Formative Assessments: What, Why, and How

Learn what formative assessments are and why you should be doing them. Get tips for creating your own. Understand how to use them properly to measure students’ performance against learning outcomes, document students’ growth, and improve your teaching. Use the Impromptu Formative Assessments and the collection of 95 Formative Assessment Options to get started!

Feedback as a Means of Formative Assessment

Many people view assessment as a one-time event that occurs at the culmination FORMATIVE of a learning experience. However, it is better to conceptualize assessment as an ASSESSMENT ongoing process that guides the learning and teaching relationship so that all players involved gain valuable information about themselves and the knowledge they hold.

Online extras at Types of Assessment kdp.org/publications/nta There are two main types of assessment: summative and formative. Summative assessment occurs after instruction in the form of a multiple choice test or final exam that indicates the level of knowledge that the student has attained (Woolfolk, 2013). Formative assessment, on the other hand, occurs both before and during instruction. The purpose is to guide the teacher in planning and preparing the lesson and improving student learning. It is not the assessments themselves that are formative or summative, but how they are used. Formative assessment can include multiple choice exams, but instead of giving them at the end By Marisa T. Cohen of the unit, they are used before or during the unit to gather information about what the student

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Help for employing formative assessment: already knows. They are then used by the teacher to further mold lesson planning and to drive the West Virginia Department of Education learning process forward. List of formative assessment types with links and examples bit.ly/WVaDOE6 Assessment as a Garden Shirley Clark (2001) used a beautiful anal- Public Schools of North Carolina ogy of the school as a garden and the students Vignettes and podcasts of formative assessment in practice as the plants. Summative assessment would bit.ly/NCassess simply involve measuring your plants. While it is certainly interesting to compare and analyze Formative Assessment Strategies the measurements, it may not affect the future Easy ideas to use for formative assessment growth of these plants. Formative assessment bit.ly/FAStrat deals with the process of taking care of these plants, by considering how to feed and water them so that you are tending to their needs, promoting their growth, and creating a beautiful garden. Formative assessment can tell you ing formative assessment in an effective and how students are benefitting from instruction beneficial way is to use students’ feedback as it is taking place, and in turn help you adjust to alter your own teaching. This requires a the lessons accordingly. certain amount of flexibility, because the teacher must be willing to change her ap- Components of Formative Assessment proach based on what the students already For formative assessment to be beneficial, it know. In younger grades, many teachers use is imperative to include the class in the learning graphic organizers such as a K-W-L chart to process by providing them with a great deal of assess students’ preexisting knowledge. This feedback. You also must spend time reflecting on involves filling in what the students already what you are learning about your own teaching Know and what they Want to know prior to from the students’ feedback to you. the lesson. The teacher then reevaluates his or her approach to the unit before proceed- 1. Provide detailed feedback to guide ing to helping them Learn. Teachers also student learning. The more detailed the may consider using a pretest. This gives the feedback you provide, the more effective it teacher a sense of what the students already will be. Assigning a number or letter grade know and provides them with a sense of any is not useful because it does not communi- misconceptions the students hold regarding cate to the students what they know or the the information to be taught. areas in which they can improve. Rather, providing them with clearcut comments in The term assessment is used often in educa- the margins of the assignment will enable tion and usually has a negative connotation. It is them to edit their work and learn something important to learn effective ways to use assess- about their skills during the process. Feed- ment in the classroom and to understand how back also should provide students with some to employ formative assessment to guide your Dr. Cohen is an Assistant sense of understanding about how they are teaching. Also, it is imperative to stress to students Professor of Psychology at progressing toward the goal and what is still that assessment should not be considered a pun- St. Francis College in Brook- needed to reach it. You can even incorpo- ishment, but rather a way to evaluate what they lyn, New York. She teaches educational psychology, rate feedback in multiple choice exams by have mastered, with the hope of better tailoring general psychology, and having an open discussion of why certain learning to their unique needs. experimental courses. Her answers are better than others. This creates a interests include examining dialogue between the teachers and students References methods to teach students that can be used to clarify any misunder- Clarke, S. (2001). Unlocking formative assessment: content-specific terminology standings. Practical strategies for enhancing pupils’ learning in science and determining in the primary classroom. London, UK: Hodder & the ability of students to Stoughton. assess their own knowledge, 2. Use students’ feedback to learn about Woolfolk, A. E. (2013). Educational psychology (12th self-regulate, and adequate- your teaching. Another component of used.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ly prepare for exams.

KDP New Teacher Advocate • Winter 2014 • 5 10 Tips for Creating Formative Assessments By Bill Ferriter on Center for Teaching Quality Blog (http://bit.ly/10Tips4FormAss)

Here are ten tips taken from Common Formative Assessment: A Toolkit for PLCs at Work by Kim Bailey and Chris Jakicic that can strengthen your assessment practices.

1. Remember that getting information quickly and easily is essential. Assessment data is only valuable if you are actually willing and able to collect it and you can act on it in a timely manner. That simple truth should fundamentally change the way that you think about assessments.

2. Write your assessments and scoring rubrics together even if that means you initially deliver fewer common assessments. Collaborative conversations about what to assess, how to assess and what mastery looks like in action are just as valuable as student data sets.

3. Assess ONLY the learning outcomes that you identified as essential. Assessing nonessential standards just makes it more difficult to get—and to take action on—information quickly and easily.

4. Ask at least 3 questions for each learning outcomes that you are trying to test. That allows students to muff a question and still demonstrate mastery. Just as importantly, that means a poorly written question won't ruin your data set.

5. Test mastery of no more than 3 or 4 learning targets per assessment. Doing so makes remediation after an assessment doable. Can you imagine trying to intervene when an assessment shows students who have struggled to master more than 4 learning outcomes?

6. Clearly tie every single question to an essential learning outcome. Doing so makes tracking mastery by student and standard possible. Your data sets have more meaning when you can spot patterns in mastery of the outcome—not the question.

7. Choose assessment types that are appropriate for the content or skills that you are trying to measure. Using performance assessments to measure the mastery of basic facts is overkill. Similarly, using a slew of multiple choice questions to measure the mastery of complex thinking skills is probably going to come up short.

8. When writing multiple choice questions, use wrong answer choices to highlight common misconceptions. The patterns found in the WRONG answers of well-written tests can tell you just as much as the patterns found in the RIGHT answers. Fill your test with careless or comical distractors and you are missing out on an opportunity to learn more about your students.

9. When writing constructed response questions, provide students with enough context to be able to answer the question. Context plays a vital role in constructing a meaningful response to any question. Need proof? A teenage daughter asks her parent, "Can I go to the mall with some friends tonight?" Will the parent ask a few questions before saying yes?

10. Make sure that higher level questions ask students to apply knowledge and/or skills in new situations. A higher level question that asks students to apply knowledge in the same way as they have practiced before becomes a lower level question.

WWW.KDP.ORG Assessment Practices

SHIFTING OUR FOCUS

by Dennis S. Rosemartin

Understanding the differences among traditional, alternative, and authentic assessment practices can help shift our focus from assessment of learning to assessment for learning.

Thirty years ago in a report about ability (Airasian, 1987; Hamilton & Koretz, 2002; Sloane testing, the National Research Council (NRC) & Kelly, 2003). concluded that although these forms of tests There is a need to shift toward assessment can be useful, “they are limited instruments and for learning practices. To support this argument, do not tell everything of importance about any I focus on four areas. I begin with an examination individual” (Wigdor, 1982, p. 26). Concern over of the negative effects of using high-stakes this limitation resulted in a movement in the assessments as the main accountability system for 1990s away from multiple-choice assessments schools. I then discuss the underlying assumptions focused on minimum-competency toward of learning that are inherent in different types of new assessment formats focused on higher- assessments. I follow with a comparison of the order thinking skills such as student portfolios, purposes of formative and summative assessments. Dennis S. Rosemartin, a hands-on performance, essays, and short-answer I conclude with a framework and some examples to former elementary classroom questions (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Hamilton & help teachers develop and implement assessment teacher, is currently a Koretz, 2002). However, assessment practices that for learning practices. PhD candidate at the provide information to improve student learning, University of Arizona. His known as “assessment for learning” (Hargreaves, Unintended Effects of High- area of specialization is teacher preparation and 2005; Stiggins, 2002), continue to be dominated Stakes Assessments environmental education, by “assessment of learning” practices that provide The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, and his interests include information about what students know (Sloane signed into law in 2002, mandated states to assessment practices, & Kelly, 2003). The use of assessments in public develop an accountability system based on curriculum theory, and schools in the United States to link student the scores of a yearly assessment with the environmental literacy. test scores to school performance has arguably ambitious goal of 100% proficiency in reading transformed assessments into accountability tools and math by 2014. The strong repercussions of

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this accountability system, such as closing or administration, some states have proposed reconstituting schools that did not improve test linking scores on state assessments to student scores, created an environment in public schools promotion, teacher pay, and a school’s label as where raising test scores became the primary goal. performing or under-performing (Kossan, 2010). As a classroom teacher, I witnessed Pressure to improve scores may have led to the intervention specialists focusing on students cheating by school personnel at 44 schools in who were close to meeting proficiency standards Atlanta, Georgia and the possible cheating at 82 rather than on students far below proficiency schools in Pennsylvania (Winerip, 2011). These standards because they had a better chance of incidents shed light on the intense pressure that bringing up the aggregated test scores. These many public schools face and, unfortunately, students have been referred to as “bubble kids” are not isolated events. In a report published by because their tests scores are on the bubble below the Great Lakes Center for Educational Research the passing score; in one study at an elementary and Practice, Nichols and Berliner (2005) cited school in Texas, it was found that the majority 83 reports of cheating by school personnel in of intervention programs focused only on these 33 states, dating as far back as 1990. Although bubble kids (Booher-Jennings, 2005). After years such actions are intolerable, they prompt critical of being abandoned by the school system, some examination of current education reform policy high school students are encouraged to drop out focused on using assessments as an accountability of school (Nichols & Berliner, 2005). tool.

Effect on Teaching and the Curriculum Teacher and Student Morale Other negative effects of high-stakes While many factors contribute to the assessments include narrowing of the curriculum stresses of teaching and being a student, high- and methods of instruction, less time for stakes testing has been cited often by teachers instruction, and declining teacher morale and students as a main cause of anxiety (Jones, (Nichols & Berliner, 2005; Sadker & Zittleman, 2007; Nichols & Berliner, 2005; Smith, 1991). 2007; Smith, 1991). In the 1980s, critics of Numerous newspaper articles across the country high-stakes assessments warned of the danger have reported teachers feeling demoralized of teaching to the test (Sloane & Kelly, 2003), because the successes they had during the year and recently there has been evidence that were overshadowed by the results of the end- instructional time on subjects not on state- of-year assessments (Nichols & Berliner, 2005). mandated assessments is decreasing while Studies found evidence linking testing with instructional time for the tested subjects is negative effects on students and teachers such as increasing. In a survey conducted by Education anxiety, irritability, and loss of sleep (Jones, 2007). Week, 79% of teachers responded that the amount The unintended negative effects of high- of time they spent teaching test-taking strategies stakes assessments illustrate the principle premise was between “somewhat to a great deal” (Sadker of Campbell’s Law: “The more any quantitative & Zittleman, 2007). Moreover, findings in a case social indicator is used for social decision-making, study which examined intervention reading the more subject it will be to corruption pressures lessons that focused on test-taking strategies and the more apt it will be to distort and corrupt indicated that the intervention may actually have the social processes it is intended to monitor” a negative effect on student test scores (Valli & (Campbell, 1979, p. 85). Chambliss, 2007). In Campbell’s (1979) view: Achievement tests may well be valuable Corruption of Teachers and indicators of general school achievement Administrators under conditions of normal testing aimed To increase the chances of receiving federal at general competence. But when test scores funding through a competitive grant known become the goal of the teaching process, as Race to the Top, established by the Obama they both lose their value as indicators of

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Table 1. Assessment Practices. Traditional Alternative Authentic Assumes knowledge Assumes knowledge has Requires students to has universal meaning multiple meanings be effective performers educational status and distort the educational with acquired process in undesirable ways. (p. 85) Treats learning as a Treats learning as an knowledge passive process active process Teachers need to challenge the prevailing Presents students assessment practice because it has undermined Separates process from Emphasizes process and with the full array equitable educational opportunities and stifled product and focuses on product of tasks that mirror innovative teaching practices that enhance mastery the priorities and student performance (Neisworth & Bagnato, challenges found in 2004; Stiggins, 2002; Wiggins, 1989). To shift Focuses on mastering Focuses on inquiry the best instructional toward assessment for learning practices, we discrete, isolated bits of activities should begin with an examination of the information different types of assessments. Attends to whether Assumes the purpose Assumes the purpose students can craft Traditional, Alternative, and of assessment is to of assessment is to polished, thorough, Authentic Assessments document learning facilitate learning and justifiable answers, In discourse about assessments, the terms performances, or traditional, alternative, and authentic connote Believes that cognitive Recognizes a products certain types of assessment practices. Traditional abilities are separate connection between assessments typically refer to multiple-choice from affective and cognitive, affective, and Achieves validity tests; alternative assessments include short- conative abilities conative abilities and reliability by answer questions, essays, oral presentations, emphasizing and and portfolios; while authentic assessments are Views assessment as Views assessment as standardizing the considered relevant to real-world tasks outside objective, value-free, subjective and value- appropriate criteria of the classroom (Worthen, 1993). All forms of and neutral laden, and embraces a for scoring varied assessments result in information about what shared model of power products students know and can do; however, it has Embraces a hierarchical and control been argued that the underlying assumptions model of power and Views assessment about what a student should learn and how a control validity in part on student learns is different in each assessment whether the test practice (Table 1). Traditional assessments reflect Perceives learning as an Perceives learning as a simulates real-world an essentialist philosophy of education, while individual enterprise collaborative process “tests” of ability alternative assessments reflect a constructivist philosophy of education (Anderson, 1998). Involves challenges Authentic assessments are considered a form and roles that help of alternative assessment with the additional students rehearse complexity that the assessment must be a for the complex worthwhile task or project that connects to the ambiguities of the real world (Bergen, 1993–94; Wiggins, 1990). “game” of adult and Understanding that assessment practices professional life are related to assumptions about learning is only part of the process of shifting from Source: Adapted from Anderson, 1998, pp. 8–11; Wiggins, 1990, pp. 2–3. assessment of learning to assessment for learning practices. It is also important to understand that assessment practices can be The Purpose of Formative and used for formative or summative purposes and Summative Assessments that assessments are not explicitly defined as The characteristics of formative and summative formative or summative by their format, but assessments are quite different (Table 2). The rather by the way information is used to guide main purpose of a formative assessment is to instruction (William & Black, 1996). give feedback about understanding and skill

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u JAN–MAR 2013 23 Table 2. Formative and Summative Assessment Characteristics.

Formative Assessment Summative Assessment Criterion-referenced Norm-referenced but then I recognized that to overcome this Positive in intent, in that it is directed Takes place when achievement frustration, I needed to reflect, experiment, toward promoting learning has to be reported and advocate. Reflecting on how assessment practices serve the teacher and the students Takes into account the progress of Relates to progression in learning helps teachers select or design different each individual (student-referenced) according to public criteria types of assessments. Experimenting with different assessment practices helps teachers Values validity and usefulness over Requires methods that are as determine which ones best support student reliability reliable as possible learning. Advocating assessment for learning practices in the school curriculum helps create Requires that students have a central Results for different students may dialogue among teachers about the purpose of part in it be combined for various purposes assessments. Assessment for learning practices I have used include self-evaluations, portfolios, and development to the teacher and student; corrective instruction or feedback. These that feedback is used to determine a strategy practices are not new and their implementation for improvement. The main purpose of a varies; Table 3 offers a brief summary. summative assessment is to describe what a student knows or has learned at a specific Closing Thoughts moment during the school year (Harlen & In summary, assessment for learning practices James, 1997). gives students an opportunity to reflect on their The current trend in national educational work and make decisions about what and how reform focuses heavily on raising student to improve. Although these practices are guided achievement scores through summative by the teacher, they give the student an active assessment practices. Therefore, teachers role in the assessment and learning process. should take an active role in the development Assessment for learning practices are driven and implementation of assessment for by the principle that “standards will be raised learning practices because the dominant use by improving student learning rather than by of summative assessments “drives out learning better measurement of limited learning” (Gibbs at the same time it seeks to measure it” (Boud & Simpson, 2004–05, p. 3). 2000, p. 156). What the NRC criticized about ability testing three decades ago has reemerged in the current Assessment for Learning discourse of education reform. Criticism over the Practices stringent punitive consequences attached to low As a fourth-grade teacher, I spent a lot of time aggregate scores on single statewide assessments with students outside of the classroom during has prompted Education Secretary Arne Duncan extracurricular clubs and field trips. Out of the to propose including assessment of student confines of a classroom, I noticed that students growth in the accountability system for schools were choosing a variety of ways to gather (Dillon, 2010). However, Duncan’s suggestion information or proceed in a task. While some to use a pre-post test model to assess what students were learning through observation, students have learned in a school year still applies others were learning by asking questions. I assessments as an accountability tool focused on realized that many of the assessments I used in what students know rather than an assessment the classroom did not consider the complexity tool focused on improving how students learn. of student learning or give any insight to me I contend that including a summative role in or my students about how they could improve assessment for learning practices can meet the their learning. need for accountability, while maintaining the My initial reaction was to blame the critical focus on student learning through the assessments that came with the curriculum; assessment’s formative role.

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Table 3. Examples of Assessment for Learning Practices.

Practice Description Formative Summative Role Role

References Checklist of content Implement at This evaluation Airasian, P. W. (1987). State mandated testing and educational Self- knowledge and skills the beginning of can show reform: Context and consequences. American Journal of Education, 95(3), 393–412. evaluation in a subject area and throughout students, teachers, Anderson, R. S. (1998). Why talk about different ways to grade? The shift from traditional assessment to alternative (alternative in which a student the school year and parents assessment. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, assessment) assesses his or her so the student the content 74(summer), 5–16. Bergen, D. (1993–94). Authentic performance assessments. level as expert, good, and teacher can knowledge and Childhood Education, 70(2), 99–102. Booher-Jennings, J. (2005). Below the bubble: “Educational or need some help. discuss strengths skills that have triage” and the Texas accountability system. American Teacher compares and weaknesses in been mastered or Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 231–268. Boud, D. (2000). Sustainable assessment: Rethinking the self-evaluation different subject need more work assessment for the learning society. Studies in Continuing Education, 22(2), 151–167. with student work areas and develop at various points Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social during the year. change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. for accuracy. appropriate Darling-Hammond, L. (1994). Setting standards for students: learning The case for authentic assessment. The Educational Forum, 59(1), 14–21. opportunities. Dillon, S. (2010, February 2). Administration outlines proposed changes to ‘No Child’ law. The New York Times, Student-selected Student work Actual student p. A16. Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004–05). Conditions under which Portfolio work reflects what is assessed by artifacts can be assessment supports students’ learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1(1), 3–31. (alternative, has been done the teacher and used to assess Hamilton, L. S., & Koretz, D. M. (2002). Tests and their use in authentic throughout the student in a one- student progress test-based accountability systems. In L. S. Hamilton, B. M. Stechner, & S. P. Klein (Eds.), Making sense of test-based assessment) school year. The on-one meeting to in a subject area accountability in education (pp. 13–49). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. portfolio is an discuss strengths at various times Hargreaves, E. (2005). Assessment for learning? Thinking outside the black box. Cambridge Journal of Education, ongoing project and weaknesses. throughout the 35(2), 213–224. that is continuously It is good to school year. Harlen, W., & James, M. J. (1997). Assessment and learning: Differences and relationships between formative and reviewed and compare current summative assessment. Assessment in Education, 4(3), 365–379. discussed by the and previous Jones, B. D. (2007). The unintended outcomes of high-stakes teacher and student. work to see what testing. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 23(2), 65–86. Kossan, P. (2010, January 20). State weighs major reform for progress has been education. Arizona Republic. Retrieved from http://www. azcentral.com made. During Neisworth, J. T., & Bagnato, S. J. (2004). The mismeasure of young children: The authentic assessment alternative. the meeting, a Infants & Young Children, 17(3), 198–212. plan to address Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2005). The inevitable corruption of indicators and educators through high-stakes areas that need testing. Tempe, AZ: Education Policy Research Unit, Arizona State University. improvement is No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 20 U.S.C.A § 6301 et seq. made. (2002). Sadker, D. M., & Zittleman, K. R. (2007). Teachers, schools, and society: A brief introduction to education. New York: An area that needs The student Not applicable McGraw-Hill. Corrective improvement is is given the Sloane, F. C., & Kelly, A. E. (2003). Issues in high-stakes testing programs. Theory Into Practice, 42(1), 12–17. Instruction/ addressed through opportunity to Smith, M. L. (1991). Put to the test: The effects of external testing on teachers. Educational Researcher, 20(5), 8–11. Feedback specific guidance learn through Stiggins, R. J. (2002). Assessment crisis: The absence of assessment for learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(10), (alternative, that highlights what detailed 758–765. authentic particular issues instruction or Valli, L., & Chambliss, M. (2007). Creating classroom cultures: One teacher, two lessons, and a high-stakes test. assessment) need correction feedback on a Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 38(1), 57–75. Wigdor, A. K. (1982). Ability measurement: Uses, or improvement. particular issue. consequences, and controversies. Educational The skill or content The process Measurement: Issues and Practice, 1(3): 6–26. Wiggins, G. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and area is assessed should focus equitable assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 70(9), 703–713. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. ERIC before and after this on positive Digest, ED 328 611. William, D., & Black, P. (1996). Meanings and consequences: process to determine reinforcement that A basis for distinguishing formative and summative the efficacy of the leads to positive functions of assessment? British Educational Research Journal, 22(5), 537–548. intervention. This changes in the Winerip, M. (2011, August 1). Pennsylvania joins the list of states facing a school cheating scandal. The New York assessment can be outcome. Times, p. A11. done individually or Worthen, B. R. (1993). Critical issues that will determine the future of alternative assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(6), with the class. 444–454.

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Impromptu Formative Assessments

Try some of these prompts to informally assess your students’ understanding:

 Identify at least three/five steps you need to take in order to solve math problems like these.

 How would you help a friend keep the differences between amphibians and reptiles (or DNA and RNA) clear in his or her mind?

 Write a paragraph of 3-5 sentences that uses a demonstrative pronoun (or conjunction or adverb) in each sentence and circle each example.

 In a quick paragraph, describe . . . .

 Create a web, mind map, or outline that captures what you learned today about . . .

 What is your definition of . . .

 Who was the most important character (and why) in . . . . (could be a story, book, play, or historical event)

 Solve these 3 (or 4 or 5) math problems.

 Draw a symbol that you think represents _____ in this book or story and tell why you chose the symbol.

 Record your answer to this question on your dry-erase board and hold it above your head for me to see.

 Prepare a rough draft of the letter you are going to write.

 Using this 3 x 5 card, write the 3 most important things you learned about a cell today and hand it to me as you leave.

 Draw a picture of the flower/animal in today’s story. (Could be a character that was described.) Draw a picture of a flower/healthy meal and label the parts.

 Write a sentence using one of the vocabulary words from today. (Could be on dry-erase board)

 Work with your seat partners to create a conversation that might occur in tomorrow’s reading. Then share it with the class.

 Work with your partner to answer this question (open-ended) . . . .

Assessment Techniques

Kappa Delta Pi Record, 48: 162–168, 2012 Copyright © Kappa Delta Pi ISSN: 0022-8958 print/2163-1611 online DOI 10.1080/00228958.2012.733964 Classroom Assessments That Inform Instruction by Greg Conderman and Laura Hedin

Apply the many techniques suggested here to gather continuous formative student assessment data and adjust instruction accordingly.

The accountability movement in education of an instructional sequence or grading period has caused school administrators and teachers to review student data, provide feedback to to think differently about how they report, students, or inform parents about their child’s interpret, and use student assessment data. For progress. Waiting to conduct assessments example, legislative measures such as No Child until after an instructional period misses Left Behind require school officials to report how opportunities for parents to provide ongoing all students are progressing toward established support regarding their child’s learning; teachers standards typically measured by state and to reflect critically about their instruction and district tests (Goertz and Duffy 2003). School make important instructional adjustments; officials may use results from such high-stakes and students to adjust their thinking processes, tests to determine whether students should engage in self-assessment, and have multiple progress to the next grade, attend summer opportunities to improve and demonstrate their school, or earn a high school diploma (Deshler learning. and Schumaker 2006); how district funds will be Because using information from ongoing used (Fuchs, Fuchs, and Capizzi 2005); and how assessments is so important, this article offers teachers will be evaluated (U.S. Department of representative formative assessments that Education 2003). elementary, middle, and high school teachers In addition to analyzing student scores on can use in their classrooms to inform their state and district tests, teachers are revising their instructional practices. Specifically, the authors day-to-day classroom assessment practices. No illustrate assessments teachers can use before, longer can teachers wait until the conclusion during, and after instruction that will help them

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Figure 1. The Instruction-Assessment Cycle.

understand their students’ learning and reflect upon their own instructional effectiveness. Even teachers who already are using some of these Instruction assessments may discover a wider variety of Assessment choices and uses available.

Importance and Types of Educational Assessment Assessment is the process of gathering information or data on student performance to inform instructional decision-making (Nitko and Brookhart 2010). Teachers use assessment data for a variety of decision-making purposes, such as to determine students’ existing knowledge or skills regarding an upcoming topic; group students according to skills, Planning (e.g., materials, groupings) abilities, learning styles, or interests; analyze Analysis and Goal student errors; determine what or how to Setting reteach; provide a grade or commentary that summarizes skill growth; or refer the child to a child study meeting for additional assessment or intervention. As decision makers, teachers need to be familiar with and use various types of assessments because no single measure provides during the instructional cycle to provide sufficient information about student progress feedback that allows teachers to adjust their (Nolet and McLaughlin 2005). Consequently, ongoing instruction to improve students’ teachers need to have available and base their learning (Perie, Marion, and Gong 2009). decisions on data from various assessments. Observations, student interviews, journals, Classroom assessments generally can teacher questioning, student signaling, and Greg Conderman is a Professor of Special be divided into summative and formative short daily homework assignments generally Education at Northern categories. Summative assessments, such as are considered formative assessments (Bahr Illinois University. His unit or final exams, large cumulative projects, and Garcia 2010). Formative assessments are research interests include state and district exams, and report card grades embedded within the learning activity, directly co-teaching, strategy have a sense of finality and are administered linked to the current unit of instruction, instruction, and methods for students with disabilities. He after a learning unit to provide feedback on administered in a short period of time, and may is a former special education how well students have mastered the content be individualized (Perie et al. 2009). Data from teacher and educational or learning objectives (Bahr and Garcia 2010). these assessments provide feedback to students consultant. He can be Summative assessments also are often used to so they can check their understanding and reached at GConderman@ evaluate the effectiveness of programs, school improve their performance. These assessments niu.edu. Laura Hedin is an improvement goals, or curriculum alignment. also guide teacher decision-making about ways Assistant Professor of Similarly, because they are administered at the to differentiate instruction and thus improve Special Education at conclusion of instructional periods, summative student achievement (Dodge 2009). Therefore, Northern Illinois University. assessments do not provide information for data from formative assessments support Her research interests teachers in making instructional adjustments the instruction-assessment feedback loop, as include co-teaching, literacy methods, and science and interventions during the learning process. illustrated in Figure 1. instruction. She is a former Formative assessments accomplish these goals For example, after teaching students elementary teacher. You (Garrison and Ehringhaus 2007). how to solve one-variable algebra problems can contact her at LHedin@ In contrast, formative assessments usually (instruction), Mr. Marcos reviewed students’ niu.edu. are informal, teacher-made, and administered corresponding homework assignments and

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2012 163 Assessment Techniques

noticed that many students were making to that statement as their unit progressed. This several errors he needed to address the next activity helped Mrs. Mae realize that many day (analysis and goal setting). He decided to students interpret language concretely, and she reteach one-variable problems with a different needed to be careful when explaining words instructional approach (e.g., by using visuals containing more than one meaning. and manipulatives) to the majority of the Students also can contribute to the What I class, while students who mastered the skill Want to Learn (W) column as a pre-instruction could work independently or in groups on an activity. Documenting student responses in enrichment activity (planning materials and this column acknowledges their input, creates groups). Mr. Marcos also developed a new brief shared class learning goals, establishes purposes assessment containing one-variable algebra for the unit, and motivates students to seek problems for students to complete and submit resources to find answers to their pressing (assessment). In a balanced assessment system, questions. Students in Mrs. Mae’s class decided both summative and formative assessments they wanted to learn whether other planets are an integral part of information gathering have life, how long it would take to reach (Garrison and Ehringhaus 2007). various planets, and what astronauts eat in their rockets. Although some of these outcomes were Formative Assessments part of the curriculum, after soliciting student Teachers can use formative assessments at three comments, Mrs. Mae could become especially points in time during the instructional cycle: purposeful in addressing these student- before instruction, during instruction, and generated goals in the unit. To validate this after instruction. Because each of these phases assessment tool, Mrs. Mae’s class revisited the is unique, each is described separately here. K and W columns frequently throughout their unit to add or revise their original statements. Before Instruction Similar to the K and W columns, focused Teachers consider several sources of formative class discussions provide teachers with valuable assessment data to use before instruction. For information about students’ background example, they assess what students already know knowledge. Admittedly, students in diverse by using the What I Know (K) and What I Want classrooms may have different background to Learn (W) columns of a KWL chart (Ogle experiences, language levels, and concept 1989), class discussions, pretests, anticipation understandings (Echevarria, Short, and Powers guides, warm-ups, and admit slips. These group 2006). Therefore, teachers may wish to start or individually administered assessments provide initial discussions with open-ended recognition insight into what students already know, as well questions to create curiosity or interest about the as their incorrect or faulty reasoning. Therefore, upcoming topic or skill. For example, before the they provide teachers with important informal new unit on “long division,” special educator diagnostic information for guiding upcoming Mr. Birky drew the division sign on the board instruction. and asked students whether they had ever seen While using the What I Know assessment, it. Depending on their responses, Mr. Birky could for example, first-grade teacher Mrs. Mae ask students where they had observed the sign developed a chart with K, W, and L columns. She and whether they knew the meaning of the sign, asked students what they already knew about introduce the sign and its meaning, or begin planets, an upcoming unit. She discovered more advanced instruction. Teachers also may use that many students in her class thought that focus groups, individual student interviews, or Saturn had actual rings (e.g., jewelry). Rather conferences to informally assess entry-level skills. than correct student misunderstandings at Information from pretests provides valuable that moment, Mrs. Mae wrote the statement information for teachers and students. Because in the K column, but she added a little asterisk pretests parallel critical outcomes from the to that statement to remind the class to return upcoming unit of study, student performance

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Figure 2. Example of Anticipation Guide.

“The Gold Rush” Directions: Silently read the five statements below about the Gold can guide teachers regarding their instructional Rush. Indicate whether you agree or disagree with each statement emphasis. For example, pretest scores from Mr. by checking the appropriate column. After we complete our reading Leonard’s high school geography class revealed for today, you will have an opportunity to change your responses. that many students could not identify Saudi Arabia, Turkey, or Greece on a map. Based on that Agree Disagree information, he added additional map activities with those locations to his unit. Pretest scores 1. The Gold Rush provided more advantages also help teachers differentiate their instruction. than disadvantages for families who moved Students who have mastered critical outcomes, out west. as evidenced on their pretest, can extend their learning through research, service learning, 2. The Gold Rush caused many people to independent projects, or other enrichment become greedy. activities. 3. The Gold Rush stimulated the discovery of Another benefit for students is that after they the West. have reviewed their pretest score (even though the score would not be calculated toward their 4. Accumulating wealth leads to happiness. grade), they may be motivated to learn what they realize they do not know. Pretests signal 5. America is the land of equal opportunity for to students the important outcomes of a unit, anyone who is willing to work hard. thereby removing the mystery of guessing what the teacher feels is important. When administered again as post assessments, teachers and students Additionally, teachers can use anticipation document pretest gains as supportive evidence guides before a unit of instruction or before to include in student portfolios, share during students view a video, PowerPoint™, or text. parent-teacher conferences, and provide during An anticipation guide consists of a list of student-review committees. statements related to the upcoming topic. When developing traditional paper and While some statements may be clearly true pencil pretests, teachers are encouraged to use or false, a good anticipation guide includes principles from effective test design, such as (1) statements that provoke disagreement and write multiple-choice items as direct questions, challenge students’ beliefs about the topic place the bulk of information in the question (Connor 2006). Before instruction, students stem (rather than in the responses), include no indicate whether they agree or disagree with more than four responses per question, make all each statement. Then, as instruction unfolds, responses about the same length, and use “all of students can change their original response the above” and “none of the above” responses based on new knowledge. The steps of using sparingly; (2) develop matching items only for anticipation guides (Connor 2006) include homogeneous items (such as matching states to (1) Choose the material or content for the their capitals), write longer phrases in the left anticipation guide; (2) Write several statements column, and keep matching items to no more which focus on the topic that students can react than about 10 items; (3) write true-false items as to without prior knowledge and that challenge statements that include one and only one concept, their beliefs; (3) Have students complete the avoid taking statements directly from the text, and anticipation guide; (4) Lead a class discussion avoid taking an obvious true statement and just before presenting the information, to generate inserting the word “not” to make the statement different viewpoints; (5) Present the material; false; and (4) provide background information and (6) Revisit the anticipation guide by having as context when writing short-answer or essay students update their responses to reflect their questions. Further, avoid clues to any answers, new knowledge. Figure 2 provides an example because those will invalidate the assessments of an anticipation guide from an upcoming (Conderman and Koroghlanian 2002). unit on the Gold Rush.

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2012 165 Table 1. Assessments for Various Grade Levels.

Type of Elementary Secondary Assessment Example Example day’s lesson or assess students’ background Warm-ups Solve five, two- Determine the area of each knowledge before beginning a new lesson. digit addition with of the three triangles drawn The class can discuss answers to the warm- regrouping problems on the board (with base and up activities as soon as they are completed, displayed on the height measurements). which provides immediate feedback, or overhead. teachers collect them and read them after class. Either way, student responses provide Admit slips Write two facts that you Write one question you still data for teachers to justify reteaching a skill already know about our have about the chemistry or advancing to the next skill. state. lab we completed yesterday. Similar to warm-ups, admit slips are written responses to open-ended questions Unison responses Everyone, as I point to Everyone, as I point to or statements used as quick writes prior to the letter in the word, an abbreviation on the the beginning of the lesson. These formative say the letter sound. Periodical Table of Elements, assessments help teachers check for student say what the abbreviation understanding or misunderstanding. Admit represents. slips are especially advantageous for students who are willing to write responses or questions, Response cards As I read a sentence, As I describe the type but are reluctant to discuss or volunteer in hold up the card of road, find the card indicating which end representing the appropriate class. Table 1 provides examples of these punctuation should be speed limit. and other formative assessments for both used. elementary and secondary grades.

Dry erase boards Write the spelling word In one sentence, write your During Instruction as I say it. favorite part of the novel. Teachers may use numerous formative assessments, such as unison responses, Exit slips Draw three things you Provide your own examples response cards, dry erase boards, or personal could do if your house of the three types of conflict response systems, during instruction to started on fire. we discussed today. determine whether students are acquiring critical skills or content. Unison responses require all students to provide a verbal response on cue. The teacher’s Anticipation guides not only pique cue might be a verbal request such as “What students’ desires to learn the content, but they is . . ., everyone?” or a physical sign such as also engage students in inquiry and problem tapping the table or snapping fingers. Unison solving, promote active participation, and offer responses are best used when the question has immediate feedback. Students later can use only one correct response, such as reviewing them as study guides. Further, as a formative math facts, orally spelling words, or answering assessment tool, teachers compare students’ factual questions. Though unison responses are pre- and post-responses to note changes in designed to engage all students as a measure attitude or content knowledge (Kozen, Murray, of formative assessment, teachers might and Windell 2006). have difficulty determining which students Another group of formative assessments provided a correct or incorrect response, occurs as students enter the classroom. because some students might not respond, Teachers and students refer to these as warm- others might need more time to respond than ups, admit slips, sponges, quick writes, or bell others, and some students (and teachers) might ringers. Usually they consist of short (e.g., 2–5 be uncomfortable with this approach. If these minute) activities that teachers present on the conditions apply, teachers might instead use overhead or board, which students complete response cards or dry erase boards. immediately upon entering. These warm- Response cards are in the form of cards up activities typically review the previous containing answers or colored sheets of paper

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that students display in response to a teacher’s control unit. After all students have responded, question. For example, while studying the the teacher can display a bar or line graph religions Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity, showing the group’s responses. At that students in Mrs. Wachal’s class displayed the point, the teacher decides to move on to the correct preprinted card responding to the next slide or stop and reteach the concept religion she described. After each question, if the class average was low. The software Mrs. Wachal quickly scanned her class to also allows teachers to later analyze each assess which students responded correctly and student’s response to each question, which incorrectly. As recommended by research, when provides valuable individualized diagnostic more than 20 percent of her students made an information. error, Mrs. Wachal stopped to reteach or review the information (Friend and Bursuck 2012). After Instruction On other occasions, Mrs. Wachal had students Teachers may use several formative display the piece of colored paper associated assessments, such as exit slips, the L column of with their levels of concept understanding the KWL chart, homework assignments, drafts (i.e., red=Stop, I’m lost; yellow=I need a little of writing assignments, or projects completed clarification; green=I understand everything) in steps, after instruction. or their indications of whether a statement she Exit slips are short student responses expressed was true (green) or false (red). collected by a teacher at the conclusion of Similar to response cards, students use a class. About one to five minutes prior to individual dry erase white boards to display dismissal, teachers place a question on the responses to teacher questions. Dry erase board or overhead, or distribute a small piece of boards have more flexibility than response paper (exit slip) with the question for the day. cards because students use them to complete Before students exit, they write their responses, warm-up activities, write responses, show with or without their names included. A solutions to math or science problems, or version of exit slips is a 3-2-1 slip in which complete analogies. As students write their students write three new things they learned, answers, the teacher circulates to provide two things they still want to learn, and one encouragement and corrective feedback. This clarifying question. step provides the teacher with immediate If teachers previously used the K and W feedback on students’ knowledge. Teachers columns, they can now have students generate also can observe which students are off task ideas for the L, or What I Learned column. or have not correctly processed the question Toward the end of the science unit, Mrs. Mae’s (Conderman, Bresnahan, and Hedin 2011). Dry students completed the class KWL chart by erase boards allow teachers to observe student adding the L column. Sometimes students learn responses and adjust instruction accordingly, different content—and much more content— which make them an effective, inexpensive, than what teachers typically assess. Mrs. Mae low-tech formative assessment option for was surprised to learn how much her class teachers at all levels. remembered from various videos and how well In contrast, personal response systems (PRS) they integrated their learning. Her traditional illustrate a high-tech formative assessment assessments did not capture these outcomes. device. In classrooms with computer/projector Although the L column typically is considered or SMART™ Board access, teachers use these a summative assessment, teachers ask students systems to informally assess students during what they have learned and record their the lesson. This technology allows teachers responses at strategic points in the unit; in that to incorporate multiple-choice or true- way, they assess learning and adjust instruction false questions into the lesson’s PowerPoint accordingly before the unit concludes. presentation. When the question slide appears, Teachers likewise use student data from students respond using their clicker remote- homework assignments, writing drafts, and

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2012 167 Assessment Techniques

projects students complete in steps as formative Before instruction, teachers may consider assessments. For example, middle school using the K and W columns of the KWL math co-teachers Mr. Ginther and Ms. Knapp chart, focused class discussions, pretests, maintain a Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet to anticipation guides, warm-ups, or admit document math errors from select homework slips. During instruction, teachers may use assignments. Based on student data, this team unison responses, response cards, dry erase may decide to review with the whole class, or boards, or personal response systems. And one teacher can reteach specific skills with after instruction (but before the conclusion individuals or small groups. Gathering data of the unit), teachers may use the L column after several days of instruction—but before of the KWL chart and exit slips, as well as the conclusion of the unit—allows these analyze select homework assignments, writing teachers to catch many student errors before drafts, or projects students complete in parts. the summative exam. Incorporating these—or other—formative Similarly, as English teacher Mrs. assessments as part of the instruction- DeYarman conferences with individual assessment cycle provides timely feedback to students in her writing class, she records each students while helping teachers adjust their student’s writing goals and errors so that she instruction so all students succeed. can review skills once again before students complete their final drafts. Noting errors References before students take their state or district high- Bahr, D. L., and L. A. de Garcia. 2010. Elementary mathematics is anything but elementary. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage stakes writing exam provides Mrs. DeYarman Learning. Conderman, G., and C. Koroghlanian. 2002. Writing test questions opportunities to tailor her instruction to the like a pro. Intervention in School and Clinic 38(2): 83–87. needs of her students. Conderman, G., V. Bresnahan, and L. Hedin. 2011. Promoting active involvement in today’s classrooms. Kappa Delta Pi Record 47(4): Teachers can review projects students 174–80. Conner, J. 2006. Instructional reading strategy: Anticipation guides. complete in steps to provide specific corrective Available at: www.indiana.edu/~l517/anticipation_guides.htm. Deshler, D. D., and J. B. Schumaker, eds. 2006. Teaching adolescents feedback. After reviewing project drawings, with disabilities: Accessing the general education curriculum. for example, Woods/Industrial Arts teacher Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Dodge, J. 2009. 25 quick formative assessments for the differentiated Mr. Cherif noticed that several students classroom: Easy, low-prep assessments that help you pinpoint students’ needs and reach all learners. New York: Scholastic Inc. miscalculated a critical measurement, even Echevarria, J., D. Short, and K. Powers. 2006. School reform and though he directly taught this in class. standards-based education: A model for English-language learners. Journal of Educational Research 99(4): 195–210. Before he allowed students to estimate how Friend, M., and W. D. Bursuck. 2012. Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers, 6th ed. Boston: much wood they needed, Mr. Cherif required Pearson. Fuchs, L. S., D. Fuchs, and A. M. Capizzi. 2005. Identifying students to recheck their measurements using appropriate test accommodations for students with learning the instructional module he created. This disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children 37(6): 1–8. Garrison, C., and M. Ehringhaus. 2007. Formative and summative formative assessment step ensured students assessments in the classroom. Westerville, OH: Association for Middle Level Education. Available at: www.nmsa.org/Publications/ mastered a critical skill before making more WebExclusive/Assessment/tabid/1120/Default.aspx. costly errors. Goertz, M., and M. Duffy. 2003. Mapping the landscape of high- stakes testing and accountability programs. Theory Into Practice 42(1): 4–11. Kozen, A. A., R. K. Murray, and I. Windell. 2006. Increasing all Concluding Thoughts students’ chance to achieve: Using and adapting anticipation guides with middle school learners. Intervention in School and Recent accountability measures emphasize Clinic 41(4): 195–200. student scores on summative assessments such Nitko, A. J., and S. M. Brookhart. 2010. Educational assessment of students, 6th ed. Des Moines, IA: Prentice Hall. as high-stakes state and district tests. However, Nolet, V., and M. J. McLaughlin. 2005. Accessing the general curriculum: Including students with disabilities in standards-based student achievement on these tests is directly reform, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. related to high-quality classroom instruction, Ogle, D. M. 1989. The know, want to know, learn strategy. In Children’s comprehension of text: Research into practice, ed. K. D. which requires teachers to gather continuous Muth, 205–23. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Perie, M., S. Marion, and B. Gong. 2009. Moving toward a formative student assessment data and adjust comprehensive assessment system: A framework for considering interim assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice instruction accordingly. To that end, teachers 28(3): 5–13. use a variety of formative assessments before, U.S. Department of Education. 2003. Questions and answers on No Child Left Behind. Washington, DC: ED. Available at: www2. during, and after instruction. ed.gov/nclb/accountability/schools/accountability.html.

168 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2012 Formative Assessment Options

Technique Description The 3-minute pause provides a chance for students to stop, reflect on the concepts and ideas that have been introduced, make connections to prior knowledge or experience, and seek clarification. 3-Minute Pause  I changed my mind about …  I become more aware of …  I was surprised about …  I related to/empathized with … Can be any set of 3-2-1 such as:  3 things you found out, 2 interesting things, 1 question you still have 3-2-1  3 differences between, 2 effects of ___ on ____, 1 question you have  3 key words, 2 new ideas, 1 thought to ponder  Write 3 questions, make 2 predictions, make 1 connection Each student is assigned a different letter of the alphabet and must select a word starting A-B-C Summaries with that letter that is related to the topic being studied. Students get into groups of 4 with one student as A, one as B, one as C, and one as D. ABCD Whisper Each student is asked to reflect on a concept and draw a visual of his/her interpretation. They then share with their group in ABCD order. Any type of art can be used as assessment. Create, depict, draw are good verbs that lead Art as Assessment to artistic renditions of a student’s understanding. Give students an analogy prompt: [concept, principle, or process] is like ____ because Analogy Prompt __ This is like a matching activity with each item on its own card. The cards must be Card Sort ranked first and then matched. Chart papers containing statements or issues for student consideration are posted at strategic locations around the classroom. Groups of students brainstorm at one station Carousel Brainstorm and then rotate to the next position where they add additional comments. When the carousel “stops” the original team prepares a summary and then presents the large

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org group’s findings. A Carousel Brainstorm is an active, student-centered method to generate data about a group’s collective prior knowledge of a variety of issues associated with a single topic. Draw a chain of circles or rectangles with arrows pointing from the first to the second, Chain of Events the second to the third, etc. Have students put events into the circles or rectangles to indicate which ones caused which events which then triggered which other events. Students mark text to identify a particular requested concept and chime n, reading the Choral Reading marked text aloud in unison All students must respond or use it with smaller groups so you can tell everyone Choral Response responds. In response to a cue or question, everyone must respond together. Students respond with a Circle idea (something still going around in their head), Circle, Triangle, Square Triangle idea (something pointed that stood out in their mind), or Square idea (something that “squared” or agreed with something they previously thought Students move to a place in a human line that most closely matches their level of understanding. The line is a continuum, with the beginning of the line indicating no Clothesline understanding of a concept and the opposite end of the line indicating a high level of understanding. The teacher gives a list of concepts from the unit and the students must show on paper Concept Maps how they are related. This can be using lines, putting them in different types of shapes, creating an outline with them, or any way the student devises. This often uses Post-it® notes for students to write what they know on various aspects Consensogram of a topic and get up and take the notes to a large chart where they work together to group their knowledge in categories by grouping the notes. After students answer questions on their own, they must work with a partner or in a Consensus Answers small group to reach a consensus answer for each question. Display 6 questions from the lesson or unit. Have students in groups (4 is best). Each group has 1 die. Each student rolls the die and answers the question with the Cubing corresponding number. If a number is rolled more than once, the student may elaborate on the previous response or roll again. Responses could be written. Any form of reflection after an activity can be used to debrief – journaling, responding Debriefing to a prompt, sharing with a partner, or reflecting on a changed perception or idea. Students summarize in well-chosen (own) words a key idea presented during the class Directed Paraphrasing period or past two or three class periods.

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org Drawings are especially helpful for kinesthetic and younger learners. This should be a 5-10 minute drawing of a single idea or concept. It could be even narrower like “draw a Drawing fern leaf” or “show by drawing the difference between a conifer leaf and a deciduous tree leaf.” At the beginning of a lesson (entrance) or at the end of a lesson (exit), students respond Entrance or Exit Cards to a question from the teacher by writing or drawing on a 3” x 5” card and handing it in. After a test, collect test papers and announce an “extra inning” for the next day – ten minutes at the beginning of the period. They are to go home and study whatever they could not remember or figure out during the test. When they come in the next day, they Extra Inning can work on their tests for another 10 minutes. If you want, have them use a different color or a pencil so you can track what they struggled to remember or understand. Give them full credit! Even if they had a 100% originally, it encourages checking or enlarging upon an idea. Written check for understanding strategy where students fill the blank. Example: Fill in Your Thoughts Another term for rate of change is ______or ______. Students respond to a whole class question by showing the number of fingers that Fist of Five corresponds to their level of understanding (one being the lowest and five the highest). Students move to a corner of the room that most closely matches their level of understanding. Previously, the teacher must label each corner of the room with a word Four Corners or phrase that describes the learner’s level of understanding such as dirt road, paved road, highway, and yellow brick road or interstate. Also called squaring off. Put a word or concept in the center of a page or half-page. To the left and above, the Frayer Model students write a definition, to the left below they put examples, to the right above they put facts/characteristics, and to the right below they give nonexamples. After teams have generated ideas on a topic using a piece of chart or bulletin board paper, they appoint a “docent” to stay with their work. The rest of the team then rotates Gallery Walk to examine the other teams’ ideas and ask questions of the docent. When they return to their work, they share with the docent and the docent shares with them so they can add to their ideas. Simple games like Simon Says can be used to determine what students already know. By lining students up and asking them to do large muscle activities when “Simon Says” Game Activities all students will be involved with their minds and bodies. This can be used with something like parts of a body (could be parts of an animal body but they must touch

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org their corresponding part – i.e. “Simon Says ‘touch your left paw with your right index finger.’” The student should touch his left hand with his right index finger). This could also work to pantomime actions as demonstration of understanding. Various vocabulary or math games work well. Think spelling bees and math races at the board. Students use bulletin board paper or discarded newsprint paper and colored markers to Graffiti Wall design a wall of things they know about the topic to be studied. Students can be divided into work groups (perhaps by learning style) with each group assigned a color. Use graphs to allow students to identify their perceived strengths and weaknesses or Graphing levels of interest in topics related to the unit. Graphic organizers include a wide variety of methods for visualizing concepts and relationships: webbing, Venn diagrams, concept maps, mind maps, KWL charts, Graphic Organizers outlines, timelines, flow charts, etc. Some, like a hypercard stack, can be done on the computer. See http://www.eed.state.ak.us/tls/frameworks/mathsci/ms5_2as1.htm#graphicorganizers Make a spinner marked into 4 quadrants which can be labeled “Predict, Explain, Idea Spinner Summarize, Evaluate.” Teacher or student spins and must do what is asked. Create some questions for each quadrant based on material being studied. Distribute index cards (3” x 5”) and ask students to write on both sides: Side 1 – Based on our study of (unit topic), list a big idea that you understand and word it as a Index Card Summaries or Questions summary statement; Side 2 – Identify something about (unit topic) that you do not yet fully understand and word it as a statement or question. Students will use individual white boards, slates, or think pads to respond to a question Individual Response Boards posed by the teacher. The students hold up their answers for the teacher to check or the teacher can circulate the class to check individual responses. Informational Written or verbal surveys or questionnaires assess what students know or have learned. Surveys/Questionnaires/Inventories Create an activity similar to one you would have students do as a culminating activity to do in the midst of teaching the unit. Those students who complete it satisfactorily are allowed to move to a higher level within the unit to be taught. Example: Prior to Initiating activities teaching middle school students about writing a paragraph, have students write a paragraph that describes their school locker. Then give them things to do to the paragraph like underline the topic sentence in blue, circle the proper use of a comma,

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org put a box around a properly used period, number the sentences in the paragraph and below the paragraph give the number of the concluding sentence, etc. This activity would quickly identify exactly which parts of writing a good paragraph each student grasps so that the teacher could focus on what each student still needs while moving some students to writing longer passages. The teacher passes out a list of words or concepts that have been studied. The students develop questions that can be answered with those words or concepts. Give them a list Jeopardy of verbs or question stems from higher level thinking from a Bloom’s taxonomy to help them predict what questions might be included on a future assessment for them. Students write response to an open-ended question in a journal which can be scanned by Journal Writing a teacher walking around the classroom or handed in for the teacher to see. Students respond as whole group, small group, or individually to a topic saying what they know, what they want to know, and what they have learned. Plus (+) asks students KWL or KWL+ to organize their new learning into a concept map or graphic organizer and write a summary paragraph about what they have learned. Students match vocabulary terms to the definitions, causes to effects, actions to Matching reactions, facts to implications or inferences, etc. Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a designated Misconception Check concept, principle, or process. Ask them whether they agree or disagree and explain why. You can also use a multiple choice or true-false question or set of questions. Give students key words for the unit and have them draw a visual representation of how Mind Map those words are related to one another. Notations or explanations may be allowed. Students are given the option of completing the most difficult questions or problems Most Difficult First first to determine if additional practice is needed. (Great technique for gifted and talented students.) Ask students to write about the muddiest or clearest point in the lesson. Use a question Muddiest (or Clearest) Point like: What do you find least clear (or most clear) about natural selection? Students sit in groups and each group member is given a number. Teacher poses a Numbered Heads Together problem and all four students work together to solve or discuss. Teacher calls a number and student with that number presents solution to class. Observing your students is a common method to informally assess student behaviors, Observation attitudes, skills, concepts, or processes. Anecdotal notes, checklists, video or audio recordings, or photos can be used to formalize or document the observations made. See

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org http://www.eed.state.ak.us/tls/frameworks/mathsci/ms5_2as1.htmobservation for examples. One Minute Essay Give a focused question that can be answered in writing in one minute. 1 word for a new title, 2 words about how it made you feel, 3 words to tell about the One-two-three-four-five setting, 4 words to state the problem, 5 words to tell about the conclusion These are questions that have multiple answers or no “correct” answers or lead to other Open-ended questioning questions. These types of questions require a higher level of thinking. They can be asked of the large group, small groups, or in one-to-one settings. Every student writes 3 questions on an index card to quiz another student over material being studied. Students form an inside circle facing an outside circle, with each student facing another student. Outside circle asks one question, inside person answers. Outside Opposing Circles or Onion Ring circle moves one person to the right and ask a question. Repeat. Then change and have inside person ask and outside answer. Outside circle moves to right. Repeat twice. Use the same idea but with the teacher posing the questions and both partners sharing answers for onion ring. Ask each student a question:  How is ____ similar to/different from _____?  What are the characteristics/parts of _____? Oral Questioning  In what other ways might we show/illustrate ______?  Give an example of ______?  What conclusions might be drawn from ______? Watercolors, finger paints, oils, or even glaze on a piece of pottery can be used to depict Painting Poetry a line or stanza from a poem – or a whole poem. This can be done as a written assessment or a one-on-one interview with each student. Peer Assessment Ask about the peers’ contributions to a group project. Invite the student to “grade” each peer for effort in the research, preparation, and presentation. These can be a variety of individual or group performances that demonstrate the Performances students’ understanding and ability to apply what they are learning. Pictures can be used in a variety of ways. A set of three pictures depicting a sequence can be used and the students asked to describe the sequence on paper or verbally. Pictures Geometric shapes can be used and students can be asked to label them or give formulas for their areas. Pictures of biomes could be used and various students asked open-ended questions about what they see to assess their current understanding.

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress, and achievements in one or more areas. The collection must include student Portfolio Analysis participation in selecting contents, the criteria for selection, the criteria for judging merit, and evidence of student self-reflection. Student should explain why each item was chosen and what it shows about his/her growing skills, knowledge, or abilities. Predictions are useful for assessing students’ understanding of scientific or mathematical concepts. Using what they know to predict a new situation helps them Predictions crystallize their prior knowledge and learn to apply it as well as revealing gaps in their knowledge. Predictions can also be useful in literature and social studies to see if they understand various patterns. Use process skills verbs in your questioning: analyze, apply, classify, communicate, compare, connect, construct, create, demonstrate, describe, discover, draw a conclusion, Questioning estimate, explain, evaluate, infer, interpret, investigate, organize, perform, predict, reason, relate, solve, synthesize. Quizzes assess students for factual information, concepts, and discrete skills. There is usually a single best answer. For formative assessment, make then very short (1-5 Quiz items) to get immediate feedback without a lot of grading. Examples: multiple choice, true/false, short answer, matching. Have students act out or write a skit and perform it to demonstrate their understanding Role Plays and Skits of what they are learning. In two minutes, students recall and list in rank order the most important ideas from a previous day’s class; in two more minutes, they summarize those points in a single RSQC2 sentence, then write one major question they want answered, then identify a thread or theme to connect the material. Students collect information about their own learning, analyze what it reveals about their progress toward the intended learning goals and plan the next steps in their learning. This is usually best done in writing. Ask reflective questions like:  What did you contribute to the success of your group’s presentation? Be Self-Assessment specific.  What did you learn about yourself during this project?  What did you learn about your topic during this project?  What grade would you give yourself based on your effort and learning?  What did you like most/least?

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org Students are asked to reflect on, make a judgment about, and then report on their own (or a peer’s) behavior and performance. The responses may be used to evaluate both performance and attitude. Typical evaluation tools could include sentence completion, Self-Evaluations Likert scales, checklists, or holistic scales. See examples at http://www.eed.state.ak.us/tls/frameworks/mathsci/ms5_2as1.htm#selfandpeerevaluatio ns Ask process questions or higher level thinking skills questions and expect at least a Short answer phrase in return. 2-3 sentences can even be considered short answer. This can be used to indicate yes/no, but it can also be useful in determining students’ Show of hands interest in various areas or their desire to work in groups or alone. Students use a card to indicate their level of understanding of a concept. Cards may be labeled as follows:  Red, yellow, green o Stop, I’m lost/Slow down, I’m getting confused/Full steam ahead Signal cards o Happy face/Straight face/Sad face Yes/No  Red, green o Negative/Positive o True/False Give students a thought-starter such as: “The Mississippi River reminds me of . . . “ or Similes and Metaphors “the people of Egypt depended on the Nile River like we depend on . . . “ Anything that is put to music is more easily remembered. Have students make up a song Sing it or rap. Use karaoke tapes or CDs to provide the music or let them write their own. Performance required! Students think of a speedometer going from 0 to 100 miles per hour. They then lay one arm on top of the other with hands touching elbows. Students should raise the arm that Speedometer is on top, stopping at a point between 0 and 100 mph to indicate their level of understanding with 0 being no understanding and 100 being full understanding. Each state administers standardized tests, but the methods of using the data from these Standardized Test Information tests have not always been clear to classroom teachers. Learning how to utilize this data will be helpful in differentiating instruction. One-on-one conversations with students to check their level of understanding. Can do as Student Conferences you walk around the room while students are working on a product or research.

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org Have students show or tell about some aspect of the unit being studied. This is Student Demonstrations especially useful for concepts that build on previous knowledge (math, science). Students ask and answer questions and then analyze the class’ collective findings. Some Student Interviews of the questions can be teacher-generated. These may be products from a previous study of a similar unit (even the previous year) or they may be a creation designed to specifically show what they know today Student Products and Work Samples concerning the unit to be studied. These can be written, drawn, 3-D, video, or some type of production (music, art, dance) or demonstration (how to plant a seed or mix soil). These are electronic devices that students can use to give feedback in real time to the Student Response Systems teacher. Responses can be yes/no, multiple choice, or even interactive. Description: A ______is a kind of _____ that ______Compare/Contrast: ______and ______are similar in that they both ______, but ______, while ______Summary Frames Problem/Solution: ______wanted ______, but ______, so ______Cause/Effect: ______happens because ______Expand these to summary paragraphs with a few more prompts through the paragraph. Have students say or write a summary sentence answering 2-3 of the Summary Sentence who/what/where/when/why/how questions. These can be buddy discussions between two students seated across from one another or they can be mini-conferences with the teacher and single students. Questions should be Table Top Discussions formulated by the teacher. The person asking the questions should write down the answers the other person gave. Similar to Password. Students are seated in pairs with one student of each pair facing the board and one facing away from the board. A set of terms is on the board and the Talk a Mile a Minute “giver” facing the board gives clues to help the “receiver” guess each term. First pair done stands up. Students complete a task as the teacher observes, takes notes, or records progress using Teacher Observation Checklists a checklist. Be systematic so you collect the same type of information on every student. In informal one-on-one conferences students can answer open-ended questions, tell what they liked/disliked, make an argument for/against, or ask their own questions. Use Teacher-Student Conferences questions like:  Based on what you know, how can you predict/what would you expect  Suppose . . . then what

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org  What might happen if  How would you feel if  Can you think of another way we can do  How can you find out about  Can you tell me more  How does that compare/contrast with The teacher creates a multiple choice test similar to the state or district test or to the summative assessment. A fictional student “Terry” takes the test which is then Terry’s Test distributed to the students. Working in pairs, the students must go through the test and determine if Terry answered each question correctly. By doing this, they discuss content and test taking skills. A similar summative test can then be administered the next day. Teacher gives directions, including a question to answer. Students formulate individual Think-Pair-Share responses, then turn to a partner and share their answers. Teacher calls on several pairs to share their answers. (You can add a writing component if you want.) This is a good way to differentiate. A collection of 9 activities are presented in a 9- square grid or in 9 pockets on a grid (over-the-door shoebag works great). Students may Tic-Tac-Toe or Think-Tac-Toe be expected to complete one activity or 3 in a row (maybe 3 days of the week). The activities can vary in content, process, or product and can be tailored to fit the needs of the students. Students respond to a whole class question by putting thumbs up if they fully Thumbs Up understand a concept, thumbs down if they do not understand, and thumbs to the side to indicate some area of confusion. Correct two tests simultaneously. Mark only those questions that both students answered correctly. Return the papers for the two students to go over. They have to Two by Two work together to discover if they are both incorrect or which one is correct and submit a new consensus answer to the problems they did not both get correct. Two minutes or so before the end of the period announce that students can get out any materials they have with them to look up that nugget of information they need to Two Minute Warning support a specific argument or clarify a certain point. Watch them get better at taking notes and knowing where to look in their texts and notes. Unlike during an open book test, when they have only two minutes they have to be really organized.

© 2016 Kappa Delta Pi www.kdp.org Give students a list of concepts or vocabulary words. Have students draw two Venn diagram overlapping circles on a plain sheet of paper and then put concepts into each. Have them indicate overlapping ideas by putting those in the overlapped areas of the circles. Include an assessment item that asks students to indicate what information they thought was important or especially interesting that you did not include in the assessment; the What I Studied That You Didn’t Ask item is worth x points toward the total score. As well as helping teachers understand what students see as important or interesting, it gives students validity in what they are studying. This is a peer assessment for a piece of writing. Pair students to read each other’s writing. The reading must identify two things the author did well (stars) and one Wishes and stars specific suggestion for improvement (wish). Precede with a session on how to give constructive criticism/feedback. Students should respond “muddy,” “buggy,” or “clear” when the teacher asks them to describe their level of understanding. The teacher explains previously that a “clear” Windshield windshield is a high level of understanding, a “buggy” windshield means there is some debris on the windshield making visibility poor, and a “muddy” windshield is plastered with mud so the driver cannot see where he is going. Students sort terms into groups using categories chosen by the teacher or created by the Word sort students. These can be student-generated, teacher-designed, or standard worksheets that go with a textbook – or even some you find in another book or on the internet or borrow from Worksheets another teacher. Not all problems or items must be done – pick and choose what best assesses what you have taught or what agrees with the learning objectives. These should be open-ended so they don’t create a ceiling but allow students to show what more they want to learn about the unit to be studied. This is not a long essay, but a Writing prompts short paragraph or two to reveal their interests and level of current knowledge and understanding.