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Alternative Designs for Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells Atul Madhavan Iowa State University

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Alternative Designs for Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells Atul Madhavan Iowa State University Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2009 Alternative designs for nanocrystalline silicon solar cells Atul Madhavan Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Commons Recommended Citation Madhavan, Atul, "Alternative designs for nanocrystalline silicon solar cells" (2009). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 10487. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/10487 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Alternative designs for nanocrystalline silicon solar cells by Atul Madhavan A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major: Electrical Engineering Program of Study Committee: Vikram Dalal, Major Professor Rana Biswas Kristen Constant Joseph Shinar Arun Somani Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2009 Copyright c Atul Madhavan, 2009. All rights reserved. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES . vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . xvi ABSTRACT . xviii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1 Motivation . 1 1.2 Fundamentals of Solar cells . 2 1.3 Solar cell technologies . 3 1.3.0.1 Crystalline Silicon solar cells . 3 1.3.1 Thin film technologies . 4 1.3.1.1 Amorphous silicon alloys . 5 1.3.1.2 Micro/Nanocrystalline silicon . 5 1.3.1.3 CdTe and Cu2S....................... 6 1.3.1.4 Third and Fourth Generation Photovoltaics . 7 1.4 Objective . 8 1.4.1 Superlattices . 8 1.4.2 High temperature devices . 9 1.4.3 Fabrication of high temperature devices . 9 1.4.4 SiGe back layer - Multiphase solar cell . 10 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . 11 2.1 Nanocrystalline silicon . 11 iii 2.1.1 Morphology . 11 2.1.1.1 Transport . 15 2.1.1.2 Unintentional Oxygen doping . 16 2.1.2 Growth Kinetics . 18 2.1.2.1 Reactive species involved . 19 2.1.3 Growth Conditions . 25 2.1.3.1 Influence of input power . 25 2.1.3.2 Influence of chamber pressure . 26 2.1.3.3 Substrate temperature . 30 2.1.3.4 Dilution Ratio . 31 2.1.3.5 Plasma Conditions . 34 2.1.3.6 Substrate Dependence . 40 2.1.4 Optical Properties . 41 2.1.5 Electrical properties . 42 2.1.5.1 Current-Voltage characteristics . 42 2.2 Back Reflectors . 49 2.2.1 ZnO:Al2O3 .............................. 50 2.2.2 Textured Back reflectors . 53 2.2.2.1 Wet Etching . 54 2.2.2.2 CVD ZnO . 57 2.2.2.3 Comparing Back reflectors . 58 2.2.3 Theoretical limits to light trapping . 61 CHAPTER 3. MATERIAL GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION 63 3.1 Fabrication . 63 3.1.1 PECVD reactor . 63 3.1.2 Sample preparation . 65 iv 3.1.3 TCO . 68 3.1.4 Thin film characterization . 69 3.1.4.1 Estimation of film thickness . 69 3.1.4.2 Raman spectroscopy . 71 3.1.4.3 X-ray diffraction . 73 3.1.5 Device characterization . 75 3.1.5.1 I-V analysis . 75 3.1.5.2 Quantum Efficiency . 75 3.1.5.3 Capacitance-Voltage measurements . 79 3.1.5.4 Diffusion Length . 80 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS . 83 4.1 Superlattice structures . 83 4.1.1 Introduction . 83 4.1.2 Results on superlattice films . 85 4.1.2.1 Influence of film thickness on crystallinity . 85 4.1.2.2 Influence of amorphous layer growth times on crystallinity and grain size . 86 4.1.3 Results on Superlattice devices . 87 4.1.3.1 Influence of nanocrystalline and amorphous layer growth times on open-circuit voltage . 88 4.1.3.2 Influence of nanocrystalline and amorphous layer growth times on minority carrier lifetimes . 90 4.1.3.3 Influence of amorphous layer growth times on IV curves 91 4.1.3.4 Influence of amorphous layer growth times on long wave- length QE . 94 4.1.3.5 Influence of superlattice thickness on QE . 95 v 4.1.4 Light soaking properties . 96 4.1.4.1 Effect of light soaking on devices with different amor- phous growth times . 97 4.2 High temperature devices . 98 4.2.1 Introduction . 98 4.2.2 Results on devices . 99 4.2.2.1 Effect of growth temperature on grain size . 99 4.2.2.2 Effect of grain size on mobility . 100 4.2.2.3 Comparison of 275 and 500 C device . 101 4.2.2.4 Effect of growth temperature on QE . 102 4.2.2.5 Influence of hydrogen annealing on device properties . 104 4.2.3 Absorption co-efficient as a function of growth temperature . 106 4.3 Si-Ge back layer - Multiphase solar cell . 108 4.3.0.1 Effect of addition of germane in the back layer . 109 4.4 Back reflectors . 111 4.4.1 Silver back reflectors . 111 4.4.1.1 Effect of thickness of Silver on the QE . 111 4.4.2 Annealed silver back reflectors . 112 4.4.2.1 Influence of annealing time on surface morphology of silver112 4.4.2.2 Influence of top ZnO layer on QE . 114 4.4.2.3 Comparison of annealed and unannealed silver . 115 4.4.3 Etched ZnO:Al back reflectors . 115 4.4.3.1 Effect of silver thickness on QE . 116 4.4.3.2 Variation of growth temperature of base ZnO . 117 4.4.3.3 Comparison of open-circuit voltage on SS and back re- flecting substrates . 119 4.5 Other device optimizations . 120 vi 4.5.0.4 Comparison of series resistance using different contacts . 120 4.5.0.5 Effect of doubling the thickness of p+ cap layer on Voc . 121 4.6 Problems faced . 121 CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY . 124 5.1 Conclusions . 124 5.2 Future Research Directions . 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 130 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 A simple solar cell [1] . 2 Figure 1.2 Growth of cylindrical silicon crystal [1] . 3 Figure 1.3 Absorption coefficients for different silicon based photovoltaic materials[2] . 6 Figure 1.4 Todays solid state semiconductors materials for solar cell appli- cation, their availability and costs.[3] . 7 Figure 2.1 Nanocrystalline silicon grains passivated by amorphous tissue (in red) . 12 Figure 2.2 Distribution of H atoms as a function of distance from the center of simulation cell [4] . 12 Figure 2.3 Schematic of cone growth model used to estimate microcrystalline nucleating density and cone angle[5] . 13 Figure 2.4 Cross sectional TEM of a microcrystalline film.[5] . 13 Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of microcrystalline growth[6] . 14 Figure 2.6 XTEM image of a n-i-p solar cell showing the nuclei and het- erophase thickness[7] . 14 Figure 2.7 A lower nuclei density indicates a higher volume fraction of amor- phous phase[7] . 15 Figure 2.8 Density of states in microcrystalline silicon [8] . 16 viii Figure 2.9 Arrenhius values of dark conductivity on the left and Oxygen concentration measured by SIMS on the right [9] . 17 Figure 2.10 Comparison of Spectral response of cells made with and without oxygen purifiers [9] . 17 Figure 2.11 Plasma species involved in the growth of nanocrystalline silicon [10] . 19 Figure 2.12 Secondary reactions that take place in SiH4 and H2 plasma [11] . 20 Figure 2.13 Steady state densities of species present in the plasma [11] . 20 Figure 2.14 Steady state densities of species present in the plasma [11] . 21 Figure 2.15 Surface diffusion model for microcrystalline silicon [12] . 21 Figure 2.16 Elimination of adjacent hydrogen unlikely according to Dalal[13] 22 Figure 2.17 Etching model for growth of microcrystalline silicon [14] . 23 Figure 2.18 Deposition rate as a function of Si* [12] . 23 Figure 2.19 Observed decrease in growth with increasing Hydrogen dilution [12] . 24 Figure 2.20 Schematic representation of the chemical annealing model [12] . 24 Figure 2.21 Variation of Activation energy with input RF power[15] . 26 Figure 2.22 X-Ray diffraction data of films grown at the same dilution ratio but different VHF input power[16] . 26 Figure 2.23 Raman spectra of microcrystalline films deposited at different RF powers.[17] . 27 Figure 2.24 Influence of pressure on Ion density and plasma potential.[15] . 27 Figure 2.25 Influence of pressure on the growth rate and Raman crystallinity in a.Variation of OES intensities of Ha and Si* with deposition pressure in b[18] . 28 Figure 2.26 OES intensity ratio.
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