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The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School THE POWER AND IMPACT OF FRAMING TRANSGENDER ATHLETES IN SPORTS A Thesis in Communications by Danielle Adams © 2020 Danielle Adams Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements the Degree of Master of Arts December 2020 The thesis of Danielle Adams was reviewed and approved by the following: Nakho Kim Assistant Professor of Communications Thesis Advisor Stephanie L. Morrow Associate Teaching Professor of Speech Communications Robin Redmon Wright Associate Professor of Lifelong learning and adult education Craig Welsh Associate Professor of Communications and Humanities Professor-in-Charge, Master of Arts in Communications ii Abstract In today’s world, equal and fair representation in the media is needed to ensure equal and fair treatment throughout our society. As transgender athletes make up a small subsection of our population, many individuals learn about male-to-female (MTF) and female-to-male (FTM) transgender people through the media. This paper, using the standards set by GLAAD, an organization working to rewrite the script for LGBT acceptance, highlights how gender power relations are continued in the representation of transgender athletes. These standards provided through GLAAD’s Media Reference Guide are intended to be used by those who want to tell the stories of LGBTQ individuals fairly and accurately. Through the research findings it was discovered that MTF athletes are represented more negatively through the media headlines, text and images provided. The MTF athletes were frequently referred to by their birth name with incorrect pronoun usage, and used before and after transition comparison images, all of which do not align with the standards set by GLAAD. Additionally, the research highlighted that the sports industry recreates a vicious cycle that continues to amplify and expand the gender roles and pay gap that are evident throughout our society, no matter if an individual is assigned a gender at birth or not. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ vi Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................... 5 2.1. History of Social Response to the Transgender Community ............................................. 8 2.2. Positioning Transgender People ............................................................................................ 10 2.3. Media Representation of Transgender ................................................................................ 13 2.4. Exclusion Studies ...................................................................................................................... 18 2.5. Gender Roles in Sports ............................................................................................................ 21 Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 24 Chapter 4: ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 28 4.1. Female-to-male athletes ........................................................................................................... 29 4.2. Male-to-female athletes ........................................................................................................... 35 Chapter 5: COMPARISONS .................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 6: DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 7: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 58 References .............................................................................................................................. 62 Appendix: List of Additional Articles ............................................................................. 79 iv List of Figures Figure 1: A Picture is Worth A Thousand Words ………………………………46 v List of Tables Table 1: Outline of Analyzed Athletes……………………………….……………26 Table 2: Positive and Negative Framing.. ………………………………………...29 Table 3: Statistic Comparisons……….…………………………………………....42 Table 4: Comparisons Without Allums……………………..……………………58 vi Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION Many people growing up in the 1970’s knew Bruce Jenner as an Olympic hero, setting records in the 1976 Olympics decathlon event. Jenner graced the cover of magazines and Wheaties boxes and was described as “Boyishly good-looking – a handsome Pete Rose – with tender brown eyes, a glorious smile… beautifully built, good-humored, well-spoken, Jenner could have been Bicentennial government issue… He came equipped with a pretty blonde wife…” (DeFord, 1976, para. 4). Today, Jenner is known as Caitlyn and could be described as influential, as she graces magazines with a completely new appearance, including long hair, bright red painted fingernails, and sequined jumpsuits. Many believe that Jenner is paving the way for transgender acceptance and advocacy. As Jenner now graces magazine covers with her new look, she’s accompanied by headlines such as that vary from “Call me Caitlyn,” in Vanity Fair (Bissinger, 2015). Jenner raced his way to fame through his Olympic success and later as a reality television star on E! However, while many view American sports as a pasttime, a Pew Research survey of LGBT adults found “that just 4% saw pro sports leagues as friendly toward LGBT people, while a majority (59%) saw the leagues as unfriendly and 36% saw them as neutral” (Lipka, 2016, para. 2). Therefore, while the LGBT community views the sports leagues as such, many transgender athletes are restricted and ridiculed for their participation. For example, CeCe Telfer, former NCAA Division II track star at Franklin Pierce University, who won the 400-meter hurdle title in 2019, was born and raised as Craig. Telfer, who was assigned male at birth, “competed for three years with Franklin Pierce’s men’s team but stepped away when she started transitioning with hormone 1 replacement theory” (NewsOne Staff, 2019, para. 4). When an interested individual searches for Telfer using Google News, 363 results are provided. Headlines include the May 29, 2019, article of “Transgender woman (who competed as a man last year) wins NCAA track championship,” on thecollegefix.com and “Transgender hurdler easily wins NCAA women’s national championship” in The Washington Times on June 3, 2019. In addition to the articles, individuals have strong opinions surrounding her victory that they also share on social media. Donald Trump Jr. tweeted his thoughts when he called her achievements as “Yet another grave injustice to so many young women who trained their entire lives to achieve excellence. Identify however you want, to each his own, but this is too far and unfair to so many” (Trump, 2019). However, according to his website, Chris Mosier is a “trailblazing Hall of Fame triathlete, All-American duathlete, transgender advocate, and a highly regarded speaker” (Mosier, n.d.). Mosier’s list of accomplishments continue when in 2015 he was the first transgender man to represent the United States in an international competition and the first transgender athlete to qualify for the Olympic trials in a category different than his sex assigned at birth. In the June 28, 2016, EPSN article, “Chris Mosier: “I finally feel very comfortable with my body,” written by Ain, he’s described as a “history maker,” as the first transgender athlete to appear in Sports Illustrated Body Issue (2016, para. 1). In the 2016 issue, Mosier is pictured naked alongside athletes such as Antonio Brown, Jake Arrieta and Conor McGregor. All of the men he accompanies are highly regarded, respected and paid famous athletes. In comparison to Telfer, 8,640 results are provided when completing a Google News search for Mosier. 2 When comparing the statements and images surrounding the victories of Telfer and Mosier, individuals can see that the two are framed vastly differently. As presented from these brief statements, when Telfer is presented in the media, she is attached to her assigned birth identity and is pictured ahead of her competition in track races. Alternatively, when Mosier is portrayed, he is presented as manly and strong and according to ESPN, he is the definition of an athlete. As visible through the above examples, female-to-male and male-to-female transgender athletes are presented differently in our media. However, a more extensive and thorough examination was needed to ensure this pattern of representation is evident throughout and across the transgender athlete community. Through the quantitative and qualitative research provided in this paper, found partial evidence was found that suggests that the media presents FTM and MTF athletes differently, thus, impacting and further transmitting the day-to-day stigmas surrounding transgender athletes. This research analyzed the text, headlines and images of FTM and MTF representation of over 300 Internet articles. Many media consumers seek out content that makes them feel comfortable and further aligns with their beliefs.
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