Managing Prison Population Growth, Delivering Effective Community-Based Corrections and Treating Drug-Related and Female Offenders

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57

MANAGING PRISON POPULATION GROWTH, DELIVERING EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY-BASED CORRECTIONS AND TREATING DRUG-RELATED AND FEMALE OFFENDERS

Laurence L. Motiuk*

INTRODUCTION community falls squarely of those working in correctional facilities and the community Criminal justice policy makers and at large. Certainly, these people are being practitioners have the lead role in called upon to deliver more sophisticated managing prison populations, delivering services to a clientele constantly changing community-based corrections and treating and for a public that is uncertain. offenders. Because of the enormous social Moreover, correctional staff and volunteers and economic costs to society, crime control must do so in a safe, effective and cost continues to present a serious challenge for efficient manner as possible. This, then, many countries. Internationally, changes defines the problem statement for in legal definitions coupled with reduced corrections - the care, custody, control and public tolerance for crime and focused safe reintegration of offenders. The media attention have led to increases in following paper provides background and sanctioning - both custodial and non- a framework for this important work. custodial - of offenders over the last decade. A. Managing Prison Population Realizing that the public, in general, Growth does not fully understand the inner As constant as growth in the use of workings of the criminal justice system prison has been over recent decades, it is a (Roberts, 1993), service providers are being commonly held notion that it will likely called upon to provide accurate information continue well into this century. In North on the care, custody, control and safe America, roughly one-fifth of those under reintegration of offenders. Knowing also correctional supervision (2000 — 2 million that the media has stretched public in the United States and 34,000 in Canada) acceptance to the limit for any correctional are in prison (growing at a rate of nearly failure means that service providers need 3% per year in the United States and to learn everything there is to know about declining at a rate of 3% per year in effectively and efficiently managing prison Canada). Although international trends population growth, delivering community- indicate that there will likely be larger based corrections and treating special prison caseloads to manage (Walmsley, offender groups such as drug-related and 1999), it is notable that Canada has begun female offenders. to experience a recent decline in their prison population. To summarize - public opinion, staff and offenders exert significant influence over In Canada, the ten provinces are the realization of correctional objectives. In responsible for accused persons remanded particular, the task of safely reducing the to prison before trial, young offenders size of the prison population and returning (under 18), probation, adult offenders drug-related and female offenders to the sentenced to under two years incarceration and parole supervision in three provinces. * Canada

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The federal government is responsible for 6) increasing the use of Restorative adult offenders sentenced to two years or Justice and mediation approaches; more prison and parole supervision. The 7) supporting Provincial conditional National Parole Board decides conditional release recommendations to amend the release for all federal offenders and Prisons and Reformatories Act for provincial offenders in most provinces. greater administrative flexibility; 8) better sharing information and Between 1990-91 and 1992-93 the technologies within the system; number of Provincial/Territorial prison 9) better informing the public about admissions increased by 22.5%, from criminal justice dynamics and issues; 207,946 to 245,746. Similarly, federal 10) testing innovative, traditional methods prison admissions increased 21.4% based on restoration and healing between 1990-91 and 1993-94 (peaking one through Aboriginal justice and year later than Provinces/Territories) from corrections pilot projects; and 4,646 to 5,642. The increase in admissions 11) working more co-operatively on contributed in large measure to the rapid programs and services through growth of the Canadian prison population Federal/Provincial/Territorial pilot in the 1990’s. Moreover, the total actual- projects. in prison population rose by 16% between 1990-91 and 1994-95 from 29,224 to 33,882. Additional recommendations included: Because of this rapid growth in the prison 1) evaluating diversion programs to population, the Federal/Provincial/ include a component on net-widening; Territorial Ministers responsible for Justice 2) developing technology to assist with the in Canada asked Deputy Ministers and integration of systems; Heads of Corrections to identify options to 3) sharing research findings on program deal effectively with the growing prison effectiveness; and population (Motiuk & Serin, 2000). A paper 4) amending a principle contained in entitled ‘Corrections Population Growth’ recommendation #1 - “incarceration was subsequently developed and presented should be used primarily for the most to the Ministers in May 1996 with a set of serious offenders and offences where the eleven recommendations. Additional sentencing objectives are public safety, recommendations were made in the ‘First security, deterrence or denunciation and Report on Progress’ (CPG 1997). alternatives to incarceration should be sought if safe and more effective Eleven recommendations made to assist community sanctions are appropriate in addressing correctional population and available”. growth throughout Canada were: 1) endorsing a shared statement of These recommendations inspired the principles for the criminal justice formation of numerous working groups at system; all levels of government across Canada. 2) making greater use of diversion These people were tasked with designing, programs and other alternative developing and implementing creative measures; options to deal more effectively and 3) de-incarcerating low-risk offenders; efficiently with prison population growth. 4) increasing the use of charge screening; Another important step towards this 5) making wider use of risk prediction/ objective was to gain a better assessment techniques in Criminal understanding of the most important Justice decision-making; factors influencing the size of the prison

249 RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57 population. been declining in recent years.

Factors Influencing the Size of the Sentence length and prison release Prison Population policy/practice are two determinates of the Throughout the 1990s, Canadian crime average length of stay in prison. More control practices resulted in changes in specifically, sentence length determines not criminal code, reporting of crime, court only how much time will be spent in a processing, sentencing and conditional prison but also the earliest possible date release policy and practice. Aside from for supervised release in the community. public policy for crime control and causal Corrections practitioners can impact on the factors linked to crime (such as child average length of stay in prison by assisting poverty, family breakdown, poor education in the selection and preparation of and unemployment), six major factors are offenders for early release and contributing seen to account for the size of the prison to their successful reintegration to the population. They are: 1) crime rates, 2) community with prescriptive intervention sanctioning (incarceration rates), 3) and appropriate supervision. Taken sentence lengths, 4) release policy and together, shortening the average length of practice, 5) offender population profile and stay of prisoners and reducing recidivism 6) successful reintegration/recidivism. should result in a lowering of the size of Another important factor is the offender the prison population. profile (such as number and variety of previous youth or adult convictions, escape Prison Population Management - history, personal characteristics, etc.) of the Offender Reintegration prison population. Offender reintegration can be defined as all activity and programming conducted to The crime rate, particularly the type of prepare an offender to return safely to the crime and the extent to which offenders are community as a law-abiding citizen sentenced to a period of incarceration are (Thurber, 1998). Reintegration the main determinants of prison admission encompasses a broad range of decisions rates (see CSC 2000). In contrast to earlier intended to: place offenders in the least periods, since 1991 the overall trend in the restrictive setting possible, grant number of offences in Canada has been temporary absence or conditional release, downward. In fact, between 1991 and 1998 and invoke suspension or revocation of there has been a 15% decrease in the conditional release when necessary overall number of offences reported by (Motiuk & Serin, 1998). Correctional police. More importantly, since 1993, most service providers can impact on the number categories of violent crime (homicide, of prison releases, the number of prisoners sexual assaults and robbery) have also granted conditional releases, the number decreased. Although comparisons of of offenders who remain incarcerated past European and North American their parole eligibility dates; and the imprisonment rates in 1997 show Canada number of cases who are not reviewed to be relatively high (129 per 100,000 because they were not prepared in time. population), it is significantly below the Therefore, safe, effective and efficient United States (645 per 100,000). While reintegration can yield fewer days spent in there had been a notable increase in annual prison. Canadian prisons admissions in the early 1990s, sentenced offenders admitted to When there is a significant number of Federal/Provincial/Territorial prisons have days less of incarceration for a prisoner this

250 115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS has particular relevance for population program participation has been management when accumulated over demonstrated to improve the likelihood of many cases. Sixteen reintegration levers post-release success. Indiscriminate are suggested considerable opportunity for assignment to programs, where the need is impacting on the size of the prison not identified or, the program is population (Motiuk, 1998). inappropriate, may offer no benefit or actually contribute to conditional release Reintegration Levers failure. 1. Classifying Initial Security Level Initial security level placement has an 6. Ensuring Program Completion impact on the probability and timing of Program participation is a critical discretionary release. foundation for the safe release of offenders. The full effects of programming are not 2. Profiling reintegration potentia always fully known, however, completing Accurate profiles of each offender’s programs provides important information release potential and post-release about post-release success; and program adjustment serves as a means to predict non-completers impose a cost both in terms good candidates for early release and can of wasted resources and in depriving help to establish case preparation priorities. motivated offenders program opportunities.

3. Developing Correctional Plans 7. Improving Program Performance The correctional plan is the foundation The assessment of program performance upon which prison release is predicated and although critical in the decision to support often the basis on which discretionary early release, is often subjective and largely release is supported or denied and often without guidelines. Assessing program understood or have the tendency to become outcome/gain or relating program “binding contracts”, especially when the performance to reintegration potential and plan is associated with a statement of post-release adjustment is important. reintegration potential. 8. Referring for Preventative Detention 4. Improving Program Motivation Increasing preventative detention Offenders who are highly motivated to referrals (to be held to the end of sentence) succeed in programs represent prime results in longer incarceration periods. candidates for successful reintegration. Profiles of offenders who are returned to Motivation is often a critical factor in parole custody following detention can be officer support for program referral, established and provide the basis for participation, progress and early release. improving detention referrals. Accurately assessing offender motivation to target offenders for program participation 9. Moderating Segregation and to establish release priority can make Placement in segregation for disciplinary an important contribution to safe or administrative reasons is a major reintegration. impediment to correctional progress and early release. Profiles of offenders identified 5. Increasing Program Participation as “at risk” to be segregated provide an Institutional program participation often opportunity to develop interventions consumes a large proportion of case designed to divert offenders from preparation time and often becomes a major segregation and to ensure their quick cause of delays in release. Successful discharge; effective implementation of

251 RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57 segregation policies can prevent the 15. Reducing Suspensions segregation of some offenders and ensure Reintegration success can also be the speedy release of others. achieved by maintaining conditionally released offenders in the community; 10. Reclassifying Security Level predicting offenders who will be suspended Reclassification and expeditious transfer is greatly improved by use of risk of offenders to the “least restrictive measures measurement techniques; and suspension of confinement” can improve the offender’s practice is subject to broad interpretation, chances for earlier, discretionary release. often reflecting local decision-making traditions and case management 11. Increasing Temporary Absence efficiencies that can impact on the Participation in either escorted or reintegration progress. unescorted temporary absence programs are critical to establishing offender credibility 16. Reducing Revocations for early release and re-establishing the Technical revocations (those not based on temporary absence program can make a a criminal conviction, charge or absconding major contribution to safe reintegration. from the parole jurisdiction) may provide a source for additional reintegration gain. 12. Enhancing Case Preparation There has been little study of decision- Case preparation is the total of all making processes and no technical activity designed to prepare appropriate revocation guidelines could be developed to offenders for early release and manage them support field staff; and a better throughout conditional release. Achieving understanding of the process and corporate modest efficiencies at any one of a number guidelines, particularly that support of critical stages along the case alternatives to revocation submissions may management continuum can result in offer additional reintegration gains. significant reductions in “days of incarceration” and a corresponding Clearly, the number of reintegration increase in community supervision. levers presented offer mechanisms for reductions in incarceration days. Within 13. Encouraging Community Release this context, the aforementioned levers can Participation in either work release or also contribute substantially to the various types of early release programs integrity of custody, care, control and safe (such as day parole, correctional halfway reintegration practices and the success of house placement, community correctional prison population management. centres, attendance centres) are critical to establishing offender credibility for full Prison Population Management - release and re-establishing the view that Crime Reduction Through this type of programming can make a major Effective Treatment contribution to safe reintegration. Research reviews on adult correctional treatment have found that correctional 14. Enhancing Community Supervision treatment is effective in reducing criminal The effective use of minimum frequency recidivism. Recent studies on offender of contact guidelines and special conditions treatment have yielded overall average can play an important role in determining reductions of 10% in recidivism among whether offenders successfully complete treated offenders (Lozel, 1996). However, their conditional release. with appropriate interventions the results are more impressive - around 30%

252 115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS reduction in recidivism (Gendreau & public safety, there is considerable evidence Goggin, 1996). Meta-analyses of adult and that incarceration alone shows no success juvenile correctional interventions as a method of rehabilitating offenders. demonstrate that juvenile interventions Without other forms of intervention which are more effective than those designed for directly address criminal behavior and adults (Gaes, Flanigan, Motiuk & Stewart, attempt to instill new patterns of behavior, 1999). While education, vocational training prison on its own lacks promise. A major and prison labor programs were found to review of accumulated findings (Andrews, have modest effects on reducing criminal Zinger, Hoge, Bonta, Gendreau, & Cullen, recidivism, they increased positive 1990) provides clear evidence of the behavior in prison. Notwithstanding, impotency of criminal sanctions when studies on behavioral/cognitive treatments, unaccompanied by appropriate on average, have produced larger effects rehabilitative programming. of reducing recidivism than other treatments, Gendreau, Goggin, Cullen, and More recently, Gendreau et al. (2000) Andrews (2000) have noted that when it examined over 103 comparisons of comes to reducing offender recidivism, the offenders who were either sent to prison best approach is appropriate cognitive- for brief periods or received a community- behavioral treatments that embody known based sanction. Basically, they found no principles of effective intervention. deterrent effect from prison, but actually an increase in recidivism. The results of For reporting on crime reduction as a another meta-analytic review by Losel result of effective correctional treatment, (1996) reports rehabilitation programming the change and reduction in recidivism is that takes place in prison settings is less calculated for program completers, effective than programming which occurs participants and dropouts. The change and in the community. Consequently, the reduction (reported as the difference in evidence suggests that better correctional recidivism rate over the comparison group outcomes can be obtained in the - raises the overall magnitude of the effect) community. in recidivism is measured relative to either a matched comparison group, control group There is also solid evidence supporting (sometimes waiting list controls) and or the premise that the gradual and general base rate for a similarly situated structured release of offenders is the safest correctional population. Accredited and most effective strategy for the programs offered by the Correctional protection of society against new offences. Service of Canada based on sound theory Post-release recidivism studies (Waller, and research with therapeutic integrity 1974; Harman & Hann, 1986) have found report reductions in recidivism of 20% to that the percentage of safe returns to the 80% (CSC, 2000). community is higher for supervised offenders than those released with no In sum, it is possible to manage prison supervision. Therefore, offender population size through offender reintegration is seen as working to better reintegration and crime reduction through prepare offenders for release and providing effective treatment. them with greater support once they are in the community. Reintegration efforts B. Delivering Effective Community- should yield dividends in terms of higher Based Corrections rates of safe return to the community and Among the various factors that influence lower rates of criminal recidivism.

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The public is concerned with who and Assessment Methods how offenders are managed in the In practice, the analysis of offender risk community, particularly those who are serves to structure many of the decisions violent or repeat, because those providing made with respect to supervision supervision services are seen as being requirements and program placement. The responsible for their safety. The fact key to risk assessment is to be able to make remains most incarcerated offenders decisions after having considered all of the eventually return to the community and available information. However, the the majority of sentenced offenders are capacity to conduct formalized risk given non-custodial sentences. In fact, assessments is directly related to the nearly four-fifths of offenders being amount of resources a correctional agency managed by North American correctional has at its disposal. authorities are in the community. Andrews, Bonta, and Hoge (1990) have The best way, then, to serve the public presented a number of principles to aid in is to recognize the risk presented by an the classification of offenders to promote individual, and to then put to good use the effective rehabilitation. These include the tools, the training and a fundamental “risk”, “need”, “responsivity” and understanding of what it really means to “professional override” or discretion. The manage offender risk. “risk” principle proposes that the more intensive correctional interventions are Risk Management Principles best applied with higher risk offenders Effective risk management in (those who have a higher probability for corrections implies that decisions are made negative correctional outcomes) while less using the best procedures available, and intensive interventions should be reserved are in keeping with the overall goals of the for lower risk offenders. The “need” system. For correctional service providers, principle proposes that when offender the application of risk management needs are targeted well and interventions principles to reducing the chance of applied to meet those needs, then we criminal recidivism is all that is required should expect a reduction in the amount of to develop an effective risk management recidivism. The “responsivity” principle program (or to improve on an already proposes that an offender’s learning style existing one). These risk management should be matched with the appropriate principles (Motiuk, 1995) include: method of service delivery. Finally, the 1) the assessment of risk; “professional override” principle asserts 2) the sharing of information that after having considered “risk”, “need” (communication); and “responsivity”, case workers exercise 3) the monitoring of activities judgment in treating a particular offender. (evaluation); and 4) if deemed appropriate, an intervention Previous research by Motiuk and (incapacitation, programming). Porporino (1989) on the predictive value of community-based offender risk Public safety is improved whenever assessments found that: these risk management activities are 1) criminal history factors are strongly integrated into every function and level of related to community supervision the correctional system providing care and outcome; control. 2) a consistent relationship exists between the type and number of needs

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that offenders present (unemployment, towards a thorough examination of substance abuse) and the likelihood of offender needs as a set of dynamic risk their re-offending and, most factors, thereby allowing some flexibility importantly, in service delivery. 3) the combined assessment of the level of both risk and needs significantly As part of the standards for community improves our ability to predict who is supervision (Correctional Service of likely to re-offend and who will. Canada/National Parole Board), parole officers are required to use a systematic Static risk factors refer to criminal approach to assess the needs of offenders, history background such number and their risk of re-offending and any other variety of criminal convictions, breaches of factors which might affect successful trust (escape, breach of probation) and reintegration to the community. In keeping exposure/response to the criminal justice with this standard, a ‘Community system (previous probation and/or Intervention Scale’ (formerly called the incarceration, placement in disciplinary Community Risk/Needs Management segregation). Dynamic risk factors refer Scale) is used to capture case-specific to case needs or criminogenic needs that information on ‘criminal history’ and a are capable of reflecting change in an critical set of ‘needs’ for classification individual (Andrews et al., 1990). This is (employment, marital/family relations, a critical component of not only offender associates/social interaction, substance risk assessment, but also of risk abuse, community functioning, personal/ management because this is where emotional orientation, and attitude) while intervention takes place. on conditional release (Motiuk, 1997).

Little can be done about static factors The Community Intervention Scale is (e.g., criminal record or criminal history). systematically administered and re- There is, however, considerable predictive administered to all offenders under power in those variables. While criminal community supervision by case managers history should not be ignored, you cannot across Canada. It provides an efficient do much to change those variables; this is system for recording criminal history risk where dynamic risk factors come in. These and case needs, level of risk and need, dynamic risk factors (or case needs) are required frequency of contact, and related considered to be a sub-set of overall risk. background information on each offender The goal is to effectively target these factors (i.e., release status, warrant expiry). More and apply appropriate interventions to importantly, the Community Intervention have an impact on the likelihood of a Scale assists community staff in managing criminal future. sex offender risk. For example, the process of suspension of conditional release that Using this conceptual framework is very may or may not lead to a revocation is one helpful for community corrections as it is possible measure that can be used to assure allows one to vary frequency of contact, that the level of risk is acceptable. level of supervision or amount of service to be delivered if people do change. It is also To sum, this dynamic assessment helpful, as there is a mechanism to method serves to instruct community- demonstrate that an offender has changed. based service providers with important This situation has resulted in a conceptual information. More specifically, with whom shift in community-based corrections they are dealing, what they are like, what

255 RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57 kinds of problems they faced out in the much better than those who had not. community before they became in conflict Secondly, community offices managed by with the law, and what kind of problems those who had established clear they experience while under supervision. operational standards, routinely monitored Such information can also help direct work, and rejected substandard limited resources to particular segments of performance showed the most the population under community improvement. Finally, community offices supervision to reduce risk. whose field staff coordinated their efforts towards achieving standards performance Supervision Standards received the highest ratings. Standards in community-based corrections usually affirm many traditional Correctional plans determine the how, community supervision practices. They what and why of community supervision. also transform correctional services into It is important to ensure that the plan is publicly acknowledged performance relevant to the individual’s criminality, criteria. For example, community specific and understood by them, feasible, supervision standards might include the decent, humane, and legal. The release following: Agency Mission Statement and plan should focus upon: 1) reviewing Services, Basic Policy Information, dynamic risk factors and criminal patterns, Information Sharing, Officer Selection, 2) addressing concerns of the releasing Training, and Workload, Case Planning, authorities, 3) establishing short and long Case Conferencing and Documentation, term goals and objectives of supervision, Initial and Ongoing Contact with the and 4) reviewing treatment programs, Offender and Others in The Community, resources and supervision techniques. Violation and Suspension, Police Liaison, 24 Hour Availability, Agency Policies, Finally, a critical source of control and Volunteers who provide supervision assistance resides in the quality of the services, Offender Files, and Community interpersonal relationship between the Services and Resources (CSC, 1989). offender and other involved workers in the community (Andrews, 1995). More For community-based corrections, the specifically, the style and mode of aforementioned standards introduce communication is very important in the standardized methods of risk assessment context of supervision, particularly in and case planning, promote uniform terms of interaction with different types of decision-making, and clearly define areas cases. For example, chronically depressed of discretion. Luciani (1994) found that individuals may not respond well to highly compliance with standards are vital to confrontational exchanges. Other specific preserving the integrity of supervision and responsivity considerations encompass promoting a professional ethic. gender, age, intelligence and ethnicity.

Focused research on compliance with When an offender’s risk to the community supervision standards has community is increased, the monitoring found from audit exercises a number of and assistance functions of supervision can keys to success (Luciani, 1994). First and be enhanced through disciplinary foremost, those community offices with interviews and increased frequency of entrenched supervision practices that contact. Under certain conditions, when would survive an audit exercise (as opposed the increased risk level of the offender is to achieving immediate compliance) fared no longer manageable, a suspension may

256 115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS be in order (Motiuk & Brown, 1993). These Dependence in the last year. Due to the situations include undue risk of a breach variety of drugs that could be included in and/or re-offending; a breach of special or large-scale surveys on Drug Dependence, additional conditions (i.e., curfews, not to reliable estimates of prevalence are associate, abstain, etc.); and inability to difficult to obtain. However, it is believed assess risk because of failure to report. that the prevalence of drug abuse is on the same scale as alcohol abuse. In sum, careful attention to dynamic risk assessment or problem identification and Surveys of correctional populations find monitoring are the keys to successful that significant proportions have substance community-based supervision and abuse problems. Consistently, studies of intervention. A good community prison samples show more than two-thirds supervision plan will include elements evidence some degree of substance abuse aimed at avoiding high-risk situations (i.e., problems. Recently, the Canadian Centre social patterns, locale, drug use) and for Justice Statistics conducted a census building in added social support for of prisoners in all adult correctional compliance and active participation in the facilities across Canada. Although plan. substance abuse was the highest need area identified among Provincial/Territorial C. Treating Drug-related and prisoners (less than 2 years), it was higher Female Offenders for federal inmates. In addition, substance Fueled by public concerns for community abuse problems (such as intoxication, safety and demands for new measures to trafficking and importation) among the allay those concerns, the international prison population was the most frequently corrections community is being challenged identified security concern. to respond with conceptual and methodological advances in treatment for The high prevalence of drug abuse special offender groups. Although among criminal offenders indicates a jurisdictions may vary in the risk/need strong association between substance profiles of their offenders and the abuse and various types of crime (Dowden proportion of special groups in their & Brown, 1998). Alcohol is suspected of respective correctional population, there contributing to the loss of ability to control may be sufficient range in these groups to aggressive behavior. Some illicit drugs suggest developing differentiated such as cocaine may elicit paranoid treatment strategies. The United Nations thoughts that lead to aggressive acts. Asian and Far East Institute (2000) Furthermore, obtaining the money to requested that this paper address issues purchase drugs often involves criminal related to treating drug-related and female activity. Although the particular nature of offenders. the association is not clear, substance abuse has been found to be associated with violent Drug-related Offenders acts among adults and young offenders. In North America, alcohol and drug abuse affects millions of people. Surveys Substance abuse has been especially on the prevalence of substance use implicated in murders. Moreover, disorders estimate that around 14% of substance abuse is a well-established adults have experienced Alcohol predictor of recidivism among sexual Dependence at some time in their lives, offenders and mentally disordered with approximately 7% having had offenders.

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In relation to treatment, there is strong intervention. empirical support for the assertion that effective treatment of drug abuse reduces A recent review of the literature (Serin, crime (Andrews & Bonta, 1998). Average 2000) would reveal that there are six reductions in recidivism of 30% have been essential components of an effective drug reported in effectiveness studies of drug abuse program for offenders. These include abuse and appropriate treatment. A recent the following: 1) assessment, 2) pre- outcome evaluation of Correctional Service treatment motivational analysis, 3) formal of Canada’s substance abuse programs in treatment, 4) relapse prevention, 5) 1999 found a 31% reduction in new maintenance and 6) evaluation. convictions for 2,432 federal offenders who completed the Offender Substance Abuse Assessment. Identifying the range and Pre-release Program. severity of treatment needs, conducting client selection for a program; doing a Drug-related offender subgroups have functional analysis of use of alcohol and different risk/need profiles and are mostly drugs and their relation to criminality; comprised of property, assaultive and determining the role of alcohol and drugs robbery offenders in correctional systems. in the offenders’ use of violence, identifying Antisocial associates, relationship to the treatment goals (abstinence or self-control/ offender and circumstance regarding their moderation); matching offender to program contact have been found to be very alternatives; conducting pre/post- important dynamic risk factors to consider treatment assessments of needs, for drug-related offenders. For the most knowledge and skills; and finally, doing part, drug-related offenders present an follow-up re-assessments during elevated risk for re-offence. maintenance phase.

However, there are a number of risk Pre-treatment motivational analysis. factors that are not unique to drug-related Assessing prior treatment experience and offenders but which are associated with re- performance (not just for drug abuse); offence: previous offenses, substance abuse, developing a motivational strategy criminal associates, and antisocial consistent with needs or stage of readiness; attitudes. Risk factors unique to drug- considering obstacles to successful program related offenders include: early age of completion; establishing support system for onset, family supervision/affection, maintaining treatment gains; and scholastic/vocational maladjustment, and considering the role of therapeutic self-control. communities in facilitating treatment.

Drug Abuse Programs for Offenders Formal treatment. Using accepted adult Offenders with drug abuse problems learning strategies, addressing treatment differ in terms of: the etiology of the abuse, needs as identified in assessment phase; presentation of the problem, its specific focusing on knowledge and skill acquisition relation to criminality, and their response using various procedures, incorporating to treatment (Lightfoot, 1995). teaching aids and presenting materials at Fundamental to effective intervention is the appropriate level; and considering the matching of offenders to the most group and individual sessions to enhance appropriate intervention, although higher treatment performance. risk offenders with greater severity of abuse typically require more intensive Treatment targets for substance abuse

258 115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS programs typically include most or all of offender and circumstance regarding their the following: (from the Correctional contact are very important to consider. For Service Canada’s Offender Substance the most part, female offenders present the Abuse Pre-release Program manual) lowest risk for re-offence. orientation, alcohol and drug education, self-management training, social skills There are a number of risk factors that training, job skills, leisure and lifestyle, are not unique to female offenders but pre-release planning, and relapse which are associated with re-offence: prevention. previous offenses, substance abuse, family breakdown, marital problems, education/ Relapse prevention. Identifying offense employment difficulties, and criminal cycle and markers for relapse; considering associates. Risk factors unique to female resilience factors and skill acquisition offenders include: histories of trauma, regarding Relapse Prevention; practicing victimization, parenting responsibilities, coping with high risk situations of physical and mental health problems, and increasing difficulty; and establishing a poverty. plan for maintaining treatment goals. Clinical measures of capacity for Maintenance. Identifying and developing relatedness and connection are important support systems to maintain treatment in determining treatment responsivity of gains; considering treatment boosters to a female offender (Bloom, 1999). In maintain gain; establishing continuity of keeping with general principles of effective care in release planning; and determining treatment it remains important to match the role of special conditions such as risk/need profiles to intervention intensity urinalysis and post-release intervention. levels (Andrews & Dowden, 1999). Offenses committed by females are not Evaluation. Establishing intermediate usually impulsive acts. Consequently, measures of treatment gain (reduced levels gender responsive programming for female of substance use while incarcerated, fewer offenders should be delivered in a woman- institutional misconducts related to drug centered environment that is safe, trusting abuse); calculating change scores for each and supportive (Stableforth, 1999). offender on knowledge and skills relating to treatment targets; rating offenders’ Women-centered Programs performance in the program; gathering Current assessment and classification satisfaction ratings (offenders, unit staff, paradigms are composites or nursing, correctional staff, parole officer, reformulations of what is known about psychology); following up on drop-outs and variables pertaining to female offender risk refusals in evaluation of effectiveness; and need (Motiuk & Blanchette, 1998). finding out the impact of other treatment Comprehensive evaluation strategies for program involvement; and comparing with female offenders are paramount for a control group or cohort. appropriate security placement, prescribing treatment, and risk Female Offenders management. There is growing evidence Female offender subgroups also have that the objective assessment instruments different risk/need profiles with property, used in Canadian corrections are both drug and sex trade offenders most common reliable and valid for female offenders in correctional systems (Motiuk, 1999). (Motiuk & Nafekh, 1999). While current The social context, relationship to female assessment tools appear to be accurate in

259 RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57 identifying static and dynamic variables for CONCLUSION female offenders, there is room for Corrections has always been about improvement. people, not just numbers. State-of-the-art offender assessment tools, treatment Dowden and Blanchette (1999) found programs, and practice guidelines or that drug abusing female offenders tend to: standards are helpful. But unless an start their criminal careers at an earlier organization’s people, at all levels, are age; have previous adult court experience; committed to both effective and efficient possess histories of breaches of trust correctional service delivery (custody, care, (escape, unlawfully at large) and control and safe reintegration), and placements in disciplinary segregation; be supportive of various initiatives, within classified as high need; and experience their respective jurisdictions, corrections difficulties in associates/social interaction, will be unable to move forward into the attitudes, employment, and marital/family future. relations. Their research also suggests that substance abuse problems are not uni- REFERENCES dimensional and interact with a number of criminogenic need areas. Clearly, Andrews, D.A. (1995). The psychology of reliable differences exist between female criminal conduct and effective treatment. offender substance abusers and non- In J. McGuire (Ed.) What Works? Reducing abusers in a variety of areas. Examples of Reoffending. (pp.35-62). New York: Wiley. women-centered programs offered by the Correctional Service of Canada include: Andrews, D.A., & Bonta, J. (1998). The Mother-child program (children (0 - 12) psychology of criminal conduct. Second visitation or full- and part-time residency Edition. Cincinnati: Anderson. program); Anger and Emotions Management; Women’s Substance Abuse Andrews, D.A., Bonta, J. & Hoge, R.D. Program (a substance abuse program that (1990). Classification for effective meets the needs of women); Empowerment rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology, Group for Women; Anti-fraud; Anti- Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17, 19-52. criminal Thinking; Cognitive Skills Training (to think in non-criminal ways); Andrews, D.A. & Dowden, C. (1999). A Canine Program (introduces women to the meta-analytic investigation into effective basics of dog grooming and training); correctional intervention for female Native Sisterhood (provides support to offenders. Forum on Corrections Research, Native and Non-Native women in Native 11(3), 18-21. culture, particularly in relation to Native craft and livelihood skills); Parenting Skills Andrews, D.A., Zinger, I., Hoge, R.D., Program (a short general education Bonta, J., Gendreau, P., & Cullen, F. (1990). program); Survivors of Abuse and Trauma Does correctional treatment work? A Programming (education/ awareness; clinically relevant and psychologically intensive group therapy, post-program informed meta-analysis. Criminology, 28, support); Peer Support (intensive training 369-404. women inmates to provide emotional support to their peers); and Dialectical Bloom, B. (1999). Gender-responsive Behavior Therapy (a cognitive behavioral programming for women offender: Guiding treatment program for borderline principles and practices. Forum on personality disorder). Corrections Research, 11(3), 22-27.

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