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University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF LAW, ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES School of Humanities Jews under Fire: the Jewish Community and Military Service in World War I Britain by Anne Patricia Lloyd, BA (Hons), MA Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2009 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF LAW, ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES Doctor of Philosophy JEWS UNDER FIRE: THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AND MILITARY SERVICE IN WORLD WAR I BRITAIN by Anne Patricia Lloyd Jewish and national histories have been interwoven in this study to probe the collision between perceptions of Jewish identity and the legacy of an imperial hierarchy of martial masculinity, conditioned by the pressures of war. It was to create significant dislocation, both in the traditional relationship between Jews and the State, and within the Jewish community. The negative stereotype of the Jewish male, which emerged in fin de siècle, is examined from three inter-connected perspectives; Jewish responses to the evolution of a masculine cult in the prelude to 1914, the changing dynamics of Jewish interaction with State officialdom in the war years, and issues of integration and separation which contributed to the multi-faceted profile of the Jewish soldier. The results of archival research suggest that vested interests concerning the question of Jewish military service created tensions between Government Departments and within the community, where patriotism clashed with nationalism, both concepts being anathema to a large number of immigrant Jews. The consequences divided Jews in Britain, challenging the authority of the Anglo-Jewish elite, and revealing to the State its misconception of a Jewish corporate entity. Despite the Jews’ military record, and the incipient demise of ‘imperial man’, negative perceptions of the Jewish male were diminished but not eliminated. CONTENTS AUTHOR’S DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABBREVIATIONS iv DEFINITIONS vi INTRODUCTION 1 The Anglo-Jewish historiography 2 Approaches and aims 8 Organisation and evidence 12 PART ONE: IMPERIAL AND JEWISH PERCEPTIONS OF WAR, WARRIORS AND MANLY MEN AT FIN DE SIÈCLE Introduction 16 CHAPTER 1 - THE RE-DEFINITIONOF BRITISHNESS 19 Race, empire, and manliness 20 CHAPTER 2 - JEWISH RESPONSES TO MASCULINITY AND GOYIM NACHES 36 The Public Schools’ ethos and Jewish working class youth 40 organisations Jewish ‘warriors’ in Britain before 1914 57 PART TWO: THE WAR YEARS. JEWS AND THE STATE: PARTICIPATION AND DISSENT Introduction 63 CHAPTER 3 - ANGLO-JEWRY AND VOLUNTARY ENLISTMENT 67 Minority issues 70 Enlistment and Jewish identity 75 The Jewish recruiting committees 78 CHAPTER 4 - SUPPORT FOR JEWISH FIGHTING MEN 91 Faith under fire 92 Army responses to Judaism 107 Jewish welfare 111 CHAPTER 5 - CONFLICTING FACTIONS. THE COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE OF RUSSIAN JEWS 117 The imperatives of expediency: the British Government, the Anglo-Jews and the Zionists 121 The case for the Russian Jews: Jewish and non-Jewish support 151 A route to evasion: Across the Irish Sea 168 PART THREE: SOLDIERING OF ALL SORTS Introduction 179 CHAPTER 6 – ‘THE MILITARY JEW’ AND THE JEW IN THE MILITARY 183 Two volunteers from Bristol: Benjamin Polack and Isaac Rosenberg 184 Between separation and integration 193 Soldiering under sufferance 204 CHAPTER 7 – THE DEPLOYMENT OF THE RUSSIAN JEWS 214 Deference or disdain - the Labour Battalions 215 Redcliffe Salaman and the Judaeans 221 CONCLUSION 234 APPENDICES (A and B) 242 BIBLIOGRAPHY 244 DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP I,………………………………………………….. Declare that the thesis entitled ‘JEWS UNDER FIRE: THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AND MILITARY SERVICE IN WORLD WAR I BRITAIN’ and the work presented in the thesis are both my own, and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research. I confirm that: this work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University; where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated; where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed; where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work; I have acknowledged all main sources of help; where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself; none of this work has been published before submission. Signed: ………………………………………………………………………. Date: …………………………………………………………………………. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The process and progress of my research has been an academic adventure and an enriching experience. I am indebted to the many people who have given so generously of their time and knowledge as well as encouragement and wise counsel. The late Edmund de Rothschild was kind enough to telephone, and later to write to me, about his father, Lionel, who played a leading role in Anglo- Jewish liaisons with the War Office. My approach to Clifton College resulted in a fascinating interview with the late Ernest Polack, retired House Master of the Jewish boarding house, now sadly closed. The first of two research visits to Dublin was greatly enhanced by the help of Raphael Siev, Curator of the Irish Jewish Museum, and fount of knowledge about the history of the local community. Much of the scant knowledge of the Labour Corps is held by Ivor Lee, who was most helpful in suggesting possible routes to researching the Jewish Labour battalions. The Reverend Malcolm Weisman, until recently Senior Jewish Chaplain to HM Forces, gave his advice on my delving into the work of Jewish chaplains on the battlefields in World War One. Through the thoughtfulness of a fellow student at Southampton, I was fortunate to make contact with Renée Lauffer, who passed on some of the Great War reminiscences of her father, a soldier with the Royal Scots Fusiliers and later with the Judaeans. Keith Langridge, a researcher into naval history with a keen interest in World War I, has been a continuing source of encouragement. Archival and Library staff have played an invaluable part in my studies. Martin Sugarman, the Archivist at AJEX, was among the first to endorse my tentative ideas for further research into Jewish military service in Britain in the First World War. His impetus was followed by Henry Morris’s warm welcome and help on the several occasions I visited the Association’s Museum, then at Stamford Hill. I would particularly like to thank those at the Archives and Manuscripts Collections at the Hartley Library, Southampton University, for their friendly efficiency on my many visits. Anne Allan, College Librarian at Clifton College, arranged a most fruitful and pleasant research visit for me, as did Christine Leighton, the archivist at Cheltenham College. At the Rothschild Archive, Caroline Shaw has answered my numerous questions over the years, and introduced me to the impressive facilities at New Court. Visits to the National Archives of Ireland were greatly enhanced by the extensive knowledge and efforts of archivist, Gregory O’Connor. As I began my research, I was also fortunate in having the interest, encouragement and help of Susan England, Martin Watts, James Renton and Ben Gidley, all of whom had just successfully completed their own doctoral studies. ii I owe special thanks to Professor Todd Endelman, Michigan University, who gave up valuable time during a visit to London in 2003 to meet with me and discuss my nascent project. I am equally grateful to Professor Bill Williams in Manchester, who welcomed me at the university and enabled a visit to the Jewish Museum in Cheetham. By a piece of sheer serendipity, I made the acquaintance of Professor Asher Tropp, whose continuing interest in my work and many kindnesses I have greatly appreciated. Visits to archives in the North of England and Ireland would not have been possible without the assistance of the Rothschild Foundation, and I am most grateful for their support. My greatest thanks go to those who have been involved in my work from the outset. Professor Detlef Mühlberger, who supervised my MA at Oxford Brookes University, inspired me to contemplate further research, and became a good friend, wise counsellor and regular morale booster until his untimely death last year. I am truly indebted to Doctor Mark Levene, my Academic Supervisor, at the Parkes Institute, University of Southampton. His intellectual rigour, as well as his sense of humour, wit and generosity of spirit, have gently pushed and pulled me through my studies. I would also like to thank my Academic Advisor, Professor David Cesarani, whose conducted walk around the East End on a cold December day in 2003 has resonated in my subsequent reading of immigrant life. My husband, Ron, and daughters, Sarah and Emma, have been totally invaluable, in their preparedness to read and discuss my work, accommodate my distractions and spur me onwards. Their continuing commitment and support have been extraordinary.