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Towards the Development of an Indigenous Psychological Trauma Model for War Veterans in Zimbabwe

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Towards the Development of an Indigenous Psychological Trauma Model for War Veterans in Zimbabwe TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA MODEL FOR WAR VETERANS IN ZIMBABWE by JULIA MUTAMBARA THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in PSYCHOLOGY in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES (School of Social Sciences) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO SUPERVISOR: Prof T Sodi 2016 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my husband Solomon to whom I am deeply indebted for his inspiration, patience and love. i DECLARATION I declare that the thesis hereby submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that it is my work in design and in execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly acknowledged. Mutambara, J (Mrs) 12/05/2016 ………………………………………………………… ………………… Full names Date ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to my supervisor Professor T. Sodi for his dedicated mentorship throughout my studies. I also want to thank my husband Solomon for the unwavering support throughout my studies. I am humbled by your understanding, inspiration and love. Thank you for giving me the wings to fly. To my children Nyasha, Panashe, Vongai and Tinashe, you were my inspiration and motivation throughout the period of study. To my parents Mr and Mrs Chimedza, thank you for the love and sacrifice that has seen me go this far. I am also grateful to the war veterans for sacrificing their time to share experiences and my friends too many to mention by name for spiritual support. Last but not least I would like to thank Mr Maunganidze and Prof Mudhovozi for the support they gave me. iii ABSTRACT Literature has shown that war has negative psychological consequences and long-term effects on war veterans that can be passed on from generation to generation. Little is known about Zimbabwe war veterans` conceptualisation of trauma. The study was aimed at developing a culturally appropriate psychological model for Zimbabwean war veterans. The research objectives were; 1)To explore the Zimbabwean war veterans’ conceptualisation of complex trauma. 2)To establish how Zimbabwean war veterans cope with complex trauma in their lives. 3) To develop a culturally relevant psychological trauma model for war veterans in Zimbabwe. The study was qualitative and the phenomelogical research approach was adopted. The research was informed by the Afrocentric paradigm. Criterion sampling was used to select twenty-six participants. Sixteen individual interviews and two focus group discussions were conducted. Data were analysed using thematic content analysis. The research revealed five major themes covering the experiences of complex trauma among war veterans in Zimbabwe. These themes are social, economic, spiritual, political and personal trauma. Research findings also identified cultural notions of trauma. The participants` had their own way of conceptualising trauma in their local language. The following broad themes that described the participants` coping strategies were identified; appraisal coping, social coping, problem focused coping, emotion focused coping and spiritual coping. Their coping strategies were informed by their culture, experiences and social context. From these themes a cultural model of trauma was developed. The model is unique as it acknowledges the importance of the cultural context in the conceptualisation of trauma and the need to be knowledgeable about local constructs, meanings and languages that inform world views. The model validates propositions by the Afrocentric paradigm that trauma in African contexts is multifaceted. The study recommends the need to be culturally sensitive to understand an individual`s behaviour, explanations of distress, symptom presentation and coping strategies. The study recommends a holistic and contextual approach when intervening among war veterans in Zimbabwe. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... i DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. v List of tables .................................................................................................................... x List of figures ................................................................................................................... x List of abbreviations and acronyms .................................................................................xi CHAPTER I ................................................................................................................... 12 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ....................................................................... 12 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 12 1.2 Background ............................................................................................................. 12 1.3 Research problem ................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Purpose of the study ............................................................................................... 18 1.4.1 Aim of the study ................................................................................................ 18 1.4.2 Research objectives ......................................................................................... 18 1.4.3 Research questions .......................................................................................... 18 1.5 Rationale for the present study................................................................................ 18 1.6 Significance of Proposed Research ........................................................................ 19 1.7 Definition of concepts .............................................................................................. 20 1.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 21 CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................. 22 CONCEPTUALISATION OF TRAUMA ........................................................................ 22 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 22 2.2 Definition of trauma ................................................................................................. 22 2.3 Types of trauma ...................................................................................................... 23 2.4 Symptoms of trauma ............................................................................................ 24 2.5 Effects of trauma .................................................................................................. 25 2.6 Trauma in African societies ..................................................................................... 26 2.7 Zimbabwe`s war of independence........................................................................... 32 v 2.8 War and psychological trauma ................................................................................ 34 2.9 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................. 40 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON TRAUMA ......................................................... 40 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 40 3.2 Psychodynamic theory ............................................................................................ 40 3.3 The community trauma theory ................................................................................. 42 3.3 The life course framework ....................................................................................... 44 3.4 Theoretical framework: The Afrocentric approach ................................................... 45 3.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 48 CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................. 49 TRAUMA HEALING ...................................................................................................... 49 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 49 4.2 Healing trauma ........................................................................................................ 49 4.2.1 Spirituality and trauma healing .......................................................................... 53 4.3 Psychological treatment of trauma .......................................................................... 56 4.3.1 Psychodynamic therapies
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