60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

VI. THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. BY CECIL L. CURLE, F.S.A.ScoT. (C. L. MOWBBAY).

Thi st a completintende papeno e b s i ro t de stud ye earlth of y Christian monuments of Scotland. It is an endeavour to establish a classification and a tentative chronology, and to review the comparative material. Althoug e wholth h e collectio f earlo n y sculptured stone Scotlann i s d forms a very varied series, there is a main group of Christian monuments of a distinctive type of which there are more £han a hundred still in existence. These are distributed over an area extending northwards fro e Shetlane Riveth mth s a r r dFort fa Islandss ha westwardd an , o t s Hebridese th majoritye th , , however ,eas e beinth t n coasgo e tTh (fig . .1) uniformly Celtic characte theif o r r decoration make t scleai r tha origin i t n thee perio Celtie baco th th yg o f kt dco Church, thad an t they form part e greaoth f t grou f earlo p y Christian monuments -which extend over Ireland Isle Manf th ,eo , Wales partd an ,Englandf so wels a , Scotlands a l . But, although belongin thio t g s series e Scottisth , h 1 sculptures showa definite originality. The slab with a cross, as opposed to the free-standing cros f Irelano s d Northumbriaan d , developed e Isl f Manth e o n i ,s inta , o nationae th l typ monumentf eo erectn a s i , t rectangulaI . r sla stonef bo , sculpture reliefw lo ,n di wit hdecorativa botr o ee h cros e sideon th n f so s o monument e remaininth d an , g space filled with ornamenta r symbolio l c motives, animal carving figurd an , et isar scenes characterisee Th . y b d e extraordinarth y intricac e decorativth f o y e e motivevigouth f d o r an s animae th l carvings. Since Romilly Alie d Josepan n h Anderson published n 1903i e , Th , Early Christian Monuments f Scotland,o ther s bee ha edetaileo nn d study of these monuments. This boo s stilki e standar th l d wor f referencko e photographe ar e subjecto t nth i n I .monumente r drawingo sth l al f so s then known, and a detailed analysis of the decorative motives. It was followed, in 1904, by Romilly Alien's Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian e pioneeth s i Times. rs e subjecworth Hi n whicn ko o t h muc f thiho s pape baseds ri vero N y. precise t datinthaa s t gtimwa e possiblet no d an , much work had been done on the comparative material in the rest of the British Isles. Since then a considerable number of books and papers have been published on the art of the Celtic Church in Ireland and on 1 Throughout this pape wore th r d "Scottish mediaevals uses "i it dn i imoderns t nit no , d sensean , .

62 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

the pre-Conquest crosses and carvings in England. With this increased

comparative evidence available it should be more1 possible to assign a e Scottisdatth o et h monuments, though thi s stili s a difficull t problem. Fe f thewo m bea inscription a r d nonnan eexactle whicb n hca y dated, anhistore dth Scotlanf yo d befor elevente eth h centur vers yi y fragmentary. onls i reviewin y t yb I earle th l y gal carve d stone f Scotlanso d thas i t i t

possible to arrive at any conclusion 2 . The earliest possible date for the first Christian examples may be accepted as some time in the fifth century, the e periot latesMnianS th f d o dt an probabl, e elevent th dat s a e h century, when, wit e comin ht th Margaret S f go , Romanesqu t begaar e n to reach Scotland from the south. Owing to the stylistic development that took place monumente th , s limitea can o t , d extent placee b ,a n di chronological sequence. Many of the motives can be traced to a foreign source, arriving in Scotland in an already developed form, and it is chiefly by collating these different motives with dated examples in other countries tha conclusione tth s give thin i s paper have been reached. The Scottish type of cross-slab is fundamentally a manifestation of two arts, whichevolven a t a , d stage, blend: Pictish art, e nativth o et country, and Irish art, brought in by the Columban monks.

PICTISH ART. The whole Pictish problem is too complicated to enter into in this paper. Whethe e Pictth r s were pre-Celtic inhabitant f Britaino s a r o ,

first wav3 e of Celtic invaders who mixed with the earlier population, is still a matter of controversy, but Watson considers them to be Celts, and, though he is nowhere explicit, implies that they are Brythonic.4 During the Roman occupation the name seems to have been applied to all the people e Romanortth f o hn frontie n Britain.i r 5 They wer a ewarlik e peopl d weran ee never Romanised e earlth yn I Christia. n perion i d Scotland with which this paper is concerned they occupied all the north lisf abbreviation1A o t se footnote useth n di s wil principae . foun116e p b l Th n . o d l bookf o s referenc Britise th r efo h Isles use thin di sfollowing:e papeth e ar r — Scotland.—3. Eomilly Alien Earlye Th , Christian Monuments of Scotland. Ireland.—F. Henry Sculpturea L , irlandaise d Irishan Art; . MacalisterS . RA . , Archaeologyf o Ireland and Irish Epigraphy; Father J. Ryan, S.J., Irish Monasticism; Dom Louis Gougaud, Christianity Celticn i Lands; Mahr. A , Christian Ancientn i t Ar Ireland. England.—G. Baldwin Brown, Arts in Early England and The Ruthwell and Bewcastle Crosses; J. Brandsted, Early English Ornament; . CollingwoodG . W , Northumbrian Crosses Pre- e oth f Norman Age; A. W. Olapham, English Romanesque Architecture before the Conquest; T. D. Kendrick, Anglo-Saxon Art. 2 I have not included in this paper monuments south of the Forth and Clyde (with the exception of Candide th n i w a fe Cas a a distric Galloway)n ti ther fo , y were either Britis Northumbrianr ho . 3 For various view Pictn so Watsone sse , Celtic Place Names, . 11p ; Pokorny, History of Ireland, p. 16; Macalister, Ireland Pre-Celticn i Times, . 255p ; Hubert Celts,e Th , . 203-8 volpp . i . , etc. 4 Watson, Celtic Place Names, . 68-71pp . Eoie Se n5 MacNeill Pretanie , "Th c Background in Britai Ireland,d nan " J.R.S.A.I., Ixxxi 1-28. .pp . E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND3 6 .

and east of the country. In St Columba's time they were being gradually pushed back fro e wesmth te Scot th coas y s b tfro m d Irelandha o wh , established the kingdom of Dalriada in Kintyre about the end of the fifth century.1 When Bede complete s historthei9 hi d71 r n yi souther n e Forth.frontieth s 2wa r Their ethnic and national existence merged with that of the Scots when the two peoples were united unde a Scottisr h kinn gi e middle nintth th f ho e century. e Pictth f so Tht ar e is as enigmatic as their origi - obscures ni in e Th . dubitable examples that they have th e e lefar t so-called "symbols," of which ther e fourteear e n different types (fig. 2), used oveoved an r r again in different combinations. Eleven of these "sym- bols" are apparently ab- stract designs. Thesy ema possibly represent parti- cular objects, but, if this is so, they are produced sucn i hstylisea d fors ma longeo n e b r o recognist - able. Of the remaining three "symbols," one is a n fantastic animal with a Fig. 2. Principal Pictish symbols. long snoud lappetan t , always shown in the same attitude with hanging tail and drooping, fin- like legs (fig. 2, a); the other two are simple objective representations, a mirror and comb (fig. 2, c), a hammer and anvil (fig. 2, 6). No one has as yet succeeded in either dating them or explaining their origin or meaning. They are found over most of Pictish Scotland, unvaried in essential form, although differing slightly in decorative treatment. They are engraved on rough stone pillarse wallth f cavesn o s o , n smalo , l object f stoneo s ,

1 See Eoin MacNeill, Phases of Irish History, p. 133 sqq. 2 Bede, Hist.. Eccles.,26 . c . iv 64 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

bone, and metal, and carved or incised on the majority of the main group of cross-slabs. By far the greatest number of representations of these designs occur e rougonth h stone pillars generally know s "symbona l stones," varying heighn i feett6 froo t ; m3 occasionall naturaa n yo l bouldeprea n -o r o r existing "standing stone" (PI. XIII, a). There are more than a hundred d fiftan y stil existencen i l thesn o e reproduce d ear an , d variationl al f o s fourteen type f symbolso s . Their distribution extends from Shetlann di the north to Perthshire in the south.1 One example has been found outside this are Galloway.n ai greatee Th 2eas e r th numbe t n coasto e ar r, there being nearly fift n Aberdeenshiri y e alone. exampleo Thern e ar e s e wesonth t coas hav f w Scotlando tfe e a bee t n bu ,e wester founth n o d n islands. The symbols are never found singly; there are always at least two, and sometimes as many as five or six, on the same stone. The four most common, the double disc and rod, the fantastic animal, and the mirror and comb, are found, one or other of them, on almost every symbol stone. On the stone pillars are often associated with the symbols representa- tions of animals: the fish, serpent, eagle, duck, stag, boar, deer, and same th en I styl obviousl d . ean a) wol, fXY y (PI L belongP . XIIId an -, d , ing to the same period are a series of similar stone monuments whose only Pisd decoratio f thesan o . , XVIb e e , on animal ,s n XY i d XIX L an , (P sa , XX, a). These are found, -with one exception in Fife 3 and one in Argyllshire,* a onlrathe n i y r limited area near Inverness e anima e stylth f Th o e.l drawing is magnificently free, in marked contrast to the rather rigid patterns of the symbols. Although stylised and treated decoratively rather than realistically drawine th , intensels gi yhunter'a s virilei t I s. artpore th , - traya animalf o l s with which, through long watching e artisth , s closeli t y familiar. In simple, decisive lines the essential characteristics of each animal have been seized: the strong curved beak and talons of the eagle, the heavines bulle deere grace th f th lighth e , s o f th ,eo t movemen wolfe th f .o t Her clearls imitateei n a t yno d art, although certain superficial featurey sma have been borrowed; it is too alive and free, the animals are all native to Scotland and are those which the hunter artist would most intimately know. That suc a hspontaneou s possibli t ar se pres showi eth -y b n historic cave drawings and painted animals of Altimara, where again it is a hunter's art, with the form of the animal reduced to essentials. But althoug a spontaneou t hseemi e b o t s s art, createPictse th t y doei ,db s nothing towards settling the question whether or not they were a Celtic people; for, althoug whole th n eho Celticonfines i t car abstraco dt t design,

1 All the "symbol stones " and most of the places mentioned in this paper can be found in the Map of Britain in the Dark Ages, North Sheet, published by the Ordnance Survey Office, 1938. 2 B.C.M.S., . 478p , fig. 508. 3 East Lomond Hill, P.S.A.S., Ix. p. 33, flg. 2. * Dunadd, see p. 67, and pi. XV, b.

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 65

the Celts did occasionally produce extremely good animal art, for example the stylised engraving of a boar on the Witham shield 1 and the bronze boar from Hounslow.2 Thermeano n s ei f knowin so e practicth f gi f erectineo g symbol stones continued ove a lonr g perio r not t o dI seem . s unlikely tha t i shoult d have done so, for the style of design, the technique of the engraving, and the type of monument appear to have remained unmodified, although there is considerable variation in the quality of design and workmanship; e besth t example e foun ar se extrem n Orknei th d d an ye e nortth f o h mainland, while many farther south, particularl n Aberdeenshirei y e ar , very debased. Neither the age of the symbol stones nor the meaning of e symbolth bees sha n satisfactorily determined. Doctor Joseph Anderson

dated them to the seventh and eighth centuries, while A. W. Clapham, 4

e strengto nth e apparen th f ho a TenL t e characte e mirroth f o rr symbol, 3 puts them as early as the fourth century. Symbols, usually recognisable objects, and including the mirror and comb, were carved on funerary slabs in the Roman Empire, while the mirror and comb, the fish, the serpent, and the eagle attacking a fish, were used in early Christian symbolism too. It has been suggested that three of the objects carried in Roman Triumphs—helmet, shield, and spear—might have inspired respectivel "lile yth y symbol" ) (plum(figk , 2 . e of a Roman helmet), the double disc and crescent (circular shields seen fro fronfloriatee e side),md th th whicf o an td d 5an pointeds dh i en rode on , , e otheth r rounded (spear). Althoug ha composit e e symbolorigith f o n s does seem possible it would be surprising if Roman influence, which did not in any case affect the cultural life of northern Scotland, should remain submerged to reappear after so long. There is in any case no evidence thae Pictisth t h monument y funeraran d yha s purposee Th . bull and other animals have indeed been taken as totemic crests, but, like e animal e th cavth ef o sdrawings , theshavy ma ee been connected with magical rite ensuro st e good hunting; hence als spearse oth , shields, etc. An examination of their decoration and distribution does, however, give some clue to their origin and date. The majority of the symbols are symmetrical both in form and decoration. They are as a rule cut in e stonth e wit ha neat , triangular incision; effecthero n f lighs d o ei t an t shade, it is simply a line drawing. Often a compass has been used, both for the outline of the symbol and for the series of curves which forms its decoration. This type of decoration is so close to that of the Late Celtic metal-work of England and Ireland that a connection between the 1 T. D. Kendrick, Anglo-Saxon Art, London, 1938, p. 6, fig. 1. 2 Ibid., pi. II, figs. 1 and 2. 3 E.G.M.S., p. cix. A. W. Clapham, Antiquity, viii. 1934, pp. 43-57.

4 The mvusual symbol on a stone at Rayne (PI. XXI, a) might be a rectangular shield with a spear behin. BitchieJ 5 . dit , P.S.A.S., . 283p . 1 . VOL. LXXIV. 5 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

two seems almost certain. Although such a style is not necessarily Celtic, since the use of compass-drawn curves in a circumscribed space must inevitably resul somewhaa n i t t uniform pattern, t seemi t ye s improbable

that two similar systems of design shoul1 d be found in adjoining countries if there were no connection between the two. The question remains whether it is the natural art of the Picts developing along parallel lines with Celtic art in the rest of the British Isles, or whether it was taken by the Picts from their neighbours, the British and Irish. The latter explanation seems the more probable for several reasons. The decoration e symboloth ft Celtino s spirit—then si ci characteristic freedo f desigmo n and the asymmetry of Late Celtic art are missing; the patterns are on the whole rather stereotype rigidd dan . Althouge hth thio t se mighdu e b t small space within the symbol into which the pattern had to be confined, t seemi s more probabl owins e tha wa thei o gt t i t r being imitatet no d dan original design. This seems especially likely Vers examplea , w yfe f Latso e Celtic metal-work have.been found in the Pictish area in Scotland. In additio a genera o t n l resemblance e pattern t th onl no n ,i y s employed but in the spacing of the patterns within their frames, with the champleve enamels of the sixth and seventh centuries (PI. XIV), there are detailed feature f desigo s n which e symboloccuth n thesn o ro s wel a ss ea l late enamels. Such are the development of a spiral into the head of a bird, to be seen on a sixth-century latchet and on sixth- and seventh-century

handpins in the Dublin Museum, and on symbol stones on South Ronaldsay 3

and at the Knowe of Burrian i2 n Orkney (PL XIII, d); also the design of "running spirals" which, in metal-work, makes its first appearance on a late type of hanging bowl escutcheon (PI. XXIX, a),4 a"nd which occurs on symboa l ston t Dunnichenea Angun i , s (PI. XIII . Froc) , m thi t seemsi s a justifiable inference that the symbol stones bear some relation to the metal-work of England and Ireland of the sixth and seventh centuries. Certain features of the fantastic animal symbol and of the animal carvings associated with the symbols, discussed later in this paper, appear to have

been borrowed from Irish illumination of the late seventh century5 . e distributioTh e symboth f no l stones gives further evidenc f theio e r date. Wit e exceptiohth f thno e boa , t feDunada )r therXV e L ear (P d o symbon l stone r engraveo s d animale Scottisth n i s h territore th n i y wes Scotlandf o t Scote Th s. establishe kingdoe dth Dalriadf mo a towards the end of the fifth century.6 At the time of the arrival of St Columba r examplFo disce eth f Mycenae so whicn o , h patterne somth f eo identicae ar s l with designn o s Britis1 h hanging bowl escutcheons and with carvings on some of the Scottish cross-slabs. . MahrA 2 , Christian Ancientn i t Ar Ireland, Dublin, 1932, pi, fig. II .8 . 3 E.C.M.S., . , fig17 21 . . p For the dating of these escutcheons see F. Henry, J.R.S.A.I., Ixv., and Irish Art, pp. 36, 37,

. KilbridE . H e 4 Jones, P.S.A.S., . IxxiKendrick . 209-246D . pp . T d an , Anglo-Saxon sqq. 1 Art,5 . p * P. 75. • Eoin MacNeill, Phases of Irish History, sqq.3 13 . p THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 67 ther5 e varyini56 nar e g account o whethet s a s r lona belongee th o t d e Scots.th Picto t 1r so Presumably r JosepD s a ,h Anderson points out,2 Picte ialreadd th f sha y habi e beeth erectinf n o nti g symbol stones before e sixtth h century some examples would have remaine n whai d t later became Scottish e exceptionterritoryon e e boaTh th t ., a Dunadd r , might be explained as the work of a raiding party of victorious Picts, for Dunad a plac s f greao edwa t importanc e Scotth o st e durin e wholgth e histor Scottisf yo h Dalriada. t Columba'S n I 8 s time Sky stils elwa Pictish,4 as were the Hebrides, and in both these areas symbol stones have been caseo found tw Skyn i sn i , e associated wit e cross t hth Pabba A . e y th 5 cross is a simple Latin one, probably added subsequently to the carving symbole ot Raasath fa t bu , y t onl(PIno y.s XVIIIbeeha t ni ) carvec , d at the same time as the symbol, but it is of a very distinctive type, to which a date can be attributed at about the end of the seventh century.6 Thus from all the evidence it seems that the symbol stones cannot be dated to earlier than the sixth century, the majority probably belong to sevente th h century ,eighte whillatth s a s ea he e b centurysomy ema . A number of small objects engraved with Pictish symbols appear to be dated to the same period. Several of such objects have been found on broch sites in Orkney and Shetland. A small ox bone and a small pebbl whicn o e h symbols were roughly scratched come fro e Brocmth h of Burrian in Orkney.7 They belong to a secondary occupation of the face brochth t d thaan , Celtia t c Church bell came fro e sitmth e givee sth possibilit a dat f Christian yo ei n times n ShetlanI . da smal l stone disc engraved with the double disc symbol was found during excavations at approximatele b Jarlshof. n ca t I 8 y datedanaloge th n o ,othef yo r similar discs from Shetland froe on m, Gletness 9 decorated wit hdesiga f curveno s commo latn ni e Irish metal-work, another from Jarlshof 10 wit hroughla y drawn desig f diverginno g spirals, whic s alshi olata e pattern othee Th r. objects bearing symbol metaln i e crescent-shapeA ar s. d plat f bronzeo e from Laws, Monifieth n Angus,i , s 1engravei 1 d wit e crescenhth t symbol and floriated rod, with a runic inscription (which may have been added e othesubsequently th e doubl n th r o sidee d ea dog' on disan ,d n scan o ) head. Their treatment is almost identical with that of the same symbols

1 Bede (Hist. Eccles., say) iii4 . s.c tha t ColumbS t a receive islane dth d fro AnnalsPictse e mth Th . of Ulster gives, unde yeae rth r 573 deate , " Th Comgallf hgranteo o Comgallf o wh islan e n . d th so ,. d. , of lColum-Cille.o at " 2 E.C.M.S., p. ex. . HewaJ 3 t Craw, P.S.A.S., relice sqq.2 Th Ixivs11 confir. p . occupatioe mth f Dunadno d during perioe th d ascribe historn i t i yo dt fro beginnine mth middl e sixtninte e th th th o hf f ht geo o century. Adamna Pictisnd ol (Vit. n a h tell) Colum.,w chie27 sho . fc calle. i d Artbranna s baptisenwa y db 4 St Columba in Skye.

s Parish of Barra; B.C.M.8., p. 112, fig. 115. « See p. 74.

7 Archceologia Scotica, . 360-361pp . . v B.C.d 26 an , M.S.,25 . pp 1 A. O. Curie, P.S.A.S., Ixviii. p. 229, fig. 5. • J. M. Corrie, P.S.A.S., Ixvi. p. 83, fig. 13. 10 P.S.A.&., xli. p. 33, fig. 16. " E.G.M.S., p. 280, fig. 298. •68 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

o leaf-shapeotw n d object n silvei s r from Nome's Law n i Fife,, 1 showing tracef o s enamelling (PI. XVI, /). Amongst other e samth find en i sa silvehoar s rwa d hand- a seventh-centurpin f o , y type, which bears a Greek cross in a circle on the top, and symbols engrave e e sidth Th e t a d(fig. 3) . terminal ring f certai so e massiv th f no e silver chains foun n Scotlandi d 2 bear engraved symbols, which from the type of the enamel- ling appear to be dated to the seventh or eighth century. Caves in Moray 3 and Fife 4 have symbols roughly engraved on the walls, but no date suggestee b n e ca caver thesth dfo s sea were occupation i n ove a lonr g period. The association of the cross with a Pictish symboe symboth n o l l ston t Raasaya e d an , e handpionth n from Norrie's Law, leado t s consideratioe th secone th f no d elemene th n i t cross-sla e eas f th Scotlano tf bo whicn (o d h Pictish symbols appear amidst the Christian motives)—the introductio f Irisno h Christian art into Pictish Scotland.

INTRODUCTIO P CHRISTIANITYNO . The first mission to the Picts was that of St Ninian, who established his see in Galloway during Roman rule in Britain, probably soon afte t e deatMartiS th r f o hn 397i ne Th . earliest and traditional account is given by Bede, tello w sho 6wh The Southern Picts, who dwell on this side of these mountains, had, it is said, for- saken the errors of idolatry, and received the true faith by the preaching of Bishop Ninias, a most reverend and holy man of e Britisth hbeed nationha no regularlwh , y Pig . Silve3 . r Handpin from Norrie's instructe t faithe Romda mysd th an n -ei Law, Largo, Fife. e truthterieth f o s; whose episcopal see,

P.S.A.S., xviii . 233p . . J. A. Smith, P.S.A.S., x. p. 321 sqq.; A. J. Edwards, ibid., Ixxiii. 326. 3 E.G. sqq.9 M.S.,12 . p sqq.0 Ibid.,37 . p Hist. Eccles., iii. c. 4. E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 9 6 .

named afte t MartiS r e bishopnth famoud churca an , r fo s h dedicateo dt him (wherein Ninias himsel mand an f y other saint body)se . resth . n i t. . The place .. s commonli . y calle e Whitth d e House l becaus e therh e e built a church of stone, which was not usual among the Britons. Three Christian monuments, a typ f o e belongin e Brito-Romath o gt n Churc d besan ht represente n Walei d d Cornwallan s , have been found r frofa m t no Candida Cas t a Kirkmadrine,a n Gallowayi 2 . Thee ar y rough stone pillars, two of them about 7 feet in height, the third somewhat less than 3J feet. Eac s engravehi d with a stylise, d versioe Chth i f no Rho, whic s beeha h n reduce a Gree o t d k cross with expanded endsa , comma-like appendag e uppe th beinm l o ar thart e al g t remaine th f o s Rho e crosth ;s enclose i s a circle n d epitapthern i da an , s i e Latin hi n below (PI. XVII . Thea) , y have been lettere datedfore th d th f m o san y b , epitaph e e stylth e perio th t f Ninian.th S eo f o t ,do monument o N 3 f o s this type are found north of the Forth in Pictish territory. No more is heard of St Ninian's mission, and St Patrick, writing about the middle of the sixth century, speaks of the Southern Picts already as apostates.4 The next mission to the Picts was that of St Columba in the year 565. lonfoundes awa tima t a de whe monastie nth c developmen e Iristh hf o t Churc s reachinwa h t s ColumbaheightS it g d an , , befor e camh e o t e Scotland, had already founded several monasteries in Ireland. lona •was essentially an Irish monastery, and remained so until the monks fled fro t mi befor e invadinth e g merVikingo n s e n 806offshooti wa s t I . , but the parent house of an extensive "paruchia" which soon extended to England as well as Ireland and Pictish Scotland. Scottish Dalriada was both politicall d raciallan y y Irish t ColumbS . a himsele thirtyth n i f- two year abbos s wa f thalona o te h taddition i , numerouo nt s journeys to Pictish territory, often revisited Ireland. Adamnan gives a picture of constant comin d goingan g betweeo countrie tw e Saint' th e th nn i ss time; hardly a day seems to pass when a stranger is not heard "shouting acros strait,e himselfe sh th d " an bisho s , whe wa abbod e pnan h lonaf o t s i , clearly much more familiar wit topographe hth Irelanf yo d than with thaf o t Scotland. t lonaBu , thoug Irisn ha h monastery constantls ,wa y engagen di

e conversioth Pictse th nearlr f nfo o ; 5 y hal centurfa y afte comine th rt S f go Columba there seems to have been peace between the Picts and the Scots. Little is known of the early monasteries on the mainland of Scotland. As in Ireland, where the monasteries of the plains have been almost

Candidad A 1 m Casam. 2 E.G.M.S., sqq.4 49 . p

. WA . Clapham, English Romanesque Architecture before Conquest,e th . 5 . p

3 t Patrick'S 4 s Confessio . WhiteD Epistola,t . e J . . N . Londoned : S.P.C.K., Text Studentsr sfo , 4 . ,No 1918; of. Dom Louis Gougaud, Christianity Celticn i Lands, . . 26Douglap W ; s Simpson, Celtic Church . Scotland,n 67 i , 62 . pp 5 An example of the close touch Adamnan kept with Ireland is given by the story of the monks of Clonmacnoise who, in a contest over the abbacy, appealed to him to appoint an abbot for them. E. J. Gwynu and W. J. Purton, P.R.I.A., xxix. c., p. 162, para. 85. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

entirely destroyed Scotlann i o onl" s , desolatis n y o t d i e islands, where eth land littlha d e value, that traces remai f earlo n y church settlements. e Iris th e lov hf Th o emonk r islanfo s d sites, bot r theihfo r monasteries and for the cells of anchorites, could be easily satisfied in Scotland, in e island e wesd th nortth Dalriadan an f ti s wel o sa hs a l . Until much more excavation has been done, not a great deal can be known of the Columban settlements in Pictish Scotland, but there are a number of sites which, from their close resemblanc o earlt e y church settlementn i s Ireland, seem certainly to belong to the Columban Church. For example, Hebridee inth s ther primitiva s ei e oratory dedicate t FlanrianS o dt d an , a double-chambered cell on Eilean Mor in the Flannan Isles; * on the little island of North Rona is found the chapel of St Bona—"Teampul Bona"— and a small cell.2 Dicuil, an Irishman writing in 825, says: 3 Ther e manar e y other islande Northerth n i s n Ocean dayo d tw ,an s two nights sail from the "Northern Islands" of Britain. A certain cleric on whorelyn ca m, I tolhowe dm , havin gdays:ano sailetw r e dfo on d night, he landed on one of these islands, which are for the most part small separated an d froanothee mon narroy b r w channels. They were inhabited by Scottish hermits abou hundree on t d years t agojus s thebu d a ;t yha lain waste fro beginnine mth the worlde w agaie th yno ar f go no s , desolated by the incursions of the Northmen. They are full of sheep and innumerable birda se differenf so t kinds. Durin t Columba'S g s lifetime Orkne s s monksvisitehi wa yy b d. Adamnan, in his account of the voyages of the monk Cormac, tells how 4 St Columba, who was staying in those days beyond the dorsal ridge of Britain, commende [Cormacm dhi Kino t ] g Brude presencth e n th ei f eo under-king of the Orkneys, saying, "Some of our people have lately gone forth to find a solitude in the pathless sea, and if perchance after long "wanderings they should Orcadee comth o et s Islands thoo d , u earnestly commend them thito s under-king, whos ehand thy hostage ,in tha misfortunare sno t e befall them withi territories.s nhi " Cormac was saved from "impending death in the Orcades" by these recoihYSendations^ d returnean , o londt a after some months t I is . very probable thae islandsth t , once visited, woul notee db d dow r futurnfo e settlement, and traces have been found there of the Columban Church. Three Celtic Church earln bella f yso type5 have been maine founth n -do land of Orkney, one from Saevar Ho we at Birsay,6 another from what is

probably a monastic site on the tidal island of the Brough of Birsay,

7 1 T. S. Muir, Bcclesiological Notes on Some of the Islands of Scotland, pp. 58-60, Edinburgh, 1885. 2 Op. cit., pp. 92-95. 3 See Mario Esposito, Dublin Review, 1905, ii. p. 335, and Studies, 1914, p. 651 sqq. 4 Adamnan, Vit. Colum., ii. c. 43. Eeles. C . P , e P.S.A.S.,Se 5 . 409-420Ixpp . earle Th y. typ Celtif eo c bel mads i l sheea f eiroo f o t n bent int oroughlya quadrangular form, rivete d dippeddan coppen i r bronzeo r latee Th r. tenth- century type is a complete casting. 6 James Parrer, P.S.A.S., v. pp. 9-12. 7 Excavate e Officth Workf y o edb t published 1936n ye si t no , . THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 71

and a third from the Broch of Burrian,1 from whence came the bone d pebhlean , engraved with Pictish symbols, which have already been mentioned in this paper. There are remains of a monastic settlement e Brougoth n f Deernesso h . Thes t beee ye hav nt excavatedno e t bu , they appear, from surface indications folloo t , plan wi e smalle nth r Irish monasteries. On the island of Papa Westray, at a place called Munker-

house, there 2 are groups of circular huts with connecting passages. On the same island ther typicalla s ei y Irish site smala , l peninsul lakea d n ai an , here ther smala s ei l oratorruine th beehivf so d yan e hutsthin O s .islan d was foun slada b engraved wit h crosa circle a n si , surmounte Latia y db n cross with expanded terminals (PI. XVII . Thic) s ,bee ha s n thougho t t be a type of cross derived directly from that of the Kirkmadrine slabs and therefore belongin t Ninian'S o gt s Church. This, however e t soth no ; s i , cross e formeintersectinth y b d g arma circl f o se withi na circle , though uncommon in Scotland, is found over a wide area in Ireland in the second sevente halth f o f h century Christiae th n wels i a , s a lnGaul n i Eas d .an t

PRIMITIVE IRISH AND COLUMBAN CROSS-SLABS. Afte 'withdrawae th r e Romanth f o l s whe e churcheth n n Britaii s n Ireland an frof dContinene of werm th t invasione ecu th pagae y b th t f nso Saxons, the two countries remained in close touch with one another, and the British Church in the south of Scotland had an important influence in Ireland, where Candida Casa was celebrated as a school of monastic

training. Amongs3 t the most famous of its Irish pupils was St Enda

of Aran, 4 whose pupi t FinniaS l n founde e monasterdth f Clonardyo , where t ColumbS a underwen ts training. hi par f o n vietI f thiw o s close con-

t surprisinnectiono s i t i ng that similar type f Christiao 5 s n monuments shoul foune b d Irelandn i d e Candidth , a Casa districte th ,n i lona d an , Columban sphere of influence in Pictish territory. Between the fifth and seventh centuries it is impossible to date any monuments exactly, but at the earliest monasteries in Ireland there was generally an upright slab carved with a cross, and a similar type of slab is found at various

monastic sites in Dalriadi6 c Scotland and the western islands, for example

on Eilean na Naomh and Tiree. These monuments bear the simplest 8

for f Latimo n cross t therbu , e were7 other more elaborate types. Such 1 Arch. Scotica, . 360-61pp . v . 2 Inventory Anciente th f d Historicalo an Monuments d Constructionsan f Orkneyo d Shetland,an y b the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments (Scotland), in the press. See Father J. Ryan, S.J., Irish Monasticism, p. 107 sgq.

s 1 See Catalogus S.S.Hib.; Haddan a,nd Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland, ii. p. 292, Oxford, 1869-78. 6 J. Ryan, op. cit., pp. 106-20.

HenryF. 6 , Irish Art,27. p.

8 7 E.C.M.S., p. 402, ag. 421. L. M. Mann, P.S.A.S., Ivi. pp. 123-126. 72 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

is the form of cross derived from a ship, a motive going back to the earliest perio f Christiao d n symbolism.1 Thi s foundi s , wite shith h p reduced to a few stylised lines, at Drumore (fig. 4) and at Kirkmadrine 2 in Galloway, at Cloon Lough 3 and Kilshanig 4 in Ireland. Another type bears small crosslets within the arms of the cross, a motive found on a piece of fifth- sixth-century Coptic e Britisclotth n hi h Museum. This occur slabn o s s

Fig. 4. Cross-slab from Drumore, Kirkmaiden, Wigtownshire.

at Laggangarn 5 and Craignarget 6 in Galloway and, amongst other places in Ireland, at Inishmurray.7 None of~ these monuments have any clearly dateable character. Mile. Henry considers their origin to be a composite one, in part derived from the almost purely Latin funerary monument of the Brito-Roman Church (of. a type already described at Kirkmadrine), in part from t Patrick'S s custo f "engravinmo g crosses stonen o " r rocko s s venerated by the pagans.8

Graves, " On Similar Forms of the Christian Cross found on Ancient Monuments in Egypt and

Ireland,1 " J.R.S.A.I., 1890, i. p. 346 sqq.

2 E.C.M.S., p. 500, fig. 543. . » F. Henry, Irish Art, pp. 30, 31 (figs. 11 and 12).

6 4 F. Henry, J.R.S.A.I.,.l931, p. 274. E.C.M.S., p. 501, figs. 545, 546. 6 Ibid., . 498p , fig. 541. W. F. Wakeman, A Survey of the Antiquarian Remains on the Island of Inishmurray, fig. 23,

Edinburgh7 , 1893. 8 F. Henry, Irish Art, pp. 28, 29. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 73

SEVENTH-CENTURY CROSSES AND CROSS-SLABS. Wit sevente hth h century there bega nperioa greaf do t artistic activity in Ireland—the development of Celtic Church art—not only on stone monuments t als bu illuminaten ,oi d manuscripts n metal-wori d an , n o k such objects as reliquaries, croziers, etc. The chief decorative motives have been analysed by Mile. Henry in La Sculpture irlandaise. Summed brieflp u y they aree spiralth : , derived from metal-wor e Latth ef k o Celti c period; interlacing, a new form in Celtic art, later to succeed the spiral

in popularity; angula1 r designs of fret and key pattern; and animal inter- lacing, derived from Germanic forms,2 and showing a connection with e seventh-centurth d an Saxo t ar n y Anglo-Saxon ribbon style.l Al 3 these motives are found in a dated form in the Book of Durrow,4 which was execute Columbaa n di n monastery abou year'670.e th t 5 Dalriadic Scotland shared too in this artistic development. It is possible that the Book of Burrow was transcribed at lona. Of metal-

work mose th , t important surviving exampl Monymuse th s ei k Reliquary, 6

with its decoration of writhing animal forms, not yet7 certainly dated but probably going back to the seventh century, if not actually to St Columba's time. On the stone monuments of this period the carving became more decorativ d elaboratean e d carvinan , n reliei g f appeare s wela ds a l engraving compass-drawe Th . n cros e mossth becamf t o tim a e r eon efo popular forms. It has already been described at Papa Westray, in

Orkney, where it is surmounted by a Latin cross with expanded terminal8 s (PI. XVII, c). A further development occurs when it is accompanied by other motives t Ballivourney,A . 9 Cork e crosth , s surmountei s e th y db engraved figur littla wit n f eo e hma strangely pointed nos flowind ean g locks (PL XVII, b). The connection between the Ballivourney figure and the portrait of St Matthew in the Book of Durrow 10 is unmistakable. A rather similar little figure, leanin staffa n engravegs o i , bouldea n do t Balblair,ra 11 near Invernes XVIIL (P s anothed , d);an r curious little figure, also shown in profile and wearing a long cloak, is engraved on a slab found in the ruina broc f t o sBurness,a h 12 Firth, Orkney. Other monuments, still

derivatioe Th 1 interlacinf no g icomplena s Irisi t har x question: simple interlacine uses th gn dwa i Bast from 3000 B.C. and was common in Roman art, but the elaborate interlacing with knots appeared at about the same period (the seventh century) in Egypt, Sweden, the British Isles, and Lombardy. F. Henry .devotes a chapter to it in La Sculpture irlandaise, pp. 89-101. 2 See B. Salin, Thierornamentik, pp. 245-70. . HenryP 3 ,. Irish42 , 41 Art, . pp 4 Dublin, Trinity College, 57 (A, 4.5). Zimmermann, iii. (Pis. 1-5). 5 See F. Henry, Irish Art, p. 63 sqq., and T. D. Keudrick, Anglo-Saxon Art, p. 94 sqq. 6 F. Henry, Irish Art, p. 68. ' F. C. Eeles, P.S.A.S., Ixviii. pp. 433-438, pi. VI. 8 See p. 71. 9 F. Henry, J.R.S.A.I., Ixvii. p. 271. 10 Folio 245 b. « E.C.M.S., p. 95. . Marwick1H 2 , P.S.A.S., sqq.5 Iviii29 . p . 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

wit compass-drawe hth n cross, hav epattera spiralf no s beneat crosse hth , as at Inishkea North,1 in Ireland, where they form a stem (PI. XVIII, 6). At Whithorn Gallowayn i , , ther vera s ei y similar cross wit hstema , ulti- mately derived, as is shown by the comma-like appendage to the upper arm of the cross, from the early type of monument with the Chi Rho at Kirk- madrine (PI. XVIII, a). Below the cross there is an inscription in Latin:

LOC STI PETKI APOSTOLi.2 Apart from stylistic evidence e monumenth , t

e seventth f ca o datee hnb d centuryabouo en dt e dedicatio e th th r t fo , n 3 to St Peter would not have been used before 664, when at the Synod of Whitby the Roman usage was adopted in Northumbria and St Peter took a chief plac n dedications.i e 4 Additional evidence comes from Ireland, t foa Kilnasaggart,r County Armagh a pilla, r engraved with crosses

bear almosn sa t identicall5 y worded inscription Irisn i t h bu ,instea Latinf do , mentionind an gcertaia n Ternoc knows i o havo nwh ,t e die 714n di . With the Whithorn monument can be associated two slabs from Raasay,6 in Skye, which bear a similar cross with a stem and the rudiment of the Rho, t wit e crosbu th h sa squar sen i t f theseo a circleinsteae en i On f ; do monument s alreadha s y been mentione connection i d n wit e Pictishth h

symbols with whic engraves i t hi addition di crose XVIIIL th A sno (P t . 7 c) , rather more elaborate form of cross with a stem is found at Kilmory Knap 8 in Argyllshire, and at Glendalough,9 in Ireland. Ther e otheear r example e Greeth f ko s crosa circle n i s , carvew lo n di

relief slabn o , t Clasa d Bhile, Ellery Argyllshiren i , t Abirlot,a d n an i ,

0 1 1

Angus. A more 1 elaborate form of this type of cross is found at Inish- murray,12 Sligo, where the cross is decorated with simple interlacing, carved in light relief, with a decorative arrangement of spirals between the arms. This is very similar to the fragment of a slab from St Donnans,13 Eigg, which has, however, triquetras between the arms instead of spirals. These examples are sufficient to show the close connection that continued between e ColumbaIrelanth d an d n spher f influenco e n i e ScotlandIrise th hd monkAn . thein si r missionary journeys into Pictish ~territory must have become familiar with Pictish art whicf ,o h some traces appea Irisn i r h manuscripts t seemi d san , possible that some decorative features of Pictish animal art may have been borrowed from Irish illumination.

. HenryP , Irish . Art,55 . p . 69 . p e Se z Se . MaealistereS . BA . , P.S.A.S., differena sqq,5 r Ixxfo 31 . p . t readin inscriptione th f go . . 82 , 81 Se. epp G. Petrie, Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language, ii. p. 27, Dublin, 1872 and 1878. J. S. Richardson, P.S.A.S., xli. p. 435. ' See p. 68.

8 P.S.A.S., Ixix. p. 19, fig. 7. ' 9 F. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, pi. 6, fig. 5. 10 E.C.M.S., . 401p , fig. 418. " Ibid., . 205p , fig. 222. 12 P. Wakeman, A Survey of the Antiquarian Remains, fig. 27. 13 P.S.A.S., , figIxvii. 4 66 . . .p E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 5 7 .

A comparison of the bull from Burghead (PL XX, a) x and the wolf from Ardross (PL XIX, a) with the lion of St Mark in the Book of Durrow (PL XX, 6) and a drawing of a wolf in the Book of Kells (PL XIX, 6) show many points of close resemblance. One of these is the inner decorative line endin a spiral n gi , which occurl thesal n ei s animals. Thi onls i s ya formal decorative feature which might have come independentl Irelano yt d and Scotland from the same foreign source. The inner decorative line and the emphasis of the articulations of the body is a decorative feature common in the East; it is found in Assyrian, Scythian, and Sassanian art. Much later it became a part of Teutonic and Scandinavian animal a constan designs i t I .t feature Pictisth f o eh engraved animalss i t I . usually presen Irisn i t h metal-work l founanimas i al d n i dan ,l interlacing in Ireland in the eighth century. This feature taken alone is not enough o shot wa connection t ther bu e othe, ar e r feature f theso s e Pictisd an h Irish animals which are closer parallels. For instance, the eye of the bull of Burghead and that of the lion of the Book of Durrow are drawn in the e Pictisth sam f o h er wolwayea s connecte i fe th ; d wit e spirahth l ter- mination outlinin s noticeabli e jaw gth d ,an y smal proportion i l e th o nt size of the animal, and the same feature is found in the lion of the Book of Durrow. The wolf of the Book of Kells might almost have been a copy Pictise oth f h wolf thin i ; s case there seems little doubt tha influence th t e went from Pictish to Irish art. On the other hand, the Pictish "fantastic animal" symbol is merely another version of the animal "with the lappet e Lindisfarnoth f e Gospel d mus an derivee s b t d fro e sammth e source—

the Teutonic anima2 l (Salin Style II )3—which is found in an earlier form in e Booth f Durroko w (fig. .5) cleas i symboo t I rtw fro e lmth stones with crosse themn o s , already described, at Raasay and Pabbay, that the symbol stones were still in use e cominth t f a Christianitygo e nort th easd f Scotlanhn an o tI . d there are a few other examples of a transition stage bet-ween the symbol stone cross-slabe th d an . A beautifully carved slab, now in the National Museum of Antiquities t Edinburgha Brouge founs th wa ,t d a Birsayf ho Orknen i , XXIL y (P 4, 6) , on the same site as the Celtic Church bell mentioned earlier in this paper. At the top are engraved the double disc symbol, the crescent and rod, e "fantasti th e eagle th d an , c pure animal,th ef o symbo l "al l stone type, t belobu w these symbole figureth f three o sar s e warriors carrying spears d squarean , decorated shields; thee stilar yl incise t almosbu d t merg- intg in o light relief. Whil en styl i t the unlike no e ar e yfigure th e f o s 1 verx Thersi ye similaear r example engravef so d bulls from Burghead, B.C.M.S., . 118-124pp . 2 British Museum, Cotton Nero, D. 4. Dated to about 700. See B. G. Millar, Lindisfarne Gospels, British Museum, 1923 Zimmermannd ,an , iii. pis. 223-244. 3 Salin, Thierornamentik, p. 322 sqq. 4 To be published in P.S.A.S. 76 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

ecclesiastics on cross-slabs, to be described later in this paper, at St Vigean Fowlid san s Wester, the stille yar , with their oddly pointed nosesn i , traditioe th slae figure t th Ballivourneyb th a n f neo o . At Latheron, Caithness (PL XXII), there is a slab with a crudely carved cross, formed of a pattern of spirals and interlacing in low relief, surmounting an eagl d fishean . This seems to be the eagle and fish e symbooth f l stones- re , interprete a Christia s a d n symbol. On some of these half- Christian, half-Pictishmonu- ments somn o s wela ,s e a l debased symbol stonen o s the east coast, there are ogham inscriptions. They t beeye havnt no satise - factorily translated. In the opinion of Professor Macaliste e Pictth r s copied oghathe m alphabet fromthe usinn i Irish d t thegi an , y were awkwardly adapting a script ill suited to their phonetics.1 So closelearliee th o yd r Christian monuments in Scotland resemble those in Ireland that there can be Pig. 5. Liudisfame and Pictish Animals. no doubt that they were Animal, c d aan s from cross-slab e e ,WOrColumba th th Aberlemno f o k .n b and d, Animals from Lindisfarne Gospels. monks. The transitional e, Pietish " fantastic animal" symbol. /, Animal from cross-slab, Meigle. group, however, all found in Pietish territoryn i d an , style far nearer to the symbol stones than to the Irish slabs, must surely be the work of recently Christianised Picts who later, under further influence from Ireland, were to evolve the type of monument characteristi Pietisf co h Scotland. . Macalister1S . RA . , "The Inscription Languagd san Picts,e th f eo " Essays Studiesd an presented to Prof. Eoinn MacNeill, Dublin, 1940. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 77

CARDONAGH GROUP—LATE SEVENTH-CENTURY CROSSED AN S CROSS-SLABS. In the next stage of development in Ireland there occurs the transi- tion betwee cross-slae ne free-standinth th d ban g crosst CardonagA . h 1 (fig. 6) is found the earliest type of free-standing cross in Ireland which, from the analogy of its broad ribbon interlacing wit he Boo th tha f f o ko t Durrow, can be dated to the end of sevente th h century. Besid crose eth s are two stone pillars,2 obviously carved e sambyth ee cross hann th O s a .d them, amongst other motives, are shown David as a harpist, and Jonah and the whale. On the Cardonagh cross d soman , e approximately con- temporary monuments at Duvillaun,3 Inishkea North,4 etc. e representa,ar - e Crucifixiontionth f so . The Cardonagh group makee th s first break-away fro simple mth e pillar monument, wit crosse hth , either alone or with a few simple decorative forms, onle asth y motive addition I .e th no t development of a new form of monu- ment there is apparent a sudden in- flux of influence from abroad, and the first appearanc Irelann ei f Christiado n iconography. Although from this time onwards e free-standinth g cross became th e chief type of monument in Ireland, the cross-sla t immediatelno s bwa y aban- t donedfollowedi d a time an r , fo a ,, parallel development, as can be seen e slabinth f Cardonagh,o s 5 Ferbane,6 and Fahan Mura 7 (PI. XXIII, a), l thawhical te havhar e survivee dth Fig . Cros6 . s at Cardonagli, afte . HenryP r . destructio e monasteriesth f o n t Bu . Ibid.,* . pi21 . . Henry1P ,. Irish57 , 56 Art, . pp 3 Ibid., 58; and P. Henry, J.R.S.A.I., Ixvii. pi. XXXI, fig. 1. 1 P. Henry, op. cit., pi. XXIV, fig. 1. * p. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, pi. XII. . HenryP 6 cit.,. op , pi. XVII. . . HenryXV ' p d cit.,. an op , V pisXI . 78 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

in addition to the new iconography there is also a change in the form of the slab, which from a roughly dressed slab or pillar became a carefully shaped monument, sometimes rectangular, sometimes with a rounded or pedimented top, often with projections at the top or sides. There seems here b possiblea o t e connection with contemporary Coptic funerary slabs (PI. XXIII whic, ,b) somewha e har t simila conceptionn i r , wit hdecorativa e cross and figurative scenes and often a rounded or pedimented top. In the west of Scotland there are a number of monuments closely related to these late seventh-century Irish slabs and crosses. t Riskbuie,A Colonsay, ther complicatea s ei d pillar which revealn i s

its element1 s a crucifixion, a free-standing cross (with the arms barely emerging from the sides of the slab as at Cardonagh), the t'x^uy, an

t Bressa a t Papila d an y(PI . Bressae XXIVTh . ya) , sla nearls bi feey4 t 4

high; tha3 f Papio t feet7 l . Both monuments hav e compass-drawth e n crosa circl n i scommoo es earlien no rbotn s ornamented i slabso t hi d an , 'wit e typ hth f ribbo o e n interlacing e Boofounth f Durrowo kn i d d an , closely recalls a similar cross on a page of these Gospels (PI. XXIV, 6). On each slab there is carved a lion similar to the lion of St Mark of the Book of Durrow Papie th e samn l o th ston ; s ei strangt ei e beast with small ears, protruding tongue, long curling tail and sharp claws, and the inner decor- e Bressaativth n eo lineyt stonbu , t appearei vera n si y simplified form. Both beast derivede sar t fro e Boono m th f i ,f Durro ko w itself, then from some simila conceptioo n rd source ha artis n a o wha f ny o wh b t, reaa t l lion looked" like. ~On~~th~e~~Bre"ssay stone there are two animals affrontes of the sam e Ferbanth e n typo es e a sla Irelandn bi iconographe Th . f botyo h monument ver. s i ys limited. Legends e fro Egyptiae th live mth f o s n monks, St Paul and St Anthony, provide some of the most popular themes on cross-slab Irelann Scotlandn i si d t dPapian A . l there appeare b o st a representatio e temptatioth f no t AnthonS f no womeny yb , disguised as birds, who whisper in his ear: 5 a human head is shown between two creatures with the beaks and legs of birds. The legend of Jonah and the

1 E.C.M.S., . 396p , fig. 413. .' * Ibid., . 394p , fig. 411. 3 Ibid., fig, p 5 .. .4 ' fig, Ibid.,. 10 .6 . p See A. Kingsley Porter, "An Egyptian Legend in Ireland," Marburger Jahrbuch fur Kunstwissen- schaft,6 v. pp. 12-14. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 79

Whal s anothewa e r popular theme J differenA (fig . .7) t version from that on the Cardonagh pillar is given on the Bressay slab, for instead of the fish there is a monster,2 and the swallowing and disgorging are shown e a scenhuma ion ny b e n form extended betwee e moutho th ntw f o s monster e slabbotn sth O thahf . o monumentt p outlinto e th e s there e figurear f monko s s with cowl, staffd satchelan , , advancing towards one another. The similarit e Booe stylth th f Durro f ko e flao o y t th t n wribboi n interlacing (which existed a shoronl r yfo t tim Irisn e typi t 3 )th ,har e of the lion, the decorated compass-drawn cross, as well as the flat style

d f Fig. 1. Temptation of St Anthony and Deliverance of Jonah. a, Cross of Moone. 6, Kettins. c, Papil. d, Dunfallandy. e, Bressay. /, Dunfallandy.

of carving and the broad figures, closely recalling the technique of the Cardonagh cros d slaban s , mak t probabli e e that thes monumento etw s in Shetland can be dated to the late seventh century. An objection to thi s e oghafoune datinth b n n i md gca inscriptio e Bressath n no y stone, whicn i Norse hth e word "dattr" occurs. Thi Doctod sle r Joseph Anderson dat o nintt e slae th lates th b a s h ea centuryopinioe th n Professof I no . r Macalister, however inscriptioe th , considerable b y nma y earlier than this. Tha n infiltratioa t f Norsemeo n n into Shetlan d Orknean d d beguha y n long befor e Vikinth e g immigratio generalle b no t seem w y no saccepted. 4 The only cross-slab of a developed type in the west of Scotland is at

1 It was a widespread motive in early Christian art. See Cabrol et Leclerq, Dictionnaire d'Archeo- logie chretienne t dee Liturgie, Paris, 1907-31. * "Monster" was the word used in the account of Jonah in the "Old Latin Version," the translation of the Bible thought to have been brought to Ireland by St Patrick; in the Vulgate, in use in Northum- bri 700y ab t JeromS , e use wore dth d "fish." 3 See F. Henry, Irish Art, p. 56. 4 See H. Shetelig, Viking Antiquities of Great Britain and Ireland, Oslo, 1935, pp. 6-9. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

Ardchattan,1 in Argyllshire (PL XXV), and belongs stylistically to this group6s i ^ t feeI heighn .i t sculptured an t crose facee d Th onlson . n yo roundes ha d anglejunctioe th rinarmsa e t sth d a g f njoininan ,o g themn o , whic carves hi free dth t pattern show crosBooe e paga th th n f f n sko eo no o Durrow (PI. XXIV, 6). On the upper arm of the cross there is the figure witn hma o a elaboratelf y curled holdins hairi e h legs ; ghi booka s d an , merge into interlacing e cros th rese s decoratef i so Th t . d with patterns of spiral, interlacing, and diagonal key pattern. One side of the slab is missingpanele th t s bu ,formin backgroune gth side crose th eth n o so d t that remains are filled with strange animals and a vertical row of three ecclesiastics with cowls drawn over their heads, one playing a harp, another pipes, and the third holding what appears to be a crown. Below figurthese warrioa th f s eo i e r holdin rectangulara gspeaa d an r , notched shield.2 Althoug broae hth d ribbon interlacing flate th , d rathean , r heavy style of carving should date this slab to the late seventh century, there are several features which indicate a later date; the human figure merging into interlacing is found in Irish manuscripts of the eighth century, and the whole slab bears a general resemblance to the post-Viking monuments of the Isle of Man. 8 PICTISH CROSS-SLABS. We have seen how, stage by stage, the development of the cross-slab n Irelani s beeha d n parallele y exampleb d n Scotlandi s . Now, from e eightearlth n yi h century e Christiath , n monument Pictisn i s h Scotland developed into a national type along lines independent of Ireland. This mentiones typewa e beginnins a th , t da f thigo s paper s formei , d funda- mentally from the merging of the art of the Pictish symbol stones with that of the Irish Christian monuments. The form of the monument, the Christian iconography, the majority of the decorative motives, came from Ireland t thebu , y were gradually interprete wayw ne , anda n dadditioni n ,i , __theJPictish gift for animal art found expression in an elaboration of hunting scenes and imaginary animals. The Pictish symbols themselves were retained and were an important decorative feature. New themes and decorative motives arrived from abroa werd dan e adapte suio de Scottist th t h monu- ment. Irelan e onldth yceasee b outsid o dt e sourc f inspirationo e d an , Scotland's other neighbour, Northumbria, became an important influence.' Northumbria a curiou s wa s t mixture—iar n n part developed from the decorative art of Ireland, in part from the naturalistic art of the Mediterranean e positioth o t f Northumbri o ne .du e s Thith wa ss a a meeting-poin e Romath f d Celtio t nan c Churches. Afte e conversioth r n

1 E.C.M.S., . 377p , fig. 393. 2 Possibly connected with the figure of David the Warrior on the sarcophagus at St Andrews, see fig. 14.

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 81

of the Picts the next great missionary enterprise from lona had been to Northumbria, when, in 635, Aidan, sent from lona at the request of King Oswald d establishe ha e littl, th en s o monasterislan hi de f se o d d an y Lindisfarne e coasth f f Northumbria.o tof , n spitI 1f contaco e t with the south of England, which had been Christian since the establishment of St Augustine's see at Canterbury in 597, Northumbria followed the usage of the Celtic Church for a number of years, but, after a long con- troversy, which terminate e Synoth t f Whitbda do y in' 664 e Scottis,th h party was defeated, and Northumbria accepted the Roman usage. Colman,

Abbo f Lindisfarneo t , left wit s partyhhi , consistin e Iristh hf go monk s 2 Englishe d somth an f eo , firsr lon thed fo tr Ireland. aan n fo Aidad nha

brought witIrism hhi h monk 3 d Irisan sh art d Lindisfarn,an e remained in spirit an Irish monastery long after the departure of Colman. The Lindisfarne Gospels, date o aboudt t 700 e almos,ar t purely Irish. But, in additio Iriso nt h art, Northumbri familiars awa , even befor Synoe th e d of Whitby, with Mediterranean Iris e artTh h. artistic traditio discloses ni d for the most part in manuscripts, the Mediterranean in stone-work, on the carved high crosses which are found all over Northumbria. There was considerable contact between the Northumbrian Church e Churcth d Pictisn hi an h Scotland. Bede tells how 681n ,i , Archbishop Theodor Yorf eo k adde three moro th dtw eo et bishoprics already existing in Northumbria. One of these was at Candida Casa, "the number of e faithfuth l having increased"e provincth e th n f "i o e othe s th ; wa r Picts who at that time were subject to the English," under Bishop Trumwine. Although his diocese appears to have been in Pictish terri- tory, and he had been "made Bishop over them," his headquarters were the monastery of Ebbercurnig (Abercorn), which was "seated in the whica se e h th part f e o th scountr m e Englishar th e f yt o closth bu ,y b e English and the Picts." In 685 King Eagfrid, "rashly leading his army

to ravage the province 4 of the Picts," was defeated and slain. The Picts recovered landsthein ow r , "-whic d beehha ne e Englis th th hel y d db han Scots that wer n Britain.i e " Trumwin s peoplhi d e an ewithdre d wan e monasteriee Pictisth tooth f 0 o k e hsouth. e 71 refugth on y f o B sn i e5 king Nechta d acceptenha e Romath d n observanc f Easteo e wrotd an r e o Ceolfridt , Abbo f Wearmouto t d Jarrowhan a lette ,r f askinfo o r m ghi exhortation "by the help of which he might the better confute those that presumed to keep Easter out of due time; as also the manner and form of tonsure whereb e clergyth y shoul distinguishee db d .. alse h . o prayed havo t e master builder builo st sen dm churca hi t natios stonf ho hi n ei n

1 Bede, Hist. Eecles., . 3 iii . c . Bede » . ctt.,2 op Bede, iiicit.,. . 28. op c . , . 25 iii . c . 4 Bede, op. cit., iv. c. 26. In all the original versions of Bede the passage is given as "sed in vicinia freti quod Anglorum terras Pictorumque disterminat. e translatioth n r StevensI "M f o n , edited by the Rev. J. A. Giles, London, 1840, the translation of this passage is erroneous, giving Scots instea Picts.f do . s 26 Bede . c . cit., . op ,iv 6 VOL. LXXIV. 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40. •

after the Roman manner, promising to dedicate the same in honour of the blessed chief of the Apostles." 1 A lengthy reply was sent, thought to have been writte Bedy nb e himselftelle h thas natioe su d th t an , n "thus reformed, rejoiced, as being newly put under the guidance of Peter,1 the most blessed chief of the apostles, and committed to his protection."2 Though s eagernesBedehi n i , s tha l shoulal t d ente e Romath r n fold, may have taken an exaggerated view of the acceptance of the Roman whole usagth y eeb Pictish nation, reasothero n s ei supposo n t e thae h t deliberately distorts the facts. Summing up the political situation in 731, he states that "the Pictish people are at this time also at peace with Englise th h nation." 3 There were English monasterie t Candida s a Casa, Melrose, Abercorn. Northumbrian crosse l founthese al sar n edi districts, ornamentaw fe t excepa bu r fo lt motives e monumentath , f o t ar l Northumbri d littlha a e developmen th effec n o e tcross-slab th f o t n 'i Scotland, whic s chieflhwa y influence e Irish-Northumbriath y b d n manu- script style. , EARLY GROUP OF EASTERN CROSS-SLABS. A first group of cross-slabs in Pictish territory shows a strong Irish influence. They have the same flat, broad, rather clumsy figure carving s hav a e Iristh e h monument e latth e f o sevents h century e interTh .- lacing, however s developedha , , fro e simplmth e ribbon interlacing found e Bookth f Durrown i o ' , inte extraordinariloth y intricate thread inter- lacing whic a characteristi s i h c feature Scottisth f t o e no h s slabsi t I . onl ygreaa t deal more intricate tha earliee nth scale r typeth muc s et i bu , h smaller, and this change from a large scale to a small one is a typical featur alteratioe th f eo styln i e betwee perioe Booe nth th Durrof f kdo o w sevente th f o towardhd centuren e Lindisfarne thasd th th f yan o t e Gospels e beginninth e eightt a th f go h century e cros s becomTh ha s. a emuc h more important feature and is almost a structural part of the monument, and the arms of the cross are generally joined by a ring in the usual style of the eighth-century crosses in Ireland. e earliesProbablth f o te monumentyon f thio s s grout Glamis,a s pi 4 in Angus (PI. XXVI). It is a massive, roughly-shaped slab of rock, nearly 9 feet in height, with a pedimented top. One side is bare of decoration, except for three Pictish symbols—the serpent, fish, and mirror—which are engraved in the centre. It is quite possible that the monument had first been a "symbol stone" and that later the top and other face were roughly dressed to receive the Christian carvings. On the carved side there is a large cross with rounded angles at the junction of the arms, which are joined by a circle, indicated by lightly incised lines. The interlacing 1 Bede, op. cit., v. c. 21. . 2 Bede, op. cit., v. c. 21. . 3 Bede23 . . cit.,c . op ,v 4 E.C.M.S., . 221p . THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 83

e shafocirculad nth an t r centre crosth s verf i seo y elaborate, while that arme onth formes elongatee si th y db d bodie serpentf so s with small heads and long beaks in which they grasp their fish-like tails. The top of the sla outlines b i monsterso e bodieth tw f y do sb , and, althoug e carvinhth g is sadly defaced, there appears to be a human head between their jaws. In the upper panels behind the cross there is on one side an animal of e e samsamth th en i attitudtyp d e animalan th e s a e s e affrontesth f o Ferban e othee th slab n r o a hippocentaursid; s i e , carryin axeso tw g , and almost identical with a similar figure on the pillar at Tybroughney,

in Ireland. In one of the lower panels are two Pictish symbols—the1 deer's head surmountin triplga e otheeth ring s i n rI . a curious scene representing a human sacrifice: two men tunicsn i , with cowls, appea threateo t r anothee non r with axes, while above the a cauldro m s whicf i o t hnou emerge human legs. This might be taken to represent a Christian martyrdom, but its resemblance to a scene on the Gundestrup Cauldron2 (fig ) make.8 a pagas n origin more probable. Cross-slab t Fowlia s s Westet a XXVIIL rd (P 8 an ) 6 , St Vigeans 4 (PI. XXVII, a) are carved on one side only. Both shocrose shafe th w th f s o trisin g fro mrectangulaa r n bot o e carvinbase th hd an , s intricati g d delicatan e e „ 0 Sacrific Gunden o e - d in an verreliefw lo y t Vigean.S e sla th t Para b f o ts strup Cauldron. has been destroyed, but most of the cross remains except the upper portion. It has rounded angles at the junction of the arms, but no ring joining them. The decoration on the cross consists of key pattere armsth n ,o n rathe r angular interlacin e uppeth n ro g part e baseth n , o e andlowe e th shafd o th fn e an r,shafto t th par f o ,t a symmetrical pattern forme f eigho d t spirals, fou f whico r h terminate in birds' heads, either bitin another'e gon s necks r elso , e wit e beakhth s meetin a smal t a ge centre l e latteth dis t Th a s cquiti .r a ecommo n Celtic patters foundi d r example nfo an ,e Cardonagth n o , hn i cros d an s Rome th e Grospels. othee Th r6 four spirals terminat beardee th n ei d heads of men, with noses touching e iconographTh . e figurth f eo y scenen i s panele th eithen so rcrose sidth morf s si eo e varied tha usuans i Scotlandn li . The only theme of which the derivation is clear is that of St Paul and St Anthony parting the bread. The two saints are shown seated on chairs facing one another, with long tunics and short boots with pointed toes.

This versio e storth f theif yo no r meetin s takegi n fro t Jerome'mS s life 1 P. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, p. 42 and pi. XVIII. Huberte Se Risee Th , of the Celts, . 124p ; Br0ndsted, Danmarks Oldtid, iii. 88-96.pp . P.S.A.S.,cf ;

Ixiii2 . pp. 196-213. 3 P.S.A.S., Ixvi . 409p . , fig . .1 " E.C.M.S., . 268p , fig. 278. 5 Vatican Barb. lat. 570. Folios 18a and 125, da,ted to the end of the eighth century. 84 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

of St Paul, written at the end of the fourth century, which tells how a raven having brought the ma loa f breado f , they dispute shoulo wh d d firse btako eth t t esharea , each wishin givo gt e preferenc e otherth o t e, until finally each took hold of the loaf and they pulled it apar t(fig. 9, 6).

similaa n I r versio scene th f Irelandnn eo i crossee th n Moonf o , so e 2) (figa , 9 . 1 and Armagh,3 the raven is shown above the two saints. On the slab at St Vigeans there may originally have been a bird too, but the portion of e slath b just abov figuree eth missings lowei e s th n re samI parth . f eo t panel ther s carveei da curiou s scene wher elittla e s show i nake n ndma crouching belo , e apparentlfigura wcowth ox f r o eo , y abou o thrust t t a dagger e intothe e panes throatth oit th n r n o lI sid . e ther foue ear r marching figures of ecclesiastics, with, cowls and long fringed tunics.

Pig. 9. Meeting of St Paul and St Anthony. a, t CrosVigeans , DunfallandyS c , Moonef 6 so . . .

Between the two upper figures is the half-naked body of a man, suspended upside down wit heas hhi d restin bloca n gr cauldrono k o explanatioo N . n s beeha n foun r thes o scenesfo d tw e ; possibly boty represenma h a t sacrifice e sla crose th t Fowli ba n Th o s. s Weste s squareha r , insteaf do the usual rounded, angles at the junction of the arms, and the ring joining e armth s veri s y prominent interlacine Th . spirad gan l pattere th n no cross is very finely executed. In the upper panels there are, on one side, a realistic scene of Jonah and the monster; on the other, a sea monster associated with a-sword and circular shield. On either side of the shaft are two seated figures of ecclesiastics. Behind one chair is the figure of an angel; behind the other a flowering tree. In front of one of the ecclesiastic a flowerin s i s g rod. Thi s evidentli s a ysimplifie d version t Anthonytheme S ot Pau th fS d f eo an l representes a , t VigeanS e th sn do slab and the cross at Moone. It occurs in this form on one other slab in Scotland, that of Dunfallandy (fig. 9, c), which is described later in this paper, cross-slaa n o d an b fro Isle mMan.f th eo 4 Below thi morso scentw ee ear ecclesiastics walking towarde Papith n e e lcross o th th sstone s t a , bu ,

• ' See H. Waddell, Desert Fathers, p. 49. 2 P. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, p. 146, fig. 109a. . HenryP 3 tit.,. . 152op ,p , fig. 119. 4 At Kirk Maughold. See E.C.M.S., p. 10, fig. 5. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 85

corresponding figures on the opposite side of the shaft are missing. The tunics of the four figures, as well as the sides of the chairs, are elaborately carved with key pattern. A curious feature of this monument is that the original block of stone had only been roughly dressed so that, in spite delicace oth f precisiod y an carvinge executeth s f no wa uneven a t i , n do n surface. The carvin e cross-slath n go t Golspie,ba Sutherlann 1i d (PI. XXVIII), recall techniqun si e monumeneth t Glamisa t , where e motivesomth f eo s are carved in light relief and others are incised. There are no figures on the side which bears the cross, nothing but ornamental motives, consisting of interlacing (part formei f o t snakef do s with fishes' tails, as at Glamis), and patterns composed of spirals or fret patterns. The other side, however, is covered with a profusio Pictisf no h symbols leso n , s e thath n i fived an , centre a scene where a bearded man in a short tunic, bearin a strang e ghana dagged on an d e n i r weapon, possibl e other,axen ya th shows n ,i i n threateninga wolf-like beast, somewhat resembling the lion of the Book of Durrow (fig. 10) oghan A . m inscriptione runth p su e righedgth f e tslaeo d acros th sid b an f e top o eth s , e actuath d le an monumenedgth f o e s carvei t d with PigDetai. 10 . l of "runnina g spiral fairln "i y deep relief. Golspie Cross-slab- Still another cross-slab belonging stylisticall o thit y s t groua s i p t Madoes,S n Perthshirei s carvei rathea t I n di . r clumsy style which

give t whai s s probabl2 i t yfalsela y archaic usuaappearancee th s l ha t I . side croson e witn o sarme hth s joine ringa y db ; ther squara s ei e panel at the centre with raised bosses. The top of the slab is outlined by the crouching forms of two beasts. In the upper two panels are two beasts with heads turned back. In the lower panels on either side of the shaft of the cross are a pair of animals with elongated bodies, biting one another, which rouga appea e b ho t rattemp strie th pt a tfor animaf mo l interlacing Booe panelsx oth si f sla e f Durrobacke s o th n bha i f ,Th ko w. a) (fig , 11 . thre whicf eo single har e horsemen, with othee cowlth cloaksd n ri s an d an , three Pictish symbols.

MAIN GKOUP. In spite of their composite origin and the variety of sources that influenced their development, the Pictish cross-slabs gradually evolved into a remarkably constant type. The Irish influence declined as the influence from Northumbria increased e Pictisth d han , geniu r animafo s l

1 E.G.M.S., p. 48, fig. 48; for the inscription see Macalister, loc. cit., pp. 206-208. 1 E.C.M.S., . 292p , fig. 309. 86 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

t becamar dominatinea g feature. The. Christian iconography introduced was never very varie d becamdan e mor d moran e e limited e foreigTh . n motives became absorbe strongla n di y individual style. e monumen o th side f tw o s e Th t were differentiated s e sidwa On e . devote usualls e crossi th t I o f th.dt y o e type, already describee th n di early grou f easterpo n cross-slabs, wit ha rin g connectin e armsgth d an , sometime basea s ha ; t occasionallsi frames i decorativa t yi n i d e border paga amanuscriptf n i seo alwayss i t I . , althoug e dominanhth t feature of the monument, essentially decorative; the whole of the cross being carved with intricate design f interlacingo s , spiralsy patternke r n o I , . the panels forming the background to the cross there are carvings of fantastic animals, ornamental motives, Pictish symbols occasionalld an , y figures wit a hsymboli c meaning e otheTh e .rmonumen th sid f o e s i t generally treated as a whole and not divided into panels. The plain surface is covered with an asymmetrical assortment of strange animals, horsemen, scene f Christiao s n iconography d Pictisan , h symbolse Th . spatial arrangemen s curiousi t . 'Therbackgrouno n s i e e sensth f n o ei d landscap r vegetationo e . Ther s sometimeei feelina s g towards narrative art, but the figures may be grouped vertically as well as horizontally. As a rule they are all on the same plane although in a few cases three horsemen may be shown cme behind the other. The artist seems to have attached little importance to scale; on the same panel one horse may be twice the siz f another eo relieflaa w e carvinn tlo o fTh background n i . s gi . A remarkable feature of the cross-slabs is the animal art. This falls into two categories: the imaginary and the realistic. There are a variety of imaginary type f animalo s . One, developed fro e beakemth d animal e Boo th typ e f LindisfarnDurrof o kth o e d wan e Gospels s alreadha , y appeared in a rather different form in the Pictish "fantastic animal" symbole cross-slath n s generalli o ; t i b y e animae closeth th f o t o rl Lindisfarne Gospel shows i d nsan wit elongatee hth d body innee th , r spiral featheree th jointe wite d th b withour t an h,a o y d feetlappema e t th ti ; t majorite e otheTh th (fig . f ryo 5) . imaginary animals originae seeb mo t l to the cross-slabs, and they are nearly all characterised by the same curious feature: the foot is formed of a rounded, bulb-like heel attached to a single, curved, pointed toe or claw, with occasionally a pronounced dew claw above the heel. This is found on the most diverse types: on wolf-like creatures as at Forteviot,1 on animals with long serpentine neck;s

and long legs as at Meigle and Woodwray, on a monster with large 3

goggling eyes and a parrot'2 s beak as at Meigle4 (PL XXXVIII, a), on creatures with short snouts, elongated bodies, and tiny forelegs as at Aberlemno (PL XXXIII), and on a pair of interlaced animals of the Lindis- 5

* E.C.M.8., fig. 335 . c , 2 Ibid., fig. 313, a. - ' s-Ibid., fig. 258,'a . . :

6 : 1 Ibid., fig. 345,6. Ibid., fig. 227, a. - - • - . THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 87

fame type on the same monument. Even a naturalistic representation ostaa f t gDunfallanda e samth s e strangha y e tail e feetf thesTh o s . e

animals sometime 1 s form maza interlacinf eo t Meiglea s ga (PI. XXXVIIIj a);

sometimes they turn into anima a slal n headbo fro2 s a sm a Gaskd an

monument at Meigle (PI. XXXVII). With th3 e exception of the last feature, whic s commohwa n Scythiani n n Orientaa arts ,wa l featurn i e classica founs li art d Christian di ,an n sculpture Lombardy,n si 4 this series of animals appears to be a purely local development. They certainly do not appear anywhere else in the British Isles. Quadrupeds with human heads ,foun e suc ar slab n s hdo a s from Gas Rossid k 3an e Priory 5 (PI. XXXII), sho wsouthera n influence. This type occure Cuthberth n si t Evangeliar 6 and other manuscripts in England. The naturalistic animal art is equally virile; horses, hounds, and other animals e ,boa d bear th suce carefullan rs ar ha , y portrayed. There ar e typeo tw f horsess smali o s lightld e an lon : y built, with sloping quarters vera taid t s lowyse an lha hig t ;i h s schooleactioi d nan carro dt e yth head very high. The other type is an equally small but heavier animal, with a big, clumsy head, and strong, high quarters. There are also two types of dog: a hound of the greyhound type, and a small dog like a terrier. The majority of the animals are, as on the engraved Pictish stones, natural to Scotland, such as would be familiar to the artist. Human figures, except for horsemen, are rarely represented. Always, both human d animalsan s , when treated naturalistically e showar , n i n profile. There are Pictish symbols on the majority of the cross-slabs of this group. The e essentiallyar e samyth ee symbo symbolth n o l s stonesa s , and the "fantastic animal," the crescent and rod, the double disc and rod, and the mirror and comb are still the most popular. They are some- times incised, but more often carved in low relief in the same style as monumente th rese f th o t "runnine Th . g spiral frequena s "i t decoration e interioe osymbolth fth f d designo r an , s from seventh-century metal- work are still in use (PL XXIX). A e stal th well s cross-slabsa l , ther e als ear thin oi s grou pa numbe r of smaller cross-slabs, varyin heighn gi t from abou o 3-t n i j 2 tfeet d an , additio otheo n thertw re typeear monumentf so recumbena : t monument a rectangula d an r slab carve sidee d on onl , n •whicyo h fro e stylmth f eo decoration mus contemporare b t y wit tale hth l cross-slabs.

1 E.C.M.S., fig. 305,, a. 2 Ibid., fig. 345, b. = Ibid., fig. 307, a. . RivoiraT . G e , Se 4Origine della Architetture Lombarda, Milan, 1908 . 286,p . 5 B.C.M.S., fig. 322. . a , ... . , . , 6 Late eighth-century Yor Merciar ko n workZimmermanne Se . , Text . 137p , . 88 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

TALL CROSS-SLABS. Amongs e manth t y tall cross-slab f thio s s group, four selecter fo d descriptio d illustrationan n will e givvariet th iden a ef d scop o a yan f o e the art. One of the most important of the cross-slabs is at Meigle a (Pis. XXX and XXXI). The cross is unique and elaborate; it is equal armed, comprised within a circle with square-angled recesses at the junction of the arms. The surface is decorated with fret-work and interlacing, and a number of raised bosses give the impression that they are derived from large circular- headed nailsrine gTh .form e slab e outlinverth A th sf .y o thef ep o to ' wide shaft has been added to the cross, below the ring, with spiral attachments at each of the four corners. This shaft is divided into three panels, in each of which there are a pai f animalo r s affrontes. The e deriveyar d from the Irish type, such as is found at Papil and at Bressay, but they are in the later style of the east of Scotland, less simplified, more fantastic. In the deeply-recessed panels on eithe e rshaft th sid f o ,e animals with bodies coiled into a loop form a vertical strip pattern somewhat simila o that r t described at St Madoes, but in a more developed Fig. 11. form, on the right of the shaft (fig. 11); on a, St Madoes. 6, Meigle. e e lefcarvinth th t s tooi g - defacee b o t d intelligible t therbu , e appea humae b o t r n forms climbing upwardse Th . other side of.the slab, with its naturalistic, narrative art, is,a typical exampl f thieo s group.- Ther e fouar e r scenes, only separated froe mon e fivar e p horsemen anotheto e groupin e th e figures th y th b t rf ,A o g . three of them abreast, moving briskly in the same direction. The men -are-bearded and carry spears; they do not appear to have stirrups, and f theo mo tw have square saddle-cloths. Besid e topmosth e t horseman are the rather squat figure of a four-winged angel and two hounds. This scene might be taken to represent a hunt, but there is also the possibility that it is derived from the story of the three Magi. Next, in the central position on the slab, is a group representing Daniel and the Lions. The prophe s showi t n a loncla n dgi tunic, with arms outstretched surd an , - rounde fouy db r lions. This theme belong e samth eo st cycl f illustraeo - tions as does that of Jonah. It is widespread in early Christian art;

examples have been found at Bl-Bagawat, in Egypt, on the sarcophagi 2

1 E.C.M.S., p. 297. e OabroSe 2 t Leclerqe l , Dictionnaire d'Archiologie chr&ienne Liturgie.e d t e E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 9 8 .

of Rome and Aries, on the engraved glass cups from Podgoritza. It 2

is one of the rather limite1 d set of themes found on the Irish monuments of the seventh century.3 The antithetical grouping of the lions round e figurth f Danieo e l recall e standardiseth s d "hero dompting lion" group populae Orienth n i rt from 3000 B.C. This groupin s retainewa g n di Western art, but it is surprising to find in Scotland such a close stylistic resemblance to an Eastern version of the scene as the group at Meigle presents, and although the theme was probably introduced into Scotland f Irelando y n Easterwa a , y b n prototyp n thiei s case seems probable. Suc ha sourc e might have bee na portabl e object ,e piec th sucf o s eha Coptic cloth woven with this theme, which is preserved at the cathedral of Sens. Immediately below this scene is the figure of a hippocentaur, carryin axes o d wit gtw e brancan , hth a tre f eo h unde s armit r . This curious motiv s founi e n Anglo-Saxoo d n sceattas. e fourtTh h group

defaceo intelligiblee e sla to b e basth s bi th f o t d o et a t therbu , e appear 4 to be a human form, and two animals fighting. Projections, one at the top and a pair on either side, an unusual feature on a monument in Scotland, recal Irise th l h cross-slab late th e f seventso h century. The hunting scene described above is found on another slab at Meigle,5 e angeth t l bu associate ds wing witha t shi standin t righa t tg ou angles to the body rather like an Assyrian sun god. Element same th f eso scene occur cross-slaa als n oo t Rossiba e Priory 6 (PI. XXXII) t thebu , y have become disintegrated horsemeo tw ; n appear in the two recessed panels on the shaft of the cross, two other horsemen sidee a paipanea f hound on d o n r ,i o an whilt le e e figurar sth eth f o e angel, with folded wings, is in one of the panels above the arms of the cross. In the corresponding panel there is a human figure holding, in either hand necke th bira , y .d b This motive pillath f ro e figure e occuron n so s from White Island, in Ireland, which can be dated to the eighth century by the large penannular brooch carved on the shoulder of one of the figures and by their analogy with certain bronze figures; it is also found

e Frankoth n s Casket a whalebon, x carvebo e n Northumbrii d a about 7 700 A.D.8 A cross-slab at Aberlemno9 is another important example of this group (PI. XXXIII) mors i t I e .tha feen 7 height n i t , wit hpedimentea d usuae th crose s topl Th rinha s. g joinin e arms gth e recesse e th ;th t a s

1 Le Slant, Les Sarcophages chre'tiens de la Oaule, Paris, 1886, pi. XV. 1 Le Slant, Etude sur leg Sarcophages chretiens antiques de la Ville d'Aries, Paris, 1888, p. xxviii, pi. XXXV. 3 F. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, p. 149 sqq., figs. 110 and 113. 4 Baldwin Brown, Arts in Early England, iii. p. 45. These may be so late as to show a Oarolingian influence. 5 E.C.M.S., . 296p , fig. 310. ,6 . HenryP ' . pi,d 36 .Irish an 0 Art,10 . p ' Ibid., 306. p . 8 British Museum, Anglo-Saxon Guide, p. 97 sqq., and see T. D. Kendrick, Anglo-Saxon Art, pp. 122-125, pis. XLIV. and XLV. • E.C.M.S., p. 209. 90 PROCEEDINGS OF. THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

junction of the arms are rounded. At the centre there is a circular disc wit a hpatter f "runninno g spirals" s founi suc s n hanging-bowa ho d l escutcheons (PI. XXIX, a). The arms are decorated with fret pattern, and e shafth t with very elaborate interlacing e panel n th eacI f . o hs above the arms there is a fantastic animal with turned-back head. In the panel e crosth e lefof snth o t ther a verticaf strang o s ei w ro el animals, with tiny forelegs, and heads "with short snouts, their serpentine bodies each coile dcross-slae intth n olooa o s t pMeigla ba e (PI. XXX) corree th n -I . sponding panel on the other side of the shaft there is a Pictish version of the animal interlacing of the Lindisfarne Gospels, and below it two beautifully carved and classically treated hippocamps. The back of the slab is outlined by two very attenuated animal forms with dragon-like head d snarlin p theran s to e engraved ar ee g th jaws t e A Pictis.th . h symbols otriple f th .th d ee discan rectangl d .ro d Beloean w these symbols the whole side of the slab is treated as a single panel on "which is depicted the most realistic scene which occurs on any slab in this group. It is a battle scene with horsemen and foot soldiers, armed with spears or swords, with circular horsee shieldth f helmets d depictes o si s an e On .d galloping, movemena t otheo founn n rdo Pictish fooe figure slabth tTh f o esoldie. r attacked by a bird in the bottom right-hand corner gives the impression that the scene represents some actual or legendary incident. There is a general similarity of style and treatment to the Franks Casket, and the helmets of the soldiers have the same heavy nose guards. Both sides of the monument are good examples of the Pictish transformation of Northumbrian elements. A cross-slab at Dunfallandy also belongs to this group, although it

shows more Irish influenc e majorit th e others.tha th e o 1 d nf Th o y cross has no ring joining the arms. It has a square centre and is decorated with interlacing patterny ke , , spirals d smalan , l raised bosses formef o d spirals e panelTh . s besid e cros th e subdivide ar s d into smaller panels in which are carved a variety of the imaginary animals typical of the group, a realistic representation of Jonah and the monster (fig. 7, d), and two clumsily -portrayed angels "with double "wings thn O e . other side there ia strangs e medle motivef yo s consistin f Pictisgo h symbols t PauS ,d an l St Anthony seated on chairs on either side of a cross, and a cowled ecclesi- astic on horseback. Some of the' motives are incised, some'carved in low reliefe whole sla th s outlineTh b i f e creature.eo th y db ofteo s n found on these slabs, with the heads of animals and the tails of fishes. In this case there is a human head between their extended tongues (fig. 7,/). This: motive of a head between two beasts, "which is so common in this group, confusioa seeme b o st f though no t betwee e theme swallowinge nth th f so ; disgorgind an temptatioe f Jonath go d han n t Anthony.oS f , with possibly

1 E.C.M..S., p. 286, fig. 305, a and 6. . :- ..:;.; E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 1 9 .

some dim connection with, the Celtic legend of the devouring animal god.1 A cross-sla t VigeanS t ba XXXIVL s (P 2rathe a s )ha r heavier, although t essentiallno y different, styl f carvin eo e monument th o gt f thio s s group which have been previously described. The cross is simple in form, decorated with regular interlacing outlined by a plain moulding; strange birds and animals and snakes filling the narrow panels on either side, with a small squatting demon in the left-hand top panel. On the pictorial side there are a realistic hunting scene with a stag and two hounds, several Pictish symbols, a varied assortment of animals including a bear, and a macloaa tunicd n ni k an , shootin kneelina n gi g positiod nan witw hbo showw looe bo arro sth whice o boara pt t wstrinTh e a h.th attaches gi d e Frankth n o s s Casketa e samiy th n wa e . e Dowsla th e sid bf non o e is carve a ddelicat e stri f interlacingpo , with belon inscriptioa t wi n i n Hiberno-Saxon semi-uncials.3 On the other edge of the slab there is a Northumbrian vine scroll pattern a motiv, e rarel ye Pictis founth n o hd cross-slabs, derived fro e versiomth n whic e cross founi hth sn o dshaft s from Aberlady 4 and Abercorn.5

SMALL, CROSS-SLABS. The small cross-slabs follow rulelargee a plae s th a ,f th , no r monuments, with a cross on one side and a figurative scene on the other. Fou thesf o r e monuments have onl ysingla e horsema pictoriae th n no l side, in some cases accompanied by Pictish symbols.6 The most elaborate of these is at Meigle 7 (PL XXXV). The cross, which is very ornate, with part of the shaft turning into animal heads, is set in a frame of inter- lacing e fouTh r . deeply recessed panel n eitheo s r side fillear e d with examples of the usual types of strange animals. On the back of the slab is a single horseman, carved in very low relief, and on one edge are incised two Pictish symbols. Another of these slabs at Meigle shows a horseman

bearing a circular shield, above the Pictish symbol of the crescent, and Be . Se Esperandieu 1 , Recueil general des Bas-reliefs Gauledea l romaine, Paris, 1907—15 . 102p . i , . 2 E.G.M.S., . 235p . 3 Romilly Alien gives the reading for this inscription as DROSTEN IPUERET ETTFOR CDS- Its meaning has never been satisfactorily determined. Cf. Macalister, loc. cit,, p. 195. Crawford. S . G . O e , Antiquity,Se . (1937xi 469-473. )pp exampler ,fo vine th ef s o scrol cross-slabn lo s 4 in Scotland. 5 E.C.M.8., p. 418, fig. 435, d. 6 At Meigle, B.C.M.S., p. 300, fig. 314, p. 299, fig. 312, and p. 301, fig. 315; and at Logierait, p. 291, fig. 308. 7 E.C.M.S., p. 300, fig. 314. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

houna d (PI. XXXVIdesige Th runninf no . c) , g spirals withi crescene nth t closely resembles Late Celtic design metal-worn o s XXIXL k(P . b) , Othe f theso r e small cross-slabs sho wa huntin g scene with horsemen houndd an s pursuin gstaga . Example t Scoonie,thesf a o se ear Fifen i 1 , t Inchbrayock,a d an Angusn 2i . The most curious of these monuments conies from Inchbrayock 3 (now museue th n i mt Montrosecarvine a Th clums. XXXVIs gi L b) (P ) d yan a , grotesqued an crose arm e decorateth e f sTh ar so . d wit asymmetrican ha l desig f spiralno s (recalling Late Celtic metal-work) e uppeth n rI .panel s ther debasee ear d anima lowee th side l n formsrei on a panelse d th an , n o , strange beast suckling its young, and on the other a, representation which might conceivably be Delilah cutting off Samson's hair. On the upper part of the pictorial side a horseman and hound are shown pursuing a , deer; ther e somar e e strangely elongated animal a formspai f d o r an , decorated discs. In the lower part there is a curious scene which is pre- sumably meant to show Samson slaying a Philistine with the jawbone of an ass, while beside him crouches a female figure. This interpretation e scenoth f e canno t fountakee no b t s ds i certainna t elsewheri r fo , n ei Scotland nor in Ireland, and is not one of the usual scenes of early Christian art. The monument is obviously a freak one and not easy to date. The sword worn by Samson is, however, exactly of the type shown on a Swedish bronze plaque from Torslunda * (PL XXIX, d), which is dated to the seventh century.

RECUMBENT MONUMENTS. The recumbent monuments belonging to this group are rectangular block f stoneso , approximatel feey 5 lengt n i t 1-y hb | fee tfoo 1 wid d t ean high. From their shape it seems certain that they must be funerary monuments. Their distributio s limitedi n r the e onlfo , ar y y founn i d Perthshire and Angus.6 " " The most elaborate-example is at Meigle 6 (Pis. XXXVII arid XXXVIII, c and d). It is carved on the top, at both sides, and at one end. The top outlines i serpentino tw y db e bodies heade th f ,n si o terminatin d en e on t ga birds and at the other in animal heads which enclose in their jaws a socket, presumably for a small cross-slab.7 In the centre four triangular panels con-

1 E.C.M.8., . 347p , fig. 360. 2 Ibid., . 255p , fig. 265. " Ibid., . 223p , fig. 235. Hjalmae Se 4 r Stolpe Ntcropolea L , Vendel,e d Stockholm, . 192754 . ,p Perthshirn I 6 t Meigleea , E.C.M.S., . 330p . 333,p fig, 6 , fig. 343d .an 346 ,a Angu n i ; t Strathsa - martine, E.C.M.S., . 231p , fig. 244t VigeansS t ;a , E.C.M.S., . 269p , fig . 273.p 279 d , fig,an . 285. 6 E.C.M.S., . 303p . 7 Romilly Alien gives two examples from Angus of very small cross-slabs, only about 1 foot wide, with tenons projecting fro e bottomth m (B.C.M.S., . 264p , fig . 270.p 274 d , an ,fig . 281). Thesy ema have been of the type which fitted into the sockets of the recumbent monuments. A slab at Alyth E.C.M.S., . 287p , fig. 304 s engrave)i d wit hcrosa s wit htenona . THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 93

taining raised bosses form a rectangle. At one end there is a coiled serpent, and at the other two hippocamps appear to be dancing together. One of monumene sidee th th f so huntin a s ha t g group consistin fivf go e horsemen and two hounds at one end; a grid design in the centre; and two imaginary animals, one with a serpent entwined in its tail, at the other end. In the panel formed by the other side there is a horse or mule, shown with its legs double compreso t p du t inti snarroe oth w space available, thee nth prowling e centrfora bearth f mn o i ea swastik ; a forme f fouo d r human bodies (a motive found on the market cross at n unusuaa d Kellsen l e 1 th (fig t a . 12))d an ; versio e '' devourinth f no g monster'' showino gtw animals facing one another, one with a human leg protruding fro s jaws mit d wit an ,ha huma n hea e dmonumen th above f e carveo Th d . en dt show e naketh s n fleeindma figura g f froo e ma monstrous bird. Another elaborate recumbent monumens i t als t Meigloa o etw 2s (PIha .t XXXVIIII . 6) d an ,a deeply recessed panel n eitheo s r side filled with Fig . Huma.12 n Swastika, side carvingse paneon e th a n ther o n le I ar e. Market Cross, Kells, after numbe f motiveso r e versioth : f Jonao n h which P. Henry. is found on the cross-slab at Papil, where the'body of a man is shown extended betwee o monster e tw jaw th nf o n this(i ss case insteaf o d outlining the slab in the usual way, the bodies of the monsters surround a circular design of raised bosses), a rectangular design of raised bosses, an unintelligible group of animals, and finally two imaginary animals with bodies entwined roun anothere othee panee th d th on n rn o lI sid. e thera spirite s i e d renderin f threo g e horsemen, ridin n singli g e file, preceded by a dog, and followed by a strange little dancing figure.

RECTANGULAR SLABS. Like the recumbent monuments the rectangular carved slabs are few in number and limited in distribution, for they have only been found in Perthshire.3 The e thiyar n slabs, carve s thera sidee dd e on onlan , n yo is no part which could have been sunk in the ground, they must have been presumably attached to the wall of a building. One of these slabs, from Meigle 4 (fig. 13), appears to have been carved same th ey recumbenb e hanth s da t monument (PI. XXXVII) describen do e e centrslath th hippocentaurbo f n o eI thertw pag e . ear e92 s dancing

together; on one side of them a naked man is shown fleeing from a monster, . HenryF 1 Sculpturea L , irlandaise, , fig, d.84 46 . . Thip a lat s ei s ninth-tenth century cross. persistence Th sucf eo h motive t unusuano s si Irelandn li . 2 B.C.M.S., . 332p . 3 Ibid., at Murthly, p. 305; at Meigle, p. 331; at Dull, p. 315, fig. 329. « Ibid., p. 305. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

and on the other, two creatures with human bodies and the heads of beasts fightine ar anothere on g . These probably represen wearinn me t g helmets e for th f animam o n i l masks, simila thoso t r e show bronza n no e plaque from Torslunda J (PI. XXIX e helmee fora boar'th th f m ,o d n i d),tsan head from Deskford 2 (PL XXIX, e). e fragmenTh f anotheo t r slablostw no , from Meigle,3 showed three men in a cart, drawn by a pair of horses; an archer similar to the one on

Fig. 13. Slab at Murthly, Perthshire, after Romilly Alien.

e cross-slath t VigeanS t ba s (PI. XXXIV) a hug d e an ,beas t devouring thrustins i o wh gn daggea ma a r int throats oit .

This mai s beeha n ns grou a shown , is p , remarkably coherentd an , the origin of the cross-slab is clear: derived from the cross-bearing slabs of Irelan Dalriadad dan styln i d e an retainin, g e Pictismucth f ho h animal art and technique of the "symbol stones." But, except for the analogy of the decorative motives with dated objects in other countries, there is little evidenc monuments e date th th f er o efo . Their essentially decorative character, to which the idea of sculpture in the round was entirely foreign, made it natural that the sources of influence would be chiefly those with surface decoration and therefore portable objects such as manuscripts, 1 Hjalmar Stolpe, La Necropole de Vendel, 2 J. Anderson, Scotland in Early Christian Times, i. p. 117. E.C.M.S., p. 331, fig. 344. E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 5 9 .

carved objects of wood or bone, °and metal-work, rather than monumental sculpture. On the whole the style of the decoration of the cross-slabs is closer e illuminate th thao t f o t d Irish manuscripts tha anythino nt g elsed an , many details resembl closelo es y motives e Lindisfarnfounth n di e Gotepels tha n approximata t e similarit f dato y e seems probable. Such points which have already been note individuan do l monuments aregenerae th : l styl f interlacingeo e smal, s intricacth botit n li n hi scal d whicn yan eo h it is executed, compared to the broader, simpler type of the Book of Durrow e frequenth ; t appearanc e typicath f o e l animae Gospelth f o l s as an outline to the slab; the small strip of animal scroll at Aberlemno (seXXXIIIL P e ) which might, strange excepth r fo te Pictish feet, almost have been taken direct fro e manuscript ma pagth f o e d finallan e ; th y Mray in which any animal, however fantastic, or however much it be contorted into interlacing, always retains its lifelike character, which is e characteristicth on f eo e animath f o s l styl f Lindisfarneo e earlth f yo e eighth century, and remained a constant feature of Irish art up to the end of the ninth century.. Other contacts with eighth-century Northumbrian work are the vine scroll, which belongs essentially to the monumental art of Northumbria, and a general resemblance to the style of carving of the Franks Casket. Contact with Irelan evidentls dwa y maintained humae th ; n swastika recumbene onth t monumen t Meigla t e bein example gon introduce th f eo - tiospecifia f no c motive. The parallels with the seventh-century Torslunda finds—the sword on the cross-slab from Inchbrayock and the animal-headed helmets on the slab from Meigle—rais importanan e t questio connectionto nas s between Scotlan Scandinavid dan a befor perioe Vikine eth th f do g raids. The Christian iconography is limited, with the exception of a few doubtful motives, to themes which are found on the series of Christian monuments in Ireland dated between about 650 and 750.1 The datinmaie th f ngo grou Pictisf po h monument stylistin so c grounds seems to place them in the early eighth century, which accords with the historical contacts between Pictish Scotland and Northumbria summarised earlier in this paper.

NORTHERN CROSS-SLABS. examplew fe Excep a e cross-slar th s fo e tmai th f no b t grouno s i p found north of Angus. Farther to the north the older form of rough monument, with the cross carved on the surface of the slab and not forming

structuraa l, remaineparit f o t usuae dth l type. 1 See Henry, F. La Sculpture irlandaise, p. 134. 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

n AberdeenshirI e thera smal s i e l grou f suco p h monuments, little more elaborate than roughly dressed boulders, on which are carved crosses, decorated with interlacing, and sometimes associated with Pictish symbols. An example of this group is at Dyce (PI. XXXIX), where the arms of

the 'cross terminate in spirals. This 1 typ e of spiral termination is found on slab t Inishmurray,a s commos Ireland n 2i e Continent wa th d n no an , . founds i t r exampleI fo , slaa t n Narbonne,ba o , thn 3i e sout f Franceho , dated to the eighth century, and on a chancel panel from the Church of Santa Maria in Trastevere, in Rome, dated about 800. It may have

been a common Eastern type4 ; it is found in Armenia on slabs dated e sixteentth o t h century. Although this grou f Aberdeenshirepo monu-

ments belong5 s more to the type of the seventh-century slab, yet the elaboratio e interlacingth f o n d thian s, e spiralsdetaith f o l , maket i s more probable that they can be dated to the eighth century. Other more elaborate monument e nort th e maie close th n har i s n o t r e Aberdeenshirth y e crossn i groupwa th s y t a , an bu , n ei t groupno s i , structural, nor is it framed in the slab, and the figure scenes consist of only one or two isolated themes. An example of such a monument is at Fordoun,6 in Kincardineshire. The carving on this cross-slab is delicate, partly incised, reliefcrose partlw lo Th s. n y takei onlp su e ypara th f o t slab; horsemen, accompanied by hounds, are shown, two on either side of it and one on the shaft. The Pictish symbol of the double disc and rod, below the cross, is decorated with a design recalling the disc of a hanging-bowl escutcheon.7 IONA CROSSES. Apart from the seventh-century monuments allied to the Cardonagh group there are very few examples of crosses or cross-slabs in the west of Scotland, with the exception of a group of elaborate free-standing crosse lone th an si district . ———On the island of lona only one cross remains intact, that of St Martin,

t ther bu e fragmentar e x others.si f fivr o so e 9 They were tall crosses 8 e eighth-centuroth f y Irish type, wit ha rin g connectin e armsgth d an , t MartiS tha f s curiouslo tha n y short armse iconographyTh . , which include s e LionsDanieth e Sacrificd th , an l f Abrahamo e , etc.s pureli , y Irish, wit e exceptiohth motivee on f e Virgino th ,d Childnan , whics hi never foun knows Irelann i dwa t Northumbrian ni dbu e decoratioTh . n

1 E.C.M.S., p. 189.

2 W. F. Wakeman, A Survey of the Antiquarian Remains on the Island of Inishmurray, figs. 46 and 47. 3 J. Baum, La Sculpture figurale en Europe a I'Epoque Merovingienne, Paris, 1937, pi. LXXII.

. BaumJ 4 cit.,. op , pi. LXXIV.

5 See Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Etudes sur VArt medieval en Georgie et en Armenie, Paris, 1929.

. HenryF ' , 8 E.C.M.S.,J.B.S.A.I., 201. p , Ixvfig.. 217fig. 3 .. 8 E.C.M.S., p. 381, fig. 397, a and b. - • Ibid., pp. 381-393.

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 97

of the crosses consists chiefly of panels filled with large raised bosses; f interlacingo som e ar e , some hav a ecircula r depressio e centrth n ni e in which are three much smaller bosses; some are placed on a back- groun f writhino d g snakes, othera backgroun n o s d filled with smaller bosses and raised spirals. Some panels of spirals are practically identical, both in composition and in the type of spiral, with parts of the Chi Rho Booe pagth f Kells.f ko eo From their connection wit e Irishth h crosses

it seems1 probable that they belong to about the same period, when the communit t lonya a woultouchn i t e onlb dno , y with Ireland t witbu , h Northumbri ease Scotlandf th o t d certais i aan t I .n that they must have been erected sometime before 806, whe e monksth n , fleeing froe mth Viking invasions, took refug t Kell a etherd an s emonasteryw builne a t . There has been so much destruction and rebuilding at lona that nothing but the fragments of these crosses, and a few grave slabs of the Clonmac- noise type, e eights earla th 2e s ya b hwhic y centuryhma , remai whaf no t must have been a centre of carving. There is a legend that there were once three hundred and sixty crosses on lona3; two are known to have been called after St Matthew and St John.4 Trace f thio s s schoo f carvino l g exist elsewher e west th cros A n .ei s on Islay5 resembles closels proportionit n i y s crosse n Irelandi s t A . Keills, Knapdalen i 6 , ther a crosa simila s f i eo s r typ thoso et f lono e a (PL XL), wit e shorhth t t armMartin'S f so s cross t withoubu , e rinth tg joining them. A large raised boss, with three small bosses in a depression at the centre, occupies the centre of the arms. Above it there is the figure of an angel trampling on a serpent, below it the figure of Daniel, and around it the four lions. The shaft is decorated with a diagonal key pattern, two pairs of beasts on a background of interlacing, and at the base art elaborate spiral pattern in low relief.

ELABOEATE EASTERN MONUMENTS. The next serie monumentf so ease Scotlandf th o t n si , while continuing the tradition of the main group of cross-slabs, show both a stylistic develop- ment and a sudden influx of new motives, bringing in a wider iconography. The Picts appear to have turned for inspiration from their native art of surface decoratio e modelth d snan taken from manuscript metald san - work which had satisfied them up to now, to monumental art and

F.e 1Se Henry , Irish Art, e consider. 148p Sh e Boo. e datth e betweef Kellf th sb ko o e o t s n 760 and 820. It is probable that different painters went on working at it for a number of years. Part illuminatioe t leasa th f o t n must have been execute t lonada . 2 B.C.M.S., p. 390, fig. 405, and E. A. S. Macalister, The Memorial Slabs of King's County, Publication of the E.S.A.I., 1907-8. 3 Beeves, St Columba, p. cxxxvii. 4 Reeves . HenryP e cit.,. se 419. op , p ,d Irish,an Art, . 101p . Apparently elaborate crosses dedicated Evangeliste toth s were frequently erecte eighth-centure th t da y Irish monasteries. . 5 E.G.M.S., Ibid.,« p. 391,p 390, fig. . 410. 7 VOL. LXXIV. 98 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

sculptur e roundth n i e. Ther a genera s i e l elaboratio e wholth f eo n firse monumenth tr timfo attempn d ea an t t portrayina t g drapere th n yo figure carving. The flat style of carving has given way to a definite feelin f rondeo g e elaborat th bosse, d an e raised bossese th foun n o d crosses of lona, and possibly coming to the east of Scotland from there, play an important part in the decoration of the monuments. The distri- bution of this new style is wide. There are three monuments in particular which appear to derive their figure scenes directly from a foreign source.

These are altan :a r t tomAndrews,S t ba Fifen i cross-slaa , t Nigg,ba 2

in Ross-shire, and a slab1 from Hilton of Cadboll, in the same county.

The altar t AndrewtomS t a b s incompleti s XLI)L (P e . Originally 3 there must have been four narrow, upright slabs, one for each corner, grooved vertically to receive the four thinner slabs which formed the boxcomplete e sideth Th f .so e tomb would have measure feed5 inche9 t s fee2 loninche1 1 ty gb s feewid2 e inchecorne4 y t th eb f o s r o highTw . posts remain, and one long panel and one end panel are complete. e lonTh g pane s dividei l d into three compartments e centre Th . eon contains chiefly representation f Davio s d wit lione huntera hth s a ,d an , as shepherd or warrior.4 In early Christian art David was used as a prefiguratio f Christthemee no th d f Davi o harpis a an ,s e s founda on s i td on seventh-century monuments in Ireland, but these scenes from the life

of David are very different. He is here show5 n with "the lion (that it is t Samsono Davi d s madni dan e e sheee figurth th th cleaf n pi o y e b r background), in the traditional attitude of the Babylonian and Assyrian Gilgamesh Mithraie , insteath n i f cdo attitude whic Weste usuas hi th n i l. s dressei e H flowinn di g draperye figurth s evidentli d e an , y relateo dt classicae th l figurefourth-centure th f o s y sarcophag Italf o isoutherd yan n France,6 which belone traditio th e Hellenistio th gt f no c bas-reliefst bu , e elaboratth e folde d costumpleatth an sf o s e wit e endhth s formina g symmetrical scalloped edge seem e formaliseneareth o t r d draperf o y Byzantine artsworde Th . , wit pattere hth f interlacinno s sheathit n go , is an unusual feature to find on a classical figure. It is an Eastern type, closely resemblin e sworgth d attribute Charlemagno dt e Treasurth n ei y of the former Imperial House of Austria at Vienna, and that on the Byzantine porphyry statue f emperoro s t a Venice.s i e lioo to Th n 7

E.C.M.S., alse . se o350 p d Ceci;an l Mowbray, "Eastern Influenc Carvingn o e t AndrewS t sa s Niggd an , Scotland,1 " Antiquity, 1936, viii . 428-440pp . .

E.G.M.S., p. 75; and see Cecil Mowbray, loc. cit. E.G.M.S., p. 61. 3

42 See Romilly Alien, Early Christian Symbolism in Great Britain and Ireland before the Tenth Century, London, 1887 . 203-208,pp . R. Alien point t thas ou example to thertw e e ar Davif so poes da warrior to r

in the Saxon Psalter in the Bodlian. 5 F. Henry, La, Sculpture irlandaise p. 134.

. BrehierL , Le Sarcophage Carmess de Dechaux, Etudet s Archeologiques, Clermont Ferrand, 1910;

and 8 L. Brehier, L'Art chrdtien primitif, p. 14. ' R. Delbrueck, Antike Porphyrwerke,-Studien zur spatantiken KunstgeschicMe, vol pis, 6 . . 31-34. E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 9 9 .

Eastern e smalth , l lio f Assyriano n art, very different fro e Celticisemth d versions found in Irish art. David the hunter is shown on horseback defending himself with a sword from the attack of a lion. This scene closely resembles the representations of lion hunts in Sassanian art,1 and e suggestioth a Sassania f o n n prototyp s emphasisei e e facth t y thab d t horsemae th t AndrewS f armns hawo a hi s n ,ksparalleleo ha e whic b n hca d by engravings on Sassanian'silver dishes.2 The figure of David as shepherd or warrior is dressed in a short tunic, and bears a spear and a rectangular notched shieldprecedes i houndso t I tw beasto . y tw db deera f , o sd an , prey. Above this scene thera curiou s i e s group wher a edee r wita h monke s backit n yo , another monke squattina n yi g positio houna d nan d chasing a beast of prey, are all entangled in the branches of a tree. This us f vegetationeo , unknow Scotlandn ni , also pointEastern a o st n origin. A close analogy is found on a Coptic carved wooden chest of A.D. 600 e Cairth on i Museum, wher e brancheth e a vine twinef ar eo s d round a e harbodieXLI L a th lio d . (P ef nan ,c) Anotheo s r motive th n o e St Andrews slab, that of the gryphon devouring a quadruped, although derived ultimately from the East, was widespread in the Roman Empire. Thsido eetw compartment e pane th decoratee f ar lo s d with animal inter- lacing. The sculptor has taken two animals from the centre compartment, the lion and the deer, and from them formed a purely Celtic design of animal interlacing, but the head of the deer and the curling mane of the lion are clearly distinguishable. This type of animal interlacing is fairly close to that found in the Lindisfarne Gospels. Examples in Northumbrian

sculpture are found on the cross shafts from Rothbury, and at Aberlady, 4

where interlaced animals have the same serpent-like 3 heads as have the interlaced t AndrewslionS f o s . a square-angleThpaned s en e ha l d cross, another parallel wite th h Book of Lindisfarne, and both the cross and the frame within which it coveree ar t ise sd with interlacing e centrcrose th th f sn e o I ther . a s ei raised boss with spirarecessee th f lo decorationo d paneltw n i d s behinan , d the arms are raised bosses of interlacing out of which emerge serpents. These recal e raiseth l d e lonbosseth af o e ssimilacrosses ar d n i ran , conceptio bossee th o nt s forme serpentf do Irisn a hn so reliquar bronzf yo e e Musei nth Antiquites de e s Nationale t Germain.S t a s e n eacth I f 5 ho othe recesseo rtw s ther squattina s ei g pai monkeysf ro . The purely Celtic character of the decorative motives, which appear Freidrich Sarre Kunste s AlienDi , de Persien, Berlin, 1923, pi. 104, showin a fifth-centurg y

Sassania1 n silve rBritise disth n hi h Museum. 2 Catalogue of Eastern Silver and Gold Vessels from the Oriental Provinces of the Russian Empire, St Petersburg, 1909, fig. 157; and see C. Mowbray, Antiquity, 1936, p. 431, fig. 2. . DT 3. Kendrick, Anglo-Saxon Art, . 154-158pp , pi. LXIV. 4 T. P. Kendrick, op. cit., pp. 135-136, pi. LI, and E.C.M.S., p. 428, fig. 448. 5 F. Henry, "Deux Objets irlandais au Musee des Antiquites nationales," Prthistoire, vi. pp. 65-91. 100 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

havo t e been e samcarve th e sarcophagus eth y e res db f hanth o t s da , sh'ow that the whole monument was carved in Scotland and it is most likely that the figure scenes "were taken from some portable eastern object in ivory or metal. The Persian and Coptic parallels described belong to a period between the fifth and seventh centuries, and, allowing for a period of tim elapso et e before they reached Scotland, woul witn i datine t hdth fi g e monumentoth f e evidenc th e Celtin th o ,f ceo decorative elementso t , sometim e eightth n i he century. This accords wit e e legenhth th f o d foundation of St Andrews given in the Chronicle of the Picts and Scots.1 It tells how Hungus, King of the Picts, was promised, in a vision, victory over the Britons if he would dedicate a tenth part of his kingdom to God t AndrewS an o d that d an t;a mon aftet s victorkhi me r callee yh d Regulus pilgria , m from Constantinople comd ha Scotlano et o wh , d bringing relice t AndrewS th f so . King Hungus gav cite eth y t Reguluwherme e eh s "to God and to St Andrew to be head and mother of all the churches in the kingdom of the Picts." Though, as 'Skene points out, this legend is obviously borrowed from the conversion of Constantine, the mention of relics brought from Constantinople may provide a clue to the origin of figure th e scenesarcophaguse th f s o Pictis o tw f hO .king s called "Hungus" (Aengus) one reigned from 731 to 761; the other from 822 to 824. Skene took the view that the monastery was dedicated to St Andrew in the reign of the first Hungus and it is generally accepted that he is right. It seems probable that such an important monument as the altar tomb would belong to the period of the dedication of the church. The fact that such an elaborate typt bee tomf no e o n s founbha d elsewher Europn ei e belonging to the same period does not disprove this, for so little sculpture of the eighth century has survived that it is impossible to say that such a type did not exist elsewhere at that period, and the stylistic evidence seems conclusive. A cross-slab at Nigg2 (PI. XLII) is closely related to the sarcophagus _of St Andrews. It is over 7 feet high, with a pedimented top. Unfortu- natelbees ha n t y i brokemissings i mor s t i pari d f t nan I eo t .elaborat e tha cross-slabe nth maie th f nso groupt retaini t usuae bu , sth le plath f no e sidd figuron an ecros n e o se other scenee th square-angle Th n o .s d cross might have been taken from a page of the Lmdisfarne Gospels, so closely does it resemble it in proportion, standing out, as Strygowski has pointed out,3 abov esuna k background—an effect produce coloun di r in the manuscript: The square centre of the cross is decorated with interlacing e loweth d re shaf paran th , f t o t witpatterny hke e armth ; s are filled with interlaced lion-like forms derived from the animal inter- t AndrewS e lacinth n s o gsarcophagus e panelTh .s behin e crosth d s

. . \ Skene, Celtic Scotland, p. 297. » E.C.M.S., p. 75. . StrygowskiJ , Origin of Christian Church Art, Oxford, .1923 . 240p , . 3 E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 1 10 .

have raised bosses of spirals and interlacing, bosses formed of interlacing o nbackgrouna f snakesdo raised an , d bosse backgrouna n o s f spiralsdo , recalling bot e monumenhth t AndrewS e lon f th o ta d crossesan s e Th . triangular space above the cross contains a small figure scene, representing t AnthonyS t PauS s d muci an lt I h. more elaborate th f eo thay nan other version monumentn so Scotlann si s clearlr Irelando ha d y dan bee n taken directly from St Jerome's life of St Paul. The story 1 is followed faithfully: the ancient palm whose wide-spreading branches roofed the natural courtyard wher t PaueS l live treeo shows di tw s y outlininnb e gth panelloae breaf o fTh .broughs di crowa herd y b e scentan ,e th uses ei d as a symbol of the sacrament; the loaf is in the form of a wafer and the dish below resembles a paten, while the two saints, with books in their hands, kneel in adoration on either side. The two dog-like forms are no doubt the lions which, after the death of St Paul, when St Anthony was lamenting the lack of a spade with which to dig his grave, "came coursing, their manes flying, from the inner desert" and dug a hole with their claws large enough to hold the body. The other side of the slab consists of a figure scene set in a wide frame made up of panels of key pattern and interlacing figure Th e. scene, althoug defaceo entirelhe to b o t d y intelli- gible s obviousli , y derived t actuallno f i , y fro e centramth l pane f theo l c tomb of St Andrews, then from the same source. The chief motives are there: David and the lion, with the figure of the sheep beside them; Davi foon do t precede a hound a deed e gryphoy an rdb th ; n devouring a quadruped e lionTh t .Andrew hunS f o ts beeha s n transformed into e morth e usual Pictish deer hunt e additionatherd th an ,s ei l figura f o e man holding what appear to be cymbals. The carving is crude and in very flat relief. The monumen t Hiltoa t f Cadbollno uprighn a s i 2 t rectangular slab, 7 feet 9 inches high, sculptured only on one face (PL XLIII).3 Three panels, outlined by plain raised mouldings, occupy the centre of the slab and are set in a wide frame, the sides of which are filled with a Celticised version of the Northumbrian vine scroll (of the type found at St Peter's, York), and the top with the Pictish symbol of the double disc and rod. The top central panel contains a symmetrical grouping of the Pictish crescent and floriated rod, decorated with key pattern and spirals, and two ornamented discs of interlacing. The centre panel introduces a new version of the hunting scene. The chief figures are a man and woman on horseback womane th ; seates i d sideway r horse sees he i thao n e ns s,o sh t full face. The man is riding alongside her so that all that can be seen is e beardeth e outlins horsdth hi s profilfac d f ehi o ean e f behin o e d hers. .

1 See Helen WaddeU, Desert Fathers, p. 48 sqq. 2 E.G.M.S., p. 61. 3 Bomilly Alien states, E.G.M.S., , tha62 t . therp probabls ewa othee ycrosa th n r so sid e which had been obliterated to make room for a seventeenth-century inscription. 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

They are followed by two trumpeters, with long trumpets and draped garments scene Th completes ei . otheo tw ry db horseme n bearing spears and circular shields, and a deer closely pursued by two hounds, while a third hound is shown above the "woman's shoulder. The symbol of the mirror and comb is carved in the left-hand top corner. This scene is not dissimila o that r t describe a cro'ss-sla n o d t Mieigla b e (se XXXI)L P e , t aparbu t fro novelte mframine th scene th separatf a th y o f n ei go e panel e compactnesth n i e composition th d f an o s , e introductiotherth s i e n oa woman'f s figure, whic othero s founn i h n .o d Pictis e hth slabd an , trumpeters with their rather crudely portrayed drapery. Possibly both scenes are derived from an Eastern source, which would account for their similarity. A scene with trumpeters following behind a' horseman occurs e seventh-centuronth y rock carving f Tac-i-Bostao s Persia.n ni 1 There are a number of very tall cross-slabs in the north-east showing e influencth thesf o e e three monument thein si r figure scenes e rondeth n i , bosse style of carving, and in the animal interlacing. This is no longer e flath t animal interlacin manuscripf go r metal-worko t drawina , g trans- ferre tcn »o e animald th stone t bu s, whose distorted bodies for ma sym - metrical pattern now have both depth and solidity. In this group there e whol "ia a figurtendencth s f t o e epu sceno yt e int oa separat e panel, isolated fro Pictise mth h symbols whiche earlieth n o r, monuments, were place a haphazar n i d y amongswa d t horseme d fantastian n c animals. The symbols themselves havdevelopew no e d into elaborate decorative motives, and only the principal symbols—the discs, the crescent, the mirror and comb, and the fantastic animal—are used. They are now on a very much larger scale than previously, and are placed in a dominant and symmetrical position at the top of the monument; the asymmetrical grouping of the older monuments has given place to a carefuUy balanced arrangemen f motiveso t . Examples of this group are found at Rosemarkie 2 and at Shandwick 3 n Ross-shirei , bot f whico h h slab e elaboratelar s y carve d almosan d t purely decorative. The slab at Rosemarkie (PL XLIV) has a cross with square-angled terminals (of a type found in the Book of Kells) set in a background of interlacing and with a frame of key pattern. The edges e sladecoratee oth fb ar d with interlacing which terminate e headth n si s of birds, animals r serpentso , e monumenTh . t Shandwica t k standn i s a commanding position overlooking the sea; it is so badly weathered that not much of the carving remains, -but amongst other motives four large, interlaced serpents, carved in very high relief, and a panel of trumpet . spiral, are still recognisable.

1 Freidrich Sarre Kunste Di , des Alien Persien, Berlin, 1923, . plate87 , s86 2 E.C.M.S., p. 63. , . • 3 Ibid., p. 68, fig. 66. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 103

A cross-slab at Aberlemho also belongs to this group, but has a more

varied iconography than is usua1 l at this period. The figures of angels on eithe e rcros th side clearl f ar seo y derived fro e figure t mPauth S f o ls and St Anthony on the cross-slab at Nigg; they have books in their hands, ane samdth e curiously long-shaped head e bowear s e prayern di th t bu , cloaks have been transformed int oe othe th wings n e rslab O th sid .f ,eo beneat ha grou f Pictispo h symbols, ther larga s ei e panel containinga slightly altered version of the hunting scene from Hilton of Cadboll; there is an additional figure of a warrior on foot with shield and spear, and the female figur horsebacn eo missingks i . Below thi smalso scentw le panelsear ; in one there is a stylised hippocentaur with the branch of a tree under its arm, of a type already described at Meigle2 ; in the other are David and the lion, in the Gilgamesh attitude, with a sheep and harp above. The complicated circle interlacing is similar to that found in the Gospel- book of the Irish monastery of Bobbio, which is closely related to the

Book of KeHs. 3 Ther othee ar e r fragment f slabo s t Tarbata s Ross-shiren i , , showing the ronde bosse style of carving of the lona crosses.4 There is also a particularly interesting fragment of a thick slab,5 about 1J feet high, carved on one side with a design of spirals of the Irish chip-carving type (inspired by late metal-work) of the Ahenny cross,6 and on the other with an inscription in Hiberno-Saxon capitals (PI. XLV, a). The lettering is carved in relief and is very close to that on the Ardagh Chalice in the

National Museum at Dublin. The lines are short and the letters a7 t either end have been partly broken away. Romilly Alien give e probablth s e reading as: IN NOMINE IHESU CHRISTI CRUX CHRISTI IN COMMEMORATIONE REO (TE) Til REQUIESC (IT) e churcTh f Tarbao h s dedicatewa t Colmane S paristh o f t dd o h an , Tarbat originally included tha Fearnf o t , wher situates ewa monastere dth y of Nova Ferna. "Reotetii s bee"ha n suggeste e partiallth s da y illegible name commemorate e monumentth n o de deat Th f "Rethaide.o h r o "

1 E.C.M.S., p. 214, fig. 228. 2 P. 89. 3 Turin, O. iv. 20. Zimmermann, iii. pis. 198 and 211. 4 E.C.M.S., pp. 88-94.

5 . Ibid.,94 . p

. HenryF 6 Sculpturea L , irlandaise, , XXIpisXX . . 7 L. S. Gogan, The Ardagh Chalice, London, 1932, fig. 8. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

"Reodaide" is recorded under the year 726 in the Annals of Ulster, and e Annalth unde n f i Tigernach o e syea3 th r 76 r botn i , h of- whics i e h called "Ab. Ferna." The inscription and the spirals, resembling those on the Ahenny cross, show an interesting connection with the south of Ireland, for Ahenny was near the monastery of Ferns in Ireland, of -which it may be assumed that Nova Ferna in Scotland was an offshoot. The south of Ireland had accepted the Roman usage even before the Synod Kin0 of71 g Whitb y Nechtab e Pict d d th alsy an f ha sono accepte, it d whereas the monks of lona refused to conform until 716, so it is probable

beginnine thath t eighte a tth f g6 h century Pictish Scotland wouln i e db 1 close communication with southern Ireland. An unusual cross-slab at Kirriemuir 2 (PL XLVI, a), in Angus, probably belongs to this period. It follows the general plan of the Pictish cross- slabs with a cross on one side and a figure scene on the other, but with exceptioe th decorae th f no - tion of the cross, which is in key pattern with a pair of interlaced animals affrorites, ther littls ei e tha s Celtii t c about it. In the two upper i ill i i ^\ '/ 111 1S \ 1 panels behind the cross are 2JIL // \\ ,/ *) M )1 a Pair of angels; they are no longer the stylised type with four -wings e founth n do Fig. 14. David the Warrior. other Scottish monuments, , Ardchattana , Argyllshire. e, Kirriemuir, Angus. but they are the conven- 6, Bassie, Angus. d, St Andrews, Fife. tional angels -with long robe and large -wings of the type found in the Saxon chapels at Bradford- on-Avon 3 in Somerset, and at Winterbourne Steepleton4 in Dorset. In the left-hand lower panel there is the figure of a man with a staff or spear and a small square shield on his arm, evidently related to the figure of David the warrior on the St Andrews sarcophagus (fig. 14). In the right-hand panel there is a crudely drawn scene of animals hunting n eagla : e attackin o hound tw e top r d th o ga stas an t ,ga beasts of prey below. On the other side of the slab there is one large recessed panel containin ghuntina g scen f unusuao e l horseo typeTw -. witn me h spear e show ar se abov on ne other th ed belo an , wa houn d seizin gstaga crudA . e versio e doubls carvei th d f o nro ed disd an c

left-hanp to e th dt a corne rpanele .oth f . 1 Bede, Hist. Eccles., v. c. 22. 2 E.C.M.S., . 227p . . Kendrick,D . T 3 Anglo-Saxon Art, pi. GUI, fig. 1 . 4 T. D. Kendrick, op. cit., pi. GUI, fig. 3. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 105

NINTH- AND TENTH-CENTURY CROSS-SLABS AND CROSSES. The tall cross-slabs of the last group, with the elaborate ronde bosse carving exception w wite fe ar , hnationaa e th lase f th so t l typ Pictisf eo h cross-slab. The e succeedear y e nint d th tent an hn i d h centuriea y b s number of monuments, both free-standing crosses and cross-slabs, in a variety of styles. The cross-slab, although continuing for a time, had e vigou th d originalit losl an al r t e Pictisth f o yh monument. Wite hth establishmen e dynast th e Scot f th o tn 850f i syo , Pictish culture must have merged wit l thamoss he Scotsal wa thath td t f characteristian o ,t c gradually disappeared. e OwinVikinth o kingdogt w g ne raid e f mth o s frof e centreof mth Scotlant f cu cultur o se Scots—lons th dwa f eo d aan Ireland—and consequentl vers ywa t poor qualite ar yth s .it f yo A grou f cross-slabpo Perthshirn si Angud ean s sho influencn wa e from e lateth r Irish manuscript d probablan s y belone nintth ho t g century. Wit exceptioe hth monumene on f no t Aldbaa t Angun i r s whic nearls hi y

6 feet high, they are x mostly small slabs, and have a square, rounded, or pedimented top. The carving is in flat, very low relief. The interlacing is simpl d rathean e r crude representationw fe ; a ther e ar e f Pictiso s h symbols, but no animal art. The cross sometimes has a ring joining the arm d sometimean s e shaf th ss attache i t e groua base Th o s t di p. characterise y representationb d f ecclesiastico s s with broad, flat figures, usually shown full face, their large, triangular heads hanging heavily between bent shoulders. They are dressed in a tunic, over which a cloak hang straightn si , stif showe f ar folds d n an ,holdin gboo a staffa r ko . A typical example of this group is at Kirriemuir, in Angus (PI. XLVII).

The cros s squarha s e anglee junctios covere i th e arm t d th a s f an sno d 2 with interlacin a broad f o g , simpl e euppe th type n rI .panel s behind the cross are two bird-headed figures probably meant to represent evang- elists. This motive has not occurred in Scotland before, but it may easily f Northumbriahavo y e comwa y b e , wher s founi t i s eearla d s ya e beginninth e eightth f o hg centur t Cuthbert'S n o y s e coffin.th n I 3 lowe o rfigure tw panel e s ar swit h books, probably also representing evangelists. The other side of the slab is divided into two panels. In the upper panel there is a figure with a book, and a crude version of St Paul t AnthonS d an y partin lowee breade th g th n rI pane. figura l shows i e n full face, seate chaira n e armdo th ,f whic o s h terminat animan ei l heads. This type of seated figure is derived from Syrian and Egyptian manuscripts

and is found for the first time in Ireland in the St Gall Gospel, dated to 4 1 E.C.M.S., p. 245, fig. 259, a and 6. 2 Ibid., p. 227. . KendrickD . T 3 , Anglo-Saxon Art, . 114p . t GalS 4 l Gospel Book (M.S. 51) e Zimmermannse , , iii. pi . L G 186. Michelid ,an , Bevve ArchSo- logique, Juin 1936, pp. 192 sqq. 106 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1939-40.

the middle of the eighth century. The arms of the chair ending in animal heads are often found in Irish manuscripts. On one side of the seated

figure is the mirror and comb symbol, and on1 the other an undecipherable motive. A tall cross-slab at Elgin is a survival of the elaborate Pictish slabs.

Figures representing the evangelist2 s surround the cross, and in a panel beneath the cross interlaced animals closely recall a panel on a fragment oa cross-shaff t from Colerne, n Wiltshiri 3 e (fig e othe. th 15) n r O .sid e of the slab an elaborate stag hunt fills the lower half of the panel, the hawk on the arm of one of the horsemen recalling the figure on the sarcophagu t AndrewsS f o se uppe Th .e paner th hal f s fillei o lf d with a symmetrical arrangement of Pictish symbols. As well as the influence from Irish manuscripts there was also a strong influence from Northumbrian carving. There is a unique cross-slab from Brechin L XLVI(P 4 , 6) , so purely Northumbrian in style tha t i seemt s certain that i t must have been execute thadn i t Pig. 15. country, although the cross-slab a, Cross-shaft, Colerne, Wiltshire. 6, Cross-slab, Elgin. was unknow n Englani n t a d that rectangula a period s i t I . r slab, sidcarvee eon relief equal-armew n onlyn dlo o A .n i , d cross extends slabe sidelarge A th th f .s eo o t medallio centr e crose th th t nf sea o contains e Virgie figur th th d Childf o nan e , wit inscription ha Hiberno-Saxon ni n minuscules give Romilly nb y Alies na S.MARIA.MR.XPI, it nframa se d e an of-small-raised bosses figure birda Th f .eo , possibl ydovea , arm e crosse eitheth n th sn carve o f s uppeo i e o ; rth m sidn dangelsre ar o ear , and on the shaft two saints. In the panels forming the background there were probably representation e fouth rf o sevangelists o uppetw e r th ; figures have been partially destroyed, but.th stile are lowel cleartwo r ' shod e eagle-headean wth d lion-headesymboe th t Joh S d f no lan d symbol of St Mark. In style this slab is fairly close to a fragment of a cross from Hodda r Luce,mo n Dumfriesshirei , whic s carvei h d wit a hmedallio n

decorated wit5 h similar small raised bosses. r exampl 1Fo Booke th n e i o f St Chad t Lichfiela d CathedraCassiodoruse th n i d lan Psalmos n i e th n i

Durham Cathedral Library. Zimmermann ,246 d iiian . . pis5 24 . 2 E.C.M.S., p. 135, fig. 137. » T. D. Kendrick, Anglo-Saxon Art, p. 211, and pi. LXXXIII. 4 B.C.M.S., . 249p . 6 Ibid., . 440p , fig- . 463. . - THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 107

An interesting fragment of the shaft of a free-standing cross was found built into the wall of the twelfth-century church of St Mary on the Rock J t AndrewS t a XLVL s(P shaf e , divides 6)Th i t . d into panels containing a variet f motivesyo . Ther a curiou s ei s scene wher nakeo etw d human figures hol a ddis c ove e heaa smalle th rf o d r figuree ; th abov s i t i e beginnin plana f go t scroll belowd an , , separate bana y stef db do p pattern, two birds affrontes surmounting a pair of beasts' bodies with a single human othee th headn r O side. , beneat hscrola l patterncreatureo tw e ar , s with human heads and bodies, with fishes' tails, entwined. This motive recalls somewhat similar formslaa t n Banagher,ba o s Irelandn i 2 , which belongs Irisn a ho t group date abouo dt t 800.3 Dowe shaf a edge th s i f nton eo debased vine scroll pattern. This cross-shaft is a blending of Pictish and Northumbrian elements, wite Northumbriath h n predominatings i t I . stylistically fairly close to the Nunburnholme cross and belongs probably e latteth e ninto rt th hal f ho f century. Another semi-Northumbrian cross belongin o approximatelt g e th y same date is at Dupplin, in Perthshire 4 (fig. 16). It is nearly 9 feet high, and resembles in shape the Northumbrian cross at Thornhill.5 There is a raised boss at the junction of the arms, and around it is entwined a plan t creepet fa form e th r: with three-lobed leaves which appearn i s the Book of Kells and the Leningrad Gospels 6 (dated to about the middle e eightoth f h century) l fouAl r .e shaf sidedividee th f ar to s d into panels, some of them separated from one another by a strip of step pattern as were the panels on the cross-shaft at St Andrews, others by plain raised moulding e smalleTh . r panel e fillear s d with compact design f intero s - lacing, key pattern, or spirals, the larger with animal motives or human figures. There is the Northumbrian animal with its head turned back an tongus dit e coming throug bodys it similaa hsli a f n i to , r typ thao et t foun t Wamphray,a d n i Dumfriesshire7 ; ther e pairar ef animalo s s affrontes, and groups of birds. Of human forms there is David as a harpist, e lionth Davia horsema,d an d n with long drooping moustached an , groups of foot soldiers with spears and circular shields. A numbe f monumento r Perthshirn i s d Angu ean e relate e ar sth o dt Duppli ne carvee sam ar crossth d en di an styl, f vereo y low t deepl,bu y cut, relief. A cross-slab at Crieff,8 in Perthshire, over 6 feet in height, is carved wit e three-lobeth h d e Duppliplanth f o t n cross, which sometimesn o , this slab , animan enda n i s l head. This transformatio a plan f o nt into

1 P.S.A.S., xliii . 385p . .

z F. Henry, La Sculpture irlandaise, pis. XXXVIII and XXXIX. 3 P. Henry, op. tit., p. 165. • E.C.M.S., p. 319, fig. 334. " Ibid., p. 449, fig. 469. 6 A Northumbrian Gospel Book (Lat. P.V.I.N. 8); now in Leningrad. See Zimmermann, iii. pis. 321-326. 7 E.C.M.S., . 449p , fig. 470. s Ibid., . 313p , fig. 328. Pig. 16. Cross at Dupplin, Perthshire, after Romilly Alien. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 109

an animal form is also found in the Leningrad Gospels. The monument is remarkable in no other way and bears no human nor animal figures. A grou n Angupi s composei s f smalo d l cross-slabse mosth f to e on , elaborate of which is at Ben vie 1 (PL XL VIII, a). It is 3 feet in height and fairly close in style to the cross at Dupplin. Broad interlacing, terminating in animal heads, decorates the shaft and upper arm of the uppee panelth o slabe edge n th rtw I f crosson .se o d behinan , crose dth s e styliseth e ar d figure f four-wingeo s d angels—the wings attachee th o dt body by discs. In the lower panels are pairs of entwined, dragon-like creatures, their bodies ornamented with a spiral design. The other side of the slab is divided into two panels, in each of which there is a horseman with long drooping moustache, carrying a spear and circular shield, and with a short sword. The upper of these two figures is accompanied by a small dog, and is very evidently related to the figures on the cross at Dupplin. A cross-slab at Kirriemuir follows closely the same plan and

is clearly carved by the same hand. 2 Another slab at Kirriemui ris carved with the figure of an angel in

e samth e t flatdeeplbu , y cut l ,thes stylal f eo monuments angee 3 Th .l recalls those on the cross-slab at Benvie, but it is more elaborately treated, addition junctioe i disce th winge d th t th an a s o f nt sno paithera e rear of circular brooche e shouldersth t a s banA .f ste o d p pattern remains e figuredow th side f non o e . This typ f angeeo s founi l d carvee th n do e shrinStowth f o e Missal e Nationath n i 4 l Museu mn Dublini . A cross-slab at Invergowrie 5 (PI. XLIX) follows the usual plan of these later cross-slabs. The side with the cross is reserved for purely decorative motives, one of which is a design of key pattern set in a rect- angle. Thicommoa s si n desig Irelann ni crossemanuscriptsn n di o d san , t befor no tente t eth bu h century. Ther smala s ei l stri ropf po e moulding, which is a motive common on English crosses, but which has not been

foun Scotlann i d d before othee Th e rsla. th sids divide bi f eo d into otw 6 panel outlined san d with step patternuppee th n rI pane. l ther three ear e figures "wearing long tunics and cloaks and carrying books: the outer two have disc brooches with a cruciform pattern at the shoulders. This closely resemble e "Corth f o e pcentra th sp Naomh to le figurth "n 7o e e Nationath n i l Museu e loweDublimn i th o n rI npanetw . (PIe L) ar .l interlaced dragons; they bea e samth r e spiral decoratio thein no r bodies e dragone cross-slath th o an d s o s evidentle t Benviba ar d ean y related to those on the cross-slab at Elgin. This decoration on the bodies of

1 B.C.M.S., . 247p , fig. 260. 2 Ibid., . 258p , fig. 269. 3 Ibid., . 260p , fig. 270. . MahrA 4 , Christian Ancientn i t Ar Ireland, . pi67 , 5 E.C.M.S., p. 255, fig. 266. r exampl Fo e Sf6 cth Andren eo w Auckland Cross, County Durham . DT . e KendrickSe . , Anglo- Saxon Art, pi. LII. 7 A. Mahr, Christian Art in Ancient Ireland, pis. 68 and 69. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

e dragonth s recall a sWes t Saxon versio f ribboo n n style animal inter- lacing. It is a Norse type of decoration and might imply a Viking influence in the east of Scotland, but in view of the close relationship between the dragon design on the Elgin slab and that of Colerne in Wiltshire, a connec- tion wit e southth f Englanho d seems more probable. Some fifty fragments of small cross-slabs were found in excavating e foundationth e Church t e t Rocth AndrewMarS S th f o t f sf ka o yo s 1 (PL XLVIIIe majorit speciao Th n f . f o theso b) y ,l e interestear ; they have neither figur r animano e l carving, nothin t stereotypegbu d designs of spiral, interlacing, and key pattern. From the style of carving and decorative motives they appea e o belonsamt rth eo t g period, late nint earld han y tenth e centuriesmonumentth o d s a , sgroue oth f p just described. , Another carving which is somewhat similar in style and which probably belong o approximatelt s e samth y e period n arc a s pari ,f h o t from Forteviot, Perthshirn i 2 e (PI. s LI)carvei t I . d with a smal' l crost a s the centre, at the side of which there is an animal figure, possibly intended crose side th f seon lambo a ther n e larga O b s e.i o t e seated figure, shown in profile, holdin gstafa f with botcuriousle th h s handsha yt I elongate. d eyes of the figures' on the cross at Dupplin, a long moustache, elabor- ately curled hair, and is dressed in a tunic with a band of key pattern at a cloake garment e foote th foldd th th f an ;o , s s hav e ribbon-likth e e appearance which is common in such Irish manuscripts as the St Gall Gospels. At the foot of this figure there is a small animal similar to that beside othe th e cross n th e rcros O th sid .o similaf so etw ther e rar e t smallebu r human figures, also holding staves possibld an , remnane yth t of a third. A unique cross-slab at Forres,3 Elgin, seems also to belong to this perio f mixedo d influence, althoug t hdifferi s froothey man r cross-slan bi Scotland. It is 20 feet high, which is quite exceptional, and very much narrowe proportion i r s heighit o nt e usua t th tha e l nar cross-slabs A . cross with a ring joining the arms covers most of one side of the slab. The shaft and the panels on either side are covered with interlacing on a small scale. In a panel below the cross there is a figure scene, too much defaced to be intelligible. The other side of the monument is divided into five or six panels containing confused scenes with little figures of men arranged in vertical and horizontal rows. Some of these clearly represent battle scenes- r ther fo e warrior; ar e s with shield d spear an sd decapitate an s d bodies. Ther a pane f horsemens ei o l w witro ha , another wit ha Celti c church bell beneath which are five human heads. The sides of the monu- ment are very badly weathered, but the description given by Romilly

1 E.C.M.8., pp. 357 sqq. " Ibid., p. 325. 3 Ibid., . 149p , fig. 156. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. Ill

Alien of a panel containing a row '' of four mermaids or mermen -with their fishlike tails interlaced in pairs so as to form two figure-of-eight knots" sounds not unlike the mermen on the cross-shaft at St Andrews.

TENTH-CENTURY CROSSES. Fragments of a series of small free-standing crosses have been found in Angus,1 and in Perthshire,2 as well as in the south of Scotland in Northumbrian territory at Borthwick,3 in Midlothian, and at Jedburgh.4 completes i e on t thet bu , yNo appea havo t r e been small crosses t morno , e than 6 feet in height, with rather slender shafts and a curve at the junction of the arms. The figure carving is crude and the interlacing of a debased type. The shape of the cross is nearer to that of the crosses carved on the cross-slabs than it is to any of the Northumbrian crosses, but both e iconographth e decorativth d an y e motive e essentiallar s y English. The three shafts which survive have eac hcrucifixioa centre e th th t f na eo arms e figurth ;f Chris o e tunica s clai t d smaln di an , l figure eithen o s r side represent the two soldiers. This type of crucifixion and its setting between the arms of the cross are found on tenth-century Yorkshire crosses, for example at Aycliffe.5 Beneath the crucifixion, on the shaft from Monifiet LII)L h (P 6pair o , thertw f figure o se ear s probably representing the evangelists, and at the base David as a harpist. Pairs of figures shown full face are also found on the late Yorkshire crosses. Other English motives, but not of a dateable character, are the rope moulding, the animal wit heas hit d turne dvine th back e d scrollan , , whic edge founs hi th en do e shafoth f t from Abernethy. t seemI s certain that these crosses belong

tente th ho t Northumbriacenture ar d yan n rather7 than Scottish spitn i , e of the form of the cross and an occasional Celtic motive, such as the little naked man on the fragment of the arm of a cross from Strathmartine.8

CONCLUSION. The conclusions reached in this paper are set out in the accompanying diagram, which shows the evolution of the Christian monuments of Scotland. Ther s firsn earla wa et y grou f simplo p e engraved Christian monument e wesn Irelan i sth f Scotlan o td dan d derived from funerary monument Brito-Romae th f so n Church. middlThee sevente th th n i f eo h

t MonifletA 1 Strathmartined han , E.C.M.S., . 265p fig6 , .fig 26 277 .. p 275 .d ,an 2 At Abernethy and Porteviot, B.C.M.S., p. 310, fig. 325, and p. 326, fig. 337. 3 E.C.M.S., . 423p , fig. 422. 4 Ibid., . 514p , fig. 564. 5 Collingwood, Northumbrian Crosses,. 79 . p • E.C.M.S., p. 265. ' Ibid., p. 310. 8 Ibid., p. 266, fig. 277, 6. Pagan Brito-Roman Monuments. Funerary Slabs.

Primitive Irish Pictish and Columban Cross-slabs Symbol (fift sevento t h h century). Stones.

Eastern Slabs (Coptic).

Cardonagh Group Northumbrian Art. Crosses and Developed Cross-slabs Irish MSS. Art Mediterranean (seventh century). (early eighth Northumbrian. century). High Crosses.

Irish Crosses Main Eastern Group (eighth century). of Cross-slabs (eighth century).

lona Crosses Eastern (late eighth century). Influence. Byzantine. Sassanian.

St Andrews Sarcophagus (early ninth century).

Nigg, Hiltonof Later Cadboll, etc. Northumbrian Later Irish MSS. (ninth century). ^and English Crosses.

~Late Slabs—Late Free-standing Crosses. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS OF SCOTLAND. 113

century came the development of a more complex decoration: carving in low relief, the first appearance of a Christian iconography, the elaboration of the slab, and, before the end of the century, the first free-standing crosses in Ireland. This art was in use also in Scottish Dalriada. Next there came transitionaa l grou Scotlandn pi Pictisn i , h territory monumentf o , s which are partly Christian, partly Pictish "symbo same lth stone,et a tim d e"an there were a number of cross-slabs that were almost purely Irish in character e eightth n hI .centur y cam e developmenth e e Churcth f o th in Pictish Scotland, no longer entirely in Columban control and in close touch with Northumbria. At this period the main group of cross-slabs was evolved, combining Pictish, Irishd Northumbriaan , n elements. These monuments, while retaining their national character, came, about the middle of the eighth century, under new influences from abroad which brough a ronde n i t bosse styl f carvingo e d tracean , f classicao s l sculptur figure th n ei scenes abouy B e middl .e nint th t th f heo century the tall cross-slab seems to have been abandoned, perhaps owing to the union of the Picts and Scots and the gradual merging of the Pictish culture with that of the Scots, but also partly owing to the closer contact of the Churc Scotlann hi d wit southe ht th abou A . t this period there w werfe ea semi-Northumbrian free-standing crossesa numbe d an f ,smal o r l cross- slabs, some taking their styl f carvino e g from these crosses; othersf o , a rather debased type, from the later Irish manuscripts. Finally in the tenth century there appeare dsmala l grou free-standinf po g crosses, closely associated with some of the Yorkshire crosses of the same period and, except for a few minor details, purely English. The exact purpose of the tall cross-slabs of Scotland is not known. Adamnan several times mention e erectiosth f crossesoccasioe no on n o :n to mark the spot where St Columba rested on one of his last walks.

Crosses and cross-bearing slabs were often raised in monastery ground1 s in Ireland constana d an , t feature earlth f yo e Irish monasteriee th s swa presenccross-bearing bi a f eo g slab besid evera y smale l oratory.th t Bu

cross-slab f Scotlano s d whic hthein i appea e rb originao t r l positioe 2 nar often in the open country where there is no tradition of any ecclesiastical building. In the Hodoeporicon of St Willibald3 (a Saxon saint), written about the year 754, it is said that:

"It is the custom of the Saxon race that on many of the estates of nobles and goothen wone yd me ar standar havechurce a o t t th e t no ,th h bu f do Holy Cross, dedicated to our Lord, and reverenced with great honour,

lifted up on high, so as to be convenient for the frequency of daily prayer." Adamnan1 , Vita Colum., iii. c. 24. 2 See F. Henry, Irish Art, p. 27. e HodoeporiconTh 3 t Willibald,S f o e Librarye PalestineTh th f o Pilgrim's Text Society, vol. iii., London, 1897. 8 VOL. LXXIV. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1939-40.

Very possibly a cross-slab would mark the site of a preaching place in Scotland. What factors constitut e nationath e l characte e Pictisth f o rh cross- slab is an interesting problem, for, apart from the animal art and the Pictish symbols, ther esingle doe t appeaon ee sno b motiv o rt e that cannot be trace outsidn a l thao dt Pictise al e t th sourceye h d artistan , s adopted •was thoroughlo s y absorbed thae monumentth t s presen a surprisinglt y harmonious whole. What they neglecte s revealina s i d s whaa g t they accepted: decorative motives from any source, from manuscripts, from metal-work, from carvings of wood, of ivory, or of stone, were eagerly adopted t althoug bu e ,sam th t ea h perio e free-standinth d g cross wa s in use both in Ireland and Northumbria, the Picts remained resolute in their refusal to adopt it, and the tall cross-slab, unknown in Northumbria and little used in later days in Ireland, remained their national monument. In iconography it was the same; they seem to have been singularly un- intereste n Christiai d n themes. Thos ee monumentfounth n o e d th f o s main group—scenes representing David, Jonah, Daniel, the meeting of St Paul and St Anthony, the temptation of St Anthony—are all found on monuments in Ireland belonging to a period from about 650 to 750,1 and doubo n s i t t i from that country that they were introduced into Scotland. All the Christian themes have a tendency to be transformed into motives that are decorative rather than iconographical, far from their early Christian meaning as symbols of deliverance and redemption. With the elaborate Eastern monuments there seem havo st e bee nwidenina interestf go e Th . sarcophagu t AndrewS f so s show morsa etheme realistith f Davidf o e o e cus , and its connectiozi with Sassanian art makes a directly Eastern source seem probable Nige Th g. cross-slab show a familiarits y wit t Jerome'hS s life of St Paul and gives a more elaborate version of the theme than is ever found in Ireland. The introduction of the beast-headed symbols of the evangelists may have come through Northumbria or through manuscripts, t thebu y cannot have retained their significanc Scotlandn i e ther e fo , yar ^nearly ~always~shown~ wito symboltw h e ssam t th JohoS f en o nslab . The crucifixion, although found on monuments in Ireland as early as the seventh century, never occurs on slabs in Scotland. Even the cross, which forms the dominant motive of the slab, is presented in a purely decorative way. The source and meaning of the non-Christian themes are obscure. Doctor Joseph Anderson has suggested the mediaeval Bestiarie e sourca numbe th e anima r s th a fo se f o rl scenes, t therbu 2 e paralleo n seeme b lo st exac t enoug mako ht e suc hderivatioa n more than a supposition. Referenc s alreadha e y been mad traceo t e f totemiso s m e clath n n i namee Picts th d thei f an o s, r preoccupation -with animat ar l

Se . HenryeP Sculpturea ,L irlandaise, . 134p . 21 E.C.M.S., p. Ixxxii. E EARLTH Y CHRISTIAN MONUMENT F SCOTLANDO S 5 11 .

might hav s sourceit littlo thisn ei knowTo s ee i religio. e th th f no f no moro Pictd eo st than pagae guesth t nsa backgroun monuments,e th f do

but it seems probable that they1 show traces of Northern European mythology. Mention has been made of the analogy of the human sacrifice

on the cross-sla2 b at Glamis with that of the Gundestrup Cauldron; the numerous scenes of stag hunts might be connected with the Celtic god Cernunnus, the god with a stag's horns, and the woman on horseback at Nigg with Epona e goddesth , s associated with horses, while somf o e

the versions of the deliverance of Jonah might 3 be a confusion with the "devouring monster f Gaulis"o h art.4 Legend folk-taled san s very prob- ably account for many other motives, such as that of the man grasping two birds by the neck which is found on the slab at Rossie Priory, as well as t Whita e IslanFranke th t Irelandbeen n di o no s n s d Casketha an , t I . possible to determine the significance of the "Pictish Symbols" on the cross-slabs, whether it was religious or tribal, but it is one of the strangest features in the strange episode in Christian art which the Pictish monu- ments present. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I wish to thank Mr A. J. H. Edwards for giving me access to the collection of photographs belonging to the Society, and for obtaining permissioreproduco t e m r nfo e certai f themno . D., T als r Kendrick,oM Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities in the British Museum, for giving me access to the collection of photographs of English crosses; the Trustee e Britisth f so h Museue Directo th e Nationa d th mf an o r l Museum of Irelan r givindfo permissioe gm publiso nt h photograph f objecto s n i s their charge; the Council of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for allowin reproduco t e gm e illustrations fro. mS . theiG . rO journalr M d an ; Crawford for allowing me to use some of his photographs. I am particularly indebted to Mademoiselle Henry for much assistance, especially with reference to Irish art, and I would thank Dr Ernst Kitzinger and Mademoisell . MichelL . . Kamit r H G heled criticism fo r i an pM z d an , for assistin n productioi e ge m map th f .o n

1 Adamnan mentions more than once (ii. c. 34 and i. c. 37) opposition to St Coramba by the "Magi"; thiusualls sha y been take mea o nmeant o n ny "b s s certaidruids,i t i t n "bu tha t they were really such. Druidism had two sides to it, the intellectual and the magical, and it is quite possible that any form of magic would be taken by the Irish monks to be Druidism. References to "sacred springs " (ii. c. 9) see mindicato t e some for naturf mo e worship. 2 F. Henry finds trace Celtif so c paganism Irise inth h Christian monuments Sculpturea L . irlandaise, p. 131. . HubertH e Cells,e Se 3 Th ,. 238 p . 4 Rheims and Chateauroux museums. 6 11 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F SO , 1939-40.

ABBREVIATIONS. B.C.M.S. The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland, a classified, illustrated, descriptive list of the monuments, with an analysis of their symbolism and decoration, by J. Romilly Alien, and an introduction, being the Rhind Lectures for 1892, by Joseph Anderson. Edinburgh, 1903. BBDE, Hist. Eccles. Venerabilis Baedae historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Annals of Ulster. Annals Ulster,of otherwise Annals Senat,of a Chronicle of Irish Affairs, from A.Do t A.D1 . 154943 . , edited wit htranslatioa d notenan s by William M. Hennessy. Dublin, 1887 and 1893. ZIMMERMANN. Vorkarolingische Miniaturen, by E. Heinrich Zimmermann. Berlin, 1916. SALIN, Thierornamentik. altgermanischee Di Thierornamentik: typologische Studie uber germanische Metallgegenstande Jahrhundert,IX aus bis dem IV nebst einer Studie uber irische Ornamentik, by Bernhard Salin. Stockholm, 1904. ADAMNAN. Vit. Colum. Vita Sancti Columbae auctore Adamnano. e His-Th torians of Scotland, vol. vi. Edinburgh, 1874. P.S.A.S. Proceedings Societythe of Antiquariesof Scotland.of J.R.S.A.I. Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. P.R.I.A. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. F. HENRY. La Sculpture irlandaise pendant les douze premiers Siecles de I'Ere chretienne. Paris, 1933. . HENRYF Earlye th . n i Irish Christiant Ar Era. London, 1940.