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New Directions in Cryptography 644 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. IT-22, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 1976 New Directions in Cryptography Invited Paper WHITFIELD DIFFIE AND MARTIN E. HELLMAN, MEMBER, IEEE Abstract-Two kinds of contemporary developments in cryp- The best known cryptographic problem is that of pri- tography are examined. Widening applications of teleprocessing vacy: preventing the unauthorized extraction of informa- have given rise to a need for new types of cryptographic systems, tion from communications over an insecure channel. In which minimize the need for secure key distribution channels and supply the equivalent of a written signature. This paper suggests order to use cryptography to insure privacy, however, it is ways to solve these currently open problems. It also discusses how currently necessary for the communicating parties to share the theories of communication and computation are beginning to a key which is known to no one else. This is done by send- provide the tools to solve cryptographic problems of long stand- ing the key in advance over some secure channel such as ing. private courier or registered mail. A private conversation between two people with no prior acquaintance-is a com- mon occurrence in business, however, and it is unrealistic to expect initial business contacts to be postponed long I. INTRODUCTION enough for keys to be transmitted by some physical means. E STAND TODAY on the brink of a revolution in The cost and delay imposed by this key distribution W cryptography. The development of cheap digital problem is a major barrier to the transfer of business hardware has freed it from the design limitations of me- communications to large teleprocessing networks. chanical computing and brought the cost of high grade Section III proposes two approaches to transmitting cryptographic devices down to where they can be used in keying information over public (i.e., insecure) channels such commercial applications as remote cash dispensers without compromising the security of the system. In a and computer terminals. In turn, such applications create public key cryptosystem enciphering and deciphering are a need for new types of cryptographic systems which governed by distinct keys, E and D, such that computing minimize the necessity of secure key distribution channels D from E is computationally infeasible (e.g., requiring and supply the equivalent of a written signature. At the lOloo instructions). The enciphering key E can thus be same time, theoretical developments in information theory publicly disclosed without compromising the deciphering and computer science show promise of providing provably key D. Each user of the network can, therefore, place his secure cryptosystems, changing this ancient art into a enciphering key in a public directory. This enables any user science. of the system to send a message to any other user enci- The development of computer controlled communica- phered in such a way that only the intended receiver is able tion networks pron$ses effortless and inexpensive contact to decipher it. As such, a public key cryptosystem is a between people or computers on opposite sides of the multiple access cipher. A private conversation can there- world, replacing most mail and many excursions with fore be held between any two individuals regardless of telecommunications. For many applications these contacts whether they have ever communicated before. Each one must be made secure against both eavesdropping.and the sends messages to the other enciphered in the receiver’s injection of illegitimate messages. At present, however, the public enciphering key and deciphers the messages he re- solution of security problems lags well behind other areas ceives using his own secret deciphering key. of communications technology. Contemporary cryp- We propose some techniques for developing public key tography is unable to meet the requirements, in that its use cryptosystems, but the problem is still largely open. would impose such severe inconveniences on the system Public key distribution systems offer a different ap- users, as to eliminate many of the benefits of teleprocess- proach to eliminating the need for a secure key distribution ing. channel. In such a system, two users who wish to exchange a key communicate back and forth until they arrive at a Manuscript received June 3,1976. This work was partially supported key in common. A third party eavesdropping on this ex- by the National Science Foundation under NSF Grant ENG 10173. change must find it computationally infeasible to compute Portions of this work were presented at the IEEE Information Theory Workshop;Lenox , MA, June 23-25, 1975 and the IEEE International the key from the information overheard, A possible solu- Symposium on Information Theory in Ronneby, Sweden, June 21-24, tion to the public key distribution problem is given in 1976. W. Diffie is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford Section III, and Merkle [l] has a partial solution of a dif- Universitv. Stanford. CA. and the St,anford Artificial IntelliPenceY Lab- ferent form. oratory, g&ford, CIk 94.505. M. E. Hellman is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, A second problem, amenable to cryptographic solution, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. which stands in the way of replacing contemporary busi- . DIFFIE AND HELLMAN: NEW DIRECTIONS IN CRYPTOGRAPHY 645 ness communications by teleprocessing systems is au- thentication. In current business, the validity of contracts is guaranteed by signatures. A signed contract serves as legal evidence of an agreement which the holder can present in court if necessary. The use of signatures, how- ever, requires the transmission and storage of written KEY contracts. In order to have a purely digital replacement for SOURCE this paper instrument, each user must be able to produce Fig. 1. Flow of information in conventional cryptographic system. a message whose authenticity can be checked by anyone, but which could not have been produced by anyone else, even the recipient. Since only one person can originate transmitted over a public channel, thus assuring the sender messages but many people can receive messages, this can of a message that it is being read only by the intended re- be viewed as a broadcast cipher. Current electronic au- cipient. An authenticationsystemprevents the unauthor- thentication techniques cannot meet this need. ized injection of messages into a public channel, assuring Section IV discusses the problem of providing a true, the receiver of a message of the legitimacy of its sender. digital, message dependent signature. For reasons brought A channel is considered public if its security is inade- out there, we refer to this as the one-way authentication quate for the needs of its users. A channel such as a tele- problem. Some partial solutions are given, and it is shown phone line may therefore be considered private by some how any public key cryptosystem can be transformed into users and public by others. Any channel may be threatened a one-way authentication system. with eavesdropping or injection or both, depending on its Section V will consider the interrelation of various use. In telephone communication, the threat of injection cryptographic problems and introduce the even more is paramount, since the called party cannot determine difficult problem of trap doors. which phone is calling. Eavesdropping, which requires the At the same time that communications and computation use of a wiretap, is technically more difficult and legally have,given rise to new cryptographic problems, their off- hazardous. In radio, by comparison, the situation is re- spring, information theory, and the theory of computation versed. Eavesdropping is passive and involves no legal have begun to supply tools for the solution of important hazard, while injection exposes the illegitimate transmitter problems in classical cryptography. to discovery and prosecution. The search for unbreakable codes is one of the oldest Having divided our problems into those of privacy and themes of cryptographic research, but until this century authentication we will sometimes further subdivide au- all proposed systems have ultimately been broken. In the thentication into message authentication, which is the nineteen twenties, however, the “one time pad” was in- problem defined above, and user authentication, in which vented, and shown to be unbreakable [2, pp. 398-4001. The the only task of the system is to verify that an individual theoretical basis underlying this and related systems was is who he claims to be. For example, the identity of an in- put on a firm foundation a quarter century later by infor- dividual who presents a credit card must be verified, but mation theory [3]. One time pads require extremely long there is no message which he wishes to transmit. In spite keys and are therefore prohibitively expensive in most of this apparent absence of a message in user authentica- applications. tion, the two problems are largely equivalent. In user au- thentication, there is an implicit message “I AM USER X,” In contrast, the security of most cryptographic systems while message authentication is just verification of the resides in the computational difficulty to the cryptanalyst identity of the party sending the message. Differences in of discovering the plaintext without knowledge of the key. the threat environments and other aspects of these two This problem falls within the domains of computational subproblems, however, sometimes make it convenient
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