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Perspectives on the Political Situation in the Subcontinent Roedad Khan. The American Papers: Secret and Confidential India-Pakistan- Bangladesh Documents 1965-1973. Oxford, New York, and Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1999. Index $65.00, cloth, ISBN 978-0-19-579190-7. Reviewed by Charles C. Kolb Published on H-Diplo (November, 2000) Perspectives on the Political Situation in the other senior American diplomats located in Islam‐ Subcontinent, 1965-1973: A Pakistani View from abad, Karachi, Dhaka, and Delhi. Also incorporat‐ American Archives ed are the minutes of some meetings held at the [Disclaimer: The opinions expressed herein State Department in Washington, DC. are those of the reviewer and not of his employer Roedad Khan provides brief "Preface," and or any other federal agency.] "Acknowledgements," while a scholarly 23-page This massive compendium, published in "Introduction" written by Ambassador Jamsheed Karachi by Oxford University Press (Pakistan), Marker and dated March 1999, incorporates es‐ contains a rich set of nearly three hundred prima‐ sential background and a content analysis. ry documents selected from recently declassified The papers selected for inclusion in this vol‐ papers dating from 1965 to 1973 that are present‐ ume focus on the 1965 war, the East Pakistan cri‐ ly housed in the National Archives and Records sis of 1971, the breakup of Pakistan, and the ini‐ Administration (NARA) in the Archives II facility tial two years of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's rule. These in College Park, Maryland. The materials in The documents concern the policies and perceptions American Papers were selected and compiled by of the United States government on political and Roedad Khan, a former senior Pakistani civil ser‐ social activities in the Indian Subcontinent from vant. The volume contains secret and confidential 1965 to 1973, a period of monumental historical documents obtained from the fles of the Ameri‐ importance. The reports also document or sum‐ can State and Defense departments and include marize the positions held by Presidents, Prime dispatches (telegrams, memoranda of conversa‐ Ministers, Foreign Ministers, and senior diplomats tions, and confidential letters) sent to the State De‐ in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India as seen partment of the United States, in the main, by the through American eyes. The events during this United States Embassy in Pakistan. These dis‐ era continue to have repercussions even today in patches were prepared by U.S. Ambassadors and terms of national and international significance, H-Net Reviews and will assist Westerners in understanding the tion these issues because neither the compiler nor regional sociopolitical, religious, economic, and the author of the "Introduction" state any criteria military implications of American policy. In addi‐ for the selection of these documents and, hence, tion, the documents are of great importance to the exclusion of others. I shall consider subse‐ scholars, historians, political scientists, and spe‐ quently the possible of a pro-Pakistani biased se‐ cialists in international relations, as well as to the lection of documents versus a Bangladeshi per‐ general public, primarily in Pakistan, Bangladesh, spective. and India, but also to individuals now residing in Marker's "Introduction" contains three Western Europe and North America whose fami‐ caveats. The initial caveat is that these documents lies trace their ancestries to the Indian Subconti‐ relate, in the main, to the bilateral context of Pak‐ nent. It is important to note that papers dating to istani-United States relations and do not provide this era on the topics cited above are held by the depth of coverage in multilateral (United Nations) governments of Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India activities or issues concerning Pakistan and third have not yet been made available to the public, so countries, notably India. A second caveat is that that there is a dependency on Western sources for the most sensitive of the documents retain their information. Therefore, The American Papers illu‐ classified status and are likely to remain so for minates a vital historical era for citizens of the some time. Therefore, the entire corpus of diplo‐ Subcontinent. matic documents would not have been available Roedad Khan writes that the documents in for Mr. Khan's review. The third caveat is that the The American Papers were selected and compiled vast majority of the documents selected emanated "in 1998 in the course of several visits, spread from "the feld" and was transmitted to the State over the period of one year, although the vol‐ Department via American embassies and con‐ ume's "Introduction" by Ambassador Jamsheed sulates, so that the traffic was largely unidirec‐ Marker states that they were obtained "during the tional. As a result there are few documents that fall of 1998" by Roedad Khan during a period of reflect the instructions sent from the State Depart‐ "enforced medical confinement." Nowhere is it ment in Washington to the Ambassadors, nor are stated if Roedad Khan had fnancial assistance there many documents on the decision-making from the publisher or any other source. The read‐ process in Washington that produced the instruc‐ er is left to assume that while Roedad Khan had tions that are transmitted to the diplomats in the the time to locate, select, and arrange these mate‐ embassies. rials because of his surgical convalescence, he ap‐ In 1965, the major issues considered are polit‐ parently also had the fnancial resources avail‐ ical and military actions related to the Rann of able personally or provided to him to copy the Kutch and to Kashmir. Notably, the American documents -- not an unsubstantial task if one arms embargo on the Subcontinent was hurting knows NARA's Archives II and the regulations in‐ Pakistan more than India. Ayub Khan's desperate volving document reproduction (photocopying, attempts to retain Pakistan's alliance with the scanning, and microfilming). Your reviewer won‐ United States are documented, and Bhutto fgures ders what role(s) the publisher played in the prominently in the dispatches, prefiguring the preparation of the documents for publishing. emerging Ayub and Bhutto rift. Marker comments Were these materials scanned electronically from on Bhutto's erratic behavior, histrionics, and photocopies, re-keyed from copies by a word pro‐ Machiavellian streaks (p. xxx). The United States cessing staff at Oxford University Press (Pakistan), views the Indo-Pakistani conflict as damaging to or re-keyed with funds provided by the press or the American policy of containing communism. In the printer, New Sketch Graphics, Karachi. I men‐ 2 H-Net Reviews sum, the selected dispatches document a tense po‐ tion of East Pakistan. Ambassador Marker re‐ litical atmosphere and growing militarism, marks on Mujib's "garrulous ego" (xxxv) and com‐ Mr. Khan's selections for 1966 include numer‐ ments in detail on Secretary of State Rogers's ous papers related to the Tashkent Declaration, Memorandum for the President (February) in the roles of the Soviet Union and the United which the greater importance of India, Pakistan's States, and American concerns. Both Indian and unhappiness, and the foreign policy non-align‐ Pakistani delegates faced problems of "selling" the ment of Pakistan and India are discussed. Other Tashkent Declaration to their governments, pri‐ papers relate the Nixon-Yahya Khan discussions marily because of a lack of resolution of the Kash‐ about limited arms supplies, free and fair elec‐ mir question. Military plots to assassinate Ayub tions in Yahya Khan's Pakistan, the domestic Pak‐ are detailed, as is Ayub's visit to Washington. In istani political picture, the Awami League in East the interim, East Pakistan maintained an indiffer‐ Pakistan, Bhutto's PPP (Pakistan People's Party) ence to the Declaration. Several American docu‐ and his anti-American rhetoric, Mujibir Rehman's ments (short-, medium- and long-term plans) pro‐ "Six Points" demands, character profiles and as‐ vide insights into alternative U.S. strategies, and sessments of Mujib and Bhutto, and Yahya Khan's Pakistan expressed initial concerns about India's visit to the People's Republic of China and the in‐ growing nuclear programs. terest that China expressed in securing United Na‐ tions membership. For 1967, Mr. Khan selected ten documents. Alleged Ayub assassination plots, plans for an East The crucial year of 1971 includes materials on Pakistan coup d'etat, Memoranda of Conversa‐ political dissatisfaction, external political provo‐ tions with Bhutto and other politicians, and a let‐ cation, fervent political activities, evolving so‐ ter from Ambassador Locke addresses the prob‐ ciopolitical patterns, and the military crackdown lem of maintaining a balance between India and in East Pakistan in March. A May Memorandum to Pakistan, and preventing Pakistan's "drift" to‐ the President warns of a "possible Indo-Pakistan wards China. In 1968, there are reports of the ar‐ War." Notably, there are no records for the period rest of Mujibir Rehman and Bhutto, the American that covers the actual military operations in East concern about the Government of Pakistan creat‐ Pakistan, including Indian military intervention, ing a martyr in imprisoning Mujib, and the deteri‐ and the subsequent Indo-Pakistan war. Special Ac‐ orating political situation in East Pakistan. Mr. tion Group memoranda, numerous conversations Khan's 1969 selections contain few accounts of with political and military leaders, speculations events in Pakistan, but there are sets of telegrams about a United Nations role
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