Fourteenth Australian Weeds Conference

Using your cute and furries: the role of threatened species in weed awareness

S.J. Vidler CRC for Australian Weed Management, PMB 1, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064, Australia

Summary A brief review of available information Network also uncovered further examples, some un- has shown that weeds are a major threat to at least 41 documented but backed up by strong observational threatened and animal species. This information evidence from ecologists and other experts. This list is should be used as a communication tool to raise the not defi nitive. There were many more examples where level of awareness of weeds amongst the public and the ‘weeds’ were listed as a key threatening process, but media, and generate a response from policy makers. were not supported by any further information. Keywords Biodiversity, threatened species, invasive For the purposes of this review it is important to , weeds, communication. understand the following defi nitions. Environmental weeds Plant species that have INTRODUCTION environmental impacts outside their native range. In Australia today invasive plants and animals are Some species that are native to one part of Australia considered the biggest threat to biodiversity after are environmental weeds in other parts of Australia. land clearing. But what does this mean? Chances are Threatened species In this paper ‘threatened spe- a quick survey on the street would reveal a very poor cies’ includes all species listed with a national or state understanding of the issues and concepts represented conservation status of endangered, vulnerable, rare or in this statement. the equivalent. It also includes those species, subspe- One way to illustrate the detrimental effect of cies or populations that are considered at the same weeds on biodiversity is the large number of cases level of risk on a regional scale. In no way does this where it has been shown that specifi c weed species report intend to discount the effects of environmental are having a negative impact on threatened species or weeds on other more common species, but by con- communities. However, while it is generally accepted centrating on those species already highly vulnerable that these impacts take place there is a lack of quantita- we can highlight the urgent need for action required tive information on the matter. to reduce this ever increasing problem. In their recent review Grice et al. (2004) identifi ed Key threatening processes Any negative impact just 24 papers that quantifi ed the ecological impacts on a threatened species caused by the existence of an of invasive plant species in Australia. Many of these environmental weed in its habitat. For example, weeds did not evaluate effects on threatened species. They may out-compete a threatened plant species, cause the concluded that while more research is obviously loss of breeding sites for other species or displace a needed, many weed management decisions will have food plant for dependent fauna. In many cases land to take place in the absence of quantitative studies clearing resulting in habitat destruction, degradation on impact. and fragmentation, has been the initial cause of a In this paper, I synthesise currently available infor- reduction in species numbers and abundance. How- mation on the relationships between weeds and threat- ever, weeds can become a subsequent key threatening ened species. Much of this information is qualitative process, invading remaining habitats especially where but it provides a basis for improved communication to these are fragmented or already degraded through other the broader community about the critical impacts that factors (Groves and Willis 1999). weeds have on biodiversity in general. CASE STUDIES APPROACH TO REVIEW Ferals and competition The only mammal restricted To compile the list of 41 threatened species listed in to the alpine and sub-alpine areas of mainland Aus- Table 1, I recorded examples from published works tralia, the mountain pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus and internet searches, which provided access to the Broom), was thought to be extinct but was rediscov- extensive number of online species recovery plans, ered in 1966. It occurs on Mt. Bogong, Bogong High along with other materials. Personal contact with state Plains, Mt. Loch, Mt. Higginbotham and Mt. Buller in agency conservation staff and the Threatened Species Victoria (VIC). In New South Wales (NSW) it is found

652 Fourteenth Australian Weeds Conference only in Kosciusko National Park (Primary Industries/ Larger vertebrates can also be affected by poisons Sustainability and Environment 2003a). in some invasive plants. The Proserpine rock-wallaby The mountain pygmy-possum is a good example (Petrogale Persephone Maynes) occurs in Conway, of the fl ow-on effects of weed invasion. Its survival is Gloucester Island and Dryander National Parks, on threatened by a number of factors, but one of them is the Clarke Range near Proserpine, in areas of the Con- weeds; English broom (Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link way Range, and around the town of Airlie Beach in ssp. scoparius) and blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L. Queensland (Nolan and Johnson 2001). The Glouces- agg.). Not only do these weeds harbour foxes, which ter Island population is threatened by two weeds, pink prey on the possum, but they also out-compete its food periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don) and rub- plants (PI/SandE 2003a). Thus there is a two-fold im- bervine (Cryptostegia grandifl ora Roxb. ex R.Br.), but pact on the possum; an introduced predator to contend particularly the pink periwinkle. Pink periwinkle is with, and less food to survive on. closely related to the wallaby’s natural food plants, but The Bathurst copper butterfl y (Paralucia spinifera unlike the native plants, it is toxic when eaten. There Edwards and Common) is believed to be the rarest are similar concerns about other potentially toxic gar- butterfl y in Australia. It is currently known from 29 den plants, as wallabies have been observed grazing in locations all within two council areas in western NSW household gardens, particularly in drier times (Nolan (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service – NPWS and Johnson 2001). 1999a). The Bathurst copper is an excellent example of the complex associations that can occur between Habitat degradation Weeds can also lead to habitat species. It shares a symbiotic relationship with a na- degradation by reducing access to breeding, resting tive blackthorn (Bursaria spinosa spp. lasiophylla or feeding sites. The cotton-pygmy goose (Nettapus E.M.Benn.) and a small black ant (Anonychomyrma coromandelianus Gmelin), a very small duck with a itinerans Lowne). Caterpillars of the Bathurst copper goose-like bill, is relatively common on lagoons, dams feed on the native blackthorn while in a mutualistic and ponds in Queensland. However, it is now consid- arrangement the small black ant tends to the butterfl y’s ered an endangered species in NSW where aquatic larvae (NSW NPWS 1999a). weeds are infesting the lakes and swamps it prefers, Noxious weeds threaten most sites where this and where it feeds off native hydrilla and pondweed rare butterfl y is still recorded. Blackberries form (Garnett 1993, NSW NPWS 1999b). ‘Aquatic weeds, impenetrable thickets around the blackthorn plants, especially water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes – are completely smothering them at some sites. In other believed to have contributed to the species’ decline areas these food plants are overgrown with Scotch by choking the surface of some coastal wetlands and broom (Cytisus scoparius), and now St. John’s wort rendering them unsuitable’ (Ayers et al. 1996). ( L.) invasions are also consid- Other recent threats include exotic grasses such ered a key threat (Ayers et al. 1996). as aleman grass (Echinochloa polystachya (Kunth) A.S.Hitchc.) and olive hymenachne (Hymenachne Toxic mix In another butterfl y example we see the amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees), which can also choke out effect of poisonous plants. In 1870 the Richmond waterways used by the pygmy-geese (Garnett 1993). birdwing butterfl y (Ornithoptera richmondia Gray) On the fl oodplain of the Northern Territory (NT), was reportedly very common in the streets of Bris- and slowly spreading into QLD, a thorny shrub up to bane (Queensland (QLD) Museum). Today, no natu- 6 m high forms a dense monoculture that replaces all ral breeding sites are known between Caboolture to native vegetation. Mimosa (Mimosa pigra L.), a native the north and Nerang in the Gold Coast hinterland. to South and Central America, infests some 80,000 ha Richmond birdwings normally lay eggs only on two of the NT (Martin 2003). This invasion has displaced species of native Pararistolochia vines; P. praevenosa vast areas of native sedgeland which once provided (F.Muell.) M.J.Parsons (itself a rare species) and P. nesting sites and food for many bird species includ- deltantha (F.Muell.) M.J.Parsons (University of QLD ing the endangered yellow chat (Epthianura crocea 2003). Most of these vines have disappeared with the tunneyi Matthews) (Groves and Willis 1999). Just clearing of coastal rainforests. Remaining butterfl ies 500 remaining individuals of this western Arnhem mistake the ornamental Dutchman’s pipe vine (Aris- Land race of yellow chats inhabit the coastal and sub tolochia elegans Mast.) for the native Pararistolochia coastal fl oodplains of the NT, from the Mary River to vines on which they lay their eggs. Toxins in this in- the East Alligator River. The recovery plan is clear: troduced plant kill the young caterpillars when they ‘The major current threat is the invasion by the weed begin feeding. The impact of this environmental weed Mimosa pigra, which is thought to render the habitat is thus very direct and immediate. unsuitable’ (Garnett and Crowley 2000).

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Competition The Cumberland Plain Woodland, itself Fire The desert sand skipper (Croitana aestiva Ed- a federally endangered vegetation community, is also wards) is a small brown and yellow butterfl y known home to the rare shrub pink (Pimelea spicata only from a small number of specimens collected in R.Br.). Pink pimelea is on the verge of extinction, out- 1966 and 1972 at three locations west of Alice Springs competed above and below ground by the beautiful in the MacDonnell Ranges (Wilson and Pavey 2002). yet smothering and invasive bridal creeper (Asparagus As a result the skipper is categorised as Endangered asparagoides (L.) W.Wight), another of Australia’s 20 under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Weeds of National Signifi cance (WONS) (Groves and Amendment Act 2000. Willis 1999). This is one of the few examples where Little is known about the skipper, however the scientifi c studies have been carried out to prove the invasive pasture, buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris L.), potentially detrimental relationship between weeds is now the dominant ground cover throughout the and threatened species. skippers’ habitat (Wilson and Parvey 2002). Buffel Kangaroo Island is a scenic location, very popular grass was introduced to Australia as a pasture spe- with tourists and well known for the large number of cies for tropical and sub-tropical regions. However, it fl ora and fauna endemic to the island. A survey of has naturalised and spread rapidly in areas of central threatened plant species on roadsides on Kangaroo Is- Australia and western QLD (Cameron 1999). Buffel land (Davies 1996) found that the weeds bridal creeper grass has been linked to the displacement of several (), bridal veil (Asparagus central Australian native plants and animals. It forms declinatus L.) and perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta dense monocultures and carries fi res that are much calycina J.E.Sm.) were causing major habitat degra- hotter than those in native vegetation. Buffel grass dation in areas inhabited by threatened plant species. itself is resistant to fi re. It’s thought that buffel grass There was also concern over infestations of phalaris probably displaces larval food plants of the skipper, (Phalaris aquatica L.) and soursob (Oxalis pes-caprae and that the hotter fi res may also affect the skippers’ L.), which were equally bad but more localised. ‘At food plants (Wilson and Parvey 2002). the present rate of spread, invasion of their remaining habitat by these fi ve weed species alone could result in THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION the total extinction of Olearia microdisca J.M.Black, The above examples give us tangible, local issues Pultenaea insularis J.Z.Weber and Phebalium equestre that may be a route to public appreciation of the (now Leionema equestre (D.A.Cooke) Paul G.Wilson) problem of weeds. There are many examples of the in the next few decades, in the absence of targeted weed general public displaying compassion and sympathy control’ (Davies 1996, pp.7-8). for threatened species, and the media refl ects this reac- A more recent recovery plan for 15 nationally tion by publishing such stories, especially when there threatened plant species on Kangaroo Island found is a local angle. that the same invasive species, although soursob only Campaigning to save the Richmond birdwing by to a lesser extent, are still causing particular manage- CSIRO’s Double Helix Science Club, NSW National ment problems (Taylor 2003). These weeds pose the Parks and Wildlife and other conservation groups greatest threat to the Kangaroo Island turpentine has been successful in the media. Whole schools and bush (Beyeria subtecta J.M.Black), Kangaroo Island neighbourhoods have become involved in the birdwing pomaderris (Pomaderris halmaturina J.M.Black ssp. project which touts ‘Plant a native Richmond birdwing halmaturina), MacGillavray spyridium (Spyridium vine in your garden. Destroy a Dutchman’s pipe vine eriocephalum var. glabrisepalum J.M.Black), and the today’ (Queensland Museum 2003). The issue even three taxa mentioned in Davies above. These weeds received coverage on the ABC’s Gardening Australia impact on the growth, recruitment and survival of Program in September 2003. these threatened plant species through competition The Richmond birdwing could be described as a for resources (space, light, nutrients and moisture). ‘fl agship species’; the use of one species to highlight In some cases they may also be causing secondary a conservation cause (Robinson and Glanznig 2003). impacts such as altered hydrological cycles, fi re re- Efforts to save the birdwing will no doubt have many gimes and micro-climate (Taylor 2003). Five of the positive fl ow-on effects for other species in the same threatened plant species are found only on Kangaroo habitat. From a conservation perspective holistic man- Island, and only within a small range at the eastern end agement of the entire ecosystem is always preferred of the island. The sixth, Kangaroo Island pomaderris, is over a single species approach, but that does not mean endemic to south-eastern South Australia (SA) (Taylor that a single species cannot be the hook that captures 2003, Davies 1996). the public’s attention. The use of ‘fl agship species’ has been a successful tactic for many conservation

654 Fourteenth Australian Weeds Conference

Table 1. Australian fl ora and fauna threatened by invasive plants. State/ Territory Threatened species Weed threat Reference TAS Tussock skink (Pseudemoia Gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) Department of Primary pagenstecheri Lindholm) Industries, Water and Environment Tasmania 2003 NSW prostrata J.A.Armstr., Bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera (L.) Centre for Plant Biodiversity Austral toad-fl ax (Thesium Norl. ssp rotundata (DC) Norl) Research and Australian australe R.Br.) National Herbarium 2002 NSW Nielsen Park she-oak Asparagus fern (Asparagus densifl orus (Kunth) Matthes and Nash 2000 (Allocasuarina portuensis Jessop), wandering creeper (Tradescantia L.A.S.Johnson) fl uminensis Vell.), lantana ( L.), Cape ivy (Delairea odorata Lem.), rambling dock (Acetosa sagittata (Thunb.) L.A.Johnson & B.G.Biggs), madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis) NSW Pink pimelea (Pimelea Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), bitou Groves and Willis 1999 spicata) bush (Chysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L. agg), St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), kikuyu ( Hochst. ex Chiov) NSW/ Magpie goose (Anseranas Mimosa (Mimosa pigra) Ayers et al.1996, Martin 2003, NT semipalmate Latham) Groves and Willis 1999 NSW Cotton pygmy-goose Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), aleman Ayers et al.1996, Garnett (Nettapus coromandelianus) grass Echinochloa polystachya, olive hymenachne 1993, NSW National Parks (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) and Wildlife Service 1999b NSW Bathurst copper butterfl y Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), Scotch broom Ayers et al.1996, NSW (Paralucia spinifera) (Cytisus scoparius), St John’s wort (Hypericum National Parks and Wildlife perforatum) Service 1999a NSW Spiny peppercress Prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), introduced grasses Ayers et al.1996 (Lepidium aschersonii Thell.) NSW Red Darling pea (Swainsona Exotic annual grasses Ayers et al.1996 plagiotropis F.Muell.) NSW Swainsona (Swainsona Exotic grasses and other weeds Ayers et al.1996 recta A.T.Lee) NSW Menindee nightshade Weeds associated with irrigation crops Ayers et al.1996 (Solanum karsense Symon) NSW Hairy quandong Lantana (Lantana camara L.) Environment Australia 2003 (Elaeocarpus williamsianus Guymer) NSW/ Mountain pygmy-possum English broom (Cytisus scoparius ssp. scoparius), PI/SandE 2003a VIC (Burramys parvus) blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) VIC Sunshine diuris (Diuris Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana (Trin. & PI/SandE 2003b fragrantissima D.L.Jones & Rupr.) Barkworth) M.A.Clem.) VIC Eltham copper butterfl y Cape broom (Genista monspessulana (L.) PI/SandE 2003c (Paralucia pyrodiscus L.A.S.Johnson), radiata pine (Pinus radiata lucida Crosby) D.Don), quaking grass (Briza maxima L.) SA Sandhill green-hood orchid Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) Groves and Willis 1999 (Pterostylis arenicola M.A.Clem. & J.Stewart)

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Table 1. (contined). SA Kangaroo Island turpentine Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), Taylor 2003 bush (Beyeria subtecta) perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) SA Kangaroo Island pomaderris Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), phalaris Taylor 2003 (Pomaderris halmaturina (Phalaris aquatica) ssp. halmaturina) SA MacGillavray spyridium Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), Taylor 2003 (Spyridium eriocephalum perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina), phalaris var. glabrisepalum) (Phalaris aquatica) SA Kangaroo Island phebalium Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), bridal Taylor 2003 (Leionema equestre) veil (Asparagus declinatus), perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) SA Beyeria bush-pea Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), bridal Taylor 2003 (Pultenaea insularis) veil (Asparagus declinatus), perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina) SA Small-fl owered daisy bush Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), bridal Taylor 2003 (Olearia microdisca) veil (Asparagus declinatus), perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) SA Common white spider Topped lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.), Bickerton 2003 orchid (Caladenia argocalla soursobsob (Oxalis pes-caprae), St John’s wort D.L.Jones) (Hypericum perforatum), Cape tulip (Moraea fl accida (Sweet) Steud.), gorse (Ulex europaeus), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.), watsonia (Watsonia meriana (L.) Mill. var. bulbillifera (J.W.Matthews & L.Bolus) D.A.Cooke) SA Blue gum woodlands Perennial veldt grass (Ehrharta calycina) Mercer pers. comm. (Eucalyptus leucoxylon F.Muell.), metallic sun orchid (Thelymitra epipactoides F.Muell.) QLD/ Richmond birdwing Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia elegans) Queensland Museum 2003, NSW butterfl y (Ornithoptera University of Queensland richmondia) 2003, CSIRO Feature Articles, ABC Website 2003 QLD Julia Creek dunnart Prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. Lundie-Jenkins and Payne (Sminthopsis douglasi) ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan) 2000 QLD Aponogeton (Aponogeton Para grass (Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf), Williams pers. comm. queenslandicus H.Bruggen) hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis) QLD Jabiru (Ephippiorhynchus Para grass (Brachiaria mutica), hymenachne Williams pers. comm. asiaticus Latham) (Hymenachne amplexocaulis) QLD Brolga Park zieria (Zieria Lantana (Lantana camara) Thomas pers. comm. sp. Sm. ‘Brolga Park’) QLD Proserpine rock wallaby Pink periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), rubbervine Nolan and Johnson 2001 (Petrogale persephone) (Cryptostegia grandifl ora) WA Ironstone grevillea Watsonia (Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera), Stack and English 2003a (Grevillea elongata Olde & grasses, broadleaved weeds Marriott) WA Pinnate-leaved eremophila Wild oats (Avena fatua L.), soursob (Oxalis pes- Stack and Brown 2003 (Eremophila pinnatifi da caprae), medic (Medicago L. spp.), grasses Chinnock MS)

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Table 1. (contined). WA Spreading grevillea Introduced grasses, clover Stack and English 2003b (Grevillea humifusa Benth.) WA Narrow-petalled Babiana (Babiana angustifolia Sweet), watsonia Phillimore and Evans 2003 featherfl ower (Verticordia (Watsonia sp.), African lovegrass (Eragrostis plumosa var. pleiobotrya curvula (Schrad.) Nees), Victorian tea-tree, A.S.George) (Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) F.Muell.) WA Blunt wattle (Acacia aprica Annual grasses Bayliss 2003 Maslin & A.R.O.Chapm.) WA Wing-fruited lasiopetalum Watsonia (Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera), Stack and English 1999 ms (Lasiopetalum blackberry (Rubus aff. selmeri Lindeb.), gladioli pterocarpum E.M.Benn. & (Gladiolus undulates L.) K.Shepherd MS) NT Yellow chat (Epthianura Mimosa (mimosa pigra) Garnett and Crowley 2000 crocea tunneyi) NT Desert sand skipper Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) Wilson and Pavey 2002, (Croitana aestiva) Cameron 1999 ACT/ Button wrinkewort Introduced pasture grasses Environment Australia 2003 NSW (Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides F.Muell.)

organisations and appeals. The green and gold bell REFERENCES frog was used to promote the ‘green’ Sydney Olympics ABC website (2003). ‘Gardening Australia Factsheet: in 2000 (Robinson and Glanznig 2003). Of course it Richmond Birdwing Butterfl y’, available http:// helps if your threatened species is cute and or cuddly, www.abc.net.au. but this cannot always be the case. Ayers, D., Nash, S. and Baggett, K. (1996). ‘Threat- ened species of Western New South Wales.’ CONCLUSION (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Weeds cause problems across the full range of land- Hurstville). scapes and ecosystems, and like those systems the Bayliss, B. (2003). ‘Blunt wattle (Acacia aprica) effects are diverse, complex and sometimes subtle. interim recovery plan 2003–2008.’ (Department While there is a current lack of quantitative studies of Conservation and Land Management Western on the direct effects of weeds on threatened plants Australian Threatened Species and Communities and animals, examples do exist on the national, state Unit) available http://www.deh.gov.au. and regional scale. Bickerton, D. (2003). ‘Threatened species: The com- One strategy to improve the understanding of mon white spider orchid: common no more.’ (De- weeds as an issue amongst the public, the media and partment for Environment and Heritage) available policy makers is to highlight the devastating effects http://www.environment.sa.gov.au. they have on many threatened species. The use of spe- Cameron, A. (1999). ‘Agnote: Buffel grass: A pasture cifi c examples examining the negative relationships grass for sandy soils.’ (The Northern Territory that can occur between weeds and threatened species Department of Business, Industry and Resource should be seen as an aid to explaining the impact of Development, Darwin). weeds on biodiversity. This approach is likely to elicit Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research and Austral- political and public response, in turn providing science ian National Herbarium (2002) ‘Invasive weeds’ and natural resource managers with ongoing support (online), available http://www.cpbr.gov.au. and resources in the fi ght against weeds. CSIRO Feature Articles (online), available http: //www.csiro.au. Davies, R.J.-P., (1996). ‘Threatened plant species on ACKNOWLEDGMENTS roadsides: Kangaroo Island, South Australia.’ (De- Thanks to reviewers Dr. Rachel McFadyen, Dr. Tony partment of Environment and Natural Resources, Grice and Mr. Peter Martin. Adelaide).

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Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environ- Primary Industries/Sustainability and Environ- ment Tasmania (2003). ‘Tussock skink.’ (online), ment. (2003a). Threatened Species Information available http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au. Sheet: Mountain Pygmy-Possum Burramys Environment Australia (2003). ‘Threatened Australian parvus. (PI/SandE, Victoria) available http: plants.’ (online) available http://www.deh.gov.au. //www.nre.vic.gov.au. Garnett, S. and Crowley, G. (2000). Yellow chat (Al- Primary Industries/Sustainability and Environment. ligator River) recovery outline. In ‘The action plan (2003b). Threatened Species Information Sheet: for Australian birds 2000.’ (Environment Australia, Sunshine Diuris Diuris fragrantissima. (PI/SandE, Canberra) available http://www.deh.gov.au. Victoria) available http://www.nre.vic.gov.au. Garnett, S. (1993). ‘Threatened and extinct birds of Primary Industries/Sustainability and Environment. Australia.’ (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Un- (2003c). Threatened Species Information Sheet: ion and Australian National Parks and Wildlife Eltham Copper Butterfl y Paralucia pyrodiscus Service, Moonee Ponds). lucida. (PI/SandE, Victoria) available http: Grice, A.C., Field, A.R. and McFadyen, R. (2004). //www.nre.vic.gov.au. Quantifying the effects of weeds on biodiversity: Queensland Museum. (2003). Richmond birdwing but- beyond Blind Freddy’s test. Proceedings of the terfl y; Ornithoptera richmondia (online) available 14th Australian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au. Sindel and S.B. Johnson, pp. 464-8. (Weed Society Robinson, L. and Glanznig. A. (2003). ‘Enabling of New South Wales, Sydney). ecoaction: a handbook for anyone working with Groves, R.H. and Willis, A.J. (1999). Environmental the pubic on conservation’ (Humane Society In- weeds and loss of native plant biodiversity: some ternational, WWF Australia, World Conservation Australian examples. Australian Journal of Envi- Union, Sydney). ronmental Management 6, 164-71. Stack, G. and English, V. (1999). ‘Wing-fruited Leigh, J.H. and Briggs. J.D. (1992). ‘Threatened Austral- lasiopetalum (Lasiopetalum pterocarpum ms) ian plants: overview and case studies.’ (Australian interim recovery plan.’ (CALM Threatened National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra). Species and Communities Unit) available http: Lundie-Jenkins, G. and Payne, A. (2000). ‘Recovery //www.deh.gov.au. plan for the Julia Creek dunnart (Sminthopsis Stack, G. and Brown, A. (2003). ‘Pinnate-leaved douglasi) 2000–04’ (Queensland Parks and Wild- eremophila (Eremophila pinnatifi da ms) interim life Service, Environment Australia) available recovery plan 2002–2007.’ (CALM Threatened http://www.deh.gov.au. Species and Communities Unit) available http: Martin, P. (2003). ‘Killing us softly – Australia’s green //www.deh.gov.au. stalkers.’ (CRC for Australian Weed Management, Stack, G. and English, V. (2003a). ‘Ironstone grevil- Adelaide). lea (Grevillea elongata) interim recovery plan Matthes, M. and Nash, S. (2000). ‘Allocasua- 2003–2008.’ (CALM Western Australian Threat- rina portuensis recovery plan.’ (NSW National ened Species and Communities Unit) available Parks and Wildlife Service) available http: http://www.deh.gov.au. //www.deh.gov.au. Stack, G. and English, V. (2003b). ‘Spreading grevillea Nolan, B. and Johnson, P. (2001). ‘Recovery plan for (Grevillea humifusa) interim recovery plan 2003– the Proserpine rock-wallaby Petrogale persephone 2008.’ (CALM Threatened Species and Communi- 2000–2004.’ (Report to Environment Australia, ties Unit) available http://www.deh.gov.au. Canberra, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Serv- Taylor, D.A. (2003). ‘Draft recovery plan for 15 ice, Brisbane). nationally threatened plant species on Kangaroo NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. (1999a). Island, South Australia.’ (Report to the Threatened ‘Bathurst copper butterfly.’ (NSW NPWS, Species and Communities Section, Environment Hurstville) available http://www.deh.gov.au. Australia). NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (1999b). University of Queensland. (2003). Insects of Lam- ‘Cotton pygmy-goose.’ (NSW NPWS, Hurstville) ington National Park (online), University of available http://www.deh.gov.au. QLD, Brisbane, available http://lamington.nrsm Phillimore, R. and Evans, R. (2003). ‘Narrow-petalled .uq.edu.au. featherfl ower (Verticordia plumosa var. pleiobot- Wilson, C. and Pavey, C. (2002). ‘Threatened species rya) interim recovery plan 2003–2008.’ (CALM of the Northern Territory: desert sand skipper Threatened Species and Communities Unit) avail- Croitana aestiva.’ (Northern Territory Parks and able http://www.deh.gov.au. Wildlife Commission, Darwin).

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