting in less preference-consistent choices. The experiment examining this prediction comprised two stages. In the first stage, participants’ preferences for twenty different ice cream flavors were measured. They were asked to rank their top six from a menu of twenty flavors (e.g. vanilla, pistachio, strawberry, …), and rate every flavor on a 7-item scale ranging from “totally unfavorable” to “totally favorable”. After this preference-measure task, respondents participated in an unrelated study of about 45 minutes to divert attention from the current study. In the second stage, participants were informed that they could win a bucket of ice cream and were asked which flavor they wanted if they would win. The assortment they could choose from consisted of either six (i.e. small assortment) or twenty (i.e. large assortment) different ice cream flavors. The latter assortment consisted of all twenty initial flavors, while the former assortment consisted only of the top six ice cream flavors they ranked earlier. Thus, participants’ top six flavors were presented in both the large and the small assortment. This was done to enhance comparability between choices from both assortments. In order to test our hypothesis regarding the effect of assortment size on preference-choice consistency, we first calculated whether there was a match between the participants’ preferences in the first stage and their choice in the last stage. Thus, for each subject, we calculated whether their choice was consistent with the option they had ranked at the top in the first stage. This comprised the dependent measure of the study. Next, we looked at the influence of assortment size on the preference-choice consistency. Chi-square analysis revealed a significant effect. Significantly more subjects were consistent in the large assortment condition (67.1%) than in the small assortment condition (52.4% %) (χ2(1)=3.853, p<.05). Thus, this result supports our hypothesis. Our results seem to indicate that as the variety of options to choose from decreases, the likelihood of choosing the most preferred option decreases as well–supposedly confirming the idea that, in terms of preference-choice consistency, more is indeed better. However, we propose that in other situations, preference-inconsistent choices will be more likely in large than small assortments. Specifically, we hypothesize that when readily available cues favor a less-preferred option, the likelihood of this option being chosen over the most- preferred option increases. Several experiments are being set up to investigate this prediction. 760 / Working Papers Selected References Chernev, A. (2003). When More Is Less and Less Is More: The Role of Ideal Point Availability and Assortment in Consumer Choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 170-183. Chernev, A., & Hamilton, R. (2009). Assortment Size and Option Attractiveness in Consumer Choice Among Retailers. Journal of Marketing Research, 46, 410-420. Dijksterhuis, A.P., & Nordrgen, L.F. (2006). A Theory of Unconscious Thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 95-109. Hermann, A., & Heitmann, M. (2006). Providing more or providing less? Accounting for cultural differences in consumers’ preference for variety. International Marketing Review, 23(1), 7-24. Herrmann, A., Heitmann, M., Morgan, R., Henneberg, S.C., & Landwehr, J. (2009). Consumer Decision Making and Variety of Offerings: The Effect of Attribute Alignability. Psychology & Marketing, 26(4), 333-358. Iyengar, S.S., & Lepper, M.R. (2000). When Choice is Demotivating: Can One Desire Too Much of a Good Thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995-1006. Nordgren, L.F., & Dijksterhuis, A.P. (2009). The Devil Is in the Deliberation: Thinking Too Much Reduces Preference Consistency. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 39-46. Scheibehenne, B., Greifeneder, R., & Todd, P.M. (2009). What Moderates the Too-Much-Choice Effect? Psychology & Marketing, 26(3), 229-253. Sela, A., Berger, J., & Liu, W. (2009). Variety, Vice, and Virtue: How Assortment Size Influences Option Choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 941-951.

Investigating the Strength of Affectively and Cognitively Based Attitudes Ineke Uyttersprot, Ghent University, Belgium Iris Vermeir, Ghent University, Belgium Maggie Geuens, Ghent University and Vlerick Leuven Gent Management, Belgium

Extended abstract Attitude strength is often defined in terms of four characterizing features which strong attitudes are thought to possess. That is, strong attitudes are said to be persistent over time, more resistant to attack, more influential of information processing and more predictive of judgments and behavior (Krosnick & Petty, 1995). Affective attitudes are supposed to be stronger than cognitively based ones (Giner- Sorolla, 2001) because empirical evidence shows that attitudes based on emotions tend to resist cognitive persuasion appeals, whereas attitudes based on cognitive beliefs do not resist affective appeals, and affective attitudes appear to be more stable over time. Several studies exploring the accessibility of affect-based attitudes compared to cognition-based ones tend to support this supposition. Accessibility has been indicated as one of the strength- related dimensions of attitudes, with highly accessible attitudes being stronger than less accessible ones (Fazio, 1995). Responses to affective evaluations have been shown to be formed more quickly than responses to cognitive evaluations (Huskinson & Haddock, 2006; Verplanken, Hofstee & Janssen, 1998), possibly indicating that evaluations based on emotions and feelings are more accessible in memory than evaluations based on cognitive beliefs. Giner-Sorolla (2001) also found an accessibility advantage of affective over cognitive base, but only when attitudes were more extreme; when attitudes were less extreme, affective attitudes tended to be expressed more slowly, whereas cognitive attitudes were expressed faster (Giner-Sorolla, 2001). In some situations then, cognitively based attitudes seemingly are stronger than affectively based attitudes. Accessibility, however, is not the only attitudinal variable proposed as a measure of attitude strength; several other dimensions have been identified as well, such as certainty, knowledge, importance, extremity, … (Krosnick, Boninger, Chuang, Berent & Carnot, 1993; Visser, Bizer & Krosnick, 2006). Yet, besides accessibility, none of these strength-related dimensions has been examined in relation to the structural base of attitudes. In this study we take a look at two other strength-related dimensions, certainty and knowledge, and explore whether affectively versus cognitively based attitudes differ on these dimensions. We hypothesize that cognitively based attitudes are held with more certainty and more subjective knowledge, since some of the main antecedents of attitude certainty are made up of cognitive factors such as the amount, clarity and consistency of the information available (Gross, Holtz & Miller, 1995). Further, the amount of cognitive elaboration of attitude-relevant information has been proposed as a determinant of attitude certainty, mediated by subjective perceptions of knowledge (Smith, Fabrigar, Macdougall, & Wiesenthal, 2008). Since cognitions about an attitude object are believed to be formed based on deliberative and controlled information processing, whereas affective reactions are formed in a relatively automatic manner without much deliberate elaboration (Shiv, & Fedorikhin, 1999), a certainty and knowledge advantage for attitudes based on cognitive beliefs over attitudes based on affective reactions is proposed. To investigate the level of certainty and amount of subjective knowledge associated with affectively versus cognitively based attitudes, an experiment was conducted. We manipulated the structural base of participants’ attitude toward a fictional animal by exposing them to either an affective or cognitive passage about the animal (see Fabrigar & Petty, 1999). The affective passage described a person’s encounter with the animal and was designed to evoke positive emotions about the animal. The passage designed to induce a cognitive attitude contained positive information about the same fictitious animal and was presented as an excerpt from an encyclopedia of marine life. Following the attitude base manipulation, participants were asked to complete the measures of attitude, affect and cognition validated by Crites et al. (1994). Next, attitude certainty and subjective knowledge were assessed. In order to investigate whether the attitude formation manipulation resulted in affective and cognitive attitudes, we tested whether attitude-affect and attitude-cognition consistency differed across both formation conditions. This was done by computing two discrepancy scores, obtained by calculating the absolute value of the difference between the attitude score on the one hand and the affect and cognition Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 761 score on the other hand. High consistency between the attitudinal base and the overall attitude is indicated by small numbers on these discrepancy scores. A 2 (attitude-affect discrepancy vs. attitude-cognition discrepancy) x 2 (affective attitude formation condition vs. cognitive attitude formation condition) mixed-design ANOVA indicated that we were successful in creating affectively or cognitively based attitudes, since the predicted crossover interaction between type of discrepancy score and attitude formation condition was obtained, F(1,118)=9.134, p<.01. In the affective formation condition the affective discrepancy scores (M=.53) were significantly smaller than the cognitive discrepancy scores (M=.76), t(59)=3.605, p<.01; whereas in the cognitive formation condition a nonsignificant tendency for cognitive discrepancy scores (M=.41) to be smaller than affective discrepancy scores (M=.51) was obtained, t(59), p=.374. To assess the difference between affective and cognitive attitudes concerning attitude certainty and subjective knowledge, an Independent Samples T-test was conducted with attitude basis as the independent variable. Both for certainty, t(109)=-2.599, p<.05, and subjective knowledge, t(109)=-3.845, p<.001, a significant effect of attitude basis was found. Cognitive attitudes were both held with greater certainty (M=5.13) as well as associated with greater subjective knowledge (M=2.95) than affective attitudes (respectively M=4.57 and M=2.00), thus supporting our hypothesis. Based on these results we can conclude that, contrary to previous research where affectively based attitudes seemingly are stronger than cognitively based attitudes when accessibility was used as a strength measure, cognitively based attitudes appear to be stronger than affectively based ones in terms of certainty and knowledge. These results provide useful insights in light of future studies. Possible research entails to explore which type of persuasive appeal, cognitive or affective, is most suitable to create strong attitudes.

Selected References Crites, S.L., Fabrigar, L.R., & Petty, R.E. (1994). Measuring the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes: Conceptual and methodological issues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 619-634. Fabrigar, L.R., & Petty, R.E. (1999). The Role of Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes in Susceptibility to Affectively and Cognitively Based Persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 363-381. Fazio, R.H., (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluations associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of attitude accessibility. In R.E. Petty & J.A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 247-282). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Giner-Sorolla, R. (2001). Affective Attitudes Are not Always Faster: The Moderating Role of Extremity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 666-677. Gross, S.R., Holtz, R., & Miller, N. (1995). Attitude Certainty. In R.E. Petty & J.A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 215-245). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Huskinson, T.L.H, & Haddock, G. (2006). Individual differences in attitude structure and the accessibility of the affective and cognitive components of attitude. Social Cognition, 24 (4), 453-468. Krosnick, J.A., & Petty, R.E. (1995). Attitude strength: An overview. In R.E. Petty & J.A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 1-24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Krosnick, J.A., Boninger, D.S., Chuang, Y.C., Berent, M.K., & Carnot, C.G. (1993). Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (6), 1132-1151. Shiv, B., & Fedorikhin, A. (1999). Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Consumer Decision Making. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 278-292. Smith, S.M., Fabrigar, L.R., Macdougall, B.L., & Wiesenthal, N.L. (2008). The role of amount, cognitive elaboration, and structural consistency of attitude-relevant knowledge in the formation of attitude certainty. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38 (2), 280-295. Verplanken, B., Hofstee, G., & Janssen, H.J.W. (1998). Accessibility of affective versus cognitive components of attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 23-35. Visser, P.S., Bizer, G.Y., & Krosnick, J.A. (2006). Exploring the Latent Structure of Strength-Related Attitude Attributes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 1-67.

When More is Merrier Indeed: The Impact of Product Involvement on Choice Maria Aladjem, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Ulf Böckenholt, McGill University, Canada and Northwestern University, USA

Extended Abstract Although generally extensive assortments are believed to benefit consumers, more recent research has highlighted the negative consequences of large assortments. Notably, research on the “More-is-Less” effect (Iyengar and Lepper 2000, Chernev 2003) established that extensive assortments can hinder choice and lower choice satisfaction. These adverse consequences are often explained with the decision difficulty consumers experience when choosing from extensive (as opposed to limited) choice sets. However, a recent meta- analysis (Scheibehenne, Greifender and Todd, forthcoming) invites a discussion on the generality of the “More-is-Less” effect since multiple studies failed to replicate the adverse effects of large assortments on choice satisfaction (Scheibehenne, Greifender and Todd 2009). Clearly, there is a need for a deeper understanding of the possible effects of extensive assortments on consumer choice and a thorough investigation of possible moderator variables and boundary conditions of the More-is-Less effect. This work argues that choice from extensive assortments can trigger multiple sources of experiential information that affect choice satisfaction. Thus, going beyond experienced difficulty, we show that intrinsic pleasure from exploring the choice options can increase 762 / Working Papers choice satisfaction and lead participants to be more satisfied when choosing from a larger assortment size. We refer to this finding as the “More-is-Merrier” effect. The involvement level of a consumer is an important moderator variable for this effect: Larger assortments can lead to greater choice-process difficulty and thus reduce the choice satisfaction of consumers with low levels of product involvement. In contrast, consumers with high levels of involvement experience choosing from the same large assortments as more enjoyable and report greater choice satisfaction. Perhaps similar to baseball fans enjoying recalling arcane statistics or splitting hairs over particular teams, high-involved consumers enjoy exploring and comparing options and are–if at all-to a much smaller degree affected by the difficulty of a choice task than low-involved consumers. Experiment 1 examined whether choice-set size would differentially affect the choice satisfaction of consumers with different levels of product involvement. Based on a large-scale online pretest, we selected participants with high and low levels of involvement with night clubs based on the Personal Involvement Inventory (Zaichkowsky 1994). Several weeks later, the same participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions with either a limited (6) or an extensive (16) choice set of night clubs and were instructed to choose a night club for a company party paid for by the firm. Care was taken to ensure that not the composition of the choice sets, but their size would be the underlying reason for the ease or the difficulty of the choice task. As predicted, we found that high-involved consumers liked better their choice after choosing from the extensive choice set and that this effect was mediated by involvement-induced task enjoyment measured by a three-item scale. Conversely, low-involved consumers liked better their choice when choosing from the limited choice set and this effect was mediated by experienced difficulty, in agreement with previous findings on the More-is-Less effect (Iyengar and Lepper 2000, Chernev 2003). Importantly, perceived variety in the choice sets and experienced difficulty were both found to increase significantly with choice set size and not to vary across involvement conditions. The objectives of Experiment 2 were two-fold: First, the experiment was designed to test the sensitivity of high- and low-involved consumers to choice task difficulty in their judgment of choice satisfaction. For this purpose, we introduced a default option in the choice task that was expected to lower choice task difficulty and hence to increase the choice satisfaction of low-involved consumers. For high-involved consumers we expected no effect of the default option on choice satisfaction. Second, we selected a customization task to demonstrate that choice-option exploration can trigger task difficulty for low-involved consumers and enjoyment for high-involved consumers. Participants were asked to customize a weekend trip, consisting of multiple choices among hotels, restaurants and activities. For each choice, we provided a default option in the low-difficulty condition. As in Study 1, we conducted a large-scale pretest to identify respondents’ involvement levels with planning and going on trips. Several weeks later, high- and low-involvement participants were invited to the lab and asked to customize a hypothetical complementary weekend escape for two in a popular winter resort. As predicted, we found that although the presence of a default option in a self-customization task reduced significantly the perceived difficulty of the task, it increased satisfaction with the customized offer only among respondents with low levels of involvement. Further, the exploration of the choice option mediated the effect of task enjoyment on choice satisfaction for high-involved respondents. Study 3 considered temporal distance as a moderator variable of task-induced enjoyment. High-involvement participants were asked to plan their weekend trip–as in Study 2–but with the additional instruction that the trip would take place a year later. We predicted and found that this temporal distance manipulation both reduced significantly the exploration of choice alternatives and lowered experienced enjoyment: Compared to participants of Study 2 who did not have to wait for the trip to take place, participants of Study 3 reported significantly lower choice satisfaction with their customized weekend trip. In sum, the contributions of this research are three-fold. First, the findings point to the importance of affective consequences of involvement, in addition to the motivational and cognitive ones considered in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty et al. 2005, Petty and Cacioppo 1990). Critically, it demonstrates that unlike task-unrelated affect (Bless et al. 1990), task-related affect increases the depth with which people explore and compare choice options. Experienced difficulty has no adverse affects on choice satisfaction. Second, this work adds to the literature on the More-is-Less effect by showing that involvement is an important moderator of this effect. Finally, this work is also of clear importance to practitioners since it demonstrates the need for differentiation of marketing strategies for consumers with high and low levels of involvement with a product category.

References Bless H., G. Bohner, N. Schwarz, and A. Strack (1990), “Mood and Persuasion–a Cognitive Response Analysis,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin ,106, 331-345 Chernev, A. (2003), “When More is Less and Less is More: The Role of Ideal Point Availability and Assortment in Consumer Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (2), 170-83. Iyengar, S. S. and M. R. Lepper (2000), “When Choice is Demotivating: Can One Desire Too Much of a Good Thing?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (6), 995-1006. Petty, R. E. and J.T. Cacioppo (1990), “Involvement and Persuasion: Tradition versus Integration,” Psychological Bulletin, 107, 367- 374. Petty, R. E., J.T. Cacioppo, A. Strathman, and J.R.Priester (2005), “To Think or not to Think? Exploring Two Routes to Persuasion,” in T. C. Brock & M. C. Green (Eds.), Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives (2nd ed., 81-116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Scheibehenne, B., R. Greifeneder, and P.M. Todd (2010). Can There Ever be Too Many Options? A Meta-Analytic Review of Choice Overload. Journal of Consumer Research. In Press. Scheibehenne, B., R. Greifeneder, and P.M. Todd (2009), “What Moderates the Too-much-choice Effect?,” Psychology & Marketing, 26, 229-253 Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1994), “The Personal Involvement Inventory: Reduction, Revision, and Application to Advertising,” Journal of Advertising, 23 (4), 59–70. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 763 Should Variety Seeking Be Measured at the SKU, Brand, or Category Level? Does It Matter Marina Girju, University of Texas at Dallas, USA B. P. S. Murthi, University of Texas at Dallas, USA

In a two-week period, the average US consumer snacks 32 times on 17 different brands coming from 4.5 different snack categories, e.g. salty, sweet, salsa/dips, fuel, grain and non-macro (fruits, vegetables). She switches among the brands 29 times and among the categories 22 times. Virtually no brand is eaten twice in a row and only 1.5 brands are from the same category. Thus, the US consumer seeks high variety in her snack consumption. Past research has focused on only one form of variety-seeking, usually at the brand level. In this research, we offer a comprehensive view of individual variety-seeking behavior in the snacks market, in which we associate consumer variety-seeking behavior at the SKU, brand, and category levels. We seek to understand the correlations between the different types of variety-seeking and study the effect of demographic, psychographic, environment (location), and consumption factors (needs, time of day/week, activity) on different types of variety-seeking. Extensive consumer behavior and empirical marketing literature provides a benchmark of variety-seeking models and findings (Khan 1995, McAlister & Pessemier 1982). More recent research shows that variety-seeking is more likely to occur on taste than on brand (Inman 2001) or when consumers derive greater hedonic characteristics from the product category (Van Trijp, Hoyer and Inman 1996). However, past research had several restrictions. It looked at variety-seeking as a trade-off between flavor and brand (Inman 2001, 2008). It analyzed single product categories, e.g. potato chips (Maier et al. 2007) and considered variety-seeking at the brand level. Variety-seeking research that is based on scanner data explains variety-seeking at the household level, not the individual level. Last, it did not explain how variety-seeking changes over time, around holidays or seasons. Our proposed research circumvents these restrictions. We focus on consumption patterns at the individual level, thus, avoid the aggregation bias in studies of household demand. We measure variety-seeking across the entire US snack market, and get a better view on consumers’ overall snacking behavior and their consumption trade-offs when switching among brands/categories. The length of our study (2004-2009) allows us to show how variety-seeking evolved and how consumers seek more variety in some categories at the expense of others. Using over 80 variables of consumption, we can explain how variety-seeking changes with time of day (Roehm and Roehm 2004) or week, location, activity, needs, social occasion (Ratner and Kahn 2002). To analyze variety-seeking in snacking for the whole US population, we rely on an extensive dataset monitoring the entire snacking behavior of 30,000 consumers located across the US. The respondents, chosen randomly, are weighted on six demographic variables that ensure a nationally representative sample. They self-report their snack consumption over 2-week periods and provide demographics and other personal information, such as weight/height, physical activity levels, household size, age, gender, race, marital status, income, etc. At each snack occasion, the panelist also records the consumption details: time of day/week, location, consumed on its own or with food or drinks, in public/private, needs (e.g. good to eat with others, to relax) and the activity the consumer was doing during the consumption (shopping, watching TV, socializing) etc. Each consumer reports the exact brand-flavor consumed by choosing from a list of 900 snacks ranging from leading brands (Pringles, Hersheys, etc) to regional and private label. Using the industry’s market structure, these brands are further categorized into 60 subcategories (potato chips, gum, salsa) and 6 snack categories (salty, sweet, accompaniments, fuel, grain, non-macro). Thus, this comprehensive dataset allows us to create a detailed map of the whole US snack market and to understand the overall snack consumption not only at the individual consumer level but also aggregated for the whole US population. We use several measures of variety-seeking at the brand, subcategory, and category level and employ a model with a linear system of equations to understand and paint a comprehensive picture of overall variety-seeking in US snack consumption. First, we draw on the previous research literature and quantify variety-seeking as 1.) number of unique brands consumed, and 2.) number of switches among the brands consumed. Second, accounting for the brands’ dissimilarity, we perform the analysis not only at the brand level, but also at the subcategory and category level, e.g. when a consumer snacks on Lays, Orbit, and Hersheys, we record 3 different brands, 3 subcategories (potato chips, gum, candy) and 2 different snack categories (salty, sweet). Third, due to high correlation among the variety-seeking measures either within or across categories, and endogeneity, we use system of equations analysis to understand what factors explain variety-seeking. We model the different measures of variety-seeking at the brand and category levels, within and across categories as dependent variables, regressed on 80-140 independent variables: demographics, psychographics, situational factors, seasonality, trend in consumption. With high R-squares (60%-80%), the models fit the data well and give a comprehensive understanding of the factors that explain variety-seeking. Some of the research questions we asked and the partial results we obtained are:

1. The correlation between brand and category level variety-seeking is high but not for all individuals. 2. What consumption factors impact VS?–An interesting finding is that doing sports and shopping/running errands decreases variety-seeking. 3. How do demographics influence VS?–Heavier and older people switch less on brands; Men snack on fewer brands/categories and switch less; Hispanics seek more variety. Less educated consumers are high variety-seekers. 4. Is variety-seeking seasonal?–Overall, variety-seeking does not change throughout the year, but consumers seek more salty variety in the Fall and more non-macro variety in the Summer and Fall. Some holidays also impact variety-seeking positively, e.g. Valentine, Halloween for sweets.

The research seeks to understand the big picture idea “Should variety-seeking be studied at the category, brand or SKU level?” How do different measures of variety-seeking change if the analysis is done at different levels of variety-seeking? What is the magnitude of correlation between the different types of variety-seeking? This is the first research study that offers a comprehensive map of brand and within-across category variety-seeking for snacks for the whole US population. 764 / Working Papers References J. Jeffrey Inman, Joonwook Park, and Ashish Sinha (2008), “A Dynamic Choice Map Approach to Modeling Attribute-Level Varied Behavior Among Stockkeeping Units,” Journal of Marketing Research, 45 (February), 94-103. Cassie Mogilner, Tamar Rudnick, and Sheena S. Iyengar. (2008) The Mere Categorization Effect: How the Presence of Categories Increases Choosers’ Perceptions of Assortment Variety and Outcome Satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research 35:2, 202-215 Andrea Maier, Zata Vickers, and J. Jeffrey Inman (2007), “Sensory-Specific Satiety. Its Crossovers, and Subsequent Choice of Potato Chip Flavors,” Appetite, 49 (2), 419-428. Roehm Jr., H. A., & Roehm, M. L. (2004). Variety-Seeking and Time of Day: Why Leader Brands Hope Young Adults Shop in the Afternoon, but Follower Brands Hope for Morning. Marketing Letters, 15 (4), 213-221. Ratner, R.K., & Kahn, B.K. (2002). “The Impact of Private versus Public consumption on Variety-Seeking Behavior.” Journal of Consumer Research, 29, pp. 246-257. J. Jeffrey Inman (2001), “The Role of Sensory-Specific Satiety in Attribute-Level Variety-seeking,” Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (June), 105-120. Hans C. M. Van Trijp, Wayne D. Hoyer and J. Jeffrey Inman (1996). “Why Switch? Product Category: Level Explanations for True Variety-Seeking Behavior .“ Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Aug., 1996), pp. 281-292 Minakshi Trivedi, Frank M. Bass and Ram C. Rao (1994). “A Model of Stochastic Variety-Seeking.” Marketing Science, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Summer, 1994), pp. 274-297 Barbara E. Kahn (1995). “Consumer variety-seeking among goods and services : An integrative review.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Volume 2, Issue 3, pp. 139-148 McAlister and Pessemier (1982). “Variety-seeking behavior: an interdisciplinary review.” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (1982), pp. 311–322 (December)

Leaky Preferences: Fluency Effects in Perception and Choice Mark Schneider, University of Connecticut, USA

Keys and Schwartz (2007) have argued that “psychological processes that affect decisions may be said also to “leak” into one’s experience.” Perhaps analogously, the ease of certain computational tasks may leak into one’s perception of the content that is being processed. That is, certain stimuli or environmental features may be preferred because they are easier to process. We will refer to this hypothesis as the “leaky preferences” assumption. The leaky preferences assumption can be applied to both abstract and concrete stimuli, with different implications. When applied to abstract stimuli, the assumption predicts consumers to systematically share a set of aesthetic preferences for features such as symmetry, consistency, straightness, similarity, simplicity, familiarity, and certainty. Each of these environmental features serves to reduce the processing load and aids in the efficient compression of information. It should be noted that the “leaky preferences” assumption is an instance of a more general fluency effect. Research which varies the ease or difficulty of reading certain fonts, or of searching for information from memory, for instance, can lead people to make attribution errors, generally favoring stimuli which can be processed with a greater degree of fluency. Oppenheimer (2008) notes, that “Fluency–the subjective experience of ease or difficulty associated with completing a mental task- has been shown to be an influential cue in a wide array of judgments…. Fluency impacts whether information is represented in working memory and what aspects of that information are attended to.” In applying the “leaky preferences” assumption we are proposing that certain environmental features are routinely processed with high degrees of fluency, and thus these stimuli are generally preferred. The leaky preferences assumption may also operate on a more concrete level. Specifically, we propose that when no available option in a choice assortment is clearly superior to the others (and hence, preference uncertainty is high) people will base their decision on effort-reduction factors rather than on the content of the choice. That is, when appeal to preference is uninformative, people choose the option which simplifies the decision process. We will call this tendency, the choice-simplicity heuristic. In the standard dual-process framework (e.g. Kahneman and Frederick, 2002), consumers are postulated to have two families of cognitive processes- one that is relatively automatic, affective, and intuitive (System 1) and the other that is more effortful, deliberative, and logical (System 2). In our view, the choice-simplicity heuristic applies to both cognitive systems. When System 2 is dominant (and preference uncertainty is high), the choice simplicity heuristic selects the option which simplifies the decision process by calculation. Likewise, when System 1 is dominant, the choice simplicity heuristic selects the option which simplifies the decision process by affect. In both cases, the decision process can be simplified by attending to certain cues in the choice environment. Seemingly irrelevant contextual cues (i.e. features of the choice environment which do not relate to the content of the choices being considered), can nevertheless simplify the decision process. For instance, we can simplify the decision process for System 2 by selecting the option which involves the least tradeoffs. Selecting the option which minimizes tradeoffs between products leads to variety seeking behavior (Simonson, 1990). Similarly, selecting the option which minimizes tradeoffs between attributes leads to the compromise effect (Simonson, 1989; Simonson and Tversky, 1992). This approach significantly simplifies the calculations and deliberations in the choice process. The choice-simplicity heuristic suggests that people often look for simplifying cues in the choice environment to aid them in the decision process. In particular, consumers may consider objective cues (such as the presence of a default option), perceptual cues (such as the recognition that one option dominates another), affective cues (such as a positive affective response toward a stimulus) or cognitive cues (such as minimizing the need to make tradeoffs). This perspective suggests that extremeness seeking, endowment effects, and asymmetric dominance effects are under the purview of system 1 since the (objective, perceptual, and affective) cues which generate Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 765 these effects are relatively automatic. Similarly, we would suspect that variety seeking and compromise effects result from System 2 processing since making tradeoffs is a more deliberative activity. This hypothesis gains some support in recent work (e.g. Bettman et al. (2008), Pocheptsova et al. (2009)). Overall, the leaky preferences assumption may serve to integrate aspects of computational efficiency (ease of processing), aesthetic preferences (easily processed abstract stimuli), and difficult choices (easily processed concrete stimuli), into a basic model of perception, preference, and choice. At the abstract level, this assumption provides a simple framework for identifying potentially universal aesthetic preferences, and determining how these preferences are related. At a more concrete level, the leaky preferences assumption suggests that in the face of preference uncertainty, consumers may select an option simply because the structure of the choice environment makes that option easier to process. This leads to the choice simplicity heuristic which, in turn, can account for some notable behavioral anomalies.

Selected References Bettman, J.R., Luce, M. F. and J.W. Payne. (2008). Consumer Decision Making: A Choice Goals Approach. Pp. 589-610 in Handbook of Consumer Psychology. Haugtvedt, C.P., Herr, P., and Frank R. Kardes [eds]. Kahneman, D, and Frederick, S. (2002). Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive Judgment. Pp. 49-81 in T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, and D. Kahneman [eds]. Heuristics & Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. New York. Cambridge University Press. Keys, D., and B. Schwartz (2007): “Leaky” Rationality: How Research on Behavioral Decision Making Challenges Normative Standards of Rationality,” Perspectives on Psychological Science. Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 162-180. Oppenheimer, D. (2008): “The Secret Life of Fluency”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Vol. 12, No. 6. pp. 237-241. Pocheptsova, A., Amir, O., Dhar, R., and R.F. Baumeister. (2009). Deciding Without Resources:Psychological Depletion and Choice in Context. Unpublished working paper. Simonson, I. (1989). Choice Based on Reasons: The Case of Attraction and Compromise Effects. The Journal of Consumer Research. 16(2): 158-174. Simonson, I. (1990). The Effect of Purchase Quantity and Timing on Variety-Seeking Behavior. Journal of Marketing Research. 27(2): 150-162. Simonson, I, and A. Tversky (1992). Choice in Context: Tradeoff Contrast and Extremeness Aversion. Journal of Marketing Research. 29(3): 281-295.

Choice Under Pressure: Perverse Outcomes of Enhanced Familiarity Preference Ab Litt, Stanford University, USA Taly Reich, Stanford University, USA Senia Maymin, Stanford University, USA Baba Shiv, Stanford University, USA

Extended Abstract Consumers often have to evaluate options and make decisions under time pressure, which can affect these behaviors in diverse and important ways (Chowdhury et al., 2009; Nowlis, 1995). Extensively documented in both animal research (Griebel et al. 1993; Heinrichs & Koob, 1992; Shephard & Estall, 1984) and cases such as preferences for “comfort foods” (Kandiah et al., 2006) is that pressure of various forms increases preferences for familiar stimuli and options. Familiarity signals safety, which gains heightened importance and appeal under stress. Similarly, in a converse case, happy moods can eliminate preferences for familiar stimuli by independently signaling safety (de Vries et al., 2010). Sometimes, however, a familiar option is also the most disaligned with the very source of one’s felt pressure. Imagine that you drive the same route to work every day, along a frequently congested highway. You know of a likely quicker route involving various side-streets, but have only taken it a few times. When you’re running late and have a big meeting to make, the pressure to arrive on- time, by magnifying the attractiveness of taking the familiar but longer route, may make it more likely that you’ll be late. Similarly, time pressure may increase a consumer’s willingness to wait for their “usual” option (such as a regularly called cab driver, but who is ten minutes away) and foregoing other, more immediately available alternatives. Of course, it is not that these familiar options are guaranteed to have worse outcomes: an unfamiliar driving-route might take longer if you get lost; an unfamiliar cab driver may drive slowly, get lost, or choose a bad route. But even with no objective evidence for these possibilities, pressure may increase worry over their prospect and conversely enhance the “warm glow” of safety associated with a familiar option, even if evidence suggests it is a worse choice. Study Method. We tested such counterposing of familiarity and communicated option-characteristics in the case of selection between task options for completion under time pressure. In part 1 of the experiment, participants (n=145, from a national pool) encountered ancillary biographical information about a pictured person (name, birthday, number of siblings, hometown, etc.). In the second part, they were told that, if they solved a word-puzzle task correctly, they would be entered into a prize-drawing. In the No-Pressure condition, participants were told they could take as long as they wished to complete the task. In the Time-Pressure condition, they were told they would have at most four minutes to complete the task. Participants were offered a choice between two puzzle-task options: one listed as having two passages of text to work through, and the other listed as having three. The only other information provided about these options was the name of the person who created each of them. In the Both-Unfamiliar condition, neither of these individuals had been encountered in the experiment. In the Longer-Familiar 766 / Working Papers condition, the person associated with the three-passage option was the same one for whom participants encountered irrelevant biographical information in part 1 of the experiment. Crossing the pressure and familiarity manipulations, we explored how time pressure affected preferences for seemingly longer but incidentally familiar options. Results. Cross-tabulations yielded significant differences in task-choice between the four cells (Chi-sq(3)=12.25, p<.01). As hypothesized, time pressure increased choice of the three-passage (i.e., objectively longer-seeming) option when it was associated with a familiar person, in comparison to when both options were associated with unfamiliar people (p<.01), and also compared to both No- Pressure cases, regardless of whether a familiar option was given (p<.05). Thus, time pressure enhanced familiarity bias, even when objective information indicated the familiar choice would actually take longer, and when the shorter option was preferred in the absence of any familiarity difference between options. We also queried several process measures after the primary experimental sections that support our results. In both No-Pressure conditions and the Time-Pressure/Both-Unfamiliar condition, concern prior to the puzzle task about finishing in time was significantly correlated with choosing the two-passage task (r’s>.43), whereas in the Time-Pressure/Longer-Familiar case, this concern significantly correlated with choice of the three-passage task (r=.34). In contrast, perceived stress and pressure during the task was greater amongst those who chose the three-passage task, regardless of associated familiarity. Thus, despite their preference for the familiar option, individuals under time pressure choosing the longer task did not experience less stress or find the task less difficult. As evidence for the bases of familiar-option preferences, under time pressure, choosing the longer task was correlated with higher risk aversion, as measured by lower minimum sure-gains preferred to a 95% chance to win $100 (r=-.29). In both Longer-Familiar conditions, choice of this longer option correlated with beliefs (for which no objective evidence existed) that this task would be easier (r’s>.35) and give a greater chance of success (r’s>.30), and also with beliefs that this choice was less risky (r’s>.34) and fit better with one’s “gut feeling” about the best choice to make (r’s>.50). Ongoing Work and Extensions. In follow-up investigations we are exploring familiarity established through negative experiences, such as unpleasant interpersonal encounters. Whereas such familiarity commonly leads to biases against associated stimuli (Lewicki, 1986), our results suggest perceived pressure may reverse this preference. As well, we are exploring non-time forms of stress, such as performance pressure, and cases where objective evidence indicates familiar options are again more likely to aggravate such pressure. Conclusions. Results indicate that not only does pressure magnify the attractiveness of familiar choice options, it can do so even when such options are contrary to the very source of the pressure one feels. These results are driven by heightened perceptions of safety and comfort with familiar options, even when objective evidence disfavors them. Consumers may thus make perversely distorted choices when available alternatives differ in their perceived familiarity, and objectively superior choices when choice-sets are limited to unfamiliar options.

References Chowdhury, T. G., Ratneshwar, S., & Mohanty, P. (2009). The time-harried shopper: Exploring the differences between maximizers and satisficers. Marketing Letters, 20(2), 155-167. de Vries, M., Holland, R. W., Chenier, T., Starr, M. J., & Winkielman, P. (2010). Happiness cools the warm glow of familiarity: Psychophysiological evidence that mood modulates the familiarity-affect link. Forthcoming, Psychological Science. Griebel, G., Belzung, C., Misslin, R., & Vogel, E. (1993). The free-exploratory paradigm: An effective method for measuring neophobic behaviour in mice and testing potential neophobia-reducing drugs. Behavioural Pharmacology, 4, 637-644. Heinrichs, S. C., & Koob, G. F. (1992). Corticotropin-releasing factor modulates dietary preference in nutritionally and physically stressed rats. Psychopharmacology, 109(1), 177-184. Kandiah, J., Yake, M., Jones, J., & Meyer, M. (2006). Stress influences appetite and comfort food preferences in college women. Nutrition Research, 26(3), 118-123. Lewicki, P. (1986). Nonconscious social information processing. New York: Academic Press. Nowlis, S. M. (1995). The effect of time pressure on the choice between brands that differ in quality, price, and product features. Marketing Letters, 6(4), 287-295. Shephard, R. A., & Estall, L. B. (1984). Anxiolytic actions of chlordiazepoxide determine its effects on hyponeophagia in rats. Psychopharmacology, 82(4), 343-347.

When Ambivalence Increases Attitude-Behavior Correspondence Lifeng Yang, Ohio State University, USA H. Rao Unnava, Ohio State University, USA

Much of the past research has focused on the consequences of attitudinal ambivalence in terms of reduced attitude-behavior consistency, and the antecedents of ambivalence (Priester et al, 1996; Conner et al, 2002; Cavazza et al, 2008). There has not been much attention devoted to studying conditions under which attitudes may be predictive of behavior even when they are held with high ambivalence. The objective of this research therefore is to study ambivalent individuals’ attitude-behavior correspondence under conditions where one’s positive (negative) reactions are made more (less) diagnostic at the time of choice. We use different levels of mood to manipulate individual’s perceived diagnoticity of their initial reactions toward the attitudinal object. We argue that when individuals are put in a happy mood, they would perceive mood congruent (thus positive) aspects the product as of being more diagnostic; however when individuals are put in a sad mood, they would perceive mood congruent (thus negative) aspects of the product to be more diagnostic. The perception of reaction diagnosticity is believed to act as the key role determining whether an individual is more or less likely to behavior according to their attitude. Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 767 Theoretical Conceptualization Attitudinal ambivalence is characterized by a person experiencing both positive and negative reactions to an object. Dominant reactions are those that are greater in number, whether positive or negative; Conflicting reactions, on the other hand, are those that are fewer in number, and are opposite in valence with the dominant reactions (Priester et al., 1996; Priester & Petty, 2001; Priester, Petty & Park, 2007). The idea that ambivalence is linked separately in memory to positive and negative components is important because it suggests that a different attitudinal reaction emerges depending on which of the components is activated in memory (e.g., Petty & Briñol, 2009). In normal conditions, if people hold a positive attitude without ambivalence, it is expected that primarily the positive reactions would come to their mind whenever they think about the attitudinal object. However, if individuals have ambivalence in their attitude, even though their overall evaluation of the attitudinal object is one-directional, the encountering of the object may invoke both positive and negative reactions within these individuals. Whether ambivalent individuals’ choice consistent with their overall attitude would depend on which reactions are perceived to be more diagnostic at the moment. Thus, while ambivalent attitudes are characterized by positive and negative components of the attitude being retrieved simultaneously, they may experience a hard time making up their mind for decisions. At this time, the mood one is in may serve as the trigger for spreading activations of the positive aspects of the attitudinal object. Ambivalent individuals may have an easier time retrieving the positive (negative) associations about the attitudinal object when they are in a happy (sad) mood. The easier retrieval of the positive (negative) associations may increase the perceived diagnosticity of the retrieved associations thus affects the later behavior. Explicitly, we predict that:

H1: For highly ambivalent attitudes, being in a happy (sad) mood will affect choice to be more (less) consistent with the positive component of the attitude while being in a neutral mood will make the choice to be less consistent with the positive component of the attitude.

H2: For attitudes held with low ambivalence, being in a happy (sad) mood will affect choice no differently from being in a neutral mood, in terms of consistency between the positive (negative) component of an attitude and choice.

Methods & Results We conducted a 2 (low vs. high ambivalence) X 3 (happy vs. neutral vs. sad mood) study to test our hypotheses above. We randomly assigned subjects to different mood induction conditions then had them responded to a choice question of either a free order of French fries or a free order of parfait as reward for the participation of the study.The attitudinal object of the study was Wendy’s French fries. Subjects for the study all hold an overall positive attitude toward French fries (attitude scores >6 in a 9-point scale where 1=extremely negative and 9=extremely positive). Among all, sixty of these individuals hold a positive but low ambivalent attitude toward French fries (M attitude= 6.85, SD=1.04; M ambivalence=3.73, SD=.69); and the other seventy four participants hold a positive but high ambivalent attitude toward French fries (M attitude=6.63, SD= .88; M ambivalence=6.81, SD=.99). Subjects from the low vs. high ambivalent groups were significantly different in ambivalence (F (1, 132) =418.057, p<.000) but they did not differ much in their attitude or attitude extremity toward French fries (F (1, 132) =1.723, p>.192 NS). Our hypotheses call for an interaction between mood and ambivalence such that choice probabilities of French fries are unaffected by mood in the low ambivalence conditions, but affected positively in the happy mood condition and negatively in the sad mood condition. In other words, while choice probabilities are about equal in four experimental conditions (low ambivalence neutral, happy and sad mood conditions; and high ambivalence neutral mood condition), there would be an increase (decrease) in the choice probability of French fries in the happy (sad) mood, high ambivalence condition(s). For the whole sample, 66.4 % of the participants (89 out of 134) chose French fries with the rest of the sample choosing Parfait. Overall, individuals’ attitude toward French fries was positively correlated with their choice (r=.22, p<.01). The fact that more than 50% of the participants choosing French fries was not surprising but was predicted because all participants chosen for this study had indicated that they had an overall positive attitude toward French fries (M=6.73 in a 9-point scale where “1”= very negative “9”=very positive). Choice probabilities for French fries do not vary much for the low ambivalent groups (β=-.158, p>.68) (

FF Pr obability Low+neutral = 68 .6%, FF Pr obability Low+sad = 71 .9%, FF Pr obability Low+happy = 65 .1%, p for each pair-comparison all >.60). However, attitude consists with behavior the most likely for those the high ambivalent individuals in happy mood condition ( FF Pr obability High+happy = 91 .7% , FF Pr obability High+neutral = 67 .8% ,

FF Pr obability High+sad = 28 .7% ). Consistent with past literature pertaining that ambivalent attitudes are less predictive of behavior than less ambivalent attitudes, we find in this research that individuals who hold a positive but less ambivalent attitude toward French fries to show a more stable attitude-behavior correspondence than those who hold a positive but high ambivalent attitude. Further, individuals with less ambivalent attitude should tend to choose toward French fries regardless of what mood condition they are in. In contrast, high ambivalent individuals would have a more fluctuated behavior pattern in choosing for French fries because of the existence of conflicting reactions, and that the conflicting reactions can be perceived as deterministically diagnostic if they are made salient to them.

Selective References Adaval, R. (2001). Sometimes It Just Feels Right: The Differential Weighting of Affect-Consistent And Affect Inconsistent Product Information. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 1-17. 768 / Working Papers Bell, David W., & Esses, V. M. (2002). Ambivalence and Response Amplification: A Motivational Perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(8), 1143-1152. Cavazza, N., & Butera, F. (2008). Bending without Breaking: Examining the Role of Attitudinal Ambivalence in Resisting Persuasive Communication. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(1), 1-15. Conner, M., Sparks, P., Povey, R., James, R., Shepherd, R., & Armitage, C. J. (2002). Moderator Effects of Attitudinal Ambivalence on Attitude-behaviour Relationships. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32(5), 705-718. Kaplan, K. J. (1972). On the Ambivalence-difference Problem in Attitude Theory and Measurement: A Suggested Modification of the Semantic Differential Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 77(5), 361-372. Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2009). Implicit Ambivalence: A Meta-cognitive Approach. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, and P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the New Implicit Measure, (pp.119-161), New York, NY: Psychology Press. Petty, R. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (1995). Attitude Strength: An Overview. In R. E. Petty, and J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, (pp. 1-24), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (1996). The Gradual Threshold Model of Ambivalence: Relating the Positive and Negative Bases of Attitudes to Subjective Ambivalence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 431-449.

It’s More Likely…But Can It Be Worth It? Perceived Similarity, Probability and Outcome Value Hui-Yun Chen, Virginia Tech, USA Elise Chandon Ince, Virginia Tech, USA

Extended Abstract Individuals are prone to developing naïve theories about the likelihood of event occurrences because what is reckoned to happen determines their subsequent judgments and actions. Prior research suggests that intuitive probability judgments are susceptible to extraneous cues such as descriptions of the event (Tversky and Koehler 1994), the representativeness or availability of exemplars (Kahneman, Slovic, and Tversky 1982), moods (Wright and Bower 1992), and cognitive orientation (Wakslak and Trope 2009). In this research, we propose that individuals employ an extraneous cue, perceived similarity, to infer the probability of an event, and in turn, use the probability judgment to evaluate the impact level of the event. In order to understand, evaluate, and predict the outside world, individuals are motivated to develop naïve theories from cumulated life experiences (Strevens 2000) or knowledge (Springer 1995). For most daily life cases, the proximity to the target person and the likelihood of event occurrence are highly correlated. For example, sharing a living space with someone with a cold makes us more likely to get sick. Another common example is that individuals who have a family history of heart disease are high in risk as well because of genetic factors. Recently, research on probability judgment has also shown that lottery participants estimate their chance of winning as higher when the winner of previous round is similar to them than when the former winner is dissimilar (Laporte and Laurent 2009). Thus we posit that individuals build from the observations and experiences of such events the naïve theory that they are more prone to experience events that strike their close others than events that strike unknown individuals. Moreover, even though this naïve theory facilitates and leads to correct judgments in general, it does lead to inflated likelihood when people infer higher probabilities from proximities that are irrelevant. Intuitive probability judgments in turn affect individuals’ judgments of the target event. For example, increasing individuals’ perceptions of their own risk leads to more favorable attitudes and intentions toward practicing HIV precautionary behaviors (Raghubir 1998). However, we argue that probability judgments would undercut the perceived impact level of events in situations where the outcome of an event is ambiguous or unknown. That is, when the information about event outcome is absent, event probability serves as indirect information and signals the impact level of events. Previous research has shown that limited, scarce resources are deemed more desirable (Inman, Peter, and Raghubir 1997; Lynn 1992). Drawing on this logic, we further hypothesize that the inflated probability judgment based on perceived proximity would downplay perceived impact level of the event. In other words, an event that is related to a similar individual will appear more likely to occur, which in turn, will render the event less impactful. Two studies tested the present predictions. Study 1 investigated the influence of probability information on perceived impact level. Participants read scenarios about winning a store gift card in a store lottery and getting a flight upgrade on a trip and then judged the outcome values. We manipulated the probability of each event (70%, 30%, and 5%). The dependent variable was the outcome value (i.e., value of the store gift card and value of the flight upgrade). The results confirmed our hypothesis. When the event is of lowest likelihood (5%), the highest outcome value estimation was achieved. Furthermore, the estimated outcome value decreased as the event probability increased. Study 2 directly tested whether embedding a similar social cue (vs. dissimilar) in the description of events (winning a store gift card in a lottery and getting a flight upgrade on a trip) would construe the events to be more likely to occur, and the inflated probability would subsequently decrease the perceived impact level of the events. Participants were asked to read scenarios that contained different social cues (e.g., a friend or a stranger) and then rated the likelihood that the events would occur to them and how long the effect of events would last. As expected, we found that the presence of a similar social cue leads to a higher probability judgment. Furthermore, probability judgments negatively predicted the number of days participants believed the positive effect would last. Probabilities are often difficult to assess objectively, and research has indicated various cues employed to infer probabilities. The present studies suggest that perceived proximity acts as such a cue. Specifically, our initial findings demonstrate that probability judgments may be biased by the presence of social cues because individuals make probability inferences from perceived proximity to the Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 769 target person. In addition, the probability judgment itself serves as a cue when the information about the event outcome is ambiguous, and thus affects the perceived impact level of an event. When an event is judged as more likely to occur due to perceived proximity, it is also judged as less impactful.

References Inman, J. Jeffrey, Anil C. Peter, and Priya Raghubir (1997), “Framing the Deal: The Role of Restrictions in Accentuating Deal Value,” The Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (1), 68-79. Kahneman, D, P Slovic, and A Tversky (1982), Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases: Cambridge Univ Pr. Laporte, Sandra and Gilles Laurent (2009), “The Interpersonal Hot Hand Fallacy: How Similarity with Previous Winners Increases Subjective Probability of Winning,” in 2009 ACR North American Conference, Pittsburgh. Lynn, Michael (1992), “Scarcity’s Enhancement of Desirability: The Role of Naive Economic Theories,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13 (1), 67-78. Raghubir, Priya (1998), “Coupon Value: A Signal for Price?,” Journal of Marketing Research, 35 (3), 316-24. Springer, Ken (1995), “Acquiring a Naive Theory of Kinship through Inference,” Child Development, 66 (2), 547-58. Strevens, Michael (2000), “The Essentialist Aspect of Naive Theories,” Cognition, 74 (2), 149-75. Tversky, Amos and Derek J. Koehler (1994), “Support Theory: A Nonextensional Representation of Subjective Probability,” Psychological Review, 101 (4), 547-67. Wakslak, Cheryl and Yaacov Trope (2009), “The Effect of Construal Level on Subjective Probability Estimates,” Psychological Science, 20 (1), 52-58. Wright, William F. and Gordon H. Bower (1992), “Mood Effects on Subjective Probability Assessment,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 52 (2), 276-91.

Consumers Do Compare Apples with Oranges: Investigating Cross Category Referencing in Consumer Decision-making Vanessa Patrick, University of Houston, USA Weixing Ma, University of Houston, USA

Apples have a golden skinor red without and white within. An orange has a tangy rind and a color that is distinct. Unless you have an axe to grindor some other devious design then I would say that the differences are like night and day. - Anonymous

Prior research has demonstrated that consumers use references to facilitate decision-making. The literature examined consumer’s reliance on reference points with comparable attributes within a product category (Rajendran and Tellis 1994; Rosch 1975). The current research aims to reveal that consumers often rely on a previous purchase from a different, often unrelated product category in order to justify a current purchase decision.

Literature Consumers usually need various strategies to make/justify a purchase decision. In classical economics, a consumer’s decision is derived from her preferences for competing alternatives, as revealed by the indifference curve given a budget constraint. Little attention has been devoted to the formation of such indifference curve due to the subjective nature of preferences (Georgescu-Roegen 1936; Hauer and Urban 1986). Marketing scholars, especially consumer behavior researchers, have been dedicated to explore such subjectivity of consumers’ preferences. Prior research focused on how consumers discover their own preferences through various decision-making strategies or tactics, for instance, framing (Kahneman and Tversky 1984), anchoring (Strack and Mussweiler 1997; Tversky and Kahneman 1974), and relying on a reference (Rosch 1975; Rajendran and Tellis 1994; Huber et al. 2008). Notably this research stream focuses on the comparison between products or attributes that are closely related or comparable, for example, different brands or different prices, respectively, within a given product category. Recent research also acknowledged the possible influence of unrelated or cross-category products on consumer decision-making: for instance, the shopping momentum phenomenon (Dhar et al. 2007), the devaluation effect (Brendl et al. 2003), and the role of incidentally activated shopping goals (Chartrand et al. 2008). In these studies, unrelated or cross category purchases or products emerge as situational/ environmental influences or consumer mindsets, rather than as references consumers actively use to evaluate a focal purchase decision. The current research aims to broaden the view of reference by investigating situations in which consumers refer to an unrelated (cross-category) product as a reference to make a current purchase decision. We present a theory of “motivated anchoring” to understand (1) when consumers rely on cross-category referencing, (2) its impact on consumer decision-making, and 3) its underlying mechanism.

Cross Category Reference in Consumer Decision-making The literature on motivated reasoning has studied how people’s motivational states can influence their perceptions and judgments (Kunda 1990). We present a theory of “motivated anchoring” to understand how a consumer may use seemingly incomparable references to help her justify a highly (less) desired target product as being more (less) worthy of purchase. We argue that when a consumer desires to own a product, this form of biased evaluation will justify the purchase. In other words, a consumer driven by her desire for the target product is motivated to retrieve a cross category reference that helps justify her purchase