SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETENERS 177 drawn up at the conferences : Con- vention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone; Convention on High Seas; Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Re- sources of the High Seas; and Con- vention on the Continental Shelf. Sugar and Other The conventions require ratification by 22 nations in order to become binding in full force upon the con- tracting parties. The United States Sweeteners has ratified all four conventions. The Conventions on the Continental Shelf and Territorial Sea and Contiguous by JOHN C. SCHOLL and Zone have been ratified by 21 nations LESLIE C. HURT and require one more ratification. The Convention on High Seas entered into force in September 1962. Agreement was not reached at either conference on fishery limits and SUGAR, which we get from sugarcane the breadth of the territorial seas. and sugar beets, is a major carbohy- These questions remain controversial; drate food. various countries claim territorial seas Sugarcane is native to New Guinea and fishery limits ranging from 3 to and was found there sometime before 200 miles. The United States officially 8000 B.C. It later spread to India, recognizes a 3-mile limit for territorial China, and other areas. seas and fishery jurisdiction. Many Columbus introduced sugarcane into countries, however, have abandoned Santo Domingo (Dominican Repub- the 3-mile limit. Iceland, for example, lic) on his second voyage in 1494. It claims a 12-mile fishery limit. Norway spread from there to Cuba and to claims a 4-mile territorial sea and a other West Indian, Central American, 12-mile fishery limit. The Soviet and South American areas. The pro- Union claims 12 miles for both duction of sugar from cane became a territorial waters and fisheries. Canada major industry by 1600 in tropical in May 1964 extended its fishery America. limit from 3 to 12 miles. Chile, A German chemist, Andreas Marg- Ecuador, and Peru claim a fishery graf, proved in 1747 that the sugar in limit of 200 miles. beets and the sugar in cane are identi- cal. A half century later, eff'orts were SIDNEY SHAPIRO has had 25 years'" made to capitalize on the discovery. experience in fisheries, mainly in the The King of Prussia became interested international field. In ig^y he was in developing an industry to obtain appointed Chief, Branch of Foreign Fish- sugar from beets and financed the eries, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, first beet sugar factory in 1802. the Department of the Interior, He has A few years later Napoleon also saw served on United States delegations to possibilities in sugarbeets. Beet sugar international fishery meetings and to con- made at a small factory at Passy pro- ferences of the Food and Agriculture vided energy for his armies at a time Organization. Ht was a marine biologist when a naval blockade had cut on with the Bureau^s Hawaiian staff and French supplies of cane sugar. He the Fisheries Division of the Occupation decreed that 79 thousand acres be Forces in Japan. He is a graduate of plarited to beets and that six experi- Cornell University, Columbia University, mental stations be established to help and the University of Michigan. farmers and landowners. The beet used 712-224°—64- -13 178 THE YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1964 then was the Silesian beetroot, from total crop is planted each year. Plant- which modern strains of sugarbeets ing is usually done by setting out a have developed. section of cane stalk, from which a Many small beet sugar factories were new plant sprouts. built in France, but after Waterloo, in Sugarcane for the production of sirup 1815, prices collapsed as large vol- was first successfully grown in the umes of cane sugar came in from the United States by Jesuits about 1751. Indies. A year later only one sugar mill Some years later sugar was produced remained in operation. Laws aimed at from cane in Louisiana. The planta- equalizing competition with the Indies tion system became highly developed brought a recovery in France. around New Orleans. The Spanish- American War dealt sugar a setback in THE FIRST ATTEMPT to establish sugar- Cuba, and a few years later the mosaic beets in the United States was made by disease seriously affected the industry James Ronaldson of Philadelphia in in Louisiana. Men at experiment sta- 1830. He was instrumental in estab- tions found ways to control mosaic, lishing the Beet Sugar Society of Phila- and the industry was revived. delphia. Sugarbeets were first grown Sugarcane needs well-prepared and in the United States in 1838 at North- well-drained soils. The land should be ampton, Mass., and White Pigeon, flat, broken to a depth of 6 to 8 inches,^ Mich. Neither venture was successful, and disked into rows 4 to 5 feet apart. although the Massachusetts factory Planting usually is done in the United operated until 1841. Fifteen beet sugar States in late summer and early fall. factories built between 1838 and 1879 Fall-planted cane should be covered in Maine, Massachusetts, Delaware, with 7 to 9 inches of soil to protect it Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Utah, from cold. and California failed, mostly because In the spring the soil is removed to of a lack of technical knowledge* within 2 to 3 inches of the seedcane. The first successful operation in the Several shallow cultivations are needed United States is credited to E. H. Dyer, throughout the season to control weeds whose plant, built in 1870 at Alvarado, and provide good growing conditions. Calif., was well established by 1879. Fertilizer should be applied when the The industry then spread to other cane is 8 to 12 inches high, followed States. By the turn of the century 30 by shallow cultivation. Flame cultiva- factories were operating in 11 States. tion often is used to destroy young Some 60 factories were operating in weeds. Chemical weedkillers have been the United States in 1963. fairly successful. Sugarcane is harvested in Louisiana SUGARCANE, a tropical plant, is a pe- as late in the season as feasible to allow rennial grass of the genus Saccharum, the maximum accumulation of sucrose. The commonest species is Saccharum In hand harvesting, still practiced officinarum (the noble cane). The cane in some countries, leaves are stripped, stalk grows from the plant cane, or the tops are removed, and the stalks ratoon, each year. New plantings must are cut at ground level. Cutting is done be made every 2 or 3 years in Louisi- with a cane knife or machete. The ana, 5 to 8 years in Cuba, and slightly stalks are cut close to the ground, less often in a few other parts of the because the juice from the lower inter- world. nodes contains more sugar than the Cane customarily is harvested once middle and top. Cane is milled soon a year, except newly planted cane and after harvesting. cane in irrigated areas, such as Hawaii, In Hawaii, Louisiana, and Australia, where it is harvested at intervals of mechanical harvesters are used widely. about 18 months. Successive plantings Machines for use in many other coun- are arranged so that only a part of the tries have been developed. ÔUGAR AND OtHËIt SWEETENERS 179 SüGARBEETS are produced in tem- or basket, revolves within an iron perate climates. Europe, the Soviet casing, which cá:tches the molasses Union, and the United States are the that is spun off. The unwashed sugar major producers. remaining in the basket is known as Sugarbeets grow on a wide variety raw sugar. Standard raw sugar is 96 of soils at elevations from below sea percent sucrose. Most sugar for world level up to 7 thousand feet. Beets are trade contains 97 percent or more of relatively tolerant of alkali soils. They sucrose. International trade in sugar improve soil conditions for following generally is in this form, because most Crops as their roots extend 6 to 7 importing countries prefer to use their feet in the ground. Crop rotations that own refineries for refining sugar. include beets are beneficial to the soil. Refining removes practically all the Byproducts—tops, pulp, and molas- remaining impurities in the raw sugar ses—are fed to cattle and sheep. in the following general steps : Remov- Sugarbeets are cultivated between ing the film of molasses from the raw the plants and between the row. The sugar crystals; a repetition of the sugarbeet crop is planted each year. clarification process that is carried on Thinning of young plants used to be in making raw sugar; passing sugar laborious, for many seedlings grow liquor through bone char or other from one seed, but a new type of types of charcoal to remove color and seed, the monogerm, produces a single other impurities; crystallization, to plant and saves work of thinning. form crystals of sucrose in the juice; The harvesting of sugarbeets in the separation of sugar crystals from the major producing regions is done mother liquor by means of centrifugal mostly by machines. The old way was machines ; removal of remaining mois- to loosen the beets with a tractor- ture by heat. drawn beet lifter, pull them by hand, slice off the crown and leaves, and PROCESSING SUGARBEETS into sugar is pile them for scooping into a wagon or somewhat different. The beets are truck. Machines now handle all steps washed at the factory and cut with re- in one operation. Harvest in most volving knives into thin strips, which sections lasts about 3 months. are known as cossettes, or chips. The cossettes are soaked in hot water in a THE FIRST STEP IN MAKING cane sugar continuous diffusion process. The prod- is to extract juice by crushing cane ucts of this process are raw juice and between a series of rollers. The juice is beet pulp. strained to remove solid pieces. Clari- The raw juice contains numerous fication, the next process, is the re- nonsugar substances, some of which moval of nonsucrose impurities mainly are precipitated or coagulated in the by heat and lime. Most of the juice is next stage, clarification, and later re- then evaporated. The bagasse, or moved by filtration. Carbon dioxide crushed cane waste, usually is used for gas and lime are used in the precipita- fuel to operate the mill. tion stage. The juice is passed through Crystallization occurs when enough filter presses, and the lime is filtered out water is evaporated from the juice to with the coagulated nonsugar sub- force the sugar out of solution. The stances. At this stage the thin juice is run sugary sirup or molasses is then through evaporators to remove most placed in centrifugal machines, where of the water. the crystals are separated by centrifu- Crystallization is then accomplished gal force. Sugar produced in this way by boiling the thick juice in vacuum is known as centrifugal sugar. pans. Sugar crystals are formed by The centrifugal machine is a per- seeding the liquid with a small amount forated drum, which revolves at high of pulverized sugar. The crystals, when velocity on a vertical axle. The drum, of proper size, are separated from the 18o THE YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1964 sirup in a high-speed centrifugal white grubs, wireworms, and the spin- machine. The product is refined sugar. ach leaf miner. The beet pulp from the first operation usually is dried or stored in wet form SUGAR is of great economic impor- and fed to livestock. tance. It is a major item of diet in most countries of the world. DISEASES constantly threaten sugar- The Department of Agriculture pre- cane. Some varieties resist disease. pares sugar production estimates for The commoner virus diseases are all producing countries. Sugar is being mosaic, which is transmitted by aphids made somewhere over the world all and is marked by streaks of light- through the year. In general, most green, chlorophyll-deficient tissue, and sugarbeets are harvested in the fall and ratoon stunting disease, which may be early winter and a large part of the transmitted by cutting knives. cane in the winter and early spring Treatment of plant cane with hot air (Northern Hemisphere seasons). or hot water helps to control the ratoon About 42 percent of the world's cen- stunting disease. Red-rot, a fungus trifugal sugar was produced from beets disease, reduces germination; severe in 1963. The rest came from cane. infection before harvest reduces the Production of centrifugal sugar sugar content and lowers the yield. reached a peak of 60.1 million short A number of insect pests attack sug- tons in 1960-1961. It meant a sub- arcane. The most serious, particularly stantial additional buildup in the in young sugarcane, in the United already large world stocks and encour- States is the sugarcane borer. Others aged many countries, notably in west- are the gray sugarcane mealybug, corn ern Europe, to cut production. leaf aphid, sugarcane beetles, wire- Two successive smaller crops fol- worms, and a cornstalk borer. lowed. Production in Cuba dropped Several diseases are common in sug- from 7.5 million tons in 1960-1961 to arbeets. Cercospora leaf spot is caused 4 million in 1963-1964. Western Eu- by a fungus and leads to loss of root rope had two rather small crops follow- weight and lowering of sugar content. ing the bumper 1960-1961 outturn The use of disease-resistant varieties because of a reduction in acreage and, and crop rotations provide the most in 1962-1963, bad weather. effective control of leaf spot. The decline in production brought a Black root, sometimes called damp- tightening of free world supplies in late ing ofí*, is especially severe in humid 1962 and in 1963 and sharp increases areas. Seed treatment checks the seed- in world prices. Most of the reduced borne fungus and protects the young Cuban crop was committed to the plant from the fungi in the soil. Crop Sino-Soviet bloc. rotation is also beneficial. Yellows disease was first discovered THE GOVERNMENT of nearly every in the United States in 1951. It is one sugar-producing country controls to of the worst, for it reduces yields and some degree the production, refining, sugar content. Control measures used and marketing of sugar. for the yellows disease are spraying to Most producing countries generally control vectors, destruction of sources require the payment of a minimum. of infection, selection of planting dates price to growers of sugarcane and to avoid infection, and the use of re- sugarbeets, and importing countries sistant varieties. commonly impose tariffs or other im- Several species of insects may feed on port controls to protect their producers. the foliage or roots of sugarbeets, es- Exporting countries often impose pecially in the humid sections. Among export taxes or other means of raising them are armyworms, aphids, flea government revenue from the indus- beetles, the webworms, grasshoppers, try. Price pooling to distribute the SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETENERS 181 impact of the different prices in differ- preferential arrangements tends to be ent markets also is common. insulated from other world supplies. Several importing countries have International sugar prices are highly comprehensive trading systems involv- volatile. ing preferential arrangements with The world sugar trade moving under sugar-exporting countries with which nonpreferential terms amounts to they have strong political ties. about 12 percent of the total world World gross exports of sugar, after production and is sometimes referred remaining fairly stable at 16 to 18 mil- to as the residual world sugar trade. lion short tons for a number of years, This is the sugar with which the Inter- increased to about 21 million in 1961 national Sugar Agreement has been and 1962. Many of the importing most concerned. countries, including those in the Euro- World consumption of sugar was pean Economic Community, are trying somewhat above production in 1962 to become more nearly self-sufficient and 1963. It had been increasing at in sugar. the rate of about 2 million tons a year, The United States is by far the larg- but the rate of increase was slowed in est importer of sugar—about two-fifths some countries in 1962, 1963, and 1964 of its total sugar consumption is im- because of high prices. ported. Consumption totaled about Consumption is not affected very 9.7 million tons, raw value, in 1963. much by higher prices in industrial- About 95 percent of the United ized countries. In some low-income States imports of sugar were supplied countries, especially those that tend to by Cuba and the Philippines before consume less domestically and export i960. Legislation since i960 has in- more to increase foreign exchange creased to 25 the number of countries earnings, however, higher prices re- assigned quotas—that is, specific quan- duce consumption. tities for shipment to the United States. Increases in consumption depend Legislation in 1962 established a global largely on the available supplies and quota, representing the quota reserved prices. A key element in the future for Cuba. In 1963 this amounted to level of world consumption may be about 1.7 million tons. the extent to which the Sino-Soviet About two-thirds of the world's countries increase consumption. sugar exports move under special or The annual per capita consumption preferential marketing arrangements in the United States has remained of one kind or another. constant at approximately 103 pounds Noteworthy is the Commonwealth (raw value) for a number of years. Sugar Agreement, which represents a Approximately two-thirds of our total long-term undertaking of the United consumption is through industrial uses. Kingdom to buy specified quantities The rest is used in households and of sugar from countries with which it institutions. has historical ties. Under this plan, the Sugar is the dominant sweetener in United Kingdom contracts to buy food industries in the United States, fixed quantities of sugar from supply- but they have been using increasingly ing countries at prices that are nego- larger quantities of corn sweeteners tiated annually. (sirup and dextrose) and noncaloric Some other European countries have sweeteners (saccharin and sucaryl). types of preferential arrangements with The amount of corn sirup, a glucose their former territories. A number of product manufactured from corn- countries engage in long-term con- starch, delivered to American food tracting arrangements. Most of the processors increased from 423 thou- sugar shipped by Cuba to the Sino- sand tons (dry basis) in 1952 to 705 Soviet bloc has moved under barter thousand tons in 1961. Deliveries of arrangements. Sugar moving under sugar to industrial food processors over l82 THE YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1964 the same period increased from 3*2 in such a way as to make it available to million tons to 4.6 million tons of re- man in commercial quantities. In fined sugar. While the tonnage figures beekeeping, people merely make it for sugar are larger, the rate of in- possible for the bees to store more crease for corn sirup exceeded that for honey than they need for themselves. sugar by a wide margin. The use of The surplus is removed for human use. dextrose, another derivative of corn- The Egyptians and the East Indians starch, has also been increasing but at were familiar with bee husbandry 4 a slower rate. thousand years ago. People probably The fastest increase in the use of brought honey bees to Europe and corn sirup has been in the canning and thence to the New World. Honey bees dairy industries, where it is used to were first imported into the United blend with sugar for certain products. States during the 17th century. Relative prices influence the extent to Honey production in 15 countries, which other sweeteners are used in which account for a major part of the place of sugar. Also, blends of sweet- world production, was estimated at eners enhance the quality sought in 570 million pounds in 1962. The some confectionery products, princi- United States, West Germany, Argen- pally hard candies and ice cream. tina, Mexico, Australia, Canada, and Saccharin and sucaryl add no France are leading producers. The calories to manufactured products. United States exports and imports Often the market for such products is honey. Argentina and Mexico are largely separate from that for prod- large exporters. West Germany is the ucts sweetened with sugar—that is, largest importer. they are purchased mostly by persons, The number of colonies of bees in the who for reasons of health cannot use United States was estimated at 5.5 products sweetened with sugar. million in 1963. Production, of honey In other instances, notably soft in 1963 was 299.0 million pounds, an drinks, noncaloric sweeteners appear average yield per colony of 54.0 to be competing directly with sugar. pounds. The total farm value of the Trade sources indicate that the uses of honey was about 50 million dollars. noncaloric sweeteners in soft drinks American honey is sold as extracted increased from a few hundred cases in honey or as some form of comb honey. 1950 to about 25 million cases in 1961. Extracted honey is the liquid taken They were used to sweeten about 1.6 from the combs. Extracted honey for percent of the total output of soft commercial sale normally is processed drinks in the United States in 1961. and blended to produce a uniform color, flavor, and density, which are HONEY competes with sugar in certain prime attributes of quality or grade. uses. It is made by honey bees that Grades for extracted and comb gather nectar from flowers and carry honey have been established by the it to their hives. The bees store the Department of Agriculture. Grade A honey in combs of hexagonal wax (or Fancy) is the top quality associated cells for their later food needs. with types of extracted honey in con- The nectar is a watery solution sumer-size containers. Grade B (or containing primarily lévulose and Choice) is of a slightly lower quality. dextrose, some sucrose, and small Most of the honey of commercial bee- amounts of mineral salts, coloring keepers, as well as that of many smaller matter, aromatic bodies, and other producers, is sold to brokers or packers. ingredients. Much of the water in the nectar is evaporated at the hive. MOLASSES is a byproduct in the pro- Honey bees belong to the order of duction of sugar from sugarcane and insects called Hymenoptera. They are sugarbeets. The common name for the the only insects that gather nectar prixluct from sugarcane is blackstrap SUGAR AND OTHER SWEETENERS 183 molasses. Producers in the beet indus- or used locally, as the expense of stor- try call their product beet molasses. ing and transporting may exceed its Both are usually referred to as "indus- value. trial molasses." They are used princi- The output of molasses declined in pally in livestock feed and in the pro- 1963, and prices increased. Future pro- duction of such industrial products as duction of molasses will depend pri- citric acid and yeast. marily on the output of sugar. Before the Second World War, in- dustrial molasses was used mainly in MAPLE SUGAR probably was the first the production of ethyl alcohol. In sweetener produced in North America. recent years ethyl alcohol has been Early settlers found Indian tribes mak- produced from petroleum gases at ing such sugar. The Algonquin Indians lower costs than from molasses. In called it "sinzibuckwud"—**drawn some countries, however, molasses is from the wood." used in the production of alcohol. Maple sirup and sugar are produced Hydrol, a byproduct of the corn wet in Canada and the United States from milling industry, and citrus molasses, the sap drawn from maple trees, main- a byproduct of orange and grapefruit ly the rock maple (Acer saccharum). juice production, compete with other Production in early days was a fairly industrial molasses, particularly for simple operation. An ax was used to livestock feed. gash the tree trunk and the sap caught Mills processing sugarcane some- in troughs hewed from logs. The liquid times produce a type of molasses des- was then carried in wooden pails to ignated as edible molasses. Only a central boiling points and reduced to part of the sugar normally recoverable sirup or sugar in kettles. Refinements from the cane is used in producing and improvements have been made in sugar. The remainder is left in the those methods. molasses. Late in the winter, operators bore Edible molasses competes with cane holes in the trunks of trees and insert sirup, sorghum sirup, and maple sirup. metal spouts for the sap to flow Some of it is blended with maple sirup through. Buckets usually are hung on and sold in that form. Gane and sor- the spouts to gather the sap. The ghum sirups are produced from the buckets are emptied into larger con- juice of the cane or sorghum ; no sugar tainers, which are taken to the sugar- is extracted from the juice. house, where the sap is boiled down The production of cane and sorghum to the desired consistency before being sirup in the United States has declined poured into cans or drums for market- markedly. With improved economic ing. Some of the larger producers now conditions, people apparently prefer to gather the sap by a system of plastic purchase more of their sweetener in the tubing with trunklines running directly form of sugar rather than sirup. to the sugarhouse. The United States is the world's The best time for tapping the trees is largest importer of industrial molasses. said to be during a period of cold, The ratio of molasses to sugar produc- crisp nights when temperatures are tion varies considerably among coun- near 20° F. and daytime thawing tries and from year to year. Weather temperatures are in the 40's. A mod- conditions affect the sucrose content of erate snow cover is also considered both sugarcane and sugarbeets. Beets beneficial during the tapping season. dr cane with high sucrose content yield The yield of sap varies with the size a lower ratio of molasses to sugar than and age of the tree. Weather prevailing when the sucrose content is low. during the winter and early spring In some countries, particularly those largely determines the length of the with only a small production of sugar, tapping season. molasses is discarded as waste material The sirup is made by simple evapo- 184 THE YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1964 ration of the sap. Maple sugar is pro- duced by further cooking the sirup. About 8 pounds of maple sugar are obtained from a gallon of sirup, which weighs about 11 pounds. Maple trees used for sugar grow best at altitudes of 600 feet and above. A Whafs Behind stand of trees old enough to be tapped and grouped close enough together for economical collection of sap is a sugar bush. Often a bush is a one-family the Coffee Break operation. Most Canadian production is in the Province of Quebec. Canada in 1962 hy LESLIE C. HURT and produced 3.5 million United States JOHN C. SCHOLL gallons of maple sirup and 781 thou- sand pounds of maple sugar. Canada exports much of its maple products to the United States. The United States production of COFFEE is the seed of cultivated varie- maple sirup has steadily declined ties of Cofea arabica^ C. liberica, and C, since 1940. The output of maple sugar robusta. Green, raw, unroasted coffee is has declined to such a low level that the bean freed from all but a small por- the Department of Agriculture no tion of its hard coating. Roasted coffee longer issues production estimates. The is cleaned green coffee that roasting estimated production of maple sirup, has made brown and aromatic. including the sirup equivalent of Coffee has been used in turn as a sugar, in the United States in 1962 food, a wine, a medicine, and a bever- was 1.45 million gallons, compared age. Its use as a beverage dates from with 1.52 million gallons in 1961. the 13th century. The coffee plant is a Despite the general decline in pro- native of Abyssinia and probably of duction, the maple sugar industry is Arabia. It grows in the Tropics. still a vital part of the economy of Toward the end of the 9th century, hundreds of communities from Maine an Arabian physician wrote about the westward into Minnesota and south to properties and uses of coffee. The leg- Indiana and West Virginia. The maple endary discovery of coffee is attributed season comes when most other farm to an Arabian goatherd named Kaldi activities are slowest. The total farm 15 centuries ago. Kaldi, it is said, value of the maple sirup produced in found his animals dancing after eating the United States amounted to 6.8 fruits and tips of certain bushes. He million and 7.3 million dollars in tasted them and was so stimulated 1962 and 1961. that he cavorted with his goats in the Arabian hills. A monk from the sanc- JOHN C. SCHOLL was named Director tuarial spaces below, where later grew of the Sugar and Tropical Products up the city of Mecca, came by and Division^ Foreign Agricultural Service^ in talked with the herd boy. The monk I g 62, a short time after receiving the tried the fruit, seeds and all, and found Departments ßo-year Length of Service them invigorating. The use of coffee award. became a fad in Mecca. LESLIE C. HURT began his government Some persons believe coffee was cul- career with the Federal Crop Insurance tivated first in Yemen about A.D. 575 Corporation of the Department of Agricul- and shortly thereafter was grown in ture in 1941. He joined the Foreign Agri- Abyssinia and Arabia. cultural Service in 1956, Coffee reached Europe about 1500