Title Code:-UPENG04282 VOL: 2, No: 1 Jan-June, 2018
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
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EDITOR
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj W. Scientist S.V. P. U. A. & T. Meerut, U.P. India Post Doctoral Fellow (Endeavour Award, Australia)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Halfyearly Published by : New Age Mobilization, New Delhi-110043 (REGISTRATION No. - S/RS/SW/1420/2015
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Dr. Rajendra Kumar Dr. Gadi V.P. Reddy Dr. Rajveer Singh Dr. Ashok Kumar Dr. Youva Raj Tyagi Director General Professor Dean Director Research Director & Head UPCAR Montana State University Colege of Veterinary Sc. S.V.P.U.A.& T GreenCem BV Lucknow ,U.P. India MT 59425, USA S.V.P.U.A. T,Meerut, U.P. Meerut U.P. India Netherland, Europe [email protected] [email protected] India [email protected] [email protected] www.upcaronline.org http://agresearch.monta [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in http://shineedge.in/about- www.iari.res.in na.edu m ceo www.svbpmeerut.ac.in www.researchgate.net/pro file/YouvaTyagi
Dr. S. K. Sachan Dr. Shobhana Gupta Dr. Gaje Singh Dr. S.N. Sushil Dr. Vinay Kalia Professor & Head Dy. Director Extension Professor Principal Scientist Principal Scientist S.V.P.U.A.& T. RVSKVV Gwalior, S.V.P.U.A.& T. ICAR-IISR ICAR-NCIPM Meerut,U.P. M.P.India Meerut,U.P. Lucknow,U.P. New Delhi [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in m www.svbpmeerut.ac.in http://www.iisr.nic.in www.iari.res.in www.rvskvv.net
Dr. Sumitra Arora Dr.Shantanu kmDubey Dr. Renu Singh Dr. R. S. Bana Dr.Hema Baliwada Principal Scientist Principal Scientist Sr. Scientist Scientist Scientist ICAR-NCIPM ICAR-KVK-ATARI ICAR-IARI ICAR-IARI ICAR-CTRI New Delhi Kanpur, U.P. New Delhi New Delhi, India Andhra Pradesh [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] m www.iari.res.in www.iari.res.in www.ctri.org.in www.ncipm.org.in
Dr. Shuchi Agarwal Gunjan Maheshwar Dr. Navdeep Bal Dr. Tulika Tyagi Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj Research Post Doctorate Fellow Resaerch Scholar Resaerch Scholar W. Scientist, S.V.P.U.A.& Scientist,EWTCOI Deptartment of Reserach RMIT University University of Rajasthan, T. Meerut Ngee Ann Polytechnic & Consltancy Australia Jaipur, Rajasthan, India [email protected] Singapore Hindustan University, [email protected] www.uniraj.ac.in Post Doctoral Fellow [email protected] Chennai www.rmit.edu.au www.researchgate.net/ (EndeavourAward, www.natureindex.com pdf.gm0316@hindustanu profile/Tulika_Tyagi Australia)www.svbpmee niv.ac.in www.hindustanuniv.ac.in rut.ac.in www.researchgate.net/ profile/Tulsi_Bhardwaj2 scholar.google.com.au/c itations?user=1JBN- mwAAAAJ&hl=en
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
New Age Mobilization New Delhi.110043
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
ABOUT THE JOURNAL
The New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development is published by NEW AGE MOBILIZATION, every six months in a year. The main mandate of the journal is –
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
EDITORIAL
The aim of global R & D is to enrich the technology continuously via application of wide range of technical interventions depending upon the requirement of changing nature of present scenario of agri-entrepreneur' demand. Researchers are not only aiming to improve quantity, quality but also targeting to enrich diversity of the agri-products. The current scenario and the life style requirements of man is changing rapidly. One can't rely on the traditional crops' variety alone for a healthy life style or for day to day requirement. Contradictorily, we need to indentify the nutritional values of forgotten crops like millets, coarse cereals etc. In this direction, oat (Avena sativa) is a very good source of water soluble β-Glucan and has potential to be explored for its nutritional value. Similarly the genome of the a crop provides the tremendous opportunity of crop improvement and in the direction of desired way. Family farming system in India is very much responsible for cropping pattern and needs to be revaluated, depending upon the soil of the particular region and the climate. In the same way conventional means of pest management requires a face-lift and can be applied to combat the excessive use of hazardous pesticide, as these are affecting ecosystem including the farm animals. The Lead content found in the parasites of sheep is evident and alarming. So minimizing the unjustified application of pesticide is mandatory. In the context, pest behaviour needs to be studied thoroughly, so their management can be better planned. The spotted pod borer (Maruca Vitrata) in pigeonpea has been analyzed in similar way. I am very much positive for the quality of the articles included and hope to discuss as well as cover the other relevant topics in the forthcoming issues the Journal. I extend my heartfelt thanks to the members of the editorial team, who meticulously edited the papers to maintain the quality as well to bring out the issue on time. I also express my sincere gratitude to the authors for making their contribution while providing the journal current shape. I wish all the best to them.
Editor in chief
Tulsi Bhardwaj
New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development Jan- June, 2018
CONTENT
Title Authors Page
(1) Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic Gunjan Maheshwari 01-08 viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β- Glucan
(2) Targeted genome editing and its application in crop K. Baghyalakshmi & S. 09-20 improvement Ramchander
(3) Family Farming: Status and Strategies Hema Baliwada 21-32
(4) Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Rahul Singh, Gaje Singh, Visvash 33-41 Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.) Vaibhav, Ankush Kumar, Rajat Deshwal and Nitin Kumar
(5) Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Archana Gupta and Vinod Gupta 42-46 Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri- Farm Livestock Sheep
(6) Population build-up and seasonal incidence of Visvash Vaibhav, Gaje Singh, S. K. 47-55 spotted pod borer (Maruca Vitrata) in pigeonpea. Sachan, D.V. Singh, Prashant Mishra and Vivek
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan Gunjan Maheshwari* Department of Research, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur, Chennai, India.
Abstract Among cereal grains, oat (Avena sativa) is considered as one of the most beneficial grains as it contains a significant amount of a non starchy water soluble polysaccharide β-Glucan which is a dietary fiber and biologically active compound expressing its vital role in treatment of various lifestyle born diseases. Biological activities of β-Glucan greatly depends on its molecular weight, molecular structure, degree of branching and intrinsic viscosity. Water solutions of oat are highly viscus due to the presence of β-Glucan. In present study, water extraction employing three extraction conditions, has been carried out on the samples of processed oat flakes (Australian origin) and samples of whole grain oat (Indian cultivar). The intrinsic viscosities of the extracts have been determined by flow-time measurements of the water extracts of oat using Ostwald viscometer. Extraction temperature was noted to have a significant effect on the intrinsic viscosity of water extracts containing water soluble dietary fiber (WSDF) β-Glucan. Keywords: Oat, bio-active polysaccharide, β-Glucan, Intrinsic viscosity, hot water extraction.
Cite this article: Maheshwari G., 2018. Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan, The New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development,2(1) 01-08.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018 .
Introduction Cereal grains like oat and barley are consumption and digestion. Oats is known to be considered to provide a large variety of functional derived from a weed of wheat and barley and foods due to the presence of a water soluble dietary considered as a secondary crop which leaded to its fiber (WSDF) called β-Glucan which is a non- subsequent cultivation (Zhou et al., 1999). In early starchy polysaccharide of D-glucose. Functional times, oat was mainly used as animal feed crop, but foods are the foods that provide the feeling of only in the 19th century it was accepted as a part of satiation along with the nutrition and health benefits the human diet (Webster, 1996). Now oat is being (Havrlentová et al., 2011). Being an cultivated in number of countries for its dietary immunomodulatory compound β-glucan is a benefits. These days due to its numerous health powerful immunity enhancer and biologically benefits oat is being used in variety of food active against various lifestyle diseases such as products such as breakfast cereals, beverages, bread cancer, hyper cholesterol, diabetes and obesity and also infant foods (Yao et al., 2006; Flander et (Daou and Zhang, 2012; Marcotuli, 2016). The al., 2007). Oat has been reported as a rich source of natural sources of β-glucan are mainly grains like Dietary Fiber (DF) and has potential to be used as oat and barley, yeast and edible mushrooms and functional ingredient in many foods products (Butt prebiotic bacteria. β-glucan present in all sources et al., 2008). WSDF (β-Glucan) content in grains except grains, is principally water insoluble. Oat is can be adversely affected by certain farming and gaining attention in scientific community as it growing conditions such as excessive irrigation or contains significant amount of WSDF β-Glucan. rainfall or even heat stresses (Aman et al. 1989; Though, barley is also rich source of water soluble Savin et al. 1997), while grains with high MW β- β-Glucan, but is lower than oats (Aman and Glucan have been harvested when dry conditions Graham, 987) and is still used mainly as animal were maintained before harvest. Fig. 1 shows the feed maybe due to less suitable for human various stages of oat grain from farm to industry.
*Corresponding author's email: *[email protected] Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
Ready for Oat cultivation harvest
Oat grain with Rolled oats husk
Fig.1. Oat at various stages Oat flour can forms highly viscus solutions in turn determines the cholesterol-lowering property in aqueous medium due to its β-Glucan content. In of β-Glucan (Regand et al., 2011). The rheological water solutions of oat flour, β-Glucan solubilizes behavior of β-Glucan solutions depends on its and gives it characteristic high viscosity. β-Glucan molecular structure and molecular weight in oat is mixed linked polysaccharide of D-glucose (Lazaridou and Biliaderis, 2007). Since the property units connected with (1→4) and (1→3) linkage and of viscosity of polysaccharide is correlated to its potentially express various biological activities such MW (Maheshwari et al., 2017), the comparative as antidiabetic, anti-cholesterolaemic, anticancer, study of intrinsic viscosity of the water extracts of anti-inflammatory etc. in human biological system oat can provide preliminary information about the (Braaten et al., 1993; Ma¨lkki 2001; Cheung et al., MW of β-Glucan present in particular oat variety. 2002; Singh et al., 2013). Number of reports are Studies on the physico-chemical properties of β- available on the health benefits of consuming whole Glucan is an important tool to provide primary grain oat, due to the presence of WSDF β-Glucan information of the biological benefits of β-Glucan which is the main source of health potency of oat and consequently its source. grain (Liu, 2004; Marcotuli et al., 2016). Apart from numerous health benefits, physico-chemical In India, around 22 different varieties of properties of β-Glucan like high viscosity, gelation oats are being cultivated (Vinod Kumar, 2013), and fermentability by prebiotic bacteria promote the however, studies on β-Glucan isolated from Indian potential use of β-Glucan in various food industries oats are lacking and hence the data on the properties (Vasanthan and Temelli, 2008; Ahmed et al., 2010). of β-Glucan present in various Indian oat cultivars, Concentration of β-Glucan had been reported is not available. Previous studies evident that >80 % typically, in a range of 2 to 8.5 percent in whole WSDF β-Glucan has been extracted with different grain oats and from 6 to 12 percent in oat bran extracts viz. acidic, alkaline, enzymic or water products respectively (Wood, 1986; Peterson, 2002). extracts of oat or barley (Ahmed et al., 2009, 2010). β-Glucan present in oat bran and in endosperm of 88.7% SDF was reported with hot water extraction the grain may have different viscosities (Wikstrom of β-Glucan from barley flour (Ahmed et al., 2009). et al., 1994). Likewise, β-Glucan from the enriched Present study is an attempt to comprehend the effect oat variety has higher viscosities than that from of extraction conditions such as temperature and conventional varieties (Colleoni-Sirghie et al., deactivation of innate enzyme β-Glucanase on 2003). The property of viscosity and MW of β- property of intrinsic viscosities of the water extracts Glucan are the showcase of its functional properties of oat grown in India, by comparing with that of in food and biological properties in health and processed rolled oats of Australian origin consumed nutrition. Preserving the molecular weight (MW) of by urban population in India in the form of breakfast β-Glucan is an important factor, as it determines its cereals. An initial investigation on the intrinsic physicochemical properties such as viscosity, which viscosities of water extracts of
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oat, can provide useful information to solute (β-glucan as a major component) in water design the new cost effective methods of extracting extract. This concentration was reduced to half of β-Glucan from cereal grains. the C-1 by diluting it with water to get C-2, then further half to get C-3 and similarly C-4. Intrinsic Materials and methods viscosities (η) were determined by using standard Sample of one Indian oat cultivar (hereafter relations. Relative viscosity of the component is as IO) was kindly gifted by a farmer near district related to the flow time and viscosity of the sample Kasganj in Utter Pradesh area. One sample of component and the solvent (water) by following processed oat flakes (hereafter as PO) which was of expression- Australian origin, was procured from local market. IO sample was subjected to the initial process viz. η η removal of husk and cleaning. Both samples were η milled using domestic grinder and screened through Where & are viscosities and t & t0 are flow time 0.6 mm mesh sieve. For extraction 2.5g of the (in seconds) of water extracts of the sample and the sample flour was dissolved in 50 ml of double solvent (water), respectively. With the help of η , distilled water. Hot water extraction (HWE) was the values of specific viscosity (η ) and reduced performed on both samples under three different extraction conditions (EC-I, II & III) as described viscosity (η ) was calculated using the following below – relation –
= – 1 I) Extraction at 47 ᵒC (no deactivation of = / C innate β-glucanase), II) Extraction at 90 ᵒC (deactivation of β- Where ‘C’ is the concentration of the solute in glucanase by heat treatment during the solution expressed in gm/ lit (in present study ‘C’ is extraction itself), considered to represent the concentration of WSDF III) Extraction at 47 ᵒC (deactivation of β- β-Glucan as a major component in water extract). glucanase by refluxing with ethanol) ‘C’ was calculated by subtracting the weight of residue (collected from centrifuge tube) from the The methods followed for the above three initial weight of sample + water taken for extraction. conditions were conceived from the hot water All The value of intrinsic viscosity (η) was extraction given by Ahmed et al. (2009) with some estimated by extrapolating the value of η to the modifications. The flow chart of the procedures has ‘0’ concentration in the plot of η against ‘C’. been presented in Fig.2. β-Glucan present in water extract was not isolated but left in solubilized form in water. This water extracts were used to measure Results and Discussion the flow time of the extracts to determine the Water extracts of IO and PO contains intrinsic viscosities. Flow-time measurement of the mainly WSDF as a major component (as during the water extracts of both the samples, was done using extraction procedure other major components such Ostwald viscometer (calibrated at the flow time of as lipids, starch and protein and other water water between 43-45 seconds). Flow times were insoluble components present in the sample were taken as the mean of three consecutive values. For removed). The PO sample has β-Glucan assay of both samples and each condition, flow time was 4.3% while assay of β-Glucan in IO sample is not measured at four different concentrations viz. C-1, known. Water extraction of sample of PO and IO C-2, C-3 and C-4. C-1 was the concentration of the under EC-I, EC-II and EC-III was done following the modified procedure given by Ahmed et al., 2009.
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
Sample flour : water (1:50) ratio ↓ Held for 30 minutes at RT ↓ EC-I, II, &III EC (i) EC (ii) EC (iii) ↓ Reflux with 80% EtOH (1-h / 85 ºC) ↓ ↓ Dry at 40 ºC for 12-h Extraction for 60 min. at 47 ºC Extraction for 60 min. at 90 ºC ↓ ↓ ↓ Sample flour : water (1:50) ratio Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min) Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min) ↓ ↓ ↓ Extraction for 60 min. at 47 ºC Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH) Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH) ↓ Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min) ↓ Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH) ↓ ↓ ↓ Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid) Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) ↓ ↓ ↓ Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid) ↓ ↓ ↓ Supernatant liquid Supernatant liquid Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) (Water extract of sample oat) (Water extract of sample oat) ↓ Supernatant liquid (Water extract of sample oat) Fig.2. Flowchart of the procedure followed for the hot water extraction of oat
It is important to mention that the ratio of Glucanase by refluxing with ethanol before the water during the hot water extraction need to be extraction. As leaving the enzyme active in EC-I and taken very high due to thickening of the slurry at EC-II leaded to the depolymerization of β-Glucan high temperature. However, starch is not soluble in and its subsequent lower concentration in their water at low temperature, the thickening may be due respective water extracts. However, under EC-III as to the tendency of starch to be solubilized and extraction temperature was not high, even high gelatinized at the temperature above 47ºC (Skendi et concentration of WSDF in extracts could not al., 2003), and also due to high viscosity of WSDF resulted in high intrinsic viscosity. Hence, β-Glucan present in solution. temperature plays a crucial role in extracting high Values of C, ηr and ηred under each MW β-Glucan (Maheshwari et al., 2017). extraction condition were calculated as per the The values of intrinsic viscosities have been relations given above, and have been presented in determined by plotting a graph of η against ‘C’. Table-1 for PO sample and in Table-2 for IO By extrapolating the value of ηred to the zero sample. It was observed that the values of ηr and ηred concentration, the value of intrinsic viscosity have for each sample under each extraction condition was been measured. The highest intrinsic viscosity was reduced with the decrease in concentration ‘C’. The observed for the IO sample when extracted under concentration of WSDF in IO sample was reduced EC-II viz. 60 minutes extraction at 90 ºC, while in the order EC-III > EC-II > EC-I, while it was in lowest intrinsic viscosity was for IO sample order of EC-III > EC-I > EC-II for PO sample. The extracted under EC-I (Fig.2). Overall, for both higher concentration of WSDF (β-Glucan) in water extracts of both samples extracted under EC-III may the samples (IO and PO), values of intrinsic be the attribution of the deactivation of innate β- viscosities were higher with EC-II.
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Intrinsic Viscosity - PO ( 90 ºC (non-deactivated) Intrinsic Viscosity - IO ( 90 ºC (non-deactivated) 0.7 0.25 [Y VALUE] [Y VALUE] 0.6 0.2 [Y VALUE]
0.5 [Y VALUE]
0.15 0.4 [Y VALUE]
[Y VALUE]
red
red η η 0.3 [Y VALUE] 0.1 0.2 [Y VALUE] 0.05 0.1
0 0 -1.500 0.500 2.500 4.500 6.500 8.500 -1.000 1.000 3.000 5.000 7.000 Concentration of PO (g/l) Concentration of IO (g/l)
(a) (b) Fig. 2. Plot of Intrinsic viscosity of water extract (a) for PO, and (b) for IO when followed EC-II
The mass extracted in water might contain a rich source of WSDF β-glucan, its aqueous protein and lipids in addition to β-glucan. No large solutions are highly viscus due to its high MW. variation was observed in the mass extracted in Intrinsic viscosity is the preliminary information of water under all extraction conditions. The higher the MW of polysaccharide. In present study, values of the intrinsic viscosities of the extracts, increased intrinsic viscosity has been recorded for extracted at 90 ᵒC (EC-II) even after lower both the samples (IO and PO) extracted at 90ºC. concentration of extracted WSDF, may be attributed Intrinsic viscosities of IO sample is recorded higher to the higher MW polysaccharide in aqueous than that of PO sample. The study reveals that solution. Higher intrinsic viscosities of IO sample extraction conditions such as temperature and than that of PO sample supports the previous studies deactivation of innate enzyme, had an influence on suggesting that MW of β-glucan is degraded in the intrinsic viscosities of WSDF present as a main processed food (Kerckhoffs et al., 2003). Least component in the extract. More repetitions involving values of intrinsic viscosity for the extracts of PO various parameters, are required for better and IO extracted at 47 ᵒC (EC-I) without understanding of the influence of extraction deactivating the innate β-glucanase enzyme may be conditions on the properties of WSDF β-glucan, due to depolymerization of β-glucan. Intrinsic present in oat grains. viscosities are higher when extraction was performed at higher temperature and low Future direction - A new cost effective and temperature extraction was not helpful in getting ecofriendly extraction method need to be designed higher Intrinsic viscosities even after deactivating to extract WSDF from cereal grains involving low the innate β-glucanase enzyme. and high extraction temperature in a single process.
Conclusion Hot water extraction was performed on whole grain Acknowledgement Author is thankful to the Hindustan Institute of oat of Indian origin and processed rolled oats of Technology and Science, Chennai for providing Australian origin. Intrinsic viscosities were consumables and laboratory space and equipment determined for the water extracts of oat grain which for conducting the work. contains WSDF as a major component. Since, oat is
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
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Agent: An Overview. Critical Reviews in 26. Webster FH. 1996. Oats. In: cereal grain Food Science and Nutrition, 53:126–144. quality. London, United Kingdom: Springer. 21. Regand, A., Chowdhury, Z., Tosh, S. M., p 179–203. Wolever, T. M. S., Wood, P. (2011). The 27. Wikstrom K, Lindahl L, Andersson R, molecular weight, solubility and viscosity of Westerlund E. (1994). Rheological studies oat beta-glucan affect human glycemic of water-soluble (1→3) (1→4)-β-D-glucans response by modifying starch digestibility. from milling fractions of oat. J Food Sci., Food Chem., 129, 297–304. 59:1077–1080. 22. Savin, R., Stone, P. J., Nicolas, M. E. and 28. Wood, P. J. (1986). Oat β-glucan: Structure, Wardlaw, I. F. (1997). Grain growth and location, and properties; Oats: Chemistry malting quality of barley. 1. Effects of heat and Technology, pp. 121-152. stress and moderately high temperature. 29. Yao N, Jannink JL, Alavi S, White PJ. 2006. Austf Agric Res. 48: 615-624. Physical and sensory characteristics of 23. Skendi, A., Biliaderis, C. G., Lazaridou, A., extruded products made from two oat lines Izydorczyk, M. S. (2003). Structure and with different β-G concentrations. Cereal rheological properties of water soluble β - Chem 83: 692–9. glucans from oat cultivars of Avena sativa 30. Zhou, X., Jellen, E. N., and Murphy, J. P. and Avena bysantina. J Cereal Sci., 38:15– (1999). Progenitor germplasm of 31. domesticated hexaploid oat. Crop Science. 24. Vasanthan, T. and Temelli, F. (2008). Food 39: 1208–1214. Research International, 41: 876–881.
25. Vinod Kumar. 2013. http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/oats- varieties-india.
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
EC-I EC-II EC-III S. No C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred 1. 8.240 4.74 0.454 8.020 5.96 0.618 9.14 3.79 0.305 2. 4.120 2.02 0.248 4.010 2.13 0.282 4.57 1.88 0.193 3. 2.060 1.37 0.180 2.050 1.46 0.224 2.285 1.33 0.144 4. 1.030 1.21 0.204 1.025 1.13 0.127 1.143 1.12 0.105
Table -1: Values of C, ηr and ηred obtained for sample PO under EC-I, II and III
EC-I EC-II EC-III S. No. C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred 1. 6.621 1.19 0.029 6.960 2.42 0.204 10.000 1.56 0.056 2. 3.311 1.12 0.036 3.480 1.58 0.167 5.000 1.23 0.046 3. 1.656 1.05 0.030 1.740 1.26 0.149 2.500 1.09 0.036 4. 0.828 1.02 0.024 0.970 1.12 0.124 1.250 1.05 0.04
Table -2: Values of C, ηr and ηred obtained for sample IO under EC-I, II and III
S. No. Parameters PO IO
1. Extraction Condition EC-I EC-II EC-III EC-I EC-II EC- III Quantity taken (g) / volume of 2.5 2. water 2.5 in 2.5 in 2.5 in 2.5 in 2.5 in in 50 mL 50 mL 50 mL 50 mL 50 mL 50 mL 3. C : Mass extracted in water (g) 0.412 0.401 0.457 0.331 0.348 0.50 Intrinsic viscosity 4. 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.02 0.11 0.032 ( , in ml/g) Table-3: Intrinsic viscosities determined from the plots
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
REVIEW ARTICLE Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
K. Baghyalakshmi1* and S. Ramchander2 1& 2 Division of Crop Improvement, Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, A.P.
ABSTRACT The demand for Agricultural products has increased tremendously from the past few decades. The agricultural scientists are working with the available diversity to increase the production and productivity of the food crops. Now the diversity is being saturated with the species. So the scientists has to work with tools with which they can create new diversity in the gene pool or can edit the gene of interest to make it possible to be used in the breeding process. One such tool is genome editing tool which is getting popular today. There are two methods of gene targeting viz., chimeric RNA/DNA oligonucleotide – directed gene targeting and homologous recombination dependent gene targeting. Through site-directed mutagenesis specific and intentional changes to the DNA sequence of a gene and any gene products can be achieved. Desired DNA sequence modifications are initiated or stimulated by a double stranded break (DSB) in the target DNA molecule. To create any insertion or deletion in the Chromosome the most required phenomenon is double strand break in the DNA. After the DSB the gene of interest could be edited using any of the advance tools based on the requirement. Here in this review it is focused on four different such tools namely Meganucleases, Zinc Finger Nucleases, TALENS and CRISPR/Cas along with the principle behind each editing tool. Key Words: Targeted genome, application crop improvement
Cite this article: Baghyalakshmi K and Ramchander S., 2018. Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement, New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development,2(1) 09-18.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION The world population is continuously oligonucleotide – directed gene increasing and it is the duty of the breeder to targeting and homologous recombination meet the food requirement of the growing dependent gene targeting (Hohn and puchta, population. To bring in improvement in any crop 1999). The chimeric RNA/ DNA there has to be a selection process. The selection oligonucleotide – directed gene targeting process is possible only when there is a variation generates site specific base changes, while the in the available source. We have almost reached homologous recombination dependent gene the yield plateau and the variation has targeting can lead to both base changes and gene diminished for most of the traits. Mutation have replacement events in a specific manner (figure been driving advances in crop development for 1). thousands of years, while thinking of creating variation in crop plants. Classical mutational Oligonucleotide directed targeted point methods (radiation/chemical) have been safely mutations used for close to a century but introduce Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular multiple unknown mutations throughout the biology method that is used to make specific and plant. Thus traditional mutations are randomly intentional changes to the DNA sequence of a introduced into the plants. On the other hand gene and any gene products. Also called site- targeted mutations are knowledge based DNA specific mutagenesis or oligonucleotide-directed changes with minimal unintended side effects. mutagenesis, it is used for investigating the Hence editing technologies continues the history structure and biological activity of DNA, RNA, of improving crop development through modern and protein molecules, and for protein targeted mutation. Gene targeting refers to the engineering. The three approaches in site alteration of a specific DNA sequence in an directed mutagenesis are Kunkel’s method, endogenous gene at its original locus in the Cassette mutagenesis, PCR site-directed genome. There are two methods of gene mutagenesis, whole plasmid mutagenesis and in targeting viz., chimeric RNA/DNA vivo site directed mutagenesis.
*Corresponding author's email:[email protected] Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
Figure 2. A model of Cre Function. The loxP sites recognized by Cre are represented with thick arrows and their DNA sequence is shown at the bottom. When cells that have loxP sites in their genome also express Cre, the protein springs into action, catalyzing a reciprocal
Figure 1: homologous recombination – recombination event between the loxP sites dependent gene targeting and chimeric (Figure 1). Here the double stranded DNA is cut RNA/DNA oligonucleotide –directed targeted at both loxP sites by the Cre protein and then point mutations. ligated back together. As a result, the DNA in between the loxP sites is excised and It has been 15 years now that the Cre/lox subsequently degraded. It is a quick and efficient system has been used as a way to artificially process. control gene expression. If your radar hasn’t picked it up yet, you’re missing out on a clever DSB Double Strand Break way to move pieces of DNA around in a cell. Desired DNA sequence modifications Over the years, this system has allowed are initiated or stimulated by a double stranded researchers to create a variety of genetically break (DSB) in the target DNA molecule. To modified animals and plants with the gene of create any insertion or deletion in the their choice being externally regulated. This has Chromosome the most required phenomenon is contributed to our understanding of how double strand break in the DNA. It occurs in two individual genes and proteins work. different situations, one during cell division which results in homologous recombination and How it works other throughout the life cycle. The resultant of The system begins with the cre gene, DSB during the life cycle leads in non short for cyclization recombination, which homologous end joining. encodes a site-specific DNA recombinase logically named Cre (Latchman, 2002). A site- specific DNA recombinase means that the Cre protein can recombine DNA when it locates specific sites in a DNA molecule (Figure 2). These sites are known as loxP (locus of X-over P1) sequences, which are 34 base pairs long and magnets for the Cre to recombine the DNA surrounding them (Perkins, 2002).
Figure 3. Double strand break and repairing mechanism
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
When there is a DSB, the DNA try to repair by reported (Risseeuw et al., 1995; Puchta, 1998; two mechanisms:– Homology Directed Repair Hanin et al., 2001; Hohn and Puchta, 2003; Iida (HDR) and Non-Homologous End Joining and Terada, 2004). One-sided invasion results (NHEJ). The DSB created by the nuclease is from one homologous recombination event and repaired by the host cell’s non-homologous end another non-homologous end-joining event at joining (NHEJ) DNA repair pathway that often the target locus, whereas ectopic targeting is results in small DNA insertions or deletions thought to be generated by ectopic integration (indels) at the break site. This is naturally (integration elsewhere in the genome without occurring phenomenon. Rarely horizontal gene altering the target gene) of a recombinant transfer happens through HDR, when they repair molecule produced by homologous through NHEJ – there will be error at certain recombination between the introduced transgene frequency and to repair by HDR, we supply our and a copy of the target sequence. gene of interest Plant Genome Editing Biotechnologies Homologous Recombination-Dependent The four steps necessary for modifying Gene Targeting a plant gene through genome engineering This was first reported by Oliver include (i) designing and developing an Smithies in 1985 where a part of inserted DNA engineered nuclease construct, (ii) delivering the segment has homology with targeted sequence construct and perhaps donor molecule into the within the genome. The foreign gene must be plant (typically by genetic transformation), (iii) flanked by DNA sequence having homology to inducing nuclease expression, and (iv) screening the targeted site. the plants for the desired DNA sequence change. Homologous recombination-dependent The critical step in site-directed genome gene targeting in higher plants has a longer engineering is generating a DSB at a specific history than chimeric RNA/DNA chromosomal location. Three types of oligonucleotide-directed gene targeting. Since engineered nucleases have been used to date for the first report of successful gene targeting of an this purpose: LAGLIDADG homing artificially truncated and integrated drug- endonucleases (LHEs), often termed resistance gene in the tobacco genome meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) (Paszkowski et al., 1988), various approaches and transcription activator-like effector for gene targeting based upon homologous nucleases (TALENs). All three nucleases recombination in higher plants have revealed operate by the same general principle, as they that the integration of a transgene by somatic are engineered proteins consisting of a DNA homologous recombination occurs in the order binding domain (which accounts for site of 10-3 to 10-6 compared with random integration specificity) and a endonuclease domain (which by non-homologous end-joining (Hohn and functions as the DSB-causing enzyme). The Puchta, 1999; Hohn and Puchta, 2003; Reiss, recent one is CRISPR/Cas which are explained 2003; Iida and Terada, 2004). The below. overwhelming occurrence of random integration 1. Meganucleases are DNA cutters found of transgenes by non-homologous end-joining in single cell organisms relative to targeted homologous recombination is 2. Zinc Finger Nucleases - here ZF the main obstacle to the development of an domains coupled to a nuclease to form efficient system for homologous recombination- endonucleases dependent gene targeting. In addition to random 3. TALENS - Proteins linking to DNA integration mediated by non homologous end- coupled to a nuclease to form joining, the occurrence of aberrant endonucleases recombination events associated with 4. CRISPR/Cas - RNA-guided DNA homologous gene targeting, called one-sided endonucleases invasion and ectopic targeting, has also been
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Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
Meganuclease digestion of the target DNA requires proper Naturally occurring endonucleases from alignment of two ZFN monomers at the target different organisms such as bacteria, fungi and site. Efficient and coordinated expression of algae. They have a long DNA recognition site both monomers is thus required for the with variable size differing between 12 and 30 production of DSBs in living cells. Zinc finger bp. Naturally occurring meganucleases can be domains can be engineered to target desired modified by introducing changes to the amino DNA sequences and this enables zinc-finger acids found in the recognition site of the protein nucleases to target unique sequences within to adapt for restriction of a specifically chosen complex genomes. By taking advantage of sequence. Meganucleases are endogenous DNA repair machinery; these endodeoxyribonucleases characterized by a large reagents can be used to precisely alter the recognition site (double-stranded DNA genomes of higher organisms. sequences of 12 to 40 base pairs); as a result this site generally occurs only once in any given genome. For example, the 18-base pair sequence recognized by the I-SceI meganuclease would on average require a genome twenty times the size of the human genome to be found once by chance (although sequences with a single mismatch occur about three times per human- sized genome). Meganucleases are therefore Figure 4: Zinc Finger Nucleases considered to be the most specific naturally occurring restriction enzymes. Among meganucleases, the DNA cleavage domain: LAGLIDADG family of homing endonucleases The non-specific cleavage domain from has become a valuable tool for the study of the type IIs restriction endonuclease FokI is genomes and genome engineering over the past typically used as the cleavage domain in ZFNs fifteen years. Meganucleases are "molecular This cleavage domain must dimerize in order to DNA scissors" that can be used to replace, cleave DNA and thus a pair of ZFNs are eliminate or modify sequences in a highly required to target non-palindromic DNA sites. targeted way. By modifying their recognition Standard ZFNs fuse the cleavage domain to the sequence through protein engineering, the C-terminus of each zinc finger domain. In order targeted sequence can be changed. to allow the two cleavage domains to dimerize Meganucleases are used to modify all genome and cleave DNA, the two individual ZFNs must types, whether bacterial, plant or animal. They bind opposite strands of DNA with their C- open up wide avenues for innovation, termini a certain distance apart. The most particularly in the field of human health, for commonly used linker sequences between the example the elimination of viral genetic material zinc finger domain and the cleavage domain or the "repair" of damaged genes using gene requires the 5' edge of each binding site to be therapy. separated by 5 to 7 bp.
Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): DNA binding domain: ZFNs are artificial restriction enzymes The DNA-binding domains of composed of a fusion between an artificial individual ZFNs typically contain between three and six individual zinc finger repeats and can Cys2His2 zinc-finger protein DNA-binding domain and the cleavage domain of the FokI each recognize between 9 and 18 bp (Figure 5). endonuclease (Figure 4). The DNA-binding If the zinc finger domains are perfectly specific domain of ZFNs can be engineered to recognize for their intended target site then even a pair of a variety of DNA sequences. The FokI 3-finger ZFNs that recognize a total of 18 bp can endonuclease domain functions as a dimer, and target a single locus.
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
modules to generate zinc-finger arrays with six or more individual zinc fingers. The main drawback with this procedure is the specificities of individual zinc fingers can overlap and can depend on the context of the surrounding zinc fingers and DNA. Without methods to account Figure 5: DNA binding domain for this "context dependence", the standard modular assembly procedure often fails unless it FokI nuclease: is used to recognize sequences of the form Fok I: Flavobacterium okeanokoites (GNN)N. GGATGNNNNNNNNN^NNNN Numerous selection methods have been Its molecular mass is 65.4 kDa and it is used to generate zinc-finger arrays capable of composed of 587 amino acids with C-terminal targeting desired sequences. Initial selection cleavage domain and N-terminal DNA binding efforts utilized phage display to select proteins domain. that bound a given DNA target from a large pool DNA recognition domain: 5'-GGATG- of partially randomized zinc-finger arrays. More 3':3'-CATCC-5' recent efforts have utilized yeast one-hybrid Cleavage specificity: In the 1st strand, systems, bacterial one-hybrid and two-hybrid the cleavage is 9 nucleotides downstream and in systems, and mammalian cells. A promising new the 2nd, 13 nucleotides upstream of the nearest method to select novel zinc-finger arrays utilizes nucleotide of the recognition site. a bacterial two-hybrid system and has been Mechanism of action of ZFNs: During S and G2 dubbed "OPEN" by its creators. This system of the cell cycle, homology-directed repair is combines pre-selected pools of individual zinc common because the two sister chromatids are fingers that were each selected to bind a given in close proximity, providing a nearby homology triplet and then utilizes a second round of donor. Homology-directed repair includes selection to obtain 3-finger arrays capable of homologous recombination (HR) and single- binding a desired 9-bp sequence. This system strand annealing (SSA). At any time in the cell was developed by the Zinc-Finger Consortium cycle, double-strand breaks can be repaired by as an alternative to commercial sources of non homologous DNA end joining (NHEJ). engineered zinc-finger arrays.
ZFN design and selection methods: Transcription activator like effector Various strategies have been developed nucleases (TALEN): Transcription activator like effector to engineer Cys2His2 zinc fingers to bind desired sequences. Several different protein engineering nucleases are a combination of the catalytic techniques have been employed to improve both domain of an endonuclease most frequently FokI the activity and specificity of the nuclease fused with the DNA binding domain derived domain used in ZFNs. These include both from transcription activator like effectors from "modular assembly" and selection strategies that Xanthomonas species. TALENs consist of employ either phage display or cellular selection multiple repeats of a 33–35 amino acids long systems. The most straightforward method to sequence containing a so-called repeat variable generate new zinc-finger arrays is to combine diresidue (RVD) which are the amino acids nos. smaller zinc-finger "modules" of known 12 and 13. Each repeat binds to a certain single specificity. The most common modular base pair. TALENs are commonly used as a pair assembly process involves combining three to introduce double strand breaks (DSBs) to the separate zinc fingers that can each recognize a 3 DNA, as FokI only introduces DSBs as a dimer. bp DNA sequence to generate a 3-finger array Transcription activator-like effector nuclease that can recognize a 9 bp target site. Other (TALEN) systems are a fusion of TALEs procedures can utilize either 1-finger or 2-finger derived from Xanthomonas spp. to a 13
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
endonuclease FokI. By modifying the amino inhibition of gene function and unpredictable acid repeats in the TALEs, one can customize off-target effects. TALEN systems to specifically bind target DNA The simplicity of the CRISPR nuclease and induce cleavage by the nuclease between the system, with only three components (Cas9, two distinct TAL array binding sites (Figure 6). crRNA and tracrRNA) makes this system A variety of plasmid are available which allow amenable to adaptation for genome editing. By creation of custom repeat arrays for easy combining the crRNA and tracrRNA into a TALEN preparation. The different TALEN tool single synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA), a further kits use various cloning techniques and simplified two-component system can be used to protocols to enable custom TALEN design and introduce a targeted double-stranded break. This preparation. break activates repair through error prone Non- Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) or Homology Directed Repair (HDR). In the presence of a donor template with homology to the targeted locus, the HDR pathway operates, allowing for precise mutations to be made. In the absence of a template, NHEJ is activated, resulting in insertions and/or deletions (indels), which disrupt the target locus.
CRISPR/Cas9 (CRISPR associated (Cas) system): Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats allow bacteria an adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids by using CRISPR RNAs (crRNA) and trans activating crRNA (tracrRNA) to guide the silencing of invading nucleic acids. Three types of CRISPR/Cas system exist. Type II in which Cas9 is guided by a crRNA–tracrRNA target identification to cut DNA at the identified region, is used in an altered form for genome engineering in a couple of organism (Figure 7). Figure 6. TALENS model and cutting of DNA
CRISPR/Cas9 (CRISPR associated (Cas) system) Genome editing is enabled by the development of tools to make precise, targeted changes to the genome of living cells. Recently, a new tool based on a bacterial CRISPR- associated protein-9 (Cas9) nuclease from Streptococcus pyogenes has generated considerable excitement. This follows several attempts over the years to manipulate gene function, including homologous recombination and RNA interference. RNAi, in particular, Figure 7: CRISPR/Cas9 in vivo. Source: became a laboratory staple, enabling crispr.mit.edu inexpensive and high-throughput interrogation of gene function. However, the technique has been hampered by providing only temporary
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
Applications in plant genome editing: 4. To date, ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR 1. Allele editing: ZFNs are also used to editing tools have not been applied to the rewrite the sequence of an allele by genetic modification of fruit crops. Most invoking the homologous recombination transgenic fruit crop plants have been (HR) machinery to repair the DSB using developed using Agrobacterium-mediated the supplied DNA fragment as a template. transformation, and among those that have The HR machinery searches for homology been developed, only papaya has been between the damaged chromosome and commercialized. Existing EU regulation the extra-chromosomal fragment and on GM organisms may consider the plants copies the sequence of the fragment produced by ZFNs, TALENs, and between the two broken ends of the CRISPRs as non-GM, depending on the chromosome, regardless of whether the interpretation of the EU commission and fragment contains the original sequence. If member state regulators (Pollock and the subject is homozygous for the target Hails, 2014). The public awareness of the allele, the efficiency of the technique is absence of foreign gene introduction reduced since the undamaged copy of the perceived by the consumer, along with the allele may be used as a template for repair effort to explain the advantages of using instead of the supplied fragment. these new friendly genetic editing tools by 2. Disabling an allele: ZFNs are used to central authorities, might reverse the disable dominant mutations in actual dichotomy (Kanchiswamy et heterozygous individuals by producing al.,2015). DSBs in the DNA of the mutant allele, which can be repaired by NHEJ. NHEJ Future improvements in crop traits repairs DSBs by joining the two ends It is expected that CRISPR/Cas9 will together and usually produces no play a large role in future efforts to improve crop mutations, provided that the cut is clean traits and engineer plants for synthetic biology and uncomplicated. In some instances, purposes. Invariably many of these traits will be however, the repair will be imperfect, directed toward improvements in biotic and resulting in deletion or insertion of base- abiotic stress tolerance, crop yield, shelf life, pairs, producing frame shift and color, and nutritional content. But how will preventing the production of the harmful CRISPR/Cas9 impact the process of crop protein. improvement? We anticipate that the 3. Targeted gene addition in plants: CRISPR/Cas9 will positively alter multiple Targetted gene addition in plants using aspects of the engineering process. Such changes ZFNs have been recently reported in will include reducing the time required to Arabidopsis thaliana and Zea mays. In introduce new traits, provide an alternative Arabidopsis thaliana, using ZFN-assisted method to produce cisgenic modifications, allow gene targeting, two herbicide-resistant genetic editing in crops wherein tissue culture or genes (tobacco acetolactate synthase transformation procedures are not available, SuRA and SuRB) were introduced to SuR permit the targeted introduction or deletion of loci with as high as 2% transformed cells large genomic regions, allow for alterations in with mutations. In Zea mays, disruption of ploidy level, and enable a breeder specified the target locus was achieved by ZFN- control of gene/metabolite production. These induced DSBs and the resulting NHEJ. changes in crop improvement will be facilitated ZFN was also used to drive herbicide- through a number of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated tolerance (PAT) gene expression cassette technologies including gene knock-in, viral into the targeted endogenous locus IPK1 delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 machinery, in this case. Such genome modification improvements in genomic resources, observed in the regenerated plants has multiplexing, chromosome alterations (induction been shown to be inheritable and was of haploidy, large fragment insertions/deletions), transmitted to the next generation. 15
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
and the development of tools for breeding. 12. Nekrasov, V., Staskawicz, B., Weigel, (Scott and Nakata, 2015) D., Jones, J.D.G. and S. Kamoun. 2013. Targeted mutagenesis in the model plant REFERENCES Nicotiana benthamiana using Cas9 1. Fauser, F., Schiml, S., Puchta, H. 2014. RNA-guided endonuclease, Nat. Both CRISPR/Cas-based nucleases and Biotechnol. 31; 691–693. nickases can be used efficiently for 13. Paszkowski, J., Baur, M., Bogucki, A. genome engineering in Arabidopsis and Potrykus I. 1988. Gene targeting in thaliana, Plant J. 79. 348–359. plants. EMBO J. 7: 4021–4026. 2. Feng, Z. et al., 2013. Efficient genome 14. Perkins AS. 2002. Functional Genomics editing in plants using a CRISPR/Cas in the Mouse. Functional & Integrative system, Cell Res. 23, 1229–1232. Genomics 2(3): 81-91. 3. Hanin, M., Volrath, S., Bogucki, A., 15. Piatek, A., et al., 2015. RNA-guided Briker, M., Ward, E. and Paszkowski, J. transcriptional regulation in planta via 2001. Gene targeting in Arabidopsis. synthetic dCas9-based transcription Plant J. 28: 671–677. factors, Plant Biotechnol. J. 13 578–589. 4. Hohn, B. and Puchta, H. 1999. Gene 16. Pollock, C.J., Hails R.S. 2014. The therapy in plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. case for reforming the EU regulatory USA 96: 8321–8323. system for GMOs Trends Biotechnol., 5. Hohn, B. and Puchta, H. 2003. Some 32 .pp. 63–64 like it sticky: targeting of the rice gene 17. Puchta, H. 1998. Repair of genomic Waxy. Trends Plant Sci. 8: 51–53. double-strand breaks in somatic plant 6. Iida, S. and Terada, R. 2004. A tale of cells by one-sided invasion of two integrations, transgene and T-DNA: homologous sequences. Plant J. 13: gene targeting by homologous 331–339. recombination in rice. Curr. Opin. 18. Risseeuw, E., Franke-van Dijk, M.E. Biotechnol. 15: 132–138. and Hooykaas, P.J. 1997. Gene targeting 7. Jacobs, T.B., LaFayette, P.R., Schmitz, and instability of Agrobacterium T- R.J. and Parrott, W.A. 2015. Targeted DNA loci in the plant genome. Plant J. genome modifications in soybean with 11: 717–728. CRISPR/Cas9, BMC Biotechnol. 15 - 19. Schiml, S., Fauser F., Puchta, H. 2014. 16. The CRISPR/Cas system can be used as 8. Kanchiswamy C. N., Daniel James nuclease for in planta gene targeting and Sargent, Riccardo Velasco, Massimo E. as paired nickases for directed Maffei, and Mickael Malnoy. 2015. mutagenesis in Arabidopsis resulting in Looking forward to genetically edited heritable progeny, Plant J. 80. 1139– fruit crops Trends in Biotechnology, 1150. Vol. 33, No. 2 20. Scott M. S., Nakata, P A. 2015. 9. Latchman DS. 2002. Gene Regulation: CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing A Eukaryotic Perspective. Cheltenham: and gene replacement in plants: Nelson Thornes. 323p. Transitioning from lab to field Plant 10. Li, T. et al., 2012. High-efficiency Science 240; 130–142. TALEN-based gene editing produces 21. Scott M. Schaeffer, P. A. Nakata. 2015. disease-resistant rice, Nat. Biotechnol. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing 30: 390–392. and gene replacement in plants: 11. Mansour, S.L., Thomas, K.R. and Transitioning from lab to field. Plant Capecchi, M.R. 1988. Disruption of the Science., 240; 130–142. proto-oncogene int-2 in mouse 22. Shan Q., et al., 2013Targeted genome embryoderived stem cells: a general modification of crop plants using a strategy for targeting mutations to non- CRISPR-Cas system, Nat. Biotechnol. selectable genes. Nature 336: 348–352. 31: 686–688.
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23. Xie, K., and Y. Yang. 2013. RNA- by CRISPR/Cas9 in rice, Nucleic Acids guided genome editing in plants using a Res., CRISPR–Cas system, Mol. Plant 6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gku806. 1975–1983. 24. Zhou, H., Liu, B., Weeks, D.P., Spalding, M.H. and B. Yang. 2014. Large chromosomal deletions and heritable small genetic changes induced
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Current/potential use in crop Phenomenon Species Year Reference improvement or functional studies
Insertion/deletion Arabidopsis thaliana 2013 Li, et al, Feng, et al., Nekrasov et al, Li, et Nicotiana benthamiana 2013 Altering gene reading frame al Simple indel Generate mutant populations for Xie et al., Shan et al., Oryza sativa 2013 phenotypic screening Feng, et al Triticum aestivum 2013 Shan et al., Reduced off-target editing Double nickase Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Fauser et al., Target specific allele(s) Reduced off-target editing Nuclease fusion Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Fauser Target specific allele(s) Arabidopsis thaliana 2013 Li, et al., Mao et al Editing of multiple genes Multiplexing Nicotiana benthamiana 2013 Li, et al Removal of large genomic fragments Large fragment Removal of multiple genes Oryza sativa 2014 Zhou et al deletion Resolving gene(s) associated with QTL Transcriptional regulation Generate activation pools for Activation Nicotiana benthamiana 2015 Piatek et al phenotypic screening Alternative to RNA silencing, VIGs, and RNAi Repression Nicotiana benthamiana 2015 Piatek et al Generate repression pools for phenotypic screening Gene insertion/replacement Cisgenesis Gene knock-in Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Schiml et al Insertion of large genomic loci Table 1. Current and future CRISPR/Cas9 technologies in plant systems. (Source : Scott M. Schaeffer, Paul A. Nakata, 2015)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018 Review Article
Family Farming: Status and Strategies Hema Baliwada ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT Family Farming is a means of organizing agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and aquaculture production which is managed and operated by a family and predominantly reliant on non-wage family labor, including both women’s and men’s (FAO 2014). Both in developing and developed countries, family farming is the predominant form of agriculture in the food production sector. The world’s 500 million smallholder family farms produce four-fifths of the food in developing countries (UN 2014). The women and men engaged in family farming produce 70% of world’s food, and generate food and income for hundreds of millions of rural people, both within the family farms and in related enterprises. Family farming has diverse dimensions in terms of food production, income generation, equity, entrepreneurship and environment and is the predominant form of agriculture in the food sector. Family farms provide for preservation and sustainable use of natural resources, that distinguishes them from large scale specialized farming. The diverse agricultural activities of family farms promote environmental sustainability, conserve biodiversity and contribute to healthier and balanced diets. Realizing the important contributions that family farming is making towards food security and eradicating poverty, the year 2014 has been declared as the ‘International Year of Family Farming’ (IYFF) at the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly. Key words; Family Farming, Status, Strategies, cropping System
Cite this article: Baliwada H., 2018. Family Farming: Status and Strategies, New Age International Journal of Agricultural Research and Development,2(1) 21-32.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION based on beliefs and traditions about living and Family Farming (also Family work. It ensures food security even while Agriculture) is a means of organizing meeting rising societal expectations for food safety, quality, value, origin and diversity of agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and food. It also maintains rural lifestyle and aquaculture production which is managed and contributes to socio-economic and operated by a family and predominantly reliant environmental sustainability of the rural areas. on non-wage family labor, including both The objective of this paper is to get through women’s and men’s (FAO, 2014). The family understanding of the status of the family farming and the farm are linked, co-evolve and combine and discussing the roles to be played for capacity development at various levels and the economic, environmental, reproductive, social task of extension as a catalytic role in linking the and cultural functions. Family Farming family farmers to outside world to acquire skills, considers men and women farmers, artisan augment their income and undertake more fishers (The livelihoods of some 357 million productive activities. people depend directly on small-scale fisheries, which employ over 90% of capture fishers of the Need of family farming: world), pastoralists (Extensive livestock The earth has many mouths to feed. And production systems cover about 25% of the every minute, a hundred and sixty more are Earth's terrestrial surface, produce about 10% of added. To satisfy increased demand, global food meat used for human consumption and support production will have to increase by more than 50 20 million households), gatherers and landless per cent by 2050. Despite the very real progress peasants, as well as indigenous people. since the year 2000, there are still over 1 billion Family farming is often more than a people living in extreme poverty, many of whom professional occupation, as it reflects a lifestyle live in rural areas, as well as more than 800
million people in the world that are still
*Corresponding author's email: [email protected] 21
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
undernourished. The world’s 500 million very complex and serious problem, average size smallholder family farms produce four-fifths of of landholding is contracting when share of the food in developing countries. They are also agriculture in gross domestic product is the custodians of much of the world’s agro- declining, and number of operational holdings is biodiversity. Yet today, these small-scale increasing. producers belong to the "forgotten world”. Importance of Family Farming: Family farming in India: Shift in focus: The contribution of small farmers to Farmer first of ICAR to Family farming total farm output in India exceeds 50%, while first of FAO they cultivate 44% of land. Small farmers are the Family Farms: Farm, Feed & Flourish ones who have lesser capital but higher use of by ICAR labour and other family-owned inputs, and Zero hunger vision of Indian usually have a higher index of cropping intensity Government and diversification. Family farms grow a wide Family Farming, a reality present on all variety of cultivars, many of which are continents and on a massive scale in landraces. These landraces are genetically more developing countries is currently subject heterogeneous than modern varieties, and thus to great challenges and serious would offer greater resilience against uncertainties. vulnerability and enhance harvest security in the And yet, although in many places family midst of diseases, pests, droughts and other farmers –men and women– have been stresses. The diversity in farming, crops and forgotten and are neglected by policy livestock, often results in higher productivity makers, they continue to be the basis of than the large farms practising usually sustainable food production in the monoculture. world's effort toward food security and Growing food demand in India: sovereignty, they play a key role in the The demand for food and processed management of rural and marine commodities is increasing due to growing environments and their biodiversity population and rising per capita income. There They are the source of significant are projections that demand for food grains cultural heritage of the local people in would increase from 192 million tonnes in 2000 each country, and, in short, they are a to 345 million tonnes in 2030. Hence in the next fundamental pillar of the comprehensive 20 years, production of food grains needs to be development of nations. increased at the rate of 5.5 million tonnes annually (Vision 2030 of ICAR). Our agriculture 1. Guarantee of food supply is dominated by small farmers, having small 70% of the world food production is landholdings for cultivation. The average size of provided by family farmers the landholding declined to 1.32 ha in 2000-01 Key to fight Hunger and Malnutrition. from 2.30 ha in 1970-71, and absolute number Small farms are often more productive of operational holdings increased from about 70 and sustainable per unit of land and million to 121 million. If this trend continues, energy consumed. the average size of holding in India would be mere 0.68 ha in 2020, and would be further reduced to a low of 0.32 ha in 2030. This is a Baliwada, H., 2018
2. Generates welfare family. She is the first educator of their A total of 40% of world households children, to whom gives birth. depend on family farming Women contribute a significant Out of the 3,000 million rural people in proportion of agricultural labor force in developing countries, 2,500 belong to developing countries. FAO estimates families engaged in Family Farming. this figure at 43%, while UNIFEM Also contributes to stabilize the estimates between 60-80%. population in rural areas, to preserve historical and cultural values, to The International Year of Family generate income and consumption. Farming IYFF-2014: 3. Poverty alleviation Timeline: At least twice more effective than other 2008: A global food crisis drew renewed production sectors in the prevention of poverty attention to food security issues. GDP growth originated in agriculture is 2008: An initiative was launched by the World at least twice more effective in reducing Rural Forum in collaboration with more than poverty than GDP growth generated in 350 civil society and farmers’ organizations to other sectors. declare an International Year of Family Farming Agricultural and rural growth also (IYFF). benefits the poor in urban areas, due to 2010: IFAD’s President formally supported the the abundance and proximity of food. call for the IYFF. 4. Biodiversity protection 2011: The Government of the Philippines, at the Great potential for the conservation of 37th Session of the FAO Conference, proposed local varieties that the United Nations declare 2014 as the Throughout history, we have used about IYFF. 7,000 plants to meet basic needs. 2011: At the 66th session of the General Nowadays there are over 150 species Assembly of the United Nations, 2014 was grown commercially, of which 30 formally declared the International Year of constitute 90% of the calories in the Family Farming. human diet and only four (rice, wheat, 2013: Establishment of the International corn, potato) account for more than half Steering Committee for the IYFF 2014, approval of the caloric contribution. of the Master Plan and organization of five Family Farming, besides being a source Regional Dialogues Events by FAO. of genetic agro-diversity, can ensure
their preservation through the use of International Year of Family Farming native seed varieties and native livestock The United Nations declared 2014 the breeds well adapted to various International Year of Family Farming (IYFF) to environments. recognize the importance of family farming in 5. Women as farmers reducing poverty and improving global food Women make nearly half of agricultural security. labor in developing countries The IYFF aims to promote new In most cases, the woman cooks and development policies, particularly at the national puts food on the table, sells farm but also regional levels, that will help products and deals with the health of the smallholder and family farmers eradicate hunger, reduce rural poverty and continue to 23
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
play a major role in global food security through effectively represent and defend the small-scale, sustainable agricultural production. interests of family farmers The IYFF provides a unique opportunity to pave Create rural economic opportunities for the way towards more inclusive and sustainable family farmers that provide alternatives approaches to agricultural and rural development to migration to urban areas that: Promote local and indigenous Recognize the importance of knowledge and know-how smallholder and family farmers for Encourage research that improves food sustainable development security and supports sustainable rural Place small-scale farming at the development, safeguards cultural centre of national, regional and heritage, protects the environment and global agricultural, environmental maintains biodiversity and social policies Promote dialogue on policy and decision Elevate the role of smallholder making processes farmers as agents for alleviating Identify and share lessons learned and rural poverty and ensuring food successful pro-family farming policies, security for all; as stewards who and capitalize relevant knowledge on manage and protect natural family farming resources; and as drivers of Enhance communication, advocacy and sustainable development. outreach.
The IYFF has four key objectives: IFAD initiatives for family farming: Ending hunger and poverty is within our reach, 1. Creation of National Committees: but only if we place family and smallholder The national level is where governments farmers at the centre of rural development and organizations of smallholder and family efforts. farmers can most effectively reach agreements Support the development of policies that on measures to improve the conditions offamily will foster sustainable family farming; farming. Smallholder and family farming are Increase knowledge and public central to IFAD’s mission of reducing poverty awareness on the vital role that family and hunger in the rural areas of the developing farmers play in the agricultural and world. development sectors IFAD-supported programmes help poor Raise awareness of the needs and rural people improve their food and nutrition potential of family farmers, along with security, increase their incomes and strengthen the constraints that they face, and ensure their resilience. IFAD is unique in being an that they have access to technical international financial institution and a United support Nations agency, and is exclusively focused on Create synergies for sustainability agricultural and rural development in developing countries. Other objectives: More than 60 National Committees in Recognize the role and rights of women the five continents have promoted the in family farming establishment of National Committees to Strengthen the legitimacy of farmers’ organise IYFF-2014 in each country so that organizations and their capacity to more than 60 platforms of this type have been Baliwada, H., 2018
set up to promote Family Farming in their indigenous communities, artisanal fishers and respective countries. pastoralists, whose work and potential has been These 60 National Committees, focal so often forgotten and underestimated. points for awareness-building in favour of 5. FAO publications: Innovation in family family farming, bring together under the farming leadership of farming organisations, producers’ The State of Food and Agriculture 2014: associations, NGOs, research centres and other Analyses family farms and the role of entities with the objective of planning goals and innovation. activities for the Year in each country. Many of For sustainable intensification and these committees have incorporated improvements in rural livelihoods. governments and international organisations Enabled to innovation can: with a view to establishing a dialogue leading to • Increase production improved public policies affecting men and • Preserve natural resources women family farmers. • Raise rural incomes. 2. Increase Investment: • Need of an innovation system Investing in family farming is investing that meets the needs of family in a sustainable, food secure future. The IYFF farms. presents a window of opportunity for Innovation systems for family farming: policymakers to act responsibly to both present • One fundamental driver for all and future generations in a way that will reduce innovators – including family poverty and eradicate hunger in their respective farmers – is access to markets countries. that reward their enterprise. 3. Changes at policy level: • Farmers with access to markets, Encourage policy changes that will including local markets, for make family farming a more secure, profitable their produce – whether it be and attractive livelihood, including for rural food staples or cash crops – women and youth. Support programmes that have a strong incentive to enable smallholder and family farmers to invest innovate in their businesses, link to markets and • Technologies help farmers to overcome poverty and vulnerability; Promote enter the market by allowing incentives to family farmers to manage their them to produce marketable land, water, biodiversity and other natural surpluses. resources in a more sustainable way. • Innovation and markets depend 4. Mobilization: on, and reinforce, each other. Underlying this were the huge efforts Case studies on family farming: coordinated by the World Rural Forum and 1. Bara et al., 2009. Any future needs supported by more than 360 organisations family farming worldwide: farmers’ federations, NGOs, Family farming, commonly considered research centres, institutions etc. In over three old-fashioned, resistant to change and unable to years’ campaigning which attracted increasing respond effectively to market opportunities, is support the declaration was finally unanimously gaining recognition as a viable model for the adopted by the UN General Assembly -in itself a future of agriculture. Governments and donors well-deserved recognition of the silent toil of so need to recognize the potential of family farming many men and women family farmers, peasants, and support its development.
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2. Toulmin et al., 2005. Is There a 5. Putting family farmers first to Future for Family Farming in West eradicate hunger, FAO report 2014: Africa FAO report urges enabling the world’s half Family farms in West Africa face a billion family farmers to be agents of change challenging future as local markets and food Family farms are also the custodians of systems become increasingly globalised. The about 75 per cent of all agricultural diversity of farming households and their resources in the world, and are therefore differential ability to respond to market key to improve ecological and resource opportunities, invest in productive assets and sustainability. meet their needs has led some observers to They are also among the most predict the end of the family farm. vulnerable to the effects of resource depletion and climate change. 3. Family Farming in India: Economic While evidence shows impressive yields Program Reform to Eliminate on land managed by family farmers, Poverty by Wilson many smaller farms are unable to The family farm exists as one of the produce enough to provide decent most important factors in food production in livelihoods for the families. India. Whole families run the farms and, because Effective and inclusive producer of the rural location, are less educated than their organizations can support innovation by urban countrymen. The improvement of members, helping them gain access to economic programs would vastly improve the markets, and facilitating linkages with life of the subsistence farmer. Through the others in the innovation system, besides establishment of central markets and increased ensuring that family farms have a voice availability and affordability of new technology, in policy making, the report the farmer would be given a boost in self- emphasizes. sufficiency, rather than merely catered to. To encourage family farmers to invest in sustainable agricultural practices, which 4. Swaminathan. 2014. Strengthening often have high start-up costs and long family farming in India. Financial pay-off periods, authorities should seek Chronicle to provide an enabling environment for In the area of empowerment of family innovation. farmers, equal attention should be paid to the Policies meant to catalyze innovation women and men in the farm family. Women will need to go beyond technology play a critical role in all aspects of agriculture, transfer, according to SOFA (State of but invariably their intellectual role and Food and Agriculture). managerial skills remain unrecognized. The They must also be inclusive and tailored IYFF affords a unique opportunity to engender to local contexts, so that farmers have all agricultural policies and programmes. ownership of innovation, and take To provide a new deal to family gender and intergenerational issues into farmers, we need to attend to the following four consideration, involving youth in the areas of importance to sustainable food security future of the agricultural sector. and elimination of hunger. i.e., Conservation,
Cultivation, Consumption and Commerce.
Baliwada, H., 2018
Challenges that family farmers face: account that only genuine public support to Smallholder and family farmers are faced with Family Farming will make this profession numerous challenges: attractive to them. Climate change and climate variability Lack of tenure security in a context of Technological empowerment for family increasing competition for land and farming: water (population growth, urbanization) National Policy for Farmers (2007) of the and inadequate governance of land Government of India: tenure One of the intents of the policy is to Limited access to financial resources, improve economic viability of farming inputs, technology, training, research by substantially increasing the net and advisory services, and education income of farmers and to ensure that Price volatility (energy, food, etc.) and agricultural progress is measured by limited access to markets. advances made in their income. Five key demands to be transmitted to Increase in productivity and area decision makers: (number in case of livestock) are the two 1. Each nation should have the right to develop sources of growth in domestic its own food production as the basis for Food production to meet future demands. Security on the way to achieving Food As there is little scope for horizontal Sovereignty, taking into account climate change expansion of area under cultivation, as one of the serious threats to Family Farming. vertical expansion is possible through 2. Governments must assume as an urgent increased cropping intensity. priority the implementation of the Voluntary This can be achieved by developing Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of crop varieties that are of short duration, Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests which can be grown under moisture stress, and they themselves approved within the Committee are tolerant to climatic conditions of on Food Security –CFS. lean period during which agricultural 3. In order to promote Family Farming, nations land remains fallow. In this context, it is the majority of whose population is active in important to develop technologies that agriculture must proceed with the transparent can enhance productivity by raising and adequate allocation of financial resources to input use efficiency and by reducing national agriculture budgets. The same criteria risks of crop failure and yield loss. should apply to development aid and public Farmers require appropriate and investments on the basis of the meaningful authentic advice based on participation of family farmers' organisations as meteorological, marketing and well as other Civil Society entities. management information for land-use 4. Institute the equality of rights between men decisions and investments. and women family farmers. Women who live Infrastructure support would be needed and work in rural areas are frequently to minimize post-harvest losses and discriminated against in terms of equitable enable agro-processing and value- access to productive resources such as land, addition in the villages to enhance water, credit and extension services. employment and income. 5. Policies in favour of the insertion of youth in Farmers’ organizations and other agriculture must be approved, taking into entities like small farmers’ estates need 27
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
to be encouraged, so that farmers get a inputs use pattern, source of farm labour, use of fair deal and enjoy economies of scale. output and market access. Producer groups and cooperatives have to be strengthened to promote agro- Policy support: processing industries. Stop increasing fragmentation: Shrinking agricultural land is a stark National Agricultural Innovation Project: reality. The per capita availability of agricultural Researches in the Sustainable Rural land has declined from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.16 Livelihood component of the ongoing ha in 1991, and is likely to reduce further to 0.08 National Agricultural Innovation Project ha in 2035 and even less by 2050 due to growth (2007-2014; Component 3) laid in human population and infrastructure required emphasis on most suitable farming for tourism, transport, industry, mining, etc. The systems and allied off-farm activities in newly created farms require fresh efforts to plan less favourable environments, regions out farm layout, as division of farms continues and groups, so that livelihood of the from generation to generation, thus raising a rural poor improves through assured question about the ultimate sustainability of a food, nutrition, employment and small farm. income, while ensuring sustainability of Stop Natural resource degradation: socio-economic and natural resources. Total area in the country affected by Particular attention was given to rainfed, different forms of land degradations is over121 hill and mountain, and coastal and island mha, of which 105mha fall under arable land eco-regions. and 16.53 million ha under open forest. To The technologies developed under the restore and maintain land suffering from such component could be adopted either by a disorders would be a challenge, that needs farmer individually or collectively by a immediate and long-term attention with requisite group of farmers involving farm men ameliorative measures. Reclamation and and women, the farm labourer, the input rejuvenation of vast stretches of land with supplier, the rural industry entrepreneur appropriate technological interventions is the or the researcher. way forward for ensuring livelihoods of millions in these areas. Roles to be played to promote family Enhancing resource-use efficiency: farming: The current levels of efficiency of The success or the failure of the small natural resources and man-made inputs are farms is determined strongly by policy rather low. Furthermore, when resources and environment and access of farmers to inputs and inputs are used inefficiently, both cost of information. Categorization of farms according cultivation and to the scale of operation, particularly those in the threat to biosphere pollution increase, and household sector, is important for formulating consequently the production decreases. This has appropriate policies for each section of the received the attention of the researchers and farming community. A differentiation is needed policy makers alike. in the treatment, and hence in choice of policy Access to quality inputs: instrument, of different categories of farmers Productivity enhancement, post-harvest due to their differences in resource endowment, management and value addition are critical for ensuring sustainability and increasing farm Baliwada, H., 2018
income and profitability. Timely availability of Recognize the role of pluralistic and quality inputs, particularly the seed and planting mixed systems material, fertilisers, or the feed and fodder in Policies promoting on-farm and off- case of livestock, has been a matter of concern farm gender-smart and climate- for the small farmers. smart investments. Small farm mechanization: Public investment in agricultural Acute labour shortage and rising cost of R&D and extension services should agricultural production have brought be increased to emphasize engineering inputs in agriculture into focus. sustainable intensification and Timeliness, precision and resource conservation closing yield and labour in farm operations are of utmost importance to productivity gaps. realise potential yields of technologies. Good governance, stable Therefore, mechanization of small farms is the macroeconomic conditions, need of the hour, along with efficient energy transparent legal and regulatory management. regimes and secure property rights Enhanced energy usage: A decent price for the produce and The structure of energy consumption in services needs to be obtained. Indian agriculture has changed and there is a Take gender and intergenerational need for introducing technological change issues into consideration, involving involving energy-efficient farm machinery and youth in the future of the irrigation system. Use of non-conventional and agricultural sector. renewable sources of energy in agriculture is Expanding domains of proprietary urgently required. Smaller the farm, greater is rights over innovations (PPVFRA) the need for marketable surplus, so that small Appropriate income, targeted farmers are ensured with a sound income. policies, programs and projects are Achieving this goal will be possible only if we essential (Recent ARYA develop and disseminate eco-technologies programme of ICAR) rooted in principles of ecology, economics, equity and employment generation. Research support: Other ways of policy support are: The overarching concerns are nutritional Secure access to land, credit, inputs and livelihood security, poverty alleviation, and appropriate mechanization profitability, gender equity, ecology and Institutional and Infra-Structural environment, and competitiveness in terms of Support cost and quality are major researchable issues Risk Management before the NARES. Priority issues that call for Supporting marketing associations attention include availability of water and its Developing rural investment for quality, soil health, genetic resource rural infrastructure conservation, insulating farm production against liberalization of the land-lease increasing biotic and abiotic stresses, managing Market relaxation of the constraints climate change, enhancing input-use efficiency, to interstate movement of energy management, diversification, and post- agricultural produce harvest management. Institutional support to new models Investments in agricultural R&D and of agricultural co-operatives. rural infrastructure have resulted in high rates of 29
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
return. In the tenth five-year plan, the Provide access to productive resources expenditure on agricultural research and and assets development as percentage of agricultural GDP Development of co-operatives and was 0.59% and in eleventh plan it was 0.70 per farmers’ organizations. cent. There is a need to raise it to a level of at Socially responsible partnerships with least 1% urgently and ultimately to a level of 2 civil society organizations and with the per cent. private sector The research focus should be to Interaction between research, education, evolve technologies and extension and enterprise services is management options to suit needs of needed smallholders’ agriculture, and also Encourage women’s participation in to involve them in agri-supply chain decision making through institutional innovations. Gender sensitization: Raising awareness International cooperation can make on the role of women in family farming research efforts more effective. management and promote women’s equal access to land, credit, education, Role of Extension: technology, networks and decision- 1. Region wise best practices of coping making processes. mechanisms should be widely More research should be carried out in disseminated: gender to study the situation and reasons Frontline demonstrations at farmers’ Create conditions for private delivery of fields and at experimental farms show advisory services that productivity of crops, livestock and Participative research, knowledge fisheries at the farm level can transfer and Life Long Learning should significantly be enhanced by adopting be promoted already developed improved Attracting youth to keep young people technologies and practices. on the farm More far-reaching, participatory Change the mindset …..The social information and communication sustainability of family farming is based technologies need to be developed to on the next generation’s willingness to effectively link research take part in farming accomplishments with stakeholders. Expand the role for information The farmers need to be sensitized about technology the whole range of agri-business, Strengthen its global production systems, research coordination, bringing farmers in melas institutions, programmes and schemes of and explaining the significance of the development departments, open family farming markets both at domestic and global scale, and other partners, to be provided 2. Entrepreneurship: Agriculture to through training, demonstration, Agribusiness; Farmer to Agripreneur literature, and other human resources Small farmers, in general, are faced with development support, including resource constraints, especially the poor interface at different levels. or weaker sections. Baliwada, H., 2018
Such farmers can be organized into Smallholders, due to their small groups for resource sharing or as surpluses in production, generally are commodity-based and market-orientated exposed to high degrees of risk and groups. transaction costs. The farmers can thereby, make There is a need for promotion of agro- agriculture more viable by sharing input processing centres in rural costs, machinery rentals, cutting down sector/production catchments for value on transport costs, getting better banking addition of agricultural produce deals and marketing linkages. including technological back-up Our approach should be to promote support. diversification to enhance income and Appropriate strategies will have to be employment, minimize risks and allow worked out to address issues relating to efficient and sustainable use of natural marketing/infrastructure required, the resources’ community-based approaches most immediate need being as means to address poverty and development of local transport network. livelihood as well as facilitate Direct marketing through SHGs or integration of disaster-risk reduction, informal groups, NGOs, cooperatives, development, and climate change Farmers Associations, Companies, adaptation. partnerships, joint ventures need to be Potential areas (Labour intensive): encouraged. Farmer Producer Vegetable cultivation, intercropping, Organizations (FPOs) are a way forward mixed cropping, organic farming, Dairy in this context. etc Community radio Contract and collective farming should Required an agricultural innovation be encouraged system that recognizes farmers Custom hiring centers for farmers themselves as innovators Innovative farming training guides 3. Linking of farmers with markets: should be prepared The smallholder farmers face challenges Encourage innovations across different and opportunities of a rapidly changing sectors market environment brought about by Farmer-led innovation and formal trade liberalization and globalization. research should complement each other Smallholders often have limited access to markets for both inputs and outputs, Conclusion: and this has a significant effect on their The 2014 World Food Day theme - production activities. Family Farming: “Feeding the world, caring for The efforts towards regulated markets the earth” - It focuses world attention on the have helped in mitigating market significant role of family farming in eradicating handicaps of producers/ sellers at the hunger and poverty, providing food security and wholesale assembling level. nutrition, improving livelihoods, managing However, the rural periodic markets, in natural resources, protecting the environment, general, and the tribal markets in and achieving sustainable development, in particular, remained out of its particular in rural areas. This is a strong signal developmental ambit. that the international community recognizes the 31
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
important contribution of family farmers to world food security and also providing resources for Women and Young Farmers. In economic terms, family farming is identified with specific entrepreneurial skills, business ownership and management, choice and risk behaviour, resilience and individual achievement. Family farming is often more than a professional occupation, as it reflects a lifestyle based on beliefs and traditions about living and work. It ensures food security even while meeting rising societal expectations for food safety, quality, value, origin and diversity of food. It also maintains rural lifestyle and contributes to socio- economic and environmental sustainability of the rural areas. Family farms have an inherent capacity for quick production expansion and key to sustainable food production, if given an appropriate policy environment.
References: 1. Bara Gueye, Paulo Peterson and Robert. 2009. Any future needs family farming. “The Broker” – Connecting worlds of knowledge Online publication. pp 1-3. 2. Camilla Toulmin and Bara Gueye. 2009. Is There a Future for Family Farming. Wiley online library. pp 1-6. 3. FAO report 2014 http://www.fao.org/family-farming- 2014 4. M S Swaminathan. 2014. Strengthening family farming in India. Financial chronicle. 5. UN. 2014. International Year of Family Farming
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Rahul Singh*, Gaje Singh1, Visvash Vaibhav2, Ankush Kumar3, Rajat Deshwal4 and Nitin Kumar5 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut- 250110, (U.P.)
ABSTRACT A series of investigation to explore the efficacy of edible oils against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.) in stored chickpea seeds were carried out in the laboratory of the department of Entomology, SVP University of Agriculture and Technology- Meerut during July 2016 to February 2017 at 28 2o C temperature and 75 5 per cent relative humidity replicated three times in completely randomized Design. Among all edible oil treatments the mustard oil (1ml/100g seeds) was found best and recorded consistently increased rate of adult mortality 3136.67, 43.67,49, 55.67 65.67 and 74.67 per cent after 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 15, and 21 days, respectively. The treatment also recorded with minimum seed damaged of 7.6, 9.23, 12.10, 15.60, 18.80, 21.00, 23.03 and 25.90 per cent. This treatment also recorded with minimum weight loss of 9.33, 12, 15.67, 18.67, 21.33, 24.67, 27.67 and 30.00 per cent. This treatment was recorded best again with maximum progeny reduction of 63.20, 58.80, 51.26, 49.47, 48.53, 46.83, 44.46, and 43.70 per cent after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. Keywords: Chickpea, Edible oils, Callosobruchus chinensis
Cite this article: Singh R. et.al., 2018. Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.) New Age International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development, 2(1) 33-41.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a highly nutritious pulse cultivated throughout the University of Agriculture and Technology, world and is placed third in the importance list Meerut-250110 (U.P.) India. of the food legumes. India is the largest producer of this pulse contributing to around 63% of the Insect culture world’s total production (ICRISAT, Adults of test insect i.e. C. chinensis 2007).Chickpea is used in arrange of different were collected locally from naturally infested preparation in our cuisine and has a good source stored chickpea grains. The culture of C. of energy i.e. 416 calories/100gm chickpea chinensis was maintained at 28 20C (Shrestha, 2001). In India, there are about 200 temperature and 70 5% relative humidity in species of pest insects which cause damage to B.O.D. at laboratory of department of stored grains and grain products in storage. The Entomology. The culture was raised by 50 pairs pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis is a major of newly emerged C. chinensis adults into 500g economically important pest of all pulses and of chickpea seeds in large plastic container. causes 40-50% in losses of pulses storage (Gosh After 35 days newly emerged (F1) 2-3 days old et al. 2003). There is a steady increase in the use adults were collected and used to infest the of edible oils as a cheaper and ecologically safer experimental chickpea samples. Ten pairs of C. means of protecting stored products against chinensis was release in each 100g of infestation by insects. experimental and control seeds which would be kept in plastic jars capped with cotton cloth to MATERIAL AND METHODS insure ventilation. The jars were maintained in The present investigation were B.O.D. at laboratory of Department of conducted under the Laboratory, Department of Entomology on 28 20C temperature and 70 Entomology, College of Agriculture, Sardar 5% relative humidity. Vallabhbhai Patel
*Corresponding author's email: [email protected]
Singh, et.al, 2018
Treatments Percent infestation = x100 (Enobakhare The experiment was conducted with 9 and Law-Ogbomo, 2002) treatments with 3 replication in completely Where, randomized design. Nb = Number of damaged seeds, Treatments Common Dose Tn = Total number of seeds; name The per cent weight loss was calculated by T1 Mustard Oil 1 ml per 100g seeds following formula; T2 Mustard Oil 0.75 ml per 100g seeds Per cent weight loss = (Lal, T3 Groundnut 1 ml per 100g seeds Oil 1988) T4 Groundnut 0.75 ml per 100g Where, Oil seeds U = Weight of healthy seeds, T5 Coconut Oil 1 ml per 100g seeds D = Weight of damaged seeds, Nu = T6 Coconut Oil 0.75 ml per 100g Number of healthy seeds, Nd = Number of seeds damaged seeds. T7 Sunflower 1 ml per 100g seeds Oil T8 Sunflower 0.75 ml per 100g Adult mortality Oil seeds To collect the adult mortality data the T9 Control - whatman No.1 filter papers treated with different Table No.1: Treatments testing doses were fixed at bottom of containers and 100g of chickpea seeds were filled in each Observation procedure container. In control the ethanol treated filter The treatments with edible oils i.e. papers were fixed at bottom of containers. The Mustard oil, Groundnut oil, Coconut oil and 10 pairs freshly emerged (2-3days old) adults were released in each container and kept in BOD Sunflower oil were thoroughly mixed with 0 healthy Chickpea seeds (each treatment with at 28±2 C temperature and 75±5 % Relative 1ml & 0.75ml per 100g seeds) and placed in humidity. Three replications were maintained plastic containers. Ten pairs of newly emerged with each treatment. The adult mortality was adults (one day old) were released in each recorded at 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days after container and covered with muslin cloth, secured released. The following formula was used to with rubber band and kept in B.O.D. at 28 20C calculate the per cent mortality; temperature and 70 5% relative humidity for Total No. of oviposition. Each treatment was replicated dead adult insects thrice. The efficacy of edible oils against C. Percent adult ------X 100 chinensis was assessed considering adult mortality = Total No. of release adult mortality, adult’s emergence, seed infestation insects and seed weight loss done. Percent seed infestation and weight loss was determined at the completion of adult Progeny build up emergence. The sample of each replicate was After 21 days all adults (dead and live) examined carefully and damaged and healthy were removed and the seeds with treatment seeds were separated, cleaned, counted and remained at same conditions for an additional 28 weighed. The per cent infestation and weight days. The chickpea seeds of each treatment were loss was recorded at 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 checked for progeny production after 33, 38, 43, and 66 days after released of adult’s 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days of adult confinement. confinement. The total number of grains was The percentage of reduction in progeny counted and Per cent seed infestation computed production was calculated by following formula; by using the following formulae. Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
No. of progeny in control – all the treatments were found significantly No. of progeny in treatment superior over control to decrease the seed Percent = damaged. The minimum seeds damage of 7.6, Reduction ------x 100 9.23, 12.10, 15.60, 18.80, 21.00, 23.03 and No. of progeny in control 25.90 per cent was recorded in mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days followed by mustard oil (0.75/100 g seeds) was recorded with seed RESULT AND DISCUS SION damage of 8.1, 10, 13, 16.12, 19.36, 21.72, Percent mortality 23.66 and 26.33 per cent, groundnut oil The observation presented in (Table 1.) The (1ml/100 g seeds) with 9.5, 12.1, 14.6, 17.96, maximum C. chinensis adult mortality of 36.67, 21.16, 23.58, 25.70 and 28.33 per cent, 43.67,49, 55.67 65.67 and 74.67 per cent was groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 10.1, found in treatment mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) 13, 15.08, 18.46, 21.86, 24, 26.18 and 28.92 per after 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days followed by cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds), 11.70, mustard oil (0.75/100 g seeds) was recorded 15.06, 16.72, 20.13, 23.82, 25.98, 28 and 31 per with adult mortality of 34.67, 42.33, 48.67, cent, coconut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 12.6, 54.33, 63.67 and 72.67 per cent, groundnut oil 16.4, 17.33, 21.84, 24.2, 26.67, 28.67 and 31.76 (1ml/100 g seeds) with adult mortality of 31.00, per cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 39.00, 45.67, 50.00, 60.33 and 69.00 per cent, 14.29, 17.35, 19.02, 22.77, 26, 28.07, 29.07 and groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with adult 33.88 per cent after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 mortality of 30.33, 38.33, 43, 48.67, 57.67, and and 66 days, respectively. The maximum seed 66.67 per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds) damaged of 15, 18.15, 19.78, 23.04, 26.4, 28.67, with adult mortality of 27.67, 35, 39.67, 42, 29.62 and 34.2 per cent with treatment 54.67 and 62.67 per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at after 33, seeds) with adult mortality of 26.33, 34, 38, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. 40.67, 53.67 and 60.33 per cent, sunflower oil The present experimental findings supported by (1ml/100 g seeds) with adult mortality of 23.67, Kumari et al. (1990) who found the efficacy of 31.67, 35.67, 38.33, 51 and 56.67 per cent after vegetable oils viz., mustard oil, linseed oil, til 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days, respectively. The oil, groundnut oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil minimum C. chinensis adult mortality of 22.33, as grain protestants against C. chinensis (linn). 30.33, 34.67, 37, 50.33 and 54.33 per cent with The results revealed that all the vegetable oils treatment sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at each at 1 % level proved equally effective for 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days, respectively. The reduction in the percentage of damage grains. findings of Ali et al. (1983) also supported the The findings of Neog and Singh (2012) are present findings evaluated the efficacy of closely related to the present findings as they mustard against pulse beetle. These oils were reported the efficacy of mustard @ 1% v/w used @ 0.2 and 0.1 ml/100g seeds green gram. were tested as grain protectants against C. Mustard oil infested 100% egg mortality at 0.1 chinensis (L.) on green gram seeds. The mustard ml/100g of seeds. The another findings was oil provided maximum protection up to two supported by of Begum and Quiniones (1991) months resulting in 9.11% infestation and who evaluated the efficacy of mustard and 32.60% in untreated seeds. groundnut oil applied to moong bean seeds infested by C. chinensis at 3 ml/ kg reduced the Percent weight loss population effectively up to 3 month than seeds Data presented in (Table 3.) the minimum treated with same oil at 0.5 ml /kg. weight loss of 9.33, 12, 15.67, 18.67, 21.33, 24.67, 27.67 and 30.00 per cent was recorded in Percent seed damage mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43, Observation presented in (Table 2.) after 33, 38, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. This 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days of treatment used treatment proved best among all the treatments
35 Singh, et.al, 2018
and followed by mustard oil (0.75ml/100 g treatment proved best among all the treatments seeds) was recorded with weight loss of 10.33, and followed by mustard oil (0.75ml/100 g 13, 16.33, 19.33, 22, 25.33 , 28.33 and 30.67 per seeds) with 62.39, 57, 50.86, 48, 46.9, 45.93, cent, groundnut oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 12, 43.63 and 42.6 per cent, groundnut oil (1ml/100 15, 18.33, 21.33, 24, 27, 30.33 and 32.67 per g seeds) with 57.70, 52.87, 47.10, 44.50, 43.63, cent, groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 41.13, 40 and 39.80 per cent, groundnut oil 12.67, 15.67, 19, 22, 25.33, 27.67, 31 and 33.33 (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 56.36, 50.63, 46.1, per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 43.8, 42.06, 40.6, 39 and 38.5 per cent , coconut 14.33, 17.67, 21, 24, 27.33, 29.33, 33 and 35.33 oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 51.22, 45, 42.60, per cent, coconut oil (0.75m/100 g seeds) with 39.16, 38.70, 36.83, 35.30 and 34.27 per cent, 15, 18.33, 21.67, 24.67, 28, 30, 34 and 36 per coconut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 49.86, cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 43.67, 41.03, 38.56, 37.33, 35.86, 34.26 and 16.33, 20, 23.33, 26.67 30, 31.67, 35.67 and 38 33.27 per cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds) per cent at after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and with 46.76, 41.36, 37.50, 36.76, 34.60, 32.27, 66 days, respectively. The maximum weight 31.03 and 29.60 per cent progeny reduction after loss of 17.33, 20.67, 24, 27.33, 30.67, 32.33, 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, 36.33 and 38.67 per cent with treatment respectively. The treatment of sunflower oil sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at after 33, (0.75ml/100 g seeds) revealed the minimum 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. progeny reduction of 45.65, 39.16, 36.26, 33.6, Similarity was observed with the findings of 32.6, 31.63, 29.5 and 28.2 after 33, 38, 43, 48, Parsai et al. (1990) also reported that the 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. The efficacy of mustard oil, groundnut oil @ 0.3 per findings of Bhargava and Meena (2002) are cent concentration on C. chinensis and caused closely related to the present findings as they grain weight loss. They observed grain weight reported the efficacy of mustard (Brassica loss decreased with increase in oil concentration. juncea L.), groundnut were tested against C. The another findings was also supported by chinensis (Linn.) in cowpea. The treatment Kumari et al. (1990) who evaluated the efficacy mustard oil @ 1.0 ml/100 g seeds caused of mustard and groundnut as grain protestants maximum reduction in adult emergence in F1 against C. chinensis (Linn). The results revealed generation with (83.7%), groundnut oil (73.3%). that all the mustard oil each at 1 % level proved The present experimental findings supported by equally effective for reduction in the percentage Lakhanpal et al. (1995) who evaluated the of weight loss. efficacy of edible oil mustard, groundnut and coconut were evaluated as gram protestants Effect of edible oils on progeny emergence of against Callosobruchus analis infesting black C. chinensis gram (Vigna mungo) seeds when applied at 1, 2 The observation presented in (Table 4.) and 4 ml/kg was the most effective, followed by the maximum C. chinensis progeny reduction of groundnut and coconut oil which resulted low 63.20, 58.80, 51.26, 49.47, 48.53, 46.83, 44.46, fecundity and prevented adults emergence for up and 43.70 per cent was found in treatment to 150 days. mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. This Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
REFERENCE
1. Ali, S.I., Singh, O.P. and Mishra, U.S. 1983. Effectiveness of plant oils against pulse beetle Callsobruchus chinensis (Linn). Indian journal of Entomology, 45 (1): 6-9 2. Bhargava, M. C., Meena B. L. 2002. Efficacy of some vegetable oils against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.) on cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 30 (1): 46- 50 3. Kumari, K., Sinha, M.M., Mehto, D.N. and Hammed, S.F. 1990. Effect of some vegetable oil as protectants against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.) Bulletin Grain Tecnology, 28 (1) : 66-69 4. Lakhanpal, G.C., Kashyap, N.P. and Mehta, P.K. 1995. Evaluation of edible oils as grain protectants against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus analis (Fab.) in black gram (Vignamungo L.). Journal of Unsect Science, 8 (1): 66- 69. 5. Parsai, S.K., Shaw, S.S., Despande, R.R., Verma, R.S., Badaya, A.K. and Mandloy, K.C. 1990. Studies on fecundity longevity of C. chinensis and caused grain weight loss and efficacy of edible oils against Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) on mungbean. Indian journal of Pulse research, 3(1): 61-65.
37 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
Table 2. Efficacy of edible oils against Callosobruchus chinensis
S.No Treatments Per cent seed damage Treatments 1 DAT 3 DAT 5 DAT 7 DAT 15 DAT 21DAT e d g d e e T Mustard oil of 1ml 37.24 (36.67) 41.34 (43.67) 44.40 (49.00) 48.23 (55.67) 54.32(65.67) 59.76 (74.67) 1 per 100g sedes e d g d e e T Mustard oil 0.75ml 36.05 (34.67) 40.57 (42.33) 44.21 (48.67) 47.46 (54.33) 52.91 (63.67) 58.47 (72.67) 2 per 100g sedes Groundnut oil 1ml 33.80 (31.00)d 38.62 (39.00)c 42.49 (45.67)f 44.98 (50.00)c 50.94 (60.33)d 56.14 (69.00)d T 3 per 100g sedes Groundnut oil 33.40 (30.33)d 38.23 (38.33)c 40.95 (43)e 44.21 (48.67)c 49.39 (57.67)d 54.72 (66.67)d T4 0.75ml per 100g seeds Coconut oil 1ml per 31.71 (27.67)c 36.24 (35.00)b 39.01(39.67)d 40.37 (42.00)b 47.66 (54.67)c 52.32 (62.67)c T5 100g seeds c b d b c c T Coconut oil 0.75ml 30.85 (26.33) 35.64 (34) 38.04 (38) 39.60 (40.67) 47.08 (53.67) 50.94 (60.33) 6 per 100g seeds Sunflower oil 1ml per 29.08 (23.67)b 34.22 (31.67)b 36.65(35.67)c 38.23 (38.33)b 45.55 (51.00)b 48.81 (56.67)b T7 100g seeds Sunflower oil 0.75ml 28.18 (22.33)b 33.39 (30.33)b 36.04 (34.67)b 37.44 (37)b 45.17 (50.33)b 47.47 (54.33)b T 8 per 100g seeds Control 0.00 (0.00)a 21.66 (13.67)a 30.62 (26.00)a 34.22 (31.67)a 38.22 (38.33)a 41.91 (44.67)a T9 SEm± 0.70 0.87 0.88 0.93 0.78 0.88 CD at 5 % 2.09 2.60 2.66 1.98 2.35 2.66 *DAT- Days after treatment * Values in parentheses are original ones
Singh et.al. 2018
Table 3. Effect of edibles oil on grain damage Per cent Seed damage 33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT a a a a a a a a T Mustard oil of 1ml per 15.99(7.60) 17.67(9.23) 20.34(12.10) 23.25(15.60) 25.68(18.80) 27.28(21.0) 28.66(23.03) 30.57(25.9) 1 100g seeds a a a a a a a a T Mustard oil 0.75ml per 16.5 (8.1) 18.42(10.00) 21.12(13.00) 23.67(16.12) 26.09(19.36) 27.77(21.72 29.09(23.66) 30.85(26.33) 2 100g seeds Groundnut oil 1ml per 17.93(9.50)b 20.34 (12.1)b 22.44 (14.6)b 25.06(17.96)b 27.37(21.16)b 29.05(23.58)b 30.44(25.7)b 32.13(28.33)b T3 100g seeds
b b b b b b b b T Groundnut oil 0.75ml 18.51(10.1) 21.11(13) 22.84(15.08) 25.42(18.46) 27.85(21.86) 29.31 (24) 30.76(26.18) 32.49(28.92) 4 per 100g seeds c c c c c c c c T Coconut oil 1ml per 19.99(11.70) 22.82(15.06) 24.10(16.72) 26.62 (20.13) 29.18(23.82) 30.62(25.98) 31.93(28.0) 33.81(31.0) 5 100g seeds c c c c c c c c T Coconut oil 0.75ml per 20.78(12.6) 23.62(16.4) 24.56 (17.33) 27.85 (21.84) 29.45 (24.2) 30.94(26.47) 32.35(28.67) 34.29(31.76) 6 100g seeds d d d d d d d d T Sunflower oil 1ml per 22.20(14.29) 24.61(17.35) 25.85(19.02) 28.48(22.77) 30.64 (26) 31.99(28.07) 32.60(29.07) 35.59(33.88) 7 100g seeds Sunflower oil 0.75ml 22.77 (15)d 25.21(18.15)d 26.40(19.78)d 28.66(23.04)d 30.88 (26.4)d 32.35(28.67)d 32.94(29.62)d 35.76(34.2)d T 8 per 100g seeds 28.96(23.50)e 30.83(26.33)e 31.65(28.26)e 34.18(31.60)e 35.70(34.10)e 37.08(36.44)e 38.80(39.33)e 40.76(42.66)e T 9 Control SEm± 0.43 0.36 0.53 0.45 0.56 0.46 0.81 0.52 CD at 1.28 1.09 1.59 1.37 1.69 1.38 1.70 1.55 5 % *DAT- Days after treatment * Values in parentheses are original ones
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
Table 4. Effect of edibles oil on Weight loss
S.No Treatments Per cent weight loss
33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT a a a a a a a a T1 Mustard oil of 1ml 17.75 (9.33) 20.24(12.00) 23.29(15.67) 25.57(18.67) 27.49(21.33) 29.76(24.67) 31.71(27.67) 33.19(30.00) per 100g seeds Mustard oil 0.75ml 18.73(10.33)a 21.11 (13)a 23.81(16.33)a 26.06(19.33)a 27.95 (22)a 30.20(25.33)a 32.14(28.33)a 33.6(30.67)a T 2 per 100g seeds Groundnut oil 1ml 20.24(12.00)b 22.77(15.00)b 25.33(18.33)b 27.49(21.33)b 29.31(24.0)b 31.29(27.0)b 33.40(30.33)b 34.8(32.67)b T3 per 100g seeds Groundnut oil 20.83(12.67)b 23.29(15.67)b 25.82 (19)b 27.95 (22)b 30.20(25.33)b 31.71(27.67)b 33.81 (31)b 35.2(33.33)b T4 0.75ml per 100g sedes Coconut oil 1ml per 22.23(14.33)c 24.84(17.67)c 27.26(21.00)c 29.31(24.00)c 31.50(27.33)c 32.77(29.33)c 35.04(33.0)c 36.4(35.33)c T5 100g seeds Coconut oil 0.75ml 22.77 (15)c 25.34(18.33)c 27.72(21.67)c 29.76(24.67)c 31.93 (28)c 33.19 (30)c 35.65 (34)c 36.85 (36)c T6 per 100g seeds Sunflower oil 1ml 23.82(16.33)d 26.55(20)d 28.87(23.33)d 31.07(26.67)d 33.19 (30)d 34.22(31.67)d 36.65(35.67)d 38.04 (38)d T 7 per 100g seeds Sunflower oil 24.58(17.33)d 27.02(20.67)d 29.31(24)d 31.50(27.33)d 33.60(30.67)d 34.63(32.33)d 37.05(36.33)d 38.4(38.67))d T8 0.75ml per 100g sedes Control 26.78(20.33)e 30.42(25.67)e 32.13(28.33)e 34.02(31.33e 35.84(34.33e 37.44(37.0e 38.82(39.33e 40.7(42.67)e T9 SEm± 0.46 0.44 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.46 0.54 0.49 CD at 5% 1.37 1.32 1.57 1.52 1.41 1.38 1.64 1.47
*DAT- Days after treatment * Values in parentheses are original ones Singh et.al. 2018
Table 5. Effect of edibles oil on progeny emergence of Callosobruchus chinensis
Percent Reduction in Progeny Emergence S.No Treatments 33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT Mustard oil of 1ml 52.64 (63.20)e 50.04 (58.80)e 45.70 (51.26)e 44.67(49.47)e 44.14(48.53)e 43.16(46.83)e 41.80(44.46)e 41.36(43.70)e T1 per 100g seeds e e e e e e e e T Mustard oil 0.75ml 52.16 (62.39) 49.00 (57) 45.47 (50.86) 43.83 (48) 43.20 (46.9) 42.64(45.93) 41.32(43.63) 40.72 (42.6) 2 per 100g seeds Groundnut oil 1ml 49.41(57.70)d 46.62(52.87)d 43.31(47.10)d 41.82(44.50)d 41.16(43.63)d 39.87(41.13)d 39.21(40.00)d 39.09(39.80)d T 3 per 100g seeds Groundnut oil 48.65(56.36)d 45.34(50.63)d 42.78 (46.1)d 41.41 (43.8)d 40.41(42.06)d 39.77 (40.6)d 38.62 (39)d 38.32 (38.5)d T4 0.75ml per 100g sedes Coconut oil 1ml per 45.68 (51.22)c 42.11 (45.00)c 40.72 (42.60)c 38.72 (39.16)c 38.45(38.70)c 37.35 (36.83)c 36.43 (35.30)c 35.81(34.27)c T5 100g seeds Coconut oil 0.75ml 44.90(49.86)b 41.34 (43.67)c 39.81 (41.03)c 38.37(38.56)c 37.68(37.33)c 36.77(35.86)c 35.81(34.26)c 35.20(33.27)c T 6 per 100g seeds Sunflower oil 1ml per 43.12(46.76)b 39.42(41.36)b 37.74(37.50)b 37.30(36.76)b 36.01(34.60)b 34.59(32.27)b 33.83(31.03)b 32.94(29.60)b T 7 100g seeds Sunflower oil 0.75ml 42.49(45.65)b 38.13(39.16)b 37.00(36.26)b 35.40 (33.6)b 34.79 (32.6)b 34.20(31.63)b 32.87(29.5)b 32.05 (28.2)b T8 per 100g seeds 0.00(0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a 0.00(0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)a T9 Control SEm± 0.94 0.84 0.77 0.77 0.75 0.70 0.66 0.63
CD at 5% 2.82 2.52 2.31 2.30 2.26 2.10 1.99 1.91
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
Archana Gupta* and Vinod Gupta Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.
ABSTRACT Inorganic elements play an important role in the physiology of parasites but some heavy metals like Pb, Hg, Cd. etc are environmental pollutants. Thus, the presence of these metals in parasites, also indicates its presence in its host’s environment .So, they act as bioindicators for that heavy metal. Also they have the potential for the accumulation of heavy metals from their surroundings more efficiently than their hosts, so help in bioremediation of environment and also have useful and beneficial effects on their hosts by reducing their toxic content by accumulating in itself. In present study Pb was determined quantitatively in immature , mature and gravid proglottids of Moniezia expansa by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. It was present in small amount and Moniezia expansa can be considered as an bioindicator for Pb in terrestrial environment. Key words : Cestode, Moniezia expansa , Lead, Heavy metal, Bioindicator Cite this article Gupta A. * and Gupta V., 2018. Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep New Age International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development, 2(1) 42-46. Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION ceramic glazes, cosmetic and folk remedies, drinking water, food, etc. Among various Sheep and goats are important species of environments, i.e. agricultural regions, the livestock for India. They contribute greatly to neighboring cities, industrial plants and busy the agrarian economy, especially in areas highways, Pb contamination of plants from where crop and dairy farming are not industrial areas and nearby busy roads was economical, and play an important role in the higher than that of plants from agricultural livelihood of a large proportion of small and areas. marginal farmers and landless labourers. Inorganic elements play an important role in As an environmental pollutant, Pb affect the physiology of parasites. These are biological functions and are potentially intimately related with growth, maintenance of dangerous because of bio-accumulation acid-base equilibrium and synthesis of organic through the food chain and its hazardous material. Apart from important inorganic effects depends upon the dietary concentration, elements some of them are toxic heavy metals absorption by the system, homeostatic control like Cd ,Hg and Pb which are major health risk of the body for it and also the species of the concern for human. animal involved . Lead is a well known non-biodegradable toxic Thus, Pb is harmful due to their metal in the environment and now, it has bioaccumulation potential, persistent nature become a global health issue for human as and harmful biological effects (Sharma et al , well as domestic animals. Sources of Pb 2010) but at the same time its presence in pollution in India are industrial due to the parasites may indicate its presence in host particulates generated by coal burning and environment. Thus, its presence in M.expansa roasting of minerals i.e. iron pyrite, dolomite, might be used as an accumulation indicators or alumina, etc and domestic mainly from bioindicator system for heavy metal pollution cooking by use of the solid fuels (i.e. coal, in terrestrial bioptopes. biomass, agricultural waste, etc.), paints, Lots of work has been done in this field on *Corresponding author's email :[email protected]
Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
trematodes and nematodes but not much in cestodes. Notable contribution is of Jankovska,I. et al (2010) who studied Pb in DISCUSSION M. expansa. The amount of Lead (Pb) found is 0.0005%, No work has been done in India, on Pb 0.00004% and 0.0002% respectively in content in M. expansa. So, in the present immature, mature and gravid proglottids of study an attempt has been made to determine Moniezia expansa which is similar to that of some of the inorganic elements in immature, Jankovsky et al (2010) who reported mature and gravid proglottids of sheep cestode 0.0000145% in M. expansa. It is higher in Moniezia expansa by atomic absorption immature and gravid than mature proglottid. spectrophotometry. Lead is one of the most toxic of the trace elements occurring in food and is not at all an MATERIALS AND METHODS essential constituent of any living organism. Specimens of Moniezia expansa were So, significance of its presence is not procured from the intestines of infected sheep understood. It may be possibly due to the slaughtered at local abattoirs and were washed contaminated host diet. thoroughly with normal saline until they were Kegley et al. (1970) confirmed the ability of free from the debris, washed well with Mesocestoides corti larvae to concentrate distilled water and separated into immature, experimental cations into the calcareous mature and gravid regions. Tissues were corpuscles. They found, many trace elements blotted quickly on filter paper to soak the including lead and cadmium present in very adhering moisture on body and were weighed. low amount in the medium or environment of A portion of each sample was weighed and the parasite, to be incorporated in the were dried at 100°C ± 5ºC for 24 hrs in hot calcareous corpuscles as major constituent. air oven and used for determining the dry weight percentage. The weighed fresh tissues Helminthic parasites ( acanthocephalans and cestodes) can also be considered as a suitable were transferred to conical flasks and 10 ml of biological indicator for measuring heavy digestion mixture (HNO and perchloric acid 3 metals because the worms against to their host mixture in 6:1 ratio) was added to all conical tissue are the stable and reliable indicator for flasks including 2 blanks.The digestion of tissues was done on hot plate in the fuming evaluating the environmental pollution. Also they have the potential for the accumulation of chamber and the acid was evaporated heavy metals from their surroundings more completely until white fumes appeared. efficiently than their hosts, so help in After digestion, the samples were reconstituted bioremediation of environment and also have by adding 10 ml of distilled water to each useful and beneficial effects on their hosts by flask. The samples were read for heavy metal reducing their toxic content by accumulating Pb on a atomic absorption spectrophotometer in itself. Intestinal parasites acquire inorganic model Varian 250 plus against the suitable substances largely from the intestinal contents standards for each metal in the linear range of of their hosts and gut less parasites acquire 0.5 to 5 ppm. Standards used were purchased these inorganic substances through the surface from Sigma, USA. (Von Brand T, 1973). Several helminthes are able to accumulate considerable concentration of elements from the host body ( Barus et al. RESULTS 2003; Lafferty,1997; Sures,2004). Concentration of lead (Pb) in immature, The mechanism of action in heavy metal mature and gravid proglottids of Moniezia uptake by helminthic parasites: Helminthic expansa in percentage dry weight of tissues is parasites mostly live in gut of the host and shown in following Table 1. The values are since they cannot build their required mean ± S.D. of five samples in duplicate. cholesterol and fatty acids, they absorb nutrients from the host’s intestinal lumen. In
43
Gupta and Gupta, 2018
the meantime, the organometallic compounds, terrestrial habitats [Torres, which have been absorbed by the host along J.et.al.2004,2006.].With respect to models with bile salts after the passage of the bile involving parasites of terrestrial birds, the duct, are ingested in the small intestine of the model Columba livia / Raillietina micracantha host by these parasites. The bile salts are was proposed as another promising essential to activate the larval stage of the bioindicator to evaluate environmental toxic parasitic especially acanthocephalan larval element exposure, particularly Pb and Mn stage (cystacanth) and increase the absorption [Torres, J.,et.al.2010]. by adult worm . In other words, the So, sheep cestode Moniezia expansa might mechanism which enable acanthocephalans to also act as a bioindicator of Pb in terrestrial take up heavy metals from the intestinal of the environment. host shows to be based on the presence of bile acids, which form organo-metallic complexes that are simply absorbed by the worms due to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS their lipophilicity, which a similar mechanism may also occur in cestoda . Also,it is found Authors are thankful to Dr. P.K. Seth, that cestodes with a relatively large tegumental Former Director, I.T.R.C., Lucknow and Dr. surface in respect to its weight reach high Jai Raj Behari, Scientist, I.T.R.C., Lucknow bioaccumulation factors and therefore for providing the laboratory facilities of the considered potentially good bioindicators. institute. Consequently, endoparasites can reduce heavy Financial assistance (Junior Research metals from the host intestinal wall and store Fellowship ) provided by C.S.I.R. to Archana in their own and thus high metal accumulation Gupta is duly acknowledged. in worms (cestoda, acanthocephala) affected the metal levels in the tissues of a definitive host (Sures & Siddal, 1999). Overall, REFERENCE helminthic parasites act as a filter to absorb heavy metals from the host tissue and can have beneficial effects for human and animal health. 1. Barus,V., Tenora,F., Sumbera,R., (2003) Heavy metals can be hazardous to human Relative concenterations of four heavy health due to consumption of fish and other metals in the parasites Protospirura marine originated proteins as well as their muricola ( Nematoda) and Inermicapsifer application in the poultry industry, helminthic arvicanthidis (Cestoda) in their definitive parasites can be used as filters to absorb heavy host silvery mole rat ( Heliophobius metals from the host tissues and have argeneocinereus : Rodentia ). beneficial effects for overall human and Helminthologia, 40:227-232. animal health . 2. Jankovskva,I., Vadlejch,J., Szakova,J., Miholova,D., Kunc,P., Knizkova,I., Thus, it may be possible that these trace Langrova,I. (2010a) Experimental studies elements present in very small amounts in the on lead accumulation in the cestode environment may be taken in the body of Moniezia expansa (cestoda : parasite and may constitute a significant part Anoplocephalidae) and its final host (Ovis of its chemical composition . Thus these aries). Ecotoxicol. 19, 928-932. cestode may be a bioindicator of such toxic 3. Lafferty, K.D. (1997) Environmental element in host’s environment parasitology : What can parasites tell us (Jankovska,I.2010). about human impacts on the environment? The first terrestrial model involving a cestode Parasitol.Today, 13:251-255. parasite of rodents studied for the possible 4. Kegley, L.M.; Baldwin, J.; Brown, B.W.; capacity of lead accumulation Rattus norvegicus / Hymenolepis diminuta, is proved and Berntzen, A.K. (1970) Mesocestoides to be a promising bioindicator for lead in Corti: environmental cation concentration urban ecosystems [Sures, B.et al. 2002,2003]. The A. sylvaticus / G. arfaai and A. sylvaticus in calcareous corpuscles. Exp. Parasitol. / S. lobata model was tested and proven to be a 27: 88-94. useful tool for biomonitoring lead pollution in Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
5. Sharma , R.K., Agarwal, M., Agarwal, 66-72. S.B. (2010). Physiological, biochemical, 10. Torres J, de Lapuente J, Eira C, et al. and growth responses of lady’s finger( (2004). Cadmium and Lead concentration Abelmoschus esculentus L.) plants are in Galleogides arfaai (Cestoda: affected by Cd contaminated soil. Bull. Anoplocephalidae) and Apodemus Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 84 ;765-770. sylvaticus (Rodentia : Muridae) from 6. Sures, B., Grube, K. & Taraschewski, H. Spain. Parasitol Res, 94: 468–470. (2002) Experimental studies on the lead 11. Torres, J., Peig, J., Eira, C., Borrás, M. accumulation in the cestode Hymenolepis (2006) Cadmium and lead concentrations diminuta and its final host, Rattus in Skrjabinotaenia lobata (Cestoda: norvegicus. Ecotoxicology, 11, 365-368. Catenotaeniidae) and in its host, 7. Sures, B. and Reimann, N. (2003) Apodemus sylvaticus (Rodentia: Muridae) Analysis of trace metals in the Antarctic in the urban dumping site of Garraf host-parasite system Notothenia coriiceps (Spain).Environ Pollut.143(1):4-8. and Aspersentis megarhynchus 12. Torres,J.,Foronda, P., Eira,C., Miquel,J., (Acanthocephala) caught at King George Feliu,C.(2010) Trace element Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Biol. concentrations in Raillietina micracantha 26, 680–686 in comparison to its definitive host, the 8. Sures, B. (2004) Environmental feral pigeon Columba livia in Santa Cruz parasitology: relevancy of parasites in de Tenerife (Canary Archipelago, monitoring environmental pollution. Spain).Arch.Environ. Contam. Trends parasitol; 20: 170-177. Toxicol.,58(1):176-182 9. Sures, B. & Siddall, R. 13. Von Brand, T. (1973) Biochemistry of (1999) Pomphorhynchus laevis: the parasites. 2nd Edition. Academic Press. intestinal acanthocephalan as a lead sink N.Y. for its fish host, chub (Leuciscus cephalus). Experimental Parasitology, 93,
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Gupta and Gupta, 2018
Test Whole Parasite Immature Mature proglottids Gravid elem proglottids Proglottids ent
Lead 0.0002±0.00004 0.0005±0.00006 0.00004±0.00000000 0.0002±0.0001 1
Table 1: Concentration of Lead (Pb) in percentage ( %) dry weight of tissue in immature, mature and gravid proglottids of M. expansa.
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
Visvash Vaibhav1, Gaje Singh2, S. K. Sachan3, D.V. Singh4, Prashant Mishra5 and Vivek6 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut 250110, (U.P.)
ABSTRACT
The field experiment conducted at Crop Research Centre, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut-250110 (U.P.) during Kharif, 2016 and 2017. The observation on seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea recorded from flowering stage (38th standard week) to maturity of crop (51st standard week) during Kharif, 2016 and 2017. The larval population of M. vitrata during Kharif, 2016 was firstly reported at 38th standard week (3rd week of September) with 2.67 larvae per ten plants when the maximum and minimum temperature 35.00˚C and 24.74˚C, respectively, relative humidity 81.05 per cent and rainfall 21.20 mm was recorded. The larval population of M. vitrata ranged from 2.67 to 22.00 larvae per ten plants from September to November. The pest activity increased from the second week of October and reached its peak at 44th standard week (last week of October) with 22.00 larvae per ten plants when the maximum and minimum temperature 30.59˚C and 14.14˚C, respectively, relative humidity 70.84 per cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017. The larval population was rapidly increased from the third fortnight of October and attained its peak of 21.00 larvae per ten plants during 45th standard week while the maximum and minimum temperature 26.00˚C and 10.70˚C, respectively, relative humidity 82.90 per cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded, respectively. Key words: Maruca vitrata, seasonal incidence, population build-up, abiotic factors, pigeonpea. Cite this article: Vaibhav V.* et.al., 2018. Population Build-Up And Seasonal Incidence Of Spotted Pod Borer (Maruca Vitrata) In Pigeonpea, New Age International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development, 2(1) 47-54.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
1. Introduction: (Anonymous, 2016). Maharashtra is the major pigeonpea producing state of India Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) with around 1.38 million tonnes production Millsp.] is an important legume crop from and followed by Karnataka, Madhya the family Fabaceae. Pigeonpea commonly Pradesh and Gujarat with 0.86, 0.78, 0.36, known as 'Arhar' or 'Tim' is mainly respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, it occupies an consumed in the form of split pulse as 'dal' area of 0.33 million ha with an average The food value of pigeonpea is the most production of 0.33 million tonnes, 902 kg/ha essential due to its protein content (22.3 %) of productivity and contributes 7.30 % of and also rich in iron, iodine and essential total production (Anonymous, 2017). amino acids like lysine, cystine and arginine.
It has better quality of fiber, 7g/100g of There are many abiotic and biotic seeds (Kandhare, 2014). factors responsible for low productivity of Pigeonpea is an important pulse- pigeonpea. Among the biotic factors insect cum-grain legume crop in semi-arid, tropical pests damage the pigeonpea resulting in low and subtropical areas of the world. In the yield and heavy loss to pigeonpea growers. World, pigeonpea is grown in 5.40 million Pigeonpea is attacked by several insect pests ha with an annual production of 4.48 million from seedling stage till harvesting. Insects tonnes and 829 kg ha-1 of productivity and damaging the reproductive parts cause the in India the pigeonpea grown in 3.88 million maximum reduction in grain yield. Amongst ha with an annual production of 2.84 million pod borers Maruca vitrata and Helicoverpa tonnes and 733 kg ha-1 of productivity
Corresponding Author Email: : [email protected]
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
armigera are the key insect pests inflicting 80-90% of yield loss. 3. Results and Discussion: 3.1 Seasonal incidence of Maruca vitrata 2. Materials and Methods: during Kharif, 2016 An untreated control plot was selected for the studies on the population The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata buildup and seasonal abundance of spotted in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2016 presented pod borer, M. vitrata was carried out at Crop in (Table-1). The observation on seasonal Research Center (CRC), Sardar Vallabhbhai incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea recorded from flowering stage (38th standard Patel University of Agriculture and st Technology, Meerut-250110 (U.P.) during week) to maturity of crop (51 standard Kharif 2016 and 2017. The crop was raised week) during Kharif, 2016. The larval population of M. vitrata during 2016 was following all the recommend package of th rd practices and was kept completely under firstly reported at 38 standard week (3 unprotect conditions. Observations on major week of September) with 2.67 larvae per ten pod borer’s larvae were recorded from 10 plants when the maximum and minimum randomly selected plants at three locations temperature 35.00˚C and 24.74˚C, in the plot at weekly intervals starting from respectively, relative humidity 81.05 per flower initiation to maturity stage. The trend cent and rainfall 21.20 mm was recorded. of pod borer population build-up was The larval population of M. vitrata ranged determined by working out the mean from 2.67 to 22.00 larvae per ten plants from number of larvae/ 10 plants. Simultaneously, September to November. The pest activity increased from the second week of October weather parameters i.e., temperatures, th relative humidity and rainfall were collected and reached its peak at 44 standard week from meteorological observatory, IIFSR, (last week of October) with 22.00 larvae per Modipuram, Meerut was used for correlation ten plants when the maximum and minimum and regression studies to know the influence temperature 30.59˚C and 14.14˚C, of weather parameters on the population of respectively, relative humidity 70.84 per major pod borers. The influence of key cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The larval population started declined (18.33 meteorological parameters on the pest th incidence was worked out with simple larvae per ten plants) during the 45 correlation (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). standard week (1st week of November) when the maximum and minimum
temperature 28.66˚C and 9.99˚C, Sxy r respectively, relative humidity 71.31 per [(Sx 2 )(Sy 2 )]1/ 2 cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The minimal population 0.33 larvae per ten Where, plants of M. vitrata were recorded during st rd r = Simple correlation 51 standard week (3 week of December). coefficient 3.2 Seasonal incidence of Maruca vitrata Sx2 = Correlated sum of during Kharif, 2017 squares for meteorological parameter Sy2 = Correlated sum of The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata squares for pest incidence in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017 presented in (Table-2). The larval population of M. Sxy = Correlated sum of vitrata was ranged from 2.00 to 21.00 larvae cross products.
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
per ten plants. The larval population was (r= -0.305) during subsequent season with rapidly increased from the third fortnight of larval population of M. vitrata. The average October and attained its peak of 21.00 larvae relative humidity showed significant per ten plants during 45th standard week negative correlation with pest population while the maximum and minimum during 2016 season, (r= -0.633) while in the temperature 26.00˚C and 10.70˚C, second year crop season the average relative respectively, relative humidity 82.90 per humidity showed non-significant positive cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The correlation (r= 0.053) with the larval larval population started declined (17.33 population. During Kharif, 2016 and 2017 larvae per ten plants) during the 46th rainfall showed a non-significant negative standard week when the maximum and correlation with the M. vitrata larval minimum temperature 27.70˚C and 13.10˚C, population with r= -0.277 & -0.389, respectively, relative humidity 73.80 per respectively.(Table: 3 & 4) cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The minimal pest population (1.33 larvae per ten The interactions between M. vitrata plants) were recorded during 50th standard larval population and prevailing weather week (2nd week of December). The present parameters as obtained in the present findings uphold the views of Akhauri and investigation are in line with the findings of Yadav (2002), who reported that larval Sahoo and Behera (2001), Reddy et al. population of M. vitrata peaked during (2001), who also reported that larval November. which support the present population of M. vitrata exhibited positive investigation. The present findings are correlation with maximum and minimum dissimilar with Sreekanth et al. (2015), temperature and negative correlation with Sujithra et al. (2014) who reported that the relative humidity and rainfall, which support larval population of M. vitrata its peak the present investigation. The present during 3rd week of December (51st standard findings of Kharif 2017 min. temperature week) during Kharif, 2017. had negative and max. temperature had positive correlation with M. vitrata 3.3 Correlation between larval population population the findings also supported by of M. vitrata and weather factors during Saxena and Ujagir (2007). who reported that Kharif, 2016 and 2017 the temperature and RH had positively correlated with larval population. The The data Correlation between larval present investigation are in accordance with population of M. vitrata and weather factors findings of Sonune et al. (2010), Reddy et during Kharif 2016 and 2017 presented in al. (2017) who stated that maximum and (Table 3 & 4). After analysis of simple minimum temperatures showed significant correlation coefficient (r) between M. vitrata negative correlation with M.vitrata larval larval population and weather parameters, population while humidity positively the results revealed that the correlation correlated. showed that the maximum temperature and M. vitrata larvae population had non- REFERENCE significant positive correlation (r= 0.396 & 0.011) during Kharif 2016 and 2017. The 1. Akhauri, R. K. and Yadav, R. P., (2002). Population dynamics, damage minimum temperature showed non- pattern and maneagement of spotted pod significant positive correlation (r= 0.107) borer (Maruca testulalis Geyer.) in early during 2016 and the minimum temperature pigeonpea under North Bihar conditions. showed non-significant negative correlation J. Ent. Res., 26(2): 179-182.
49
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
2. Anonymous (2016). (Food and the incidence of pigeonpea pod borers in agriculture organization) coastal belt of Orissa. Environment and http.//faostat.fao.org. Ecology. 19(4):882-884. 3. Anonymous (2017). (Directorate of 9. Saxena, K. and Ujagir, R. (2007). Pulses Development) Effect of temperature and relative http://dpd.dacnet.nic.in humidity on pod borer in pigeonpea. 4. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. Journal of Food Legumes, 20(1) 121- (1984) Statistical Procedures for 123. Agricultural Research. John Wiley and 10. Sonune, V. R., Bharodia, R. K., Sons. pp. 644 – 645. Jethva, D. M. and P. L., Dabhade 5. Kandhare, A. S. (2014). Different seed (2010). Seasonal incidence of spotted categories of pigeonpea and its seed pod borer, Maruca testulali on mycoflora. International Research blackgram. Legume Research 33(1):61- Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(7):74- 63 75. 11. Sreekanth, M. and 6. Reddy, C. N., Singh, Y. and Singh, V. Seshamahalakshmi, M. (2012). Studies S. (2001). Infuence of abiotic factors on on relative toxicity of biopesticides to the major insect pests of pigeonpea. Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) and Indian J. Entomol.,63(3):211-214. Maruca vitrata (Geyer) on pigeonpea 7. Reddy, S. S., Reddy, C. N., Srinivas, (Cajanus cajan L.) Journal of C., Rao A. M. and Reddy S. N. (2017). Biopesticides 5(2): 191-195. Studies on Population Dynamics of 12. Sujithra, M. and Subhash, C. (2014). Spotted Pod Borer Maruca vitrata in Seasonal incidence and damage of major Dolichos Bean, Lablab purpureus L. insect pests of pigeon pea, Cajanus and their Relation with Abiotic Factors. cajan (L.). Indian Journal of Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 5 (4): 1232- Entomology. 76(3): 202-206. 1239. 8. Sahoo, B. K. and Behera, U. K. (2001).Influence of abiotic factors on
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Rainfall (mm) Avrage No. of M. vitrata larvae/ 10 Plants 90 25 80 70 20 60 50 15 40 10 30 20 5 10 0 0 R.H. Meanand Rainfall(mm) 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Standard week
Fig 1: Seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2016
Rainfall (mm) Avrage No. of M. vitrata larvae/ 10 Plants Max. Temp. Min. Temp. R.H. % 90 12 80 10 70 60 8 50 6 40 30 4 20 2 10 0 0 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Fig 2: Seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
Table-1: Seasonal incidence of pigeonpea pod borers, Maruca vitrata in relation to abiotic factors during kharif, 2016
Standers Date of No. of Larvae Temperature (0c) Relative Rainfall metrological observation M. vitrata /10 Humidity (mm) week Plants % Max. Min. Mean
38 19-09-2016 2.67 35.00 24.74 81.05 21.20 5.33 39 26-09-2016 34.57 23.44 78.86 0.00
40 03-10-2016 9.67 34.50 24.33 79.77 1.20 11.33 41 10-10-2016 27.01 21.19 74.47 0.00 18.33 42 17-10-2016 33.10 16.34 65.32 0.00 24-10-2016 20.67 43 32.33 15.97 69.19 0.00 31-10-2016 22.00 44 30.59 14.14 70.84 0.00 7-11-2016 18.33 45 28.66 9.99 71.31 0.00 14-11-2016 13.00 46 28.56 10.66 70.99 0.00 21-11-2016 7.33 47 27.69 10.30 75.03 0.00 28-11-2016 4.33 48 27.43 10.21 71.04 0.00 05-12-2016 2.67 49 23.21 8.90 80.92 0.00 12-12-2016 1.33 50 23.14 9.36 77.96 0.00 19-12-2016 1.00 51 23.90 5.64 70.26 0.00
52
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Table-2: Seasonal incidences of pigeonpea pod borers, Maruca vitrata in relation to abiotic factors during kharif, 2017
Standers Date of No. of Larvae Relative Rainfall metrological week observation M. vitrata /10 Temperature (0c) Humidity (mm) Plants % Max. Min. Mean 38 18-09-2017 2 30.8 21.3 82.5 57
39 25-09-2017 2.33 33.4 21.0 78.8 0.0
40 02-10-2017 5.00 33.3 19.5 75.1 0.0
41 09-10-2017 7.67 32.5 18.2 73.1 0.0
42 16-10-2017 12.67 32.7 14.4 70.2 0.0
43 23-10-2017 16.33 30.6 13.3 75.1 0.0
44 30-10-2017 19.67 28.2 9.7 74.4 0.0
45 06-11-2017 21.00 26.0 10.7 82.9 0.0
46 13-11-2017 17.33 27.7 13.1 73.8 0.0
47 20-11-2017 13.67 25.1 6.7 43.0 0.0
48 27-11-2017 6.33 24.9 6.1 62.1 0.0
49 04-12-2017 2.67 24.3 7.9 58.2 0.0
50 11-12-2017 1.33 20.0 8.4 71.5 10.0
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
Table-3: Correlation between mean larval population of Maruca vitrata and weather parameters Kharif, 2016 Season Weather parameter Correlation coefficient (r)
Max. Temp (°C) 0.396
Min. Temp (°C) 0.107
Relative Humidity (%) *-0.633 Kharif- 2016-2017 Rainfall (mm) -0.277
* and ** indicate significant of value at P=0.01 and 0.05 is (r = ± 0.6835) and (r = ± 0.5529) , respectively
Table-4: Correlation between mean larval population of Maruca vitrata and weather parameters Kharif, 2017 Season Weather parameter Correlation coefficient (r)
Max. Temp (°C) 0.011
Min. Temp (°C) -0.305
Relative Humidity (%) 0.053 Kharif- 2017-2018 Rainfall (mm) -0.389
* and ** indicate significant of value at P=0.01 and 0.05 is (r = ± 0.6835) and (r = ± 0.5529) , respectively
54
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