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Plant Blindness’ Developing a Pedagogy for Reducing ‘Plant Blindness’ Submitted by Bethan Claire Stagg to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Publication in Education April 2020 This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: …… …………………………….. 1 Acknowledgements With thanks to my PhD supervisors, Professor Justin Dillon and Dr Lindsay Hetherington, for their invaluable advice and guidance. You helped me to mature into a doctoral level researcher. I would also like to thank all the many volunteers that participated in the educational sessions, as well as my funders (Big Lottery Fund, The Linnean Society of London and The Wildflower Society). This research would not have been possible without your support and interest. And finally, a big thank you to my family: to my co-author and husband for supporting me in every way possible; to my parents, for inspiring me with a love of plants from an early age; to my son, for being you. Ewan, you were my inspiration for embarking on a PhD. I wanted to show you that not only dads get doctorates and to make you proud of your mum. 2 Abstract Despite human dependence on them, inattention to plants or plant blindness is a well–known phenomenon in urban societies. This thesis investigates the efficacy of a suite of novel teaching approaches for botany with adults and children and considers how these published research–based resources can contribute to a pedagogy for reducing plant blindness, in conjunction with the existing literature. This research was based on a mixed methods design using knowledge tests, questionnaires and interviews. It focused on two themes: novel methods for learning taxonomy (digital keys, mnemonics, drawing and game–playing) and drama–based methods for learning reproduction and classification. The literature review examined the characteristics of plant blindness and its impacts on teaching and learning. The fundamental cause of plant blindness was shown to be diminished experience with plants in urban societies which leads to low interest in plants compared to animals. A majority of pedagogic studies were based on learning with live plants, many of which were inquiry-based learning. Half the studies included outdoor learning and half used digital learning approaches. A content analysis of published research using themes based on theories of embodied cognition, memory and positive affect found the textual data to be evenly distributed across all three themes. The pedagogic approaches promoted learning through elaborative techniques, instructional tools with high usability, multimedia experiences and emotional wellbeing. Drawing and keys favoured observation over other perceptual modes, whereas drama facilitated multisensory experience. The research identified physical and cognitive factors that may assist or impede learning. A theoretical contribution of the research was the application of memory theory to learning taxonomy, advancing our understanding of how the design of keys and mnemonics may assist retention. Drama studies enhanced our understanding of children’s attitudes to plants and how a brief intervention may address these. 3 Contents Title page and Statement …………………………………………………………….1 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………..…. 2 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….…. 3 Lists of Tables and Figures ………………..…………………………………….…. 6 Author’s Declaration ……………............................................................…….…. 7 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale: Personal, professional and academic ………………..….…….…. 9 1.2 Overview of Thesis Design ………………………………………....…….….. 10 1.3 Literature Review ………………..….…………………………………..…..…. 11 1.3.1 What is ‘plant blindness’? 1.3.2 The causes of ‘plant blindness’ 1.3.3 Pedagogic approaches for botany 1.3.4 Gaps in the Literature 1.4 Aims and Objectives of this Thesis .…………………………………..…..…. 18 1.5 Theoretical Framework .………………………………………………..…..…. 19 1.5.1 Rationale 1.5.2 Embodied learning 1.5.3 Active learning that promotes memorability 1.5.4 Enjoyment and other forms of positive affect 1.5.5 Drama-based learning in science 2. METHODOLOGY AND METHODS 2.1 Methodology.…………………………………………………………….…..…. 20 2.2 Methods and Instruments for the Research Studies ………………..…..…. 23 2.3 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………………....…..…. 25 2.4 Data Quality …………………………………………………………......…..…. 26 2.5 Methods for the Thesis Research ……………………………….…....…..…. 27 3. PUBLISHED STUDIES AND RESULTS 3.1 Theme 1: Addressing ‘Plant Blindness’ through Taxonomy 3.1.1 Stagg, B. C. & Donkin, M. E. (2013). Teaching botanical identification to adults: experiences of the UK participatory science project ‘Open Air Laboratories’. Journal of Biological Education, 47(2), 104–110. 3.1.2 Stagg, B. C., Donkin, M. E., & Smith, A. M. (2015). Bryophytes for beginners: the usability of a printed dichotomous key versus a multi– access computer–based key for bryophyte identification. Journal of Biological Education, 49(3), 274–287. 4 3.1.3 Stagg, B.C. & Donkin, M. E. (2016). Mnemonics are an effective tool for beginners learning plant identification. Journal of Biological Education, 50(1), 24–40. 3.1.4 Stagg, B.C. & Donkin, M. E. (2017). Apps for Angiosperms: the usability of mobile computers and printed field guides for UK wildflower and winter tree identification. Journal of Biological Education, 51(2), 123– 135. 3.1.5 Stagg, B.C. & Verde, M. F. (2019a) A comparison of descriptive writing and drawing of plants for the development of adult novices’ botanical knowledge. Journal of Biological Education, 53(1), 63–78. 3.2 Theme 2: Addressing ‘Plant Blindness’ through Drama 3.2.1 Stagg, B.C. & Verde, M. F. (2019b). Story of a seed: Educational theatre improves students’ comprehension and attitudes to plants in primary science education. Research in Science and Technological Education, 37(1), 15–35. 3.2.2 Stagg, B. C. (2019). Meeting Linnaeus: Improving comprehension of biological classification and attitudes to plants using drama in primary science education. Research in Science & Technological Education, https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2019.1605347 3.3. Summary of Research Findings ……………....………………………...…. 143 4. DISCUSSION: EMERGING THEMES 4.1 The nature and extent of learning in this research ……………....…….…. 144 4.1.1 Active learning that promotes memorability 4.1.2 Multimodal learning 4.1.3 Emotional learning 4.1.4 Limitations 4.2 Developing a pedagogy for botany to reduce ‘plant blindness’ …...….…. 155 4.2.1 How this research helps to address ‘plant blindness’ 4.2.2 Lifelong learning 4.2.3 A pedagogic framework for botany 5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY AND PRACTICE 6. APPENDICES 7. REFERENCES 5 List of Figures Figure 1. Thesis structure Figure 2. Stages in the review process and key findings Figure 3. Summary of research methods in the thesis Figure 4. Themes in content analysis Figure 5. A model for reducing plant blindness using memorable learning Figure 6. A model for reducing plant blindness using embodied experience Figure 7. A model for reducing plant blindness based on positive affect Figure 8. A pedagogic model for reducing plant blindness List of Tables Table 1. Symptoms of plant blindness in the analysed articles Table 2. Teaching methods investigated in the analysed articles Table 3. Types of activity providing direct experience of plants Table 4. Topics in the analysed articles Table 5. Data collection methods used in studies Table 6. Educational characteristics of studies Table 7. Summary of findings in studies 6 Author's declaration Study Nature of author’s individual contribution Extent of author’s citation individual contribution Stagg & I designed, conducted, analysed and wrote up the 95%+ Donkin study for submission. I corrected all subsequent (2013) revisions and proofs for resubmission. I explained the Stagg: 1,200 hours; experimental design verbally to the Donkin prior to Donkin: 6 hours testing and sent her successive paper drafts, paper approx. submission and proof. In all cases, she made a small number of suggestions verbally or in writing, but did not make any in–text corrections. Stagg, I designed, conducted, analysed and wrote up the 95%+ Donkin, study for submission. I corrected all subsequent & Smith revisions and proofs for resubmission. Stagg: 1,200 hours; (2015) Donkin: 8 hours; I explained the experimental design verbally to the Smith: 25 hours Donkin and Smith prior to testing and sent them approx. successive paper drafts, paper submission and proof. In all cases, Donkin made a small number of suggestions orally or in writing, but did not make any in–text corrections. Donkin also chaired a lunchtime piloting event, for the draft versions of the computer and printed keys used in this study. Smith contributed as follows: Verbal and written feedback on experimental design and draft versions of the identification keys Co–ordinated the five educational sessions, including instruction of participants, experimental delivery, data collection and associated logistics In–text comments and corrections for one paper draft Verbal comments on the subsequent, corrected draft Stagg & I designed, conducted, analysed and wrote up the 95%+ Donkin study for submission. I corrected
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