Ernetanylevijited

Home , Bad Godesberg, Education in Hamburg, Ratingen, University of Bonn, University of Cologne

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Bulletin 1957,No. 12

ernetanyleviJited

EDUCATION

inth.FEDERALREPUBLIC

By ALINAM. LINDEGREN .

Specialist inComparativeEducation

Europeahd theBritishCommonwealth

U. S.DEPARTMENTOF

HEALTH,EDUCATION,AND WELFARE

Marion B.Folsom,Secretary

OFFICE OFEDUCATION

Lawrence G.Derthick, Commissioner

4 Contents

4 4.

Vige

FOREWORD _ als Oa vii

as%

CHAPTER 1. _ ma. al. OP mt INTRODUCTION__ 1 _ 1

Alb

CHAPTER II. CONTROL OFEDUCATION

STATE CONTROLUNDER THEEMPIREAND THEWEIMAR

__ lobal. 1110. elm REPUBLIC vim ______IN. .1. 00 ------_ mw 6 CENTRAL CONTROL UNDDRHITLER M%. ... 41 01. 7 STATE .CONTROLIN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OM m. .wo a

CHAPTERIII.THE COAL OF EQUALEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY_____ 17

U NITER THE EMPIREAND THE'WEIMARREPUBLIC 17 UNDER NATIONALSOCIALISM ..... ON. m 1 daM 26

_40. m omb ma.aim .111. MD ;MP00, SINCE 1945 410,. AV. MI6 4111 - 29

CHAPTER IV.THE SOCIAL STUDIES IN GERMANSCHOOLS _ 41 11~

CHAPTER V.BRIDGING THESOCIAL GAPBETWEENELEMENTARYAND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS--- ...... 49

THE FIRSTATTEMPT 49

THE SECONDATTEMPT.. 11NOow am am ...am es. ..%% - .,. _ ------_ 50 PRACTICE UNDER NATIONAL OID om. SOCIALISM OW MED 1 BRIDGING THE GAP..____,.._ . 7 * is, ig. ow. 54

CHAPTER VI. HIGHER EDUCATION______...... 66

,, ACADEMIC FREEDOM 67 LOSS OF.ACADEMICFREEDOM______..... _____...... _ 67 .0 POST WARREORGANIZATIONOF UNIVERSITIES 69 CLASSICAL UNIVERSITIES 73 , .. ,- FACULTIES 76 EXAMINATIONS . , 4, 77 STUDIUM GENERALE 78 STUDENT PERSONNELSERVICES,...____,...... 81 AMERICAN STUDIESAT GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 83 ill iv .CONTENTS

Pa CHAPTER VII.INTEREST INFOREIGN EDUCATIONALRESEARCHAND DEVELOPMENT------_ . . s. ,. INSTITUTEFOReNTERNATIONALEDUCATIONAIAIE- SEARCH. ATFRANKFORTON THE MAIN ______Si EINICATIQNALCENTER INWIESBADEN______tit CENTRALOFFICEFOR EDUCATIONIN OTHERCOUN-

______4 ,TRIES ...... ______9: EXCHANGEI;ROGRAMS4.4w ...__-A- 9 1 GERMAN-AMERWANCONFERENCESOF HISTORIANS AND TEACHEI_IS /... m mp OF HISTORY___ ...... 1.Ow , 94 'INTERNATIONAL 'CONFERENCES_C___-______4_- ... ;

UNITED NATIONSEDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFICAND CUL- . TURALORGANIZATION__ 97 4 INTER NA TIONES _ . ,98

BIBLIOGRAPHY _ 7 S. Ibi

RIM 4WD O. 416 MI. AD aw, OVID ENGLISH . =N. 10 MO WI. -_ 101 - __ MID GERMAN _ 103

4 Isi /1

l Illustrations 1/4

Budding Artist, ...... Muni*______,.4 ...... /viii 4th'GradeSteinadlerwegSchool, Harnburg-Billatedt_,______OW 41. . 11=1 2 . Main EntranceNewQuarters of theUniversity ofCologne . 11 School Is Out,Munich do4. 4= ...... 40...... 100an...... OM, .. OW .... IM Mb 14 Beethoven HighSchool, Bonn . , -20 . Old StudentPrjsoniRupertCarl Universityof Heidelberg__..__._._ 26 NiendorfElementary School,Hamburg 29 Vocational School,Lohronths Main_____41.._.____ ._____...... ___ 33 . Americab TypeConsolidatedSchoolVillageSchoolonthe Berg- strasse, Jugenheim ....._ 36 . ,Chemistry LaboratoryCusanusGymnasium, BadGodesberg 38 Between Ludwig MaximilianUniversity. ofMunich 6 44) After-School Learning,Berlin______SO WO 411. WO, GOD Mb 47 Women's Dormitoryathletics School,Cologne 40 ma 4444 11040 104 MD 404OP 4M4 52 Cusanus Gymnasium ArtInstruction, Bad Godesberg_____ 410410 44444 c. em. go on 40 55

Girls' Class, Munich 411001114 ...... aM4110 40-M0 4111, 411110 CM AND ..... gp imp as 68

Wedderstrasse Special 'School,Hamburg Oa. .. al ... 4.6 61

'41

4444 ....I.a

_ 'CONTENTS V Page

*ruler CourtyardSteinadlerwegSchoOl, Hamburg-Billstedt____ AND 1 63

trt Institut4 Exhibit, Munich__'__j__ OW M. GM-.-...... Ow Ow .II MR IMD..... sm. _ _ _ 70

Dining HailsFre$ University of Beilin______OM me 4.1. IMimow ND wilo. Mb4. ! IMIP CIO OM 73 , Organic, ChemistryFrederickWilliam University ofBonn 75 . ArtInstitute VisitorsMunich__ __I______iN. mim. .m. No .N. ON m. ____ _. IND Nis W 79 , .1/ 'Student UnionInstitute ofTechnology, Aachen.._.1. %. ______4 .... am INED 82 student UnionJohann WolfgangUniversity of Frankforton . ....

_ eV pm. ms. me CV the Main. .. ..V V..., ..... ow..V...... 40II. NAN. 87

GRAPHS

1.Organization of Education according`tothe DuesseldorfAgreement of February 17,1955 ,

4 2.Organization .:)f Education in Prussia during.theWeimar Republic 9.3 3.Organization of Secondary Schools,1937-1945______. ______28

4.Organization of Education in West Berlin___1._ . 31 a . , 5.Organization of Education in Hamburg______32

6.Organization of Education in Baden-Wuerttemberg 35

4 AIPa

'44

411. a

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Potiaki

A 4.

s. A '

°Foreword

p. N JUNE 8, 1955, Dr. Alina M.Lindegren of the United States OOffice of Education, arrived in Bonnfora6-week educational visit to the Federal Republic ofGermany. Wimp she mentioned that she had beenon asimilar missionto Germany in 1935 she wastold, "Much has,happened since then. We believeyouwill findmanychanges." a Much hadhippenedWorld War II andadecade of postwar recovery..In the followingpagesthe author tells of.someof the changes in education which shesaw orfelt. Just before completing this Bulletinand exactly'aweek before her retirement, Dr.Lindegren died,onJanuary 25, 1957,asthe result ofafall that diy. Themany personsin the United States and abroad who knew Dr. Lindegren'scompetence in the field of European educational systems and in theinterpretation of credentials of foreign students and all whoknew her personally will join the Office in itssorrow. To themany personsand organizations in theFederal Republic of Germanyand in the United States who haveaided in bringing this studyto completion, the Office of Educationexpressesits gratitude. Particularly, the Officeexpressesits appreciation to the Washington Embassy of theFederal Republic of Germany;to Burr W. Phillips, Professor -ofEducation and History at the

University . of Wisconsin, 'who prepared thematerialon"The Social Studies in Germangchools"appearing in Chapter IV; and_ to Paul Bodenman,Assistant to the Director, Educational Exchange and TrainingBranch in the Office, who reviewed the total manuscript and assistedwith the completion of Chapter VI on"Higher Education." BESS GOODYKOONTZ OLIVER J. CALDWELL Director, International Assistant Commissioner Educational Relations for International Education 11114.. vii p.

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Photo from SOM. VerigigCourtooy,Inter Notions.

Budding Artist, Munich .0

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viii Chapter 1 Introduction

URING THE 84 yeaes between the unification.. of Germany in D1871 to 195, the German people lived for 47yearswithan imperial form of Government, 15 inaRepublic, 12 inatotalitarian State, and 10 inaSecond° Republic. The German Federal Republic isnow8yearsofage.These changes4rom constitutional monarchy through warfare to republic, from Republic through internalrevo- lution to dictatorship, and from dictatorship throughwarand occupation to the Second Republic insoshortatimewereviolent and drastic. Each political changewasfollowed by educational change. The purposeof thisBulletin18 to note the changesortrends in education in the Federal Republic of Germanyas seen orfelt in 1955 byonewho 20yearsbefore in 1935 had similar firsthand contact with education in Germany. Reference to education in other periods is made to the extentnecessaryforanunderstanding and appreciation of the significance of the change's madeorinprogress. In thec :esvisited in 1955 therewag anatmosphere of friend- liness, mutual understanding, and cooperation betweenteichers and pupils thatwas verynoticeable. Pupil participationwasin evidence in discussion. Most oftheclasseswereinnew,attractive buildings with good light, modern equipment, and laboratory facilities. Some classeswerein schools restored and modernized after thewar.Playgroundswereinuse or'inprocessof preparationor expansion. Inoneschool the pupilswerein the midst of changing their library books. The school library had the open-shelf system and the childrenwerebusy and happy in making their Own selections.

144 1 A. 2 GERMANY REVISITED The teacher incharge said thatthiswas oneof the things they had learned fromAmerica.Formerly underthe closed-shelfsystem childrenselected their books bytheir titles fromalist. Conversations' with referenceto the Exchange ofPersons Pro- grambrought outthat between1948 and 1954 theprogramhad affordedopportunity forapproximately 15,000personsto visit the UnitedStates. Thisappeared to beahigh pointin the life of most of themsomethingto which they oftenrefer. To teachers itgave an opportunity to observe the relationsbetween teachers and pupils in schoolin the UnitedStates, between teachersand parents at the ParentTeacheis Associationmeetings, and tosee in action thevariedprogramsfor the good ofthe child, the school, and thecommunity. Toone personthe visitwaslike "somethingout of fietiryland" which hadgiven heran'tentirelynewoutlookonlife." She felt that theprogram"promotesdemocracy in Germanybecauseper- sonsof lowerrankareconsultedat German professional meetings and tendto be treatedasequals, regardless ofrank, when they have had theexperience ofavisitto the Ulited States." The FederalRepublic of Germany(Deutsche Bundesrepublik) wasestablished formallyonSeptember 21, 1949and includes the 1

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1. 1.:11 %,4 tpP . .

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.1 Photo from Shoal. LassiimbillWila 4thGrad; RinadlerweiSchool,liamburi-Billstedt INTRODUCTION 3 States (Lander)of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bavaria (Bayern), Hessv (Hessen),Lower *cony (Niedersachso),North Rhine- Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen),Rhineland-Palatinate (Iihein- Iand-Pfalz), Saarland, Sthleswig-Holstein,Bremen, anctHamburg. West Berlin, though treated much likeaState in this lletin, is in adifferent category. In approving the draftBerlin Constitution, the Allied Kommandatura approved section (1) of Article 1 which states "Berlin isaGerman land [sate]and at thesametimea city." Simultaneously, it specifically suspended the second and third sections of Article1 which would have made BerlinaState of the Federal Republic and would havemade the BasicLaw and the laws of the Federal Republic bindingonBerlin.' In all, Western Germanycovers an areaof 94,723squaremiles and hasapopulation of about50,000,000. As of mid-1953 therewere some2,233,000 people in West Berlin., The Bonn Constitution, entitledthe pasic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany,2 states in Article20 that " (1) The Federal Republic of Germany isademocratic and social state. (2) All state authority emanates from the people..." Freedom of speech and freedom of thepress areguaranteed. According to Section (3) of Article 3, "Noone maybe prejudicedorprivileged because of hissex,descent,race,language, homeland and origin, faithorhis religious and political opinions." Accordingto Article 21(1),"The parties-shall participate iri forming the political will of the people. Theycanbe freely formed. Their internal organization must conform to democratic principles. They must publicly aceount for thesourcesof their funds." The members of the Lower House of Parliament (Bundestag) which corresponds somewhatto the House ofRepresentatives in the Congress of theUnited States, according to Article 38 (1) "shall be elected by thepeople in universal, free, equal, direct and secret elections. They shall be representatives of the whole people, not bound to orders and instructions and subject only tt oeir conscience." The States partieipate in the legislation andamin-

1 OfficeOf *heU. S. High Commissioner for Germany, Policy" Reports oSecretary, Office of the Executive Secretary.1950 BerlinConstitution and

. Electoral Law. Berlin: The pint!,January 15, 1951*pages5 and 11. I Department 4of State. The Bonn Constitution:Pasic Lawfor the Federal Republic of Germany. (Agreed Anglo-American translation)Publication 8526, European and British Commonwealth Series 8: Washington: U. S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, June 1949, 52p. 4 GERMANY REVISITED istrationof theFederalRepublic throiighthe Upper Houseof Ptqliament knownasthe FederalCouncil (Bundegrat)whose membersareselected bythe legislaturesof the States.Each State has from3 to 5 membersin the FederalCouncil dependingonthe size of itspopulation. The FederalPresidentis elected foraperiod of 5yearsby the Federal Conventionwhichconsists ofthe members inthe Lower House andanequal numberselOctedby thegovernments of the States. The.FederalGovernmentconsists of theFederal Chancellor and the FederalMinisters.The Chancelloris elected bythe Lower Houseontheproposal ofthe President.The Ministersare appointed by thePresidentonthe proposalof the Chancellor. The Stateshave theright of legislationinsofarasthe BasicLaw ,does notspecificallyaccord legislativepowersto the Federal Gov- ernment. Federallawsareenforced bythe States eitherontheir ownbehalfor onbehalf ofthe 'FederalRepublic.

Article7 of the BasicLaw relatesto education. Itstates:

(1) Theentire educationalsystem shall be underthe supervisionof the state.

(2) Thoseentitledto bringupthe childshall have the rightto decide whether itshall receivereligiousinstruction.

(3) Religiousinstruction shallform partof iculum in thestate schools twith the exception ofnon-confess 1 ools. Religiousin- struction shall,without prejudiceto the sta ght ofsupervision, be givenaccordingto the principles ofthereigious societies.No teachermaybe obligedagainst his willto give religiousinstruction.

(4) The rightto establish private schoolsshall beguaranteed. Private schoolsassubstitutefor state schoolsshall requirethe sanctionof the state and shallbe subjectto Land legislation.The sanctionmust I:4given if Oleprivate schools, in-their educationalaims and facilities,aswellwas in thescholarly trainingof theirteachingper- sonnel,are not inferior to the stateschools and ifa separation of the pupilsaccordingto themeansof theparents is not encouraged. The sanctionmust be withheld if theeconomic and legalstatus of the teachingpersonnel itnot sufficiently assured.

A (5) A privateelementary school shallbe permittedonly if the educational administrationrecognizesaspecific pedagogicinterestor, at the request of thoseentitled to bringupchildren, if itis to be establishedas a general comMunity school(Gemeinschaftsachule), as aconfessionalorideological schoolorifa state elementary school of thistype does not exist in theGemeinde.

(6) Preparatory schoolsshall remain abolished. INTRODUCTION V 5 The organization ofeducation in the FederalRepublic of Germany is shown in thefollowing graph.

ø.

GraphI.Organisationof Education according tothe DuesseldorfAgreement of February17, 1955

7 1 9 0 11 12 13 School year 1 2 5 6 Pupa'sage 6 9 10 1 1 13 11t 115 1 15 iI'l2 7 11 1 3 Class 4 5 -.7_ 1111711M1111111111111 MAI Classical Language Gymnasium (AltsprachlichesGymnasium) Modern Language Gymnasium Gymnasium) Common plan (Npusprachliches of Mathematics-Natural studies Science Gymnasium, (Mathematisch- Naturvissenschaftlichesgymnasium. Modern Language Gymnast= Elementary School (Nausprachliches Gymnasium) (Volksschule) Mathematics-Natural Science (Mathematlsch-Naturvisaan- schaftliches Gymnasium) Nri

Middle ScO (Mittelschule)

'7 4

1 2 3 4 6 C I frs s si I I I I 1 I 7

Maturity examination(Reifeprufung)

11.

I. A. c-

ChapterII

ControlofEducation

irwmor o.

STATECONTROLUNDER THEEMPIREAND THEWEIMARREPUBUC

N 1871 whenGermanybecameaunitednationeach oftheStates of, the new nation hadchargeof itsown educationalsystem. Thiscontinuedthroughouttheperiod of theEmpireand of the Republic.

During theperiod oftheEmpire,educationin thevariousStates was chiefly theconcernof theMinistriesofEducationand Re- ligious Affairsand,tosomeextent,of otherMinistries,depending on the sizeandtraditionsof theStateconcerned.Prussia,for example,had the followingeducationalorganization:

MINISTRYOF EDUCATION: Elementary,secondary,and higher education;finearts, religiousand medical,affairs. MINISTRYOF TRADEAND COMMERtE:Vocationalschools. MINISTRYOF AGRICULTURE: Agriculturalschools. MINISTRYOF INTERIOR: Kindergartenand welfareorgani- zations;organizationsfor general culture andrecreation. Under theRepublic theorganizationwasthesame except that allfunctionsof publicwelfarewere centralized in thePrussian Ministry ofPublicWelfareanda- Department ofGeneralCulture was addedto theFederalMinistry ofInterior fortheconsideration ofeducationalproblems ofinterest tothe Nationas awhole. 6 CONTROL OFEDUCATION 7

CENTRALCONTROL UNDERHITLER

In January1933 whenHitler becameChancellor,Germany had nonational Ministryof Education.Administrationandsuper- vision ofeducationweretheconcernof eachindividualSt4te. One yearlateralaw ofJanuary 30,1934ontheReorganizatianof the Nation (GesetzOberden Neuaufbaudes Reiches)transferredthe control of,educationfrom theindividualStates to theNational Government. Shortlythereafter,alaw of Mai1, 1934 established the NationalMinistryof Science,Educationand PublicInstruc- tion. ThePrussian Ministerof Science,Art andEducationwas appointedto headthe newMinistryasNational andPrliR.sian Minister ofScience,Educationand PublicInstfuction. Throughtheestablishmentof this nationalMinistry ofEduca- tion, thecontrol ofeducation becameafunction ofthe Central Government. TheMinistriesof Educationin theindividualStates continuedto exist mainlytocarry outtfieordersand decreesof the NationalMinistry ofEducation(Reichserziehungsminister- ium),asitwasgenerally called. Prus'siaat that timeincludedapproximately60 percentof the areaand populationof Germany.Its Ministryof Educationtraced its originto the SchoolCommittee(Schulkollegium)establishedin 1787 underthe Ministerof Churchand SchoolAffairs.Whenthe NationalSocialist Partyundertook thedirectionof thecultural affairs of theNation,this old,well-organizedMinistrylocated in thenationalcapital,wascontinued incontrol ofeducationin Prussia. Theextension ofits authorityto includetheareaof the otherStateswas accomplished with relativeease since they already hadbecomeadministrative units. In 1936, theNationalMinistry ofEducationhad thefollowing divisionswith dutiesasindicated:

1.Central Office(Zentralamt):Administration,legislation,educational relationship withother countries. 4 2.Office of theMinister. 3. Office forScience (Amtfür Wissenschaft):Allmatters 'concerning institutions ofeducation andresearch. 4. Office of Education(Amt für Erziehung):Elementaryand middle schools, secondaryschools; vocational,agricultural,and socialwelfare schools. 5. Office for FolkCulture (Amt fürVolksbildung):Art academies, libraries,museumsand castles;careof publicmonuments, national parks,etc.; music and culturalart,.literatureand theater,filmsand radio. , GERMANY. REVISITED

.N6.'Office of Physical Education(Amt für körperliche Erziehung) Gymnastics, physical education, andcareof youth.

7.Land(Seat].Year Division (Abteilung Landjahr): Schooling foi leaaers,)nnerorganization of the landyear. Within eash State, education, in compliance with the decrees and regulations of the National Ministry,cameunderanEduca- tionAdmjnistration'or Office(Unterrichtsverw4ltung) whichgen- erallywasthe former State Ministry of Education modified to meet newconditions. In Prussia, the State Ministry supervised directly the institutions of higher education and delegated immediate supervision of other schools tomorelocalized authority. In each of the provinces of Prussia, secondary educationwasunder the School Division of the Upper President of the Province (Ober- priLsident-Schulabteilung) with work done byupperkhoolcoun- cilors (Oberschulräte). Elementary and.middle schoolswereunder the School Division of theCotintyPresident (Regierungspriisident- Schulabteilung), and schpl councilors .(Schulräte) attended to the duties. The City ofBet*hadaState Commissioner (Staatskom- missar) instead ofacounty president. The National Government did not assist. in meeting the cost of education;thatwasborne mainly by the States and the communities.

STATE CONTROL IN THE FEDERAL REPUBUC

. With the end of the War in 1945, the national educational administrative machinerywasdissolved and the functions of its Ministry of Education transferred to the State governments. A retrospect ofahypothetical foreign observer written in 1953, givessomeidea of the immensity of the task of educational reconstruction along democratic lines which faced the States when they regainedconi- tral and indicates why the States began where the)i had left off k in 1932.' In retrospect,aforeign observer might-be led to believe that Germany, after 1945, had the great opportunity to buildup anentirely modern educational system meeting the needs and demands of present-day society.....Suchanobserver...in 1953, might feel that Germany4 Iinissedanexcellent chance to have the most perfect edwitional system existing inourtime. The observer then notes economic conditions after 1945 which made it impossible to provide well-equipped phYsical plants. New

I Erich J. 1411a, and Friedrich 0. KegeL Education in Germany:An Introduction for Foreieners.Frankfurta.Main: Hochschule ftir Interna tionale Pidagogische Forachung, 1954,p.7-8. tit 4, CONTROL OFEDUCtTION 9 politicaland socialorganization didnot exist in 1945. It hasbeen evolving in formand spirit ina"slow and painfulprocessof growth." Inthe absence ofa"reasonably welldefined spirit of the Germancommunityas awhole, the educationalenergies, lack- ingadefinitely cir-cumscribedgoal,wereat low ebb," and tnrditions of pre-Natiqnal Socialistdayswerefilling thevacuum.Decrees of the Western OccupationPowers "seeminglybacked this tendency by making the schoolorganizationsand legislationasexisting in the variousGerman Statesbefore the Naziregime the basis for postwar practice." Asaresult, schoolorganization "in 1953represents pretty much the oldpattern ofmorethan 20years agowhich, inturn, hadre- tainedmanyfeatures of earlierstages of its development. Inalead of realizingourfictitious observer'sdream ofasweeping revolu- tion of Germaneducation, the schoolslargely revertedto the status of 1932, but theyconsidered it onlyas apoint of departurefor developments intendedto meet the educational needsofasociety adapting itselfto the conditions 6fourtime andtosomeantici- pated requirementsof the future." State Ministriesof Edswation.At the head .ofthegovernment in each State is theMinister President(Ministerprasident),called in West Berlinthe Governing Mayor(Regierender Biirgermei- ster), and in theCity-States of Hamburg andBremen, the Presi- dent of the Senate(Priisident desSenats).The Minister President in Baden-Wuerttembergis asgisted byacabinet consisting of the heads of the nine ministries;namely:State, Juitice, Interior, Edu- cation, Finance,Economics, Agriculture,Labor, and Displaced Persons and War Wounded. Administration.While theorganization of schooladministrk tion in the Statesvaries in detail, therearethree basic levelsof administrationStateorcentral level, middleorgovetnment district level, and local districtorlower level.' State Level.The highest education,administrative andsuper- visory authority ineach State is its Ministry of Educationknown variouslyasMinisterium für Volksbildung, !cult-orKultusminis- terium, and in BerlinasSenate Administration of 'Education (Senataverwaitung für Volksbildung). T4eministriesvary some.* what in organization fromState to State but ordinarily,they include divisions of general administrationand legislation', 4;choo1

2 Franz linker. Di Schulen inDeutschland ( Buisdesreptsbhkund West- Berlin). (Herausgegebenvonder Hochschule für InternationalePidagogische Fotschung; Frankfurt/Main.) BiNauheim: linChristianVerlag, 1964, p.26-28. I 1- 10 GERMANY REVISITED organization,universities and otherinstitutions of highereduca tion, and genera}cultural policies.Thereareals9 otheer di-vision

for example, theministryat West Berlin hasaDivision of Ar . covering applied andtine art, music,literature, films,and radk 'Atthe head of eachninistry isaMinister ofEducation (Kuitus* minister) called"Senator" in Hamburg,Bremen, and WestBerlin in \Vest Berlin,Bavaria, ahd Hamburgthe "stiniste.r of Education is assistediiyanadvisory council. T t1Advlsory ,CouncilonEdu cation (Erziehungsbeirat)in Berlinowhichthe Senator of Edu cationischairman, has4 representatives eachof parents'associations, organizations ofteachers andeducators, leading industrini organizations, 'and various othergroupsrepresentin`g specific points of view suchasreligious organizations. Goreinment DistrictLevel.Toassist the Stategovernments in the burden ofadministration 6 of thelarger States -----Baden-Wuert- temberg, Bavaria,Hesse, LowerSaxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, andRhineland-Palatinatearedivided into 3to 6government districts. Thereare2 to 3types of middle leveladministration. (a) Elementary,mitile,and vocational schoolsgenerallycome under the authorityof the School Divisionin the Office ofthe District President. . (b) Somesecondary schoolsareunder the directadministra- tion of the StateMinistry of Education.Some, like Duesseldorf and MuensterinNorthRhine-Westphalia,areadministered throughinintermediate SchoolCommittee. Whenalarge city like FrankfortOnthe Main is placedunder the Stategovernment its school system receivesmiddle levelstatus. (c) \Vest Berlin hasdistrict school offices.(Bezirksschulámter) as amiddle level forall of its schools. Local DistrictLerel.---Thelocal districts(Kreise) formthe smallestunit of Relf-administrationin theGerman Federal Repub- lic. Theyinclude ruraldistricts (Landkreise)consisting of several small municipalitiesand city districts(Stadtkreise)for cities with apopulation ofmorethan 50,000 whichgenerally formadistrict of theirown. FVr their functionsof localadministration andsupervision the government district andthe local districtlevels receive theirin- structionsfrom the Ministryof Education. Finance.---TheState usually isresponsible forexpenditureson administrationand inspectionof Stateinstitutions of highereducation, teachertraining, andvocational schoolsofmorethan local importance.Beyond this, theState makesconditionalgrants for school building,compensates the municipalitiesfor the loss of CONTROL OF EDUCATION 11 sncomefrom school fees resultingdfromthe introduction of free itducation, andgivesloans and scholarshipsto gifted, needy Audents. PuWic schools offering generalorvocational educationare financed -either by the Stateand the municipalities jointlyorby the municipalities alone. In joint financing, the Statepaysthe cost of staff (salaries, allowances, auxiliary staff, teachers paid oythe hour, dismissal indemnities, travehngexpenses,.welfare, retirement, and pensions for widows andorphans) while themu- nicipalities, through their school .committees,meet expenditures onmaterial and usually makeacontributionto the State .toward the cost of spa If the schoolsaretinance,d by the municipalities alone the school committees meet allexpensesfiki both staff and materials. During schoolyear195.1-55 Lower Saxony, Rhineland-Pala- tinate, and Baden-Wuerttehtherg reorganized their school admin- istrations. In Lower Saxony the Systems of administration in the 4 Government Districtswereunified. The public schoolsaremain- tained jointly by the State and the school authorities withno distinction 4etween State and municipal schools.. Elementary, middle, and secondary schoolsareadministered by the municipalities, and vocational schools by the local districts. The staff costsarepaidbythe State and thecost of materials by the school authorities. The latter &so makeapercentage contribution toward the cost of staff.

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MainEntrust- Quarters oftheUniversity ofcologne 12 GERMANYREVISITED -s In 4 Rhineland-Palatinatean elementaryschoollawwas passed regulating approximatelythesame subjectsaAmentioned Lower for Saxony.TheStateand themunicipalitiesparticipate jointlyin theequipmentand maintenanceofprimaryschools; t. the Stateps for thecost ofstaff, whilethemunicipalitiesand 'the schoolauth ritiesmeet allthe otherexppnses. To finaAciallyweak municipalies,however,theState makesgrantstoward the ing of build- schools.Forthelocaladministrationofprimary schtols, school committeesare establishedwhichinchidemunicipalrepre- sentatives,parents,teachers, , representativeiofreligiouscom- munities,and schoolmedicalofficers.Schoolboards the subordinateto districtauthoritiesare responsibleforschooltnspectionin ruraldistricts, while theMinistryat Mainzis thehighestschool inspectionauthority. . Permanent ConferenceofMinistersofEducation(Ständige Konferenz derKultusminister). Postwarconditions travel curtailed andcommunicationsbetweentheStates.In-addition having to autonomy inedueatictn,theStateswere occupied withtheir own problems ofreconstruction.The resultwasconsiderable ety in vari- educationalregulationsandpractice.Some ofthese tions regula- were difficult tomeet,suchas entrancerequireinentsand curriculumrequirementsinsecondaryschools,whichbrought hardship to childrenwhotewsferredfromtheschoolsofone . State tothose ofanother.

. Intrying to solveresultantproblems,theMinisters*'of Edu7 cationci* the'VariousStates beganto meetperiodicallyand, in 1948,formed thePermanentConferenceofMinistersof Edu- cation witha generalsecretariatin Bonn.TheConferenceof Ministersmeets atregularintervalsto discusseducational lems of prob- common interestto theStates.Decisionsandrecom- mendationspassed withunanimousagreement'are referred the State to authorities.Whilethesedecisionsandrecommenda- tioi64 fteConferqnce ofMinisters , areinno way bindingon thiliggislativor administrativeauthoritiesof theStates,agree- ments haveled to theestablishmentof uniformprinciplesinmany instances. C- . Attached to the-Conferenceof Ministersand theGeneralSecre- tariat inBonnare3 full-timecommitteeswhichcooperate work with and both theConferenceofMinistersand theSecretariat. The UniversityCommittee(Hochschulausschuss)dealswithmat- ters concerningtheuniversities,Mstitutesoftechnology,other institutionsof highereducation,and theresearchinstitutes.The SchoolCommittee(Schulausschuss)ismincernedwithelementaiy,

4 CONTROL OF EDUCATION 13 secondary, and vocationalschools. The CulturalCommittee ( Kul- turausschuss) deals with mattersconcerning fine arts, museums, libraries, and monuments. German Committee forEducatioriand,Instruction Deutsche Ausschuss fürdas Erziehungs- undBildungswesen). To assist the PermanentConference ofMinisters of Education as aresearch and advisory bodythe German Committeefor Edu- eatioh-% and Instruction'wasestablished in 1953by the Federal Ministry of Interior and thePermanent Conferenceof Ministers. It has 20 membersaltointedby the Ministryof Interior andby the President ofthe Conference ofMinisters of Education to serve foraperiod of 5years.Thememberi include teachers, university profesors, scientists, artists,and otherpersonsfamiliarwith education and school life.Among phasesof education considered by the Committeearethoseconcerning the ninth schoolyear,the establishment of experimentalschools, and unification inthe field of education. e A comparison of theorganization of theadministration of education in Germany with thatin theUriitedStates shows considerable similarityonthe Federal and StatelevelsAn both countries, education is theconcernof each individualState. In the United States the chief State schoolofficersareorganized intoaCouncil of Chief State SchoolOfficers for thediscussion and considerationof matters ofcommoninterest. Thiscorremionds approximately to the PermanentConferenee of Ministers ofEducation whoarp the Chipf StateSchool Officers of theGerman FederalRepublic. The Executive Secretaryof the Council ofChief State School Officers with hisOffice in theNational Education Association Building in Washington,D. C., is the counterpartin the United States to theGenei-al Secrethriat of the Conference of-Ministers located inBonn./Thereare nocounterpartsin the United States to the 3committees functioningwith thePermanent.Conference of Ministers and the Secretariatin Bonn,norto the GermanCommit- tee forEducation and Culture. Insofaraseducational mattersare a concernof the Federal Governmentin Germany theyarehandled by the FederalDepart-' ment concerned.Theprogramfor the exchangeof students, teachers,and otherpersons,fqr example, is incharge of the Division of Education andCulture in theMinistry of ForeignAffairs, while the FederalMinistry of Interiorcoordinates all scientific research.;tocarrythe comparisonstill further, the Committees onEducation and Culturein the FederalCouncil and the Lower House )of-- Parliamentcorrespond to, theSenate and House Com- mitteesonEducation in theCongress of the United States./ 14 GERMANYREVISITED The DuesseldorfAgreementofFebruary17, line a decision 1955.In with madeby theMinisterPresidentsof theWest Stateson February German 5, 1954,for theunificationofcertainphases ofeducation in theGermanFederalRepublic,theConferenceof Ministersof Educationin July1954,present0itsproposalsfor unificationto the MinisterPresidents.OnFebruary17,1955,at Duesseldorf,the MinisterPresidentsapprovedtheseproposalsin theformof an "AgreementbetweentheStates oftheFederal Republicforunificationin thefield ofeducation" zwischen (Abkommen denLandernderBundesrepublikzur ,Vereinheitlichung aufdemGebietedesSchulwesens).TheStates the may implement agreementbylegislativeor organilationalmeasures within a reasonableperiodof time. Compulsory aucation(Schulpflicht).Accordingto the cation unth- agreementcompulsoryeducationbeginswith theschool year startingonApril1, for allchildrenwhoare6yearsofage March by 31.Childrenwhoreachtheageof 6betweenApril1 and June30, may enter schoolonApril1,ontheparents'application, providedthey possess the degreeofintellectualand physicalma- turityrequired forschoolattendance.Forchildrenwhoare6years ofage, but who are not yetsufficientlydevelopedphysicallyor mentally to attendlessonswithany prospect ofsuccess,com- pulsoryschoolingispostponed. The minimumduration offull-timeschoolingis 8years. Some States, for instanceLowerSaxony,have 9yearsoffull-timecom- pulsoryschoolingwhileothersoffera9thyearon a voluntary basis. 6 Baden-Wuerttembergrequiresa9thyearofschoolingfor allchildrenwhoon completionof 8yearsare unable to find employment.

Photo by /CurtSchnsudenbefhConrteay,InterMaltose* School IsOut,Munich % CONTROLOFEDUCATION 15 SchoolYear---(Schuljahr).Theschoolyear extends fromthe beginning ofAprilthroughtheend ofMarchof thefollowing calendaryear,with85 daysof vacation.IfSundaysand holidays fall withina consecutive holidayperiod theyare included within the 85 days.Thesummer vacationcomes within theperiod from June 25 toSeptember15 andis fixedby theschooladministration of theStateconcerned.It isunderstood,however,that thevaca- tions forBremen,WestBerlin,Hamburg,Hesse,LowerSaxony, andSchleswig-Holsteinwillcome approximatelyduringthe first half of theperiodand thevacationsof theotherStatestoward the end ofthe secondhalf.Theothermainvacationsarethose for Christmasand Easter. Uniformity inTerminology.---Schoolsbeginningwith the5th to the 7thyearof schoolingand endingwith the10th,gar are to be knownhenceforthasmiddleschools(Mittelschulen).Untilthis time theyhave beenknown insome Statesasreaischools(Real- schulen)andtechnicalsecondaryschools(TechnischeOber- schulen). Generaleducation schoolsending withacertificateof maturity (Reifezeugnis)qualifyingfor admissiontoauniversityareto be knownasgymnasia(Gymnasienp.5). Classesat all typesof schoolsare to be designatedby arabic numberaccordingto theyearof schoolingbeginningwith the 'lowest classof theelementaryschoolandendingwith class13 asthe highestclass of thesecondaryschool.di Thesystem ofmarks,at alltypes ofschoolswill be:Very good, good,satisfactory,adequate,poor, and unsatisfactory(sehr gut, gut,befriedigend,ausreichend,mangelhaft,undungentigend). Inexaminationsforqualificationas ateacher(Lehramtsprii- fungen)thesystem ofmarks fortheindividualsubjectsis the same as that for allothertypes ofschools.Thesystem forthe average and final markin theexaminationas awholeincludes: Passed withdistinction(mitAuszeichnungbestanden) Passed withgood mark(gut bestanden) Passed withsatisfactory,mark(befriedigendbestanden) Passed(bestanden) RecognitionofExaminationCertificates.--Theagreementstates thatcertificatesofmaturityissued torStatesaccordingto the requirementsagreeduponbythe Confrence of Ministersof Edu- catkinwill be recognizedby theother Ei.Similarly,certificates for thefirst andsecondexaminationforelementaryschoolteachers, issuedby theeducationaladministrationofoneStateaccording to therequirementsagreeduponby theConferenceof Ministers 16 GERMANYREVISITED t. of Education,will berecognizedby the otherStates. Other,pro visions referto the typesof schoolsand to uniformityin languagi instruction. Democracyin EducatignalAdministration.Asurveyof theadministration ofeducation in theGerman FederalRepublic reflects .democracy,particularly withreferenceto the creationand func- tioning ofthePermanent Conferenceof Ministersof Education, the GermanCommitteeof Educationand Culture,and in the establishmentinsome Statesof StateAdvisory CouncilsonEdu- cation(Erziehungsbeirate).The latterindicateadesireonthe part of schooladministrationsfor the adviceand cooperationof abodyrepresenting,asin thecaseof West Berlin,theperspec- tive ofparents,teachers, and otherprofessionalgroupsand individualsonthemanyand variedaspects of education.

4 ChapterIII

The Goalof EqualEducationalOpportunity

WHEN FARmorethan half thepeople ofthe worldneither could readnorwrite, Germanywastakillgsteps to provide sometype of educationalopportunityfor the childrenand youth of that country.Thischaptersummarizesactionstaken inthe days of theEmpireand thelaterWeimar Republic,under National Socialism, slidsince1945.

UNDER THEEMPIREAND THEWEIMARREPUBLIC

ParallelSystems.InPrussiaand inmost oftheother 25 States in the GermanEmpire, elementaryrafiddie,and secondaryschools existed Elide byside in 3distinct,parallel schoolsystems beginning with the'primaryclassesandcontinuingupward foravarying number ofyears. Secondary schoolsgenerallyreceived theirpupils froma3-yearpreparatory school(Vorschule)for sociallyandeco- nomically privilegedchildrenwhoentered at theageof 6yearsto preparefor admissiontoasecondaryschool thatwould eventually lead toauniversity.HistoricallyBavaria hadno preparatory schools. Thepupils entering-its secondaryschool hadcompleted the first 4yearsofaregularelementary school. In 1911,morethan90 percentof the childrenof compulsory school age-6to 14yearsin Prussia,wereenrolledin elementary schbol. Theopportunity fortransferto secondaryschool without considerable lossof timebecause ofdifferencesin prograthsof studycame on completion of thefirst 3classes.Afewboys attended 17 18 GERMANYREVISITED

its first3 classesin preparationfor admissionto secondaryschool becausetheirlocalities hadno preparatory school.Irigeneral, pupils oftheelementaryschoolwere children of daylaborers, small farmers,and otherworkers. ContinuationScholols(Fortbildimpschulen).Oncompletionof the8-yearcourse most graduates oftheelementaryschoolfound employmentorenteredapprenticeshipinshoemaking,locksmith- ing,carpentry,printing,and thelike. To helptheseyoung people preparefortheir futurework,freepart-timecontinuationschools were established withlaterafternoon andeveningclasses forboys and girlsfrom 14to 17yearsofage.In theseschoolsapprentices couldpursue theoretical andpracticalstudy .alongmanylinesin preparationfor thejourneymanexaminationwhich markedcom- pletion oftheperiod ofapprenticeship.In Prussiaalaw of July1, 1911, providedforaminimum of240 hoursof continuationschool a yearfor thosefrom 14to 17yearsofage. Completionof the3-yearcourseofa continuation schoolalso qualifiedforadmissionto middletechnicalschools whichoffereda 2- to3-yearcoursein forestry,gardening,cabinetmaking,jewelry, bookbinding,and othertrades.One whohadpassed thejourney- man examinationat these schoolswaseligibleto becomeamaster workman inhis trade. PartialBreakin the ParallelSystem.Thechiefmovfs toward makingeducationmore democratic and unifiedcame as a result of the WeimarConstitutionof August11, 1919, andthe Foundation School Law(Grundschulgesetz)ofApiil28, 1920.Article145 of theConstitutionprovided forgeneralcompulsoryeducationatan elementaryschool ofat least 8yearsfollowedby trainingata continuationschool throughthe 18thyearofage. Instruction and ihstructionalmaterialsweredeclared freeof cost. In linewith article146 the 3--yearpreparatory schoolwasabol- . ished andthefoundationschool(Grundschule),consistingof the first 4yearsof theregular elemetitaryschool,wasestablishedfor all children. Regulations forthe foundationschoolwerethecon- - cernof theseparate Stateswithin thecommon framework estab: lishedby the Lawof 1920,its lateramendments,and generalsug- gestionsorstudy planguideslRichtlinien)issued July18, 1921, by theNational Ministryof Interiorto whicheducationmatters, asfarasthe centralgovernment hadcontrol,were entrusted.Th task of thefoundation school,according tothe Prussian Minister'' of Science, Art4ndEducation,wasto give childrenabasicfritiifr" ingonwhichnot onli the last4yearsof the_elementaisschool could be bui, but also themiddleand secondaryschoolswith their . THE GOAL OFEQUAL EDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 19 extended instruction.The foundationschoolwasto awaken and train the spiritual forcesof the childrenand equipthem witha groundwork of knowledgeand skills essentialforevery typeof further instruction. The fourupper yearsof the regularelementary schoolwasthe finishing school for childrenwho enteredpractical life aftercompletion ofcompulsoryschooling. In hissuggestions for theorganization of studyfor theseyears,the, Ministerof Education urged that in planningthecourses,considerationbe given,to the needs of life andto the educationalageand developmentof the child, with pArticularreferenceto his emotionandWill.As .in the foundation school,instructionwasto be basedonthe self-activity of the pupils, intellectualaswellasphysical. The pupils'cooperation wasnot to consist chieflyin the absorptionof knowledge;instead the objectives oftinstructionwereto be workedout under the guidance of theteacher throughobservation,experimentation, investigation,independent reading,and verification. The subjectsof instruction.%were religion, German,history and civics, geography,natural science;arithmetic,geometry, drawing, music, physicaltraining, sewing forgirls, and whenpossible-- manual trainingfor boysand homeeconomics forgirls. MiddleSchools(Mittelschülen ).----The middle schoolgrewout of the needfelt bysome parentsforsomewhat bettereducation and futureprospects for theirchildren thanwereafforded by the elementary school.Middle schoolscharged tuition.Some offered a6-yearcoursefollowingthe first 3 Classesof theelementary school. Othersoffereda3-yearcoursebasedonthe first 6classes. A law of February3, 1910, establisheda9-year middle school beginning withthe first primaryclass. Studyplans presented with thelaw in preparationfor latervocationswereseparate forboys and girls.Included alsowerestudy plansleadingioadmission to the last 3classes of thevarioustypes of secondaryschools. Completion ofthe full middleschool qualifiedfor the 1-year , voluntary militaryservice. Since the subjects ofinstruction ofthe first5yearsof the 9-year middle schoolwerequite similarto those of the first5yearsof the regularelementary school,transfer tothe middle schoolduring theseyears was not difficult. After the bthyeartransfer couldnot be madewithout loss oftime. Most middleschool childrencame .1.from homes of-the lowermiddle class. =3.Developments in handicrafts,industrialarts,commerce,indus- try, agriculture, andforestry requiredincreased trainingof boys and girls for work inthese fields.Connected with thiswas anin- creased need for suitablytrained personnelto fill middle positions 20 GERMANYREVISITED in the Stateadministration andib communities withlarge industrial and commercialenterprises. To meet this needthe Lawconcerning theMiddle Schoolsof Prussia (BestimmungenOber die Mittelschulenin Preussen)of June 1, 1925, establishedthe 6-yearmiddle schoolbasedonthe4- yearfoundation school.Like themiddle schoolof the Empirethis wasnotamiddle schoolin thesenseofalevel through whichchil- dren hadtopassfrom elementaryto secondaryinstiuction.It wasratheraparalleltype of schoolwhose first 4yearsoverlapped theupperdivision of theelementaryschool andall of whose6 years wereparallelto the first 6yearsof thesecondary school. Five plans ofstudy for 7types of curriculumsleadingtoa certificate of middlematurity (Zeugnisder mittlerenReife)were provided by theLaw of June1, 1925. Thefirst 4were2 each for boys and girlsoneageneral plan, the,otherageneral plan with special regardtoalater vocation.Plan Vwasfor boys andgirls who wishedto continue theirstudies inasecondaryschool.' The

1 For the five plans ofstudyseeAlina M. Lindegren,Education in.Germany. Washington:U. S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, 1939,p.20-25.(Office of . Education Bulletin1938, No. 15.)

rAzt-

(6,

air BPACourtemInter Nation*. Beethoven HighSchool, Bonn THE GOAL OFEQUAL EDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 21.

middle schoolscharged tuitioii;free placeswereavailable for indigent deservingpupils. In additionto the regular middleschools therewas a group of 5-year schools which followedtheprogramof the first.5years ofaregular secondaryschool and linkedupwith its sixthyear (Untersekunda). Thegroupincludedrectoral schools(Rektorat- schulen), LatinSchools(Lateinschulen),and the like. Secondn6Schools(HöhereSchulen).ImperialGermany had 3 types ofsecondary schoolsthrough whichstudents passedto enter institutions of highereducation. In the orderof historical development theywerethegymnasium(Gymnasium) which stressed Latinand Greek; realgymnasium(Realgymnasium) whichomitted Grgekand emphasizedLatin and modernlanguages; and theupperrealschool(Oberrealschule)with neitherGreeknor Latin, whichgaveits mainattention tomathematics, scienceand modern languages.Eachwas a' 9-yearschool basedon a 3-year preliminarycoursewhich thechild enteredat theageof 6years. In mostStates, classesweredesignated by Romannumerals with the lowesthaving the highestnumbtr;namely, VI, V,IV, UIIIor Lower III, 0111orUpper III, UII,OII UI, and01 (Sexta, Quinta, Quarts, jintertertia,Obertertia,Untersekunda,Obersekunda, Un- terprima undOberprima).In Bavaria andWuerttemberg insouth- ernGermany theyweredesignated fromIasthe lowest gradeto IXasthe hikhest. On completionof the 6thyearof the 9-yearsecondaryschool when classLower IIwascompleted therewas acertain break. Some schools offeredbnlythese.first ,6years,known,asProgym- nasium,Prorealgymnasiurn,orRealschuie, dependingonthetype of completesecondary schoolprogrambeing followed.Completion of classLower IIwasmarked byacertificate ofmaturity for class UpperII and carriedwith it the rightto the 1-yearvoluntary militaryservice insteadof the 2yearsof compulsoryserviceex- acted of thosewith lessacademic training.It alsoopened theway to lower administrativepositions in civilservice and business. Success in thematurityexamination withwhich the9-year courseendedwasmarked byacertificate ofmaturity. Thiscertifi- catewasthe regularrequirement foradmissiontoauniversity orother institutionof highereducation. During theRepublic .2newtypeswereadded. Theywerethe Germansecondary 'school(Deutsche Oberschule)whichstressed German lifeand culture;and ple Aufbau2 school (Aufbauschule)

2 "Aufbau" usedin this connectionhasnomeaningfulequivalentin English.

A 22 GERMANY REVISITED which enabledcapable childrenwho hadcompleted the 7thyear of theelementary schooltopreparefor universityadmission by attending the6-year Aufbauschool. Nochangewasmade in the already existingformsexceptthAtashift of themodern language in theGymnasiumto class VI and addingthe classicallanguages in classes UIIIand Ull resultedin the ReformGymnasium. Asimi- lar shiftin theRealgymnasium whichbroughtamodern language to class VIand addedLatin either in classUMorin class Ull fesultedin the ReformRealgymnasium. In 1920when the4-year foundation schoolreplaced the 3-year preliminarycourse as a preparatory school forthe 9-year second-

Graph 3 Organisation ofEducationin Prussia duringtheWeimar Republic

r 4).

Schoolyear 1 I "-3 5 e 7 it_ Ento I I it IS Pupil'sage 6 Tr 8 19 I I _11111T111511111 II Class - 3 . 4 "I 3 v Iv UM OM fl Oil Lfl Ot Gymnasium ein-

Oriagy111ftailIUD T oundauon School Realgymnasium

(0 rundschule ataloremmelsaHAWS I UM

Secondary School (Oberreal, We)

Germaa SecondarySchool (Deutsch Oberschule)

I Secondary Schoolin 4Wi..form (Oberrealschulein Aurbsulorat) GermanSecondary Schoolinauts.. form (DeutscheOberschule in Au(baidorm)

Six Year SecondarySchool (Progymnasium,Realprogymnasium, Ratormrealprogyeasasiurn, oder Realichiale)

IlementarySchool (Volksschek)

1 1 Class 2 1 3 1 4 1 1 6 1 7 1 1

ob. IMaturityexamination (Itniteprninng) THE GOALOF EQUALEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 23 aryschool, thelduration ofstudy inpreparation for thematurity examinationwasextended from12 to 13years. A supplementary law- ofApril 18,1925, modifiedthis somewhatby stating that in individualcasesspeciallygifted children,after beingheard by the teachers ofthefoundationschool could,with theapproval of the supervisoryauthor;ties, beadmittedto the middleorto the secondaryschool aftercompletion of3yearsof attendanceat the foundation school. SecondarySchools forGirls(HöhereMidchermehulen). Prior to 1908,secondary schoolsfor girlsin Prussiawereprovided either bylocalauthoritiesorby privateorganizationsandwere operatedasmiddleschools. In1895,women were admitted to the universitiesasauditors butonly withtheconsent of theinstructors concerned. Accordingtoalaw'ofAugust 18,1908, providingforasecond: aryschool for girlsand for theirfurthereducation, thesecondary school forgirls consistedof 10 classes.The threelowest classesX, Ix,and VIIIconstitutedthe preliminaryschool andclasses VII through I thesecondary schoolproper.On completionofthN10- year coursethe girlcouldenter theupper orlyciwumdivision of the schoolwhichoffered 2 linesof study.Thewomen's school (Frauenschule)offereda2-yearcoursestressing homemakingand - thlecareof children.The otherwas aHigher Seminaryfor Women Teachers (HaeresLehrerinnenseminar)which offered3yearsof theoreticalstudy followedby 1yearof practicalwork. Undera regulation ofFebruary1, 1912, the10-year secondaryschool became aLyceum (Lyzeum)arItthe3-yearupperdivisionanUpper Lyceum(Oberlyzeum). To qualify girlsforadmission to thematurityexamination and enable themto enteruniversitiesasregularstudents, the Lawof August 18, 1910also providedforan upper secondary schoolfor girls(Studienanstalt--literally"institute ofstudies") whichof- fered 3courses corresponding to the3 types ofsecondary schools for boys. TheGymnasialCourse andthe RealgymnasialCourse .werebasedoncompletion ofthe first 7classes of the10-yearsec- ondary schoolfor girls;the UpperRealschoolCourseoncomple- tion of thefirst 8 classes. After theestablishmentof thefoundation schoolin the early yearsof theWeimarRepublic, thelyceum, throughadecree of March1923,onthe Reorganizationof theLyceum andUpper Lyceum, becamea6-year schoolbasedonthe 4-orearfoundation school.The lyceumwasfollowed bya1-or2-year women'sschool, bya3-yearupperlyceum of theupperrealschooltype leadingto thematurityexamination,and bya3-year Upperlyceum continu- 24 GERMANYREVISITED ing the studiesof thelyceumnot leadingto the maturityexamination. Theupper secondary schoolbeganoncompletionof thefirst 3 yearsof thelyceumand offered6-yearcourses correspondingto thegymnasium,realgymnasium,and Germansecondary school. TherewerealsoAufbau schoolsfor girls,basedonthe first7years of theelementaryschool,whichIedto the maturityexamination. . Thusasof May15,1935, beforethe reformin theorganization ofsecondaryeducationunderNationalSocialism,generaleducation in theGermanNationwasbeing givenin 5types of secondary schools, 3 ofwhichincludedaiseveraldifferentkinds ofschools.The 1,989 secondaryschoolsof thatdate offeringcurriculumsleading to thecertificateof maturity,were distributedamongthe main types andwithvariationsasfollows:1

"lb

410

3 Wegweiser durchdas WereSchulwesendes DeutschenReich..Schuljahr 1935. (Im Auftragedes Reichs-undPreuuischenMinistersfUrWissenschaft, Erziehung undVolksbildungbearbeitetvonder ReichastelleftirSchulwesen Berlin.) BerlinSW 68:WeidmannscheBuchhandlung,1936,p.20. THE GOAL OF EQUALEDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 25

Wee dory kiwis witt lassLeadingto theCertificate ef Maturity

Collusive Type Nvitolber ofSchools

_ Gymnasia (Gymnasien) _ _ .. 418

Reform Gymnasia (Iteformgyinnasien) _ _ _ .

Gymnasia for Girls (Madchen-GymmLi('n) _ _ 7 Reform Gymnasia for (irls (Madchen-IZeformgymnairn) 3 Gymnasia! Secondary School for Girls (Gymnasia le

Studienanstaltvn) _ _ 13

total 41)6

ba4yoneasWo Type

Realgymnasia (Realgymnasien) __ _ 182 Reform Rea !gymnasia (Reformrea)gymnasien) 370 Realgymnasia for Girls (Iiiiidchen-Rea)gymnasien) ___ 15 Reform Realgymnaaia for Girls (Madchen-Reformrealgym- nasien4f 18 Realg)rnnaaial Secondary Schools for Girls (Realgymnasi-

ale Studienanstalten) _ _ _. _ . _ ____ 72 Six-Class Secondary Schools for Girls (Sechsstufige Stu-

dienanstAlten) _. _ _ _ ..... ______4 Reform Rea !gymnasia! Upper Lycea (Reformrealgymna- siale Oberlyzeen) 25

total 686

Upper Resist:hl Typo

Upper Realschools(Oberrealschulen) _ _ . 365 Upper Realschools for Girls(Madchen-Oberrealschulen) 16 Three-Chas Upper Secondary Schools for GirlsI)reitu- figeStudienanstalten) 10 Upper Lycea(Oberlyzeen)______216 01111. total 607

fr Serum Upper Wool Type German Upper Schobla(Deutsche Oberschulen) of which 25werefor girls______71

Wise Wool Type AufbauSchools'(Aufbauschulen) of which 30 werefor girls 159

Grand total 1,989

..-J1I..1.r 26 GERMANYREVISITED

" r- #4V.' .r;

Photo byLoosest OldStudent PrisonRupertCarl University4of/1101elberg

, 3 UNDER NATIONALSOCIALISM . .--. t ElenieniarySchool.--Nochangewasilia' intheorganization of the8-yearelementaryschoolfrom 1933145underNatio* Socialism. The 4loweryearsof theelementaryschoolcontinued as a school of common educationthrough whiaGermanchildren,

411. THE GOALOF EQUALEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 27 regardless ofeconomicorsocialstatus, passedbefore admission toamiddleorsecondaryschool,orto the 4upperclasses ofthe elementary school. The NationalCompulsoryEducationLaw(Reichschulpflichtge- setz) of July6, 1938,provided for2yearsof attendanceatapart- time vocationalschool(Berufschule),in agricultureand for 3 yearsof attendanceat suchapart-time schoolin othertradesand until completionof apprenticeship.Part-timevocationalschools hi agriculture generallyrequired 160hours ofattendancea year. Part-timevocational schoolsin other tradesrequired from4 to 10 hoursaweek. MiddleSchool.TheMiddle SchoolLaw of July1, 1938,provided fora6-year middleschool basedonthe first4yearsof the elementary school.It offeredaterminalcoursewhich aimedto qualify itspupilsfor middlepositions incommerce and adminis-'4' tration withoutspecial vocationaltraining. Thealready existing middle schoolswereto transformthemselves intothisnewtype within theimmediatelyfollowingyears.The lawalso provided\ fora4-year similar type of middleschool calledanAufbau branch \, followingcompletion ofclass 6 ofthe elementaryschool. SecondarySchool.--InanApril 20, 1936decree tothe education officers of theStates, the NationalMinister ofEducationstated: "The maintask of theeducationaladministrationduringthe first yearsof theNationalSocialist regimewasto imbue educationand the teachingbody withthe NationalSocialist spirit.Muchyet remains fo bedone, butdevelopment has reachedthe mintwhere theouter reorganizationof the secondaryschool fromthe view7 point of imifleationcan nowbe underthken." In line withthis concept,aMarch 20,1937 decreelimitedthe secondary schoolsfor boysto 3 maintypes and thosefor girlsto 2 made Englishthe firstmodern foreignlanguage;and shortened the time of preparationiorthe certificateof maturityfrom13 to 12years(see graph 3.).Detailed/ informationandprogramsof study Were giveninaJanuary 29,1938 decreeon"Educationand Instruction inThe Secoindary School."This decree stated'that the work of thesecondary schoolwasarranged tomeet fully thegoal aline maturityexamination and that"at all secondaryschools for boys and girlsthis maturitywasof equal value."The schoolswere: 1. SecondarySchool far Boys(OberschulefirIungen) Thiswas an8-year school withEnglish beginningin classI and Latin in class III.Classes VI to VIIIweredivided intoaNatural Science-Mathematics BranchandaLanguage Branch.In the latterathird languagewasadded. 28- GERMANYREVISITED 2. Aufbau.SchoolforBoys(AufbauschuleflitsJungen).-- Thiswas a 6-year school basedonthe first6yearsof theelementaryschool withEnglishbeginningin classIII andLatin in class IV. 3. GymnasiumforBoys.----Theonlygymnasiaauthorized,to continue were those ofhistoricalsignificance.Asbefore,theywere basedon thefirst4years of t!heelementaryschoolbutwere changedfrom9-year to8-yearschools.Latinbegan inclass I, Greek in class IIIand Englishin classV. 4, 4. SecondarySchoolfor Girls(Oberschuiefill.Midchen).---- Thiswas at 8-year schoolbeginningwithEnglishin classI. After acommon program of studiesthroughclass Vthepupilsdivided into 2 groups ; one to followa Language branchof study,theother a Homemaking branch.In theLanguageFormamodernlanguage wasadded inclassVI andfor thosewhowishedit, Latin. 5. AufbauSchoolfor Girls(AufbauschulefürMädchen).--- This was a ,6-year schoolbasedon completion ofclass VI ofthe elementaryschoolandbeginningwithEnglishin classI. Graph 3-Organization ofSecondary Schools,1937-1945

School year 1 2 3. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pupil'sage 12 7 8 9 10I 11 I12I13 I15I16 17 Class 6 I 2 _3 I 1 4 5 6 7 8 Gymnasium

71 Science-Mathmatics Branch (Wissenschaftlich- Mathematischer Secondary Schoolfor Boys Zweig) (Oberschule fürjungen) 'Infarct* (SprachlicherZweig)

ElementarySchool Aufbev Schoolfor Boys (Volksschule) (Aufbauschulefür jungen)

Language Branch Secondary (Sprachlicher Zweig) School forGirls (Oberschule furMadchen) Homemaking 1 Branch [Hauswirtschaftliche Zweig) Au(ifitt Schoolfor Girls (Aufbauschule fur Midchen)

1 Class I 6 I 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 ej YO

IMattsrityexamination(Reifeprilfung) THE GOAL OFEQUALEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 29

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Elementary andSecondarySchools.Afterthe reopeningof the schools in1945, the individualStates graduallyreestablishedthe 9-year secondaryschool followingthe4-year foundationschool. Insodoing theyagain extendedthe periodofpreparation forthe maturity examinationto 13years. Kindergartens(Kindergarten).---TheGermanFederal Republic has twotypes of kindergartos.One is for childrenfrom 3to 6 yearsofakewhose motherswork. Thesekindergartensare supported bycommunities, churchorlabororganizations,industrial concerns,and individuals.Theyarenot connected withschools. In Hamburg they theeunder the supervisionof theDivision ofChild Welfare ofthe YouthAuthorities(Jugendbehorde).The ot)er type is theschoolkindergartenestablished bymany States for children whoarenot consideredmature, enoughphysicallyor, mentally tobegin schoolat 6yearsofage.Schoolkindergartensare found onlyin largerareas: Attendanceis voluntary. In WestBerlin the schoolkindergartenisanintegralpart of the unifiededucationsystem but isnot includedin therequirement 30 GERMANYREVISITED of.compulsory schoolattendance.The aim of theschool kindergarten,accordingto article19 of the Berlinschool law(Schulge- setz) ofAugust 5,1952, "isto bring thechild intoalargercom- munityand give himschoolmaturity throughmeaningful guid- anceand activitywithout theuseof schoolsubject matterahead of time." WestBerlin.TheCity-States 9fWest Brrlin,Bremen,and Hamburgadoptedaunified schoola1led the GeneralPublic School (AilgemeineVolksschule),consisting ofa6-year elementary schipolfollowedbya6-or7-year secodaryschool. The classepare named byarabicnumber accordingto theyearof schoolingbegin- ning with1asthelowest classof theelementary school,to 12or 13asthe highestclass ofthe secondaryschool. InWest Berlinthe secondaryschool has3 branches(see graph4.). 1.Practicalsecondary schoolextending from class7 through 9. 2.Technicalsecondary schoolextending fromclass 7 through 10. 3. Secondaryschool ofgeneral-educationextending fromclass 7 through13. Withpromotionfrom the 6thto the 7th classall pupilsenter the secondary school.Throughsimilarityof study plansin classes7 and 8of thepractical and tdthnicalbranches in thesecondary school,pupils havethe opportunityof transferfromonebranchto the other.The choiceof branchandcourseis determinedby Ihe '44Nivithesof the pupiland parentscoupled with thejudgment of the teacher andprincipal(Schulleiter). Pupilsplanning fora career requiring universitystudyenter the generaleducation secondaryschool whichoffers 4 branchesof instructionleading te thecertificate ofmaturity:(1) Classical language, (2)modern language,(3)mathematics-naturalscience, and (4)arts. On completionof class8 in the practicaland technicalbranches, pupils whoseaptitude's andeducational abilitieshave developed after they left thefoundation school dayattainacertificAte of maturity byattendingageneratttpper school inAufbau form. . For pupilsplanning toenter practicalwork, the objectiveof finding the tradeorline of workis stressed inclass 9.Completion of class 9 iafollowed by.b3yearsof attendanceatapart-timevocational schoolfor 6 houri2 daysaweek supplementarytoan apprenticeshiporwork incommerceand relatedlines,orfor 8hours 1 dayaweek forthose who haveentered apprenticeshiporwork

'%4Or THE GOAL OFEQUALEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 31

graph 4.Organization ot EducationInWest Berlin

School jear 1 2 3 4 5 6 _ 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Pupil'sage 6 MN 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15I16 17 18 Class IMil 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 13 ClassicalLanguage Branch (AltsprachlicherZweii) ModernLanguage 'Branch (Neusprachlicher Zweig) Mathematics-Natural Science Branch . (Mathematisch- Naturwissenschaftlicher Zweig) Foundation School Genral EducationSecondaty (Grundschule) School Arts Branch (Wissenschaftliche Oberschule Musicher Zweig) Practical General EducationSecondary and Technical School Praktisch In 14641% form und Tech- (WissenschaftlicheOberschule nisch) in Aufbaidorm) Technical Secondary School (Technische Oberschule) v Practical Sec- ondary School (Praktische Oberschule)

IMaturity examination(Reifeprufung)

in industryand handicrafts.Attendanceatafull-timevocational school(Berutsfachschule)which offersboth theoreticaland praC- tical trainingmaybe substitutedfor apprenticeshipand attendanceatapart-time vocationalschool. Completedattendanceatapart-timevocationalschoolmaybe followedby attendanceatafull-timevocationalsecondary school (Fachschule)in engineering,buildingconstruction,commerce, (Ingenieurschule,Baugewerkschule,Wirtschaftsschule)orthe like.Pupils wholeave thegeneraleducation secondaryschoolon completion ofclass 10or11mayenteroneof theseschools after -completion of2yearsof practicalwork following10_yearsof schoolingorafter .1year.of practicalwork following11yearsof schooling. %Successfulparticipation inthe 2-or3-year comprehensivecourse of theyocationalupper secondarST schoolqualifies for thepractice of highertechnicalcommercialorindustrial workand also leads 4 to maturityfor admissiontoaninstitution ofhigher education.in theline Ofstudy concerned.Youngpeoplearegiven opportunity

-t

4- 32 r GERMANY REVISITED also through specialcourses,evening schools, and the liketo attain maturifyfor admission to studyataninstitution of higher education. Hamburg.---From 1949to 1954 Hamburg hada6-year elementary school. Since 195I it hashad botha6-year elementary school anda4-year foundioncourse(within the6-year school). Adnissionto the lowestassof the practicalorof -the technical secondar .school is mated only aftercomletion of the elementary school. Admissionto the general education secondary school is permittedoncompletion of class6 and after completion of class 4 of the elementarypchool. On transfer from the elementaryschool to the practicalsecondary school thereisnoexamination. For admissionto thegeneral education secondaryschoolorto the technical secondary school thereare2 weeks of probationalschooling with 1 teacher each from the elementaryschool and the secondaryschool. , The firstyearof attendance in the s'condaryschool is proba- tional. Ifapupil fails twice in thegeneral education secondary school hemastgoeither to the technicalorto thepricticalsecond- arys9hool. If he failsin the technical secondary school hemustgo to the practical secondary school.

I a

410

Graph 5. Organization ci Educattion in Hamburg

Schoolyear 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 13 -to a to ft Pupil'sage 6 7 8 9 10 11 12I13 14 15 16MI 11 Class 1 2 4 5 6 7 a 9 I 10 I 11 12 13 Classical Language Branch f (Altsprachlicher Zweig) Modern Language Branch (Neusprachlicher,Zwtig) Mathematics-Natural Science Branch (Mathematiach-NaturwiasenachaftlicherZweig) Secondary Technical School (Technische Ober- Elementary School achule) (Grundschule) PradicaSecondary .4 School (Praktische Oberschule) Special School WI eft (Hillsachule) IA

1Maturity examination (Reilepridung)

- THE GOAL OF EQUALEDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 33

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Baden-Wuerttemberg.4Throughadecree of October16, 1953, a9-year secbndary schoolin Baden-Wuerttembergis calleda Gymnasium;a6-year secondary schoolbasedonthe 4-year foundation schoolaProgymnasium; andanAufbau school,anAufbau- gymnasium. The3 types of9-year secondary schoolsbasedonthe 4-yearfoundationschoolare: 1.Classical languagegymnasium in which Latin,English, and Greek begin, respectively, inclass 1, 3, and5. 2. Modern language gymnashimin which English, Latin,.and French begin, respectively,in class 1,3, and 5. The lattertwomaybe inter- changed. .

3. Mathematics-naturalscience gymnasiumin which English beginswith p. class 1 and Frenchwith class3. Only 2 languagesarerequired, but pupils who wishmayattendanoptional studygroupin 'Latin (FreivrilligeLiwtein Arbeitsgemeinschaft)beginning with class7. There alsoare anumber of Aufbaugymnasia withschool homes (Aufbaugymnasienmit Heimen).Theseareboarding

4 When the BasicLcitvwasapproved by the MilitaryGovernors of the three Western Zones' ofOccupationonMay 12, 1949, they suspendedArticle 29on the generalquestion of territorialreorganization pending thepeace treaty, and approvedArticle 118 whichsetup aspecial procedure forthe reorganization ofSouthwest Germany.The State ofWuerttemberg-Baden underU. S. Occupationwas a part of theareawhich became Baden-Wuerttembergas a result of thereorganization under Article118. See 7th QuarterlyReporton . Germany: April1-June80, 1951. Frankfurt/Main: Officeof the U. S.High Commissioner forGermany, 1951,p.70-76.

*111, 34 GERMANY REVISITED schools offeringa5Ayear coursebasedoncompletion of the8-year elementary school.ine5-yearcourseleads to the maturityexamination and includes2 languages withEnglishor Frenchasthe first. The second languagemaybe English, French,orLatin. Transfer fromthe 4-year foundationschool' to diegymnasium is through,entrance examination. Thequestionsaremade out by the Ministry ofEducation. Theexamination beginsonthesame day*dat thesamehour in the entireState. At eachgymnasium it is given underthe supervisionofacommittee consistingof the director of the schoolaschairman, andoneteacher eachfrom the gymnasiuni and theelementary school.Pupils whopasstheex- aminationareadmittedto the gymnasiumon°probationfor 3 months. Pupils who fail in theexaminationorin the period ofprobation may come upfor reexaminationafter 1yearof attendancein class 5 of the elementaryschool. After thisadditionalyearof schZng the examinationis correspopdinglyharder, but pupilswho it generallypassandareadmitted to 3months of probationalattend- anceat the gymnasium.On cotnpletionof these 3 months,achievement is the decisive factor. The Director ofthe oldestmathematics-naturalsciencegymnasium inStuttgartthe FriedrichEugensGymnasiumfounded in 1796stated,at the time of theentrance examinationsin 1955; that from his observationabout 15 percentof the pupilsfrom the foundation schoolwho apply foradmissionto the gymnasiumfail in the examinationand approximatelyanother 10percent fail during the period ofprobation. Of thosewho enter thegymnasium fewperhaps 1percentleave beforeclass '6. In the mathematics-naturalsciencegymnasium about60 percent drop outoncompletion ofclass 6 toenter preparationfor middle technical positionsasengineers, builders,architects,orfoc administrative positions. Theremaining40 percentarejoined bypupils who have completedthe Progymnasiumand proceedfor thenext 3 yearii to the maturityexamination. Successin thematurity examination qualifiesthem for admiosiontoauniversity,institute of technology (TechnischeHochschule),orother institutionof higher education. o `. Among thanges in theorganization ofeducation inthe German Federal'Republic that indicateprogress toward the goal ofequal edOcAtional opportunitysince 1945are: The Ninth SchoolYear (DasNeunteSchuljahr).--Inthereor- ionization oftheir educationsince 1945Schleswig-Holstein,West Berlin, Bremen,and Hamburgextended the8-yearcourse of the THE GOAL OF EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 35

rapn6. Organisationat Education in Baden-Wuerttemberg

School year 3 3 4 5 6 9 10 11 12 13 Pupil'sage NMI 7 9 10 11 13 13 14 1 16 17 16 Class m Iv v VI vn vm Ix Classical Language Gymnasium (Altsprachliches Gymnasium) Modern LAnguage Gymnasium (Neusprachliches Gyonasium) Mathematics-Natural Science Gymnasium (Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliches Gymnuitin) Secondary School P rogymnas i um) ^ ElementarySchool* Utley School (Yolkeichule) (A ufbau Gymnasium)

Class 1 I 41 1 314r5 e I 7 I

IMaturity examination (Reileprtdurig)

elementary school to 9years.LaferSchleswig-Holstein modified this provision;still latera newlawoncompulsory educationre- \established the requirement of9yearsof attendance atafull-time \-school.Lower Saxonyand North Rhine-Westphalia also have 9 yearsof full-timecompulsory school attendance. Baden-Wuerttem- berg requiresa9thyearof schooling for all children whoon completion of the 8thyear areunable to find employment. Inareport onEdur,ationalDevelopments in .the Federal Republic of Germany in the Scholasticyear1955-56, presented to the 19thIn)ternational ConferenceonPublic Education in Geneva, ih JulyOtt,the Chair- manof the School Committeeof the Permanent. Conference of Ministers of Educationstates, "On principle there isatendency in the ministriesof education...to enforce in general" 9years "of compulsory schooling; lack ofschool accommodation and staff- ing difficultiesareat present the greatest hindrances inthis development althoughanumber of Lander [states] have enforced 9 years' compulsoryschooling ineverycase." a Six-Year Elementary School.Through legislation passed by Bremenand Hamburg in 1949, and by West Berlin in 1951,, each of these & City-States hasa6-year elementary school for children from 6to 12yearsofage.This extends the period of schooling commonfor children in these States by 2years.Hesse haspro- vided for 6yearsofcomnionschooling for its children througha plan of studies for schoolyears5 and 6 that iscommonfbr all schools there.

s (Mimeo.)p.4. 36 GERMANY REVISITED

Differentiated MiddleLerel.The Ministryof Educationin LowerSaxony is sponsoringanexperiment foradifferentiated middle level(differenzierterMittelbau) in classes5-8or7-9 that would Onabletopgroupelementary schoolgraduates to continue study ataregular secondaryschool. Theexperimentwasbegunat the PestalozziSchool of Hannoverin 1:947--48,and extendedto 16,- elementary schoolsin LowerSaxony in 1953-54. Short TypeSecondary School(KurzformHohereschule).By providing forashorttype 7-year secondaryschool leadingto the certificate of maturityin placeofa9-year secondaryschool, Ba- varia, Berlin,Bremen, Hamburg,Hesse, LowerSaxony, andNorth Rhine-Westphaliahave lengthenedby 2yearsthe periodof school- ingcommonfor allchildren in theelementary school. SimilarityofPrograms ofStudy.--xThroughsimilarity of Pro- gramsin classes7 and 8 of the practicaland technical branches of theupperschool in WestBerlin, Bremen,and Hamburg, pupils have the opportunityof transferfromonebranch to theother. Centralized SchoolcConiplete8-and9-yearelementary schoolsarefound in largecommunities andcities. Untilrecently

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IIPA--Pket byHICOG American Type ConsolidatedSchoolVillageSchoolontite Bergstrame, Jugenhehn 01* T GOAL OF EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 37 2-andson es1-room schools attended by children between .6 And 14yearsofage were commonin smaller Villages. Nowmost ruval communities have 2- and 3-room Fhools. Insomeparts of the Federal Republic, ,particularly in Lower Saxony and Hesse,a plan is underway to retain classes 1 through 6 in the smaller villages and tocombine classes 7, through 9 of the elementary school atacentral school inalarger village. The aim of the central school Isto make available to the children of theareathe various educational 'opportunities for children from 12to 15yearsofage. School Villageonthe Bergstrasse (SchuldorfRergst rasse) In connection with centralized schools mention should)emadeof the Village Schoolonthe Bergstrasseat Jugenheim, 1esse, oppned in April 1954, forsome1,200 children from thecol unities 041. J ugenheim, Seeheim, and Bickenbach. It comprisesakii1ergarte, anelementary school,aspecial school (Hilfsschule)avocational school withadepartment each for- agriculture and homemaking, andarealgymnasial'Aufbau school.The School Villageonthe Bergstrassewas aninnovation in Germanyin that it included all branches and all levels of schooling for pupils,frem--kiwieriprten to the maturity examination qualifying .for admission toauniversity. LocAtednearthe Pedagogical Institute of Jugenheim the School Village has the opportunity of providing the teachers and students of the Institute with practical experienceand demonstration material. linifiiation..The unification ofeducationaccording to the agreement of February 17, 1955 (p. 14),-has extended educAtional opportunity by (1) reducing the number of types of middle and secondary schools; (2) providing fora'common planof studies from class 5 through 8 of the modern language gymnasium and-the mathematics-science gymnasitim;(3) makingEnglish the first foreign knguage in each of thesetypes of schools;(4) providingoncomNetionof class 7 of the.Oementary school for ashortened form of the modern languagea4u1the mathematics- sciencegymnasiums which does not at the beginning 'require knowledge ofaforeign language, and (5) providing opportunity for admissionto the middle school eitending from completion of class 4 to completion of class7 of the elementary school. The 'Unification Agreement provides.- fota.total of 13years of elementary and secondary schoolingin preparation for the maturity examination. As \previously indicated the classesare named by number in ascendingorder from 1 to 13 according to theyearof schooling beginning with the firstyeat ofthe ele.: 38 GERMA NY REVISITED

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SPA-thathif (ISIS ernlotryLaborstory Casan us Gymnasium, BadGodesberg le mentary school.Following thefirst 4yearsof theelementaryschool the regular middle sUoolextendsfromclass5 throughclass10. Itmaybe abbreviatedta5-, 44),oc3-yearmiddleschool_after completionof class5, 6,o 4. 7 of thepelementaryschoql respectively. The normal secondat-yschoolis the 94eargymnasium(classes 5-13) followingcompletionof the4 loweryearsof theelementary sehool.There isalsoashorttype ofsecondaryschoolbeginning not lateLthanaftercompletionof class7 of theelementaryschool which, Athebeginning,does notrequireknowledgeofaforeign language. The threekinds oflongtype(9-year)secondaryschoolarethe: ,1.Classical languagegymnasiumin whichLatin,amodernlanguage, and Greekbegin,respectively,in class . 5, 7, and8. 2.Modernlanguagegymnasiumin whichEnglishandFrenchor Latin accordingto the pupil'schoice, begin,respectively,in class5 and 7. 3. Mathematics-naturalsciencegymnasium inwhichEnglishand French orLatin.according4o the pupil'schoice,begin,respectively,in class ' 5and 8. . The modernlanguagegymnasiumand themathematics-natural . science gymnasiuAihavea common planof studiesfrom . class 5 through8. Withclass 9athirdlanguagebeginsin themodern languagegymnasidm,whilestresson mathematics, _ physics,and chemistrybegins inthemathematics-naturalsciencegymnasium. \. . *Pr. ./0 THE GOAL OFEQUAL EDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY 39 / The shorttype gymnasium h onlyamodern languageanda mathematics-naturglscience bra ch. Inboth branchesEnglish is the first foreignlanguage;the')also haveasecond foreignlanguage.A third languageis not required.In States whereFrench orLatin has been. the first foreikn langilagein the modernIan- guage or mathematics-naturalscience seconda6schools, this practicemaybe continued,provided thatthe districtsconcerned also haveanadequate numberof thesetypes of schools with Eng- lish8.8theftrst modern folign language. - A graphicpresentationothe unificationof thevarious types of secondary schoolsis given in the graphon page5. Lowering theCost of Education.Progres towardthe goal of equal educationalopportunity alsois encouraged bylowering the cost of eductation throughexemption of feesand provisionoffree learningmaterial'sand educationalsubsidies. Attendanceat elementary sthoolsand continuationschools has been free inGfrmany sineethe days of theEmpire.Secondary schools havecharged tuition.In Pruasiaalaw of July18, 1930 stated that thetuition feeat public secondary Fhoolscouldnot be morethan one-thirdof thecostper yearfor each child.Tuition for theSeCOrld child of thefamilywasreduced by one-fourthand that for the thirdchild by one*alf.For the fotMhand additional' childrennofees could becharged. Thelawpro,Odedfurther that at least one-fourth ofthemoneycollected in feeswaft- to be used for theeducation of worthy,financially needy,gifted children. In 1948and 1949 Berlin,Bremen, Hamburg,and Hesseextended theexemption of feesto all types of schools.Oneyearlater, in 1949, Bavariadid theaame.In Baden-Wuerttemberg,whichre- duced itA fees by50 percentsome yearsago,feesareto be abolished completelyin 1957-58in elementary,middle,secondary, and technical vocationalschools; andin North Rhine-Westphaliaby 1960. Meanwhilethe loss of incomefrom sch4o1fees is beingre- placed by Statesubsidies. . In 1951Schleswig-Holsteinlimitbdexemption fromfees in middle andsecondary schoolsto the duration ofcompulsory school attendance. Inclasses beyondthat, feesarescheduled according to the income of theparents when the incomeperyearexceeds the exemptim limit of = ' ' German marks. Formerly free.,[imotional materialswere grantedoply incase of rieed. Textbooksare nowsupplied free ofcharge in all States, either to all schoolsor to elementary 'schools, dependingonthe funds available.Among States which alsosupply freeinstruc- tionalmaterialsareBayaria, West Berlin,Bremen, Hamburg, andHesse. . , 40 GERMANYREVISITED a Section3 ofArticle146 of theWeimarConstitutionurgedthat aid bemade availableforindigentmiddleandsecondaryschool spupils to enablethemto completetheireducation.Reconstruction needssince 1945resulted inlimitedfunds foreducationalaidand scholarships thoughprovisionwas made for aidingneedy,worthy students.In Statesnow requiring schoolfees,part oftheinconie has beenused toproviderelief fromthemaccordingto need.

0 1

411.

Chapter IV 411UP

The SocialStudies in German Schools'

,\)

HE INTRODUCTIONof theconcept of "socialstudies" in Gera. Tmancurriculums since 1947has, inmanyrespects,aparallel in the introduction of thesameconcept ih schoolprogramsin the United States beginning in1916. At thattime, theterm "social studies"wasgiven officialrecognition in thereport of theXom- mitteeonSocial Studies of theCommissiononthe Reorganization of SecondaryEducation of theNational EducationAssociation.2 After theturn of the century,demand beganto develop forthe r%introductionofmoreeconomic andsocial content,either through anenrichment of theolder, establishedofferingsorthrough the introduction ofnew courses. History, geography, andcivicscur- riculums tookon a newemphasis ahdadditional content.Commu- nity civicsand problemscourses,variously namedand withvary- ing content,weredevekwed for the 9thand 12th grades;and, in someschools,asocial studiessequence was developed for the

1 Burr W. Phillips, Professorof Educationand Historyat the University of Wisconsin, is the authorof this chapter.Hewas amember of theUnited States Social StudiesCommittee whichwent to Germany in1947. Since then he has returned4 timesoninvitation for followupwork. In 1950Professor Phillipswasappointed chairman ofthe AmericanCommittee forthe Exchange and criticalExamination of GermanHistory Textbooks(p. 94). 2 Arthur William Dunn,comp.The SocialStudies in SecondaryEducation: A Six-YearProgram adapted bothto the 6-34 and the84 Plans of Organiza- tion. Washington:U. S. Government PiintingOffice, et1916, 63p.(Bureau of Education Bulletin,1916, No. 28.) 41 GERMANYREVISITED

first 8or9years. Coreprograms began toappeAr, extendingocca- sionallythrough the12th grade,sometimesinvolvingthecorrela- lion ofthe olderdisciplines,andsometimesdisregardingthetradi- tionalsubjectmatterboundaries.Extensiveconstructivecurricular reorganizationresulted,aswellasmuch confusion. Beforethesecond decadeof the 20thcentury, history,geography, andcivics hadtheirplace in schoolprograms in the United States;at that time,historywas almost exclusivelypoliticaland militaryin emphasisandcontent;geographywaslargelyphysical and political;and civicswasdescriptive,dealing withlocal,State, and NationalGovernment. t* In Germanyduringthe Second Empiieand theRepublic,there wasmuchemphasison historyhistorythatwas Germany-cen- teredand coveredtheancient,medieval,and earlymoderihriods. Therewas little, ifany,coverageof recenthistory;muchatten- tionwaspaid topoliticaland militaryfactors.Geographywas descriptiveand political.Political civics,assuch, playedaminor role in theprogram, withsometime beingdevoted tocitizenship education(Staatsburgerkunde)---thingsthe recipientof training shouldknow abouttheState. During theThirdEmpire, thewhole schoolprogramwas reshaped for thepurpose of indoctrinating the youth,of Germanywith thegoals ofNationalSocialism.The one area in the schoolprogram prior to 1945, whichcorresponded tomany present-day objectivesofone type of socialstudiespro- gramin the'UnitedStates,wasttistudy oftheenvironmentor community(Heimatkunde)in thefirst 4yearsof theelementary school.Here the childlearnedto know hisimmediatecommunity throughclassroomstudiesand throughfield tripsunder theteacher's direction.Here helearnedfundamentalsof geography,history, and folklore.As hejearnedto know hishomecommunity,hewas expectedto developaffectionand loyaltyfor his homeland.There wassome variation from thenorminafewexperimentalcenters, notablyinprivateschools; ingeneral,the schoolprogramwas rigidlyfixed incontent andmethod. Theconcept of socialstudiesmade itsappearance in German schoolsafter theclose ofWorld WarII, whenitwas emphasized in thereconstructionof schoolprograms after thedisintegration of theThirdEmpire(Reich).Theclose ofWorld WarH found Germanschools inastate ofalmostcompletedemoralization. Schoolbuildingswhichescapeddestructionweretemporarily closed.War casualtiesanddenazificationcreatedadearth of trainedteachers.Textbookswrittenduring theThird Empire couldnolonger beused;materials ofinstructionwerealmostnon- THE SOCIALSTUDIES INGERMAN SCHOOLS 43 existent. New curriculumshad to be developedandnewtextbooks prepared. An overalldirective3 of the occupationauthoritiesre- quired that thetremendous task ofeducational reconstructionbe carriedonwithin theframework of 10principles laiddown by Military Governmentin 1947, the broadpurposeof whichwasto bring about the democratizationof theGerman schoolsystem. An account of theproblems ofGerman educationalreconstruc- tion, together withrecommendations, is foundin the Reportof the United States EducationMission to Germanywhich madea sur- veyduring the latesummerof 1946 andreported to MilitaryGov- ernment in Germanyand to theDepartment ofState and the War Departmentin Washington.One of thefirst recommendations ii the report proposed"the sending of Americanexperts for direct personalcontact and discussionwith theirGerman colleagues in similar fields." "Thefirstgroupof "experts" invitedto Germany byMilitary Government, inpursuanceof thisrecommendation,was asocial studiesgroupof 7 whowereasked to provideadvisory assistance ill thisarea as onemeansof encouraginganunderstanding of the democraticwayof life. After briefingin Washingtonin February 1947, thegroupflew to Berlin formorebriefingand study. Then the members ofthegroup were sent to the major partsof the United States Zone(except for theBremen Enclave);2were assigned to Munich,2 to Wiesbaden,2 to Stuttgart,and 1re- mained in Berlin.They reassembledin Munichtocomparenotes and make preliminaryplans for thefinalreport. At the endof 3 months, thegroupreturned to Berlinwhere itsreportwaswrit- ten.' This reportwasprepared forreading by MilitaryGovern- ment in Germany,German educators,and interestedpersonsin the UnitedStates. A German translationwassent to thevarious Ministries of Educationin Germany. The reportcontainedaForeword and iectionsonSocial Educa- tion inGermany, Goalsand Principles,The SocialStudiesPro- gram,The SocialEducation of Teachers,Materialsand Equip- ment, andaProgram for Action.It soughtto acquaintGerman educators with theconcept of SocialStudies. Since1947,many ,r 3 Allied Control Authority.Basic Principlesfor Democratizationof Edu- cation in Germany.Directive No.54. Berlin: The Authority, *a June 25, 1947. 2p. 4 Department of State. Publication2664, EuropeanSeries 16.Washington: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Office,1946,p.47. 5 Report of the United States Social StudiesCommitteeto Germany.April. 1947. (Unpublished.) 44 GERMANY REVISITED

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teachers from the UnitedStates havegoneto Germany under the auspices of theDepartment of the Armyorthe Department of State. And since 1948,manyGerm44 students and teachers have# crossed the Atlanticunder variousxchnge programs tosee programsin action in the UnitedStates. Changes have been madein German texkbooksandcoursesof study. One cannotsayhow much the changesarethe result of contacts with educators in and fromthe United Statesand other countries.;arevival of interest inthe work of liberalGerman educators prior to the ThirdEmpire; orboth. Aneducational Vstem, like other institutions, has itsroots in the intellectual

8. soil ofanation. At thesametime, itmaylearn from the experienceof otherpeoples. And sometimes itlearns from thg mistakes of others. For example, in Americaneducationalsystems therearevari- ousschools of thought when itcomesto defining theterm "social studies." Tosome,itmeans asubject withitsown content, disre- garding the organizationand approach of traditionaldisciplines suchashiptoryorgeography. To others,it is thecorewhich all THE SOCIALSTUDIES IN GERMANSCHOOLS 45 other subjects have incommon.The latter schoolbf thought tends tousethe term "social education"and contends thateverysubject orschool activityshould make its contributionto the social education of the child. Wesley and othersusethe term"social studies"to designate thatareawhich includes histo geography, politicalandeco- nomic civics, social problems, Akthe like. Historyis to thesocial studie'sas'algebrais to mathematics.Wesley differentiatesbe- twen "social studies" and the"social sciences." Thesockal sciences,he writes, "are concernedwith the detailed, systematic,and logical study of humanrelationships...The social studiesare the social sciencessimplified for pedagogicalpurposes."6 This is thesensein which the National Councilfor the Social Studiesde- fines the two terms. Thisis thesensein which the UnitedStates Social Studies Committeeto Germanyusedthe terms, adding "The social studiesarethose subjects whichdeal with the kroblems of menliving together in society."Each subject has its antribution to make. For example, history furnishes the time and sequential relations,geography the place and environmentalfactors. "Social education"wasreserved to designatea purpose,like training for , citizenship, whichiscommonto allareasin the schoolprogram ; it -isnot taught inonecoursd alone. Confusion iriuseof the term "social sciences," "socialstudies," and "socialeflucation"carriedoyerto German colleagues:There,

I the concept of social studieswas new.Were social studies "subject" or"purpose?" Were pot the social studiesthesamethingas so- ciology (Soziologie) ? Shoulda newsubject, variously named, be included inacrowded curriculum,orcould thesameresults be gained by revising bothcontent and method of teaching history, geography,orthe old civics (Staatsburgerkunde) ?What word would accurately Alescribe thenew course orapproadh?.Since the control of the schoolprogram wasin the hands of ministriesof education in the States, differentnames cameintousein the dif- ferentstates. Sozialkunde, Politischer Unterricht,Gegenwarts- kunde,and Gemeinschaftskundewere someof the titles used. Some teacherssaki"social studies" beduse theyfelt therewas no German equivalent. A contribution to mutualunderstandingwasmade by the Inter- national WorkshoponSocial Studies heldat Heidelberg from July

6 Edgar BruceWilley.Teaching Social StudiesindlighSch:ools.,Third edition. Boston: D.C. Heath and Co., 1950,p.34. A 46 GERMANY REVISITED 17 to August 26,- 1950.7 About76 German teachers fromthe vari- ousboanchet of the Germaneducational systemwerein attendance. Therewere9 leaders in the social studiesfield from the-United States and 11 representatives froinother countries. Thissharing of experiencesand varying points ofview helped stabilizethe social studiesmovement in German schools.The proceedingswere r published in both Englishand German. After theWestern Occupying Powersdiscontinued theuseof the term "schoolreform" and began stressing"mutualcoopera- tion and understanding,"the German teacherswere , 40 king about achange in the spiritof the German schooltheinner school reform (die innereSchulreform). Thiswasobservable in1949 in the conferencesheld atKempfenhausen,_optside Munichonthe Starnbergersee. Bavarianelementary schoolteachersweregiving upvacatioris to attendconferences in variousparts of the State in whichmatters concerning thespirit of the schoolswerebeing discussed.Pamphlets dealingwith the importanceof the social studieswerebeing published in theseries Patlagogisches Wissen und Wirkenunder the authorshipof FerdinandKopp, head of the school in Tutzing.Three of thesepamphletswereissued under the titles of:ErziehungzumMitmensehen,Der Unterricht in.derSo- zialkunde,and 'Die Kriseder Heimaterziehungund die Aufgabe der Schule(Education for LivingTogether,Instructionin the Social Studies,and The Crisis inTeaching about theEnvironment and the Dutyof theSchool).By 1949 Bremenhadasocial studies supervisorand experimentswerebeing carriedonin both content and methodsof instruction. Certainoccupation efforts didnot result in thetype of democratic reformwhichwassought. For example,,principle4 of Directive54 8 aimed at theabolition of thetwo-track German educational structure,in which theelementary schoolparalleled the secondary schoolsothat therewere2 typesorqualities,of instruction whichoverlapped.Thedirective didnot result in the substitu- tion ofaone-track system in whichthe terms "elementaryeduca- tion" and"secondary education"meant 2 consecutivelevels of instruction.

7 Proceedings and Suggestions forthe Formationof Social Studiesin the Public Schools ofGermany. Frankfurt/Main:Office of theUnitedStates High Commissioner for Germany,June ,1951, 154p.(Internationale Arbeitsge- meinschaft ftir Sozialkundein Heidelberg, 17.Juli bis 26.August 1950, Ver. handlungsberichtundVorschlagefir die Gestaltung,des sozialkundlichen Unterrichtsin derdeutachenSchule. Frankfurt/Main:Office of the United States High Commissioner for Germany,1951, 186 p.) .8 Op. cit.,p.1. THE SOCIAL STUDIESIN GERMANgCHOOLS 47

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. 414-0 Photo by LemosniCourtasy,inter A/stimuli, After-SchoolLearning, Berlin k In 1949 currentcoursesof study didnot reflect substantial changes incourseofferings. The emphasis inthe humanisticgym- nasium continued to beonpreparation for the uniVersity,and,was largely academic. Historyusuallywastraditional history. In the realgymnasium, attentionwasbeing paidto the modern languages and to science and mathematics. In thevocational schools therewas aminimum of what might be describedassocial education. The boyorgirlwasbeing taught aboutthe laws that pertainedto his orher craft, with little instructionin historyorgeography. -71

4 48 GERMANYREVISITED 11 Ey.1954,progressin soeialstudiesinstructionwasapparent Classroonis previouslycharacterized byaformal and-didactic approachwereusingadiscussion procedure.Socialstudies instruction*wasincluded inhistory andgeography classes,where tht problemswererelated to the present.Audio-visual aidsand drama- tizationwerein eyidence.Without radicalchanges inthe structure of thecourseof study, thesubjects studied werebeingenrichedas to contentand method.Several schoolsin Hessehad, for sometime, beenexperimentingwithasocial curriculumwith moreflexibility. Insomeof theseexperimentalschools, the girls werereeiving instruction insewing andcooking,,tormerlyafunction of the vocational'schools only. Conferences ofapprentice secondaryschoolteachers were, cen- tering discussion, onproblemsinvolved ininstruction inthe social studies. TheHessian Ministry ofEducation hadappointeda committee to setup anexamination inthe social studiesto begiven to theyoungteacher' about to beginhis 2yearsof apprenticeship. In the PedagogicalInstitutesorteacher§' colleges, thefaculties were awareof the importanceof broadeningthe social studies program,though sortieindividualswerenotespecially friendly to the idea. InHesse, the 4EducationService Centers atWeilburg, Jugenheim, Kagsel,and theReinhardswaldschule,originally set. upby the EducationBranch of the Officeof the HighCommissioner for Germanyandnowtakenoverby Germans, werethesceneof manyconferences, withsocial studiesclaiming, theirshare of attention. The same wastrue ofthenewInternationalEducation ConferenceCenter atSonnenberg in theHarz Mountains. , Examples couldbe multiplied severaltimesover.A leaven 'is at workamongGerman teacherswho believe in innerschool reform. A shifttoward thedemocratization ofGerman educationis observable. Timeswill reveal thescopeof the impactof the social studies conceptonGerman education. Chapter V

Bridging the Gap Between Elementary and Secondary School Teachers

RIOR TO 1918 elementary schoolteachersweretrained insem- Pinaries for the education of elementary schoolteachers (Lehrer- seminare oder Volksschullehrerseminare) while secondary schoolteachersweretrained at universities. The seminaries differed somewhat in the various States; in general they offereda5-to'7- year. coursebasedon'7 to 8yearsof elementary schooling. In completely developed form theywerepedagogical training schools, each withadormitoryliterally "school home" (Schulheim)as living quarters for its students, and withanattached practice . school(tJbungsschule). The duration of study ranged from 3

, to 5yearsof general education followed by 2 to 3yearsofpro- , fessional training.

THE FIRST ATTEMPT

The first attempt tocarryout theuniveisityeducation of elementary schoolteacherswasmade in 1848 by the Frankfort National Assembly in the Basic Laws of the German People (Grundrechten des deutschen Volkes).Article IV of these basic laws demandedaState school,ageneral law of education,a non- denominational elementary school, and university education for elementary schoolteachers. These basic requirementswereproposed by the German Teach- PisaAssociation. (Allgemeiner Deutscher Lehrerverein),an association composed of the various grodps of teachers. In the political 49 50 GERMANY REVISITED and culturalreaction whichfollowedthe Revolutionof 1848,th TeachersAssociationwasdissolvedand the demandfor universit educationfor elementaryschoolteachers,under discussionfol. about 50yearsby progressivegroupsof teachers,wastemporarib silenced. Only inindividualinstances didanyconnection developbetween the bodyof elementaryschoolteachersand the universityduring the period1848 to1918-19. In1864 Saxonypermittedseminitry graduateswhomade thefinal andaveragemark "1"(Abschluss- note I)correspondingto "A" ineducation inthe UnitedStates, topursuefrom4 to 5semesters ofpedagogical studyat theuni- vrsity.Completionof thisstudy qualifiedfora career as seminary t,-cher. Theexampleset by Saxonywasfollowed byWeimar, ,.. :esse,Oldenburg,Bavaria,Wuerttembergand Thuringia.Begin- 4v1ig in 1919elementaryschoolteachers,who hadmade thefinal /. //Mrk"I" in theirseminarywork couldstudy atauniversityin ,' preparation forsecondaryschoolteaching.'

THE SECONDATTEMPT

Article143 of theWeimar Constitutionof 1919states with referenceto theeducation ofelementaryand secondaryschool- ./ teachersthat teachereducationis to beregulateduniformly throughoutthe NatiOnaccordingto the basic principlesapplicabke to the generaleducation ofsecondarfschoolteachers. .; When theNationalMinister ofInterior statedinaCircular of January 20,1923, thatthe provisionsof Article143 couldnot be carriedout for thetime beingbecause offinancial-reasons,.various States tookthematterupindividually.Bavaria andWuerttemberg held fastto theLehrerseminarfor thetraining oftheirelementary schoolteachers..Inthe Statesthat didmakeachange therewas, in the main,no opposition to generalseconflaryeducationfor elementaryschoolteachers.Thecontroversywas concerned with the question ofwhetherthesucceedingprofessionaltraining should be offeredatauniversityoratsomeothertype of institutionof highereducation(Hochschule). Universityeducationof 6semesters forelementaryschool- teacherswasprovidedin Thuringia(Universityof Jena) bya law, of July8, 1922;inSaxony (Universityof Leipzigand the DresdenInstitute 'ofTechnology),April4, 1923;,in Hamburg

I Elisabeth Lippert.LeNrer Bildung:EinPrograrnrn.Wiesbaden:Verlag, der HessischenLesebuchstiftung,1952,p.63. e ELEMENTARYANDSECONDARYSCHOOLTiACHERS 51 (Universityof Hamburg),December20, 1926; inBraunschweig (BraunschweigInstitute of Technolo6),1927, InMecklenburg- Strelitza 44emestercourse was providedat the Universityof Rostock.2

4 Prior to1922 thppreparationof maleelementaryschoolteachers in Prussiabegan with8yearsofelertientaryschooling. Thiswas followed by6yearsof specialstudy*Oivided3yearseach between apreparatory ochool(Priparandenanstalt)offering generaredu- cation andateacherseminarythehrerseminar)fortraee-isIon41 and practicalpreparation.Femaleelementaryschoolteacherswere taughtat preparatoryschools forwomen (Präpftrandinnenan- stalten),andnt seminariesforwomen teachers (Lehrerinnen- senainare)oratupperlycea,(Oberlyzeen). Shiftto thenew system in Prussiabegan withaMinisterial dee&ofFebruary10, 1922,whichlimitedteachereducationto 2 yearsandprovidedthat it begivenneitheratnorin connection withaunivergity.Thiswas supplementedouOctober7, 1924s-by the requiremenfthatthe futureelementaryschoolteacherattend a secondarysChoolandpassthematurity-examination;and.on, June 30,1925, bytheprovision thattheprofessionalstudy take placeata pedagogicalacademy(PadagogischeAkademie).The first 3pedagogicalacademies wereopenedat Easter in1926. By Easter1930,15 suchacademieshad beenestablished;of these,8 were closed at Easterin 1932.

k PRACTICEUNDERNATIONALSKIAL4k1

On April20,1933, shortly.after theNationalSocialistParty cameintopoweradecreewasissued forPrussiawhichconverted the 7remainingpedagogicalacademiesintoteacher-trainingcol- leges (HochschulenfarLehrerbildung).Within theyear a newone wAsopenedat Lauenberg,that ofFrankfortonthe Mainwas transferredto Weilburg,that ofHalle,to Hirschberg;and the formerpedagogicalacademiesat Frankfortonthe Oder,Hann- over,and Cottbuswhich hadbeen closedat Easterin 1932,were reopenedu teacher-training colleges. Thedevelopmentbegun in1933 inPrussiacontinuedandwas followedby theestablishmentof similarinstitutionsin other .MIllINIIIM 2 Kurt Zierold und PaulRothkugel,Redakteur.DiePadagogischenAkade- mien. WeidmannscheTaschenausgabenfür diepreussischeSchulverwaltung, Heft 70. Berlin:WeidmannscheBuchhandlung,1981,p.11 and202-205. 52 GERMANY REVISITED

States. By the fall of 1936 Germany had25 such institutions,1: of whichwereoutside of Prussia. With the opening of theBer hard Rust Hochschukat Brunswick in the fall of 1937, andU. reorganitation of teacher education inThuringia, teacher educ.. tion in Germany in itsouter organizationwasquite uniform. Thi. for the time being,completjou of secondary educationWasa pri scribed ripquirernent for admissionto the professional educatiwi of elementary schoolte4chers. Many of theteacher-training colleges, particularlyin Prussia, werelocated in-smalltownsnearruralareas.Itwasfelt that familiarity with ruralconditions and themoreintimatecontact with thepeople of the community,which thistype of location Afforded, would be of lfstinctadvantage to the student, andinde- pendent development (if the schoolwould be furthered byfreedom from overshadowingcompetition of pther interestsand institutions. Tuitionat all of the collegeswasfree. The universitieswere to accept in full toward the doctorate,with pedagogicsas amajor subject, allsemesters of saudy completedata.teacher-training college; with pedavgicsas aminor, only 2semesters.

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. Photo InvPeter fisgAer Women'sDormitoryA4hietic. school,Cologne ELEM ENTARY AND SECOND4R Y SCHOOL. TEA C H ERS 53 In addition to the preparation of elementary schoolteachers, ',Ilia)v4iAsthe realpurposeof these colleges,certain other duties \ ereassigned. All prospective secondaryschoolteacherswere re- uired to complete 2semesters of study before beginning warkat ituniversityoratacollege of musicorof art. Further, regulations sksued January 29, 1936, made them responsible/Alsofor the peda- A Nvogical education ofmen asteachers of agriculture, andofwomen asteachers of agricultural home economics. At first the collegeswereseparate formenandwomen,later they became coeducational. From1937on,after the number of menapplicants decreased,moreandmore women weretrained. With the outbreakofwarin 1939, the training ofmen asteachers stopped almost entirely. In1940 the 2-yearcogrseof the teacher:- training collegewasreduced to 3semesters, and in 1941 toa1-year coursefor secondary school graduates. With the establishmentof the 1-yearcoursefor secondai-y schi)ol graduates Iteteacher-training collegesoon gave way to the National 4149`Fialist teacher-traininginstitute (Lehrerbildungsan- .4tait oder LBA). The LBAwasfounded tomeet Thenc'edfor teachersnolonger met satisfactorilyduring World War 11 by the colleges. It offereda5-yearcoursebasedon8yearsof elementary schooling. Pupils who hadattained the certificate of middlematurity (Mitt lereReife),representing completion ofatotal of 10 yearsof elementaryand secondary schooling,wereadmittedto the thirdyearof the 5-yearcourse.The Mist,4years weredevoted to 'general education,the fifthyearto professional education. The ,schools usuallywereboarding schools locatedin smallercommu- nities. Theboys and girlsweremembers of the uniform-wearing Hitler Youth Organizations(Hitler Jugend- oder ILI und Bund Deutscher Mädeloder DM).* During thewar,fewmenentered preparation for teaching. The number ofwomentraiped in the 1-y1arcourseeat the teachertraining.collegesdid not meet the demand. Completion ofanin- stitutecoursewould have taken place normally for thefirst time in 1945. Shorteningof the period of training through specialpro- motion didnot bring enough teachers. Training of school assistants (Schuihelferausbildung)wasintroduced. After 14yearof theoreticalstudy atateacher-training college, followed byat least 1 yearof actual teaching,the training ended with 9 Months of addi- tionaltileowticalstudy atacollege. Completion .of trainingwas acceptedasthe first examination for elementarychoolteaching

(dieerste Lehrerprtifung). 4 , r

54 GERMANY REVISITED i BRIDGING THE GAP ft

With the reopening ofthe schools after WorldWar"Or II, the teacher shortageforced allStates to resort tosomeformof emergencytraining of teachers.With referenceta thenormal form of teachertraining the Stateswereinclined to reestablishone of the three basic foimsof teacher trainingto which theywerx accustomed during the'pegiod 1918-33. Bavariareintroduced the teacher-training seminaries,North Rhine-Westphaliareintroduced the teacher-trainingcollege ip its originalform. Hamburgre- turned to theuniversity training ofteachers which itbeganto develop in 1926.

414 In Bremen, priorto.1945, teachers usuallyreceived their training at institutionsof higher educationin Hamburg,Braunschweig, Dresden, andJena. After thewar,when these schoolsweretoo 'ovsrcrowdedto meet the needs ofBremen,- thelatter openeda PedligogicalSeminanit(PadagogischesSeminar)onDecember3, 1945. To *meetthe immediate seedfor teachersa1-yearcouree Wasorganized for eachof thefirst 2years.The durationof the regularcourse was 3 semesters.

. On°April1, 1947, thePedagogical Seminarybecameateachers college, ogyinga4-semestercourse.Threeyearslater,onApril * 1, 1950, tilecourseof the TeachersCollege of theFree Hansa City of Bremen(PadagogischeHochschule derFreien Hansestadt Bremen);asit isnowcalled,wasextended to6 semesters. In 1948,when theimmediateemergencyto fill postwarvacancies hadpassed, theMinistry ofEducation(Kultministerium) in - Wuerttemberg-Badenfelt that itwastimeto planfor improvement .in teacher.educationand for theinservice educationof teachers who had receivedtheirpreparation beforethe ehdof the Waror ,during theemergency.On therecommendatiOnof the Ministryand with theadvisoryassistance andaid of theUnited States Militaryi Groverwnentfor theState,anInternationalWorkshoponTeacher EducationforWuerttemberg-Badenwasheld fromMay 24 to'

August 12,1949; at Esslingeh. , The Workshopincludpdaspermanent participants21 German teachersfrom elementary,secondary, vocationaland technical /schools,and teacher-educationinstitutionsand 16 experts from . the UnitedStates,Switzerland,France,and theNetherlands. 'Ori occasion therealso wg%special experts.In additionto the regular , A members ofthe Workshopthe openingsession heldin the audito- riuth of theTeacher-Traininginstituteat Esslingenwasattended Ivrepresentatives of.the Ministry,the UnitedStates Military

.. 1 ft ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS 55

tp irlIPA---Courttav.Inter Nations* Cussnus Gymnasium Art Instruction, Bad Godesberg

To Government, and theteacher-educationinstitutions throughout Wuerttemberg-Baden. Present alsowerestudents and .faculty members of thi Teacher-Training Instituteaswellascitizens and officials of Esslingen. A ,Ln the main address of the opening session Minister Bäuerle indicated the need for certain basic reforms in all education in Germitny, instructed the members of the Workshop to keep these a 4 needs in mind, andto bring forth the best possiblerecommenda- a tions for the improvement of teacher education in Wuerttemberg- Baden. In conclusion hesaid: You, participants of the workshop for teacher education, haveabeauti- ful and important task:To show thewaywhich leadstoward the new school and thenewteacher. Don't loseyourultimate goals: freeman-in afree people;afree people inafree humanity. We need-German men,

.fit for life, swilling toaccept responsibility, and able tojudge. Butwhat weneedmore: weneed goodmenof "stout conviction, who notonly know how to live but, ittiecessary,to die for it.Andweneed teacherswhose life. ianexample of what theyteach. Let itour work bringyou nearerto- that aim, ;trim ourConstitution where, in article86,youfind the words: "Youth should beeducated inthe respect of God, inaspirit of brotherliness for allmen,and in the loveof 0 its people and country,to political responsibility, toprofessional andsocial

understanding andtoafree democratic attitude:" . 56 GERMANY REVISITED

This isouraim in thenewschool with thenewteacher.3 Beloware5 recommendationsconcerning the reform ofteache education out of21 recommendationsassummarized by the Work shop:4 2. The PaedagogischeHochschule shouldbeaninstitution for theconi monprofessionalpreparation of all teachers. 8. The Abitur [certificateOf.maturity]orits equivalent should bere- quirt(' for admissionto the ,INgiago,gischeHochschule.

I 9.All applicantsforadmisilikto thePaedagogischeHochschule should berequired topass a,careful appraisal of their 6ersona1 qualifications forthe professionof teaching. 'Observation ofthe future teacher withaview to evaluating hiia 'professionalqualities should continuethroughout theprogram. 10. Thecommon preparation of teachers for all types of schoolsshould take placeat the Paedagogische Hochschule.This preparationin- cludes basic.education, pedagogy, psychology,social scienceand philosophy. 14. Two alternativeprogramsof preparationareproposed for future secondary and vocationalschoolteachers: (a) Oneprogramunder which thestudy of specialized fieldsor subjects precedes theprofessional preparationat the Paedago- gische Hochschule. (b) Anotherprogram under which specialized study of specific subjectmatter fields follows theprogramat Paedagogische Hochschule. A decision ofJune 23, 1950, of theCultural Political Commit-- tee of .the legislature of-Wuerttemberg-Badenwas afirst step toward meeting therequirements of theserecommendations. This decision made thecertificate of 'Maturityfromasecondary school

the prescribed requirementin Wuerttemberg-Badenfor admission- to preparation at thePedagogical Institutefor qualificationas elementary schoolteacher. Interest in theimprovementof teacher educationshown in Bremen and Wuerttembergwasgeneral throughout theStates of . the German Federal Republic.The general culminationof this interest into actionwasshown by thefact thatat the XIVth Inter- national ConferenceonPublic Education,held inGeneva, Switzer-

3 Teacher Education forWuerttemberg-Baden:The Esslingen Plan.(Report of the InternationalWorkshop heldatEsslingen2Neckar.)Stuttgart: Verlag vonErnst Klett, 1949,p.28. See alsop'.° 7-27. (Lehrerbildungffir Wiirtterne- berg-Baden: Esslingen Plan.Bericht derInternationalen Arbeitsgemeinschaft in Esslingen/Neckar 1949.Stuttgart: VerlagvonErnst Klett, 1949,p.28. Sehe auchp.7-27.) 4 Ibid,p.132-83. ELEMENTARY ANDSgCONDARYSCHOOL TEACHERS 57 f land, in July1951, by UNESCO andthe International Bureau of Education, Dr.Eugen Loftier, delegateof the Gefman Federal Republic,wasable to report withreference to the education of elementaryschoolteachers that: In all states,personswishing to become primary teachersarerequired to havepassed matriculationortopossessequivalent qualification. Theoretical training varies according to state. Academic studies last 2or3years, aremade in special establishments (education institutes and academies, etc.)orat the university,andleadupto the first teacher examination. The second examination,niarking the end of training, takes place after 2yearsof practical activities.5 With this announcement thesocialgapbetween elementary and secondary schoolteachersin the German Federal Republicmaybe regardedasbridged;particularly with reference to the requirement that preparationfor elementary schoolteaching be pursued ataninstituOon of higher education, and that theprescribed requirement for admission to thistraining beacertificate of maturity fromasecondary school. The theme of the opening session of the International Confer- ence on"The Education and Training Of Teachers for Primary Schools" held at the UNESCO Institutefor Education in Hamburg, January 4-9, 1954,wasthe question "UniversityorTraining College?" with 3 speakers, presentingqiecasefortheuniversity, the training college, andadual systemr6pectively. In his presentation of thecasefor the university, Professor Georg Geissler of the Pedagogical Institute of the University of Hamburg, said with regard to the work in teacher trainingat his university: .weoffer training at the University for teachers at primary schools, grammarschools, commercial and professional schools andat special schools (i.e. for the blind, the backward, the deaf and dumb, and for children who have speech difficulties).This is laid down in the education statute of the Hansestadt Hamburg which lays down that teachers in all types of schools should be trained at the University. Students who wish to become teachers must, like all other students at tple University,securethe Abitur certificate ofa. grammarschool, and theyarefully matriculated like lawormedical students, etc., either in the philosophical facultyor the faculty of mathematics and scienceorin the faculty of law and political science. Regardless of the type of school for which they laterwigto acquire the capacity to teach, they all take the following education lectures together: the history of educationorsystematic education; comparative education; professional education; educational anthropology; the theory

0 5 United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organinton [and] International Bureau of Education. International Y earboole 'of Education: 1951.Publication No. 137. Paris/Geneva: UNESCO/IBE, 1951,p.127.

.. 58 GEV ANY REVISITED

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's - Photo from SW. VerlagZairian.Inter Notion, Girls' Class, Munich .* of schooling; educational+psychology; and educationalsociology. At the sametime, in accordance with'theprinciple of aeademicfreedom, plenty of time is left forfree individual interests.Independently ofthe particular care& whiclithey have in view, thtytake part inseminars andpr9- serninars.4 Theorganizing framework for theseis the normaluniversity Education Seminar.But there existsat thesametime, qince teachers also require practicaltraining adjustedto the needs of theislifferenttypes of schools, the Instituteof Education of the University,which has theparticular functionof introducing the studentsto practical teachingand of making them' familiar withthe particular questionsof didactic and method raised by theindividual subjects taughtin theirtype of school. At this point the variousgroupsofteacherssegregate, andas aresult the Institute of Educationis divided into 4departments correspondingto the 4 main types Ofschools whichwehave in Germany....? To-meet the needs of teachersat the varioustypes of schools the PedagogicalInstitute of theUniversityof Hamburghas the following4 divi,ions:Elementary schooland practicaland technical secondary school,part-time vocationalschool and commercial school (Berufsschuleund Handelsschule),general educationsecondary school,and special schools (Sonderschulen). 7

6 Courses of lectureswith exercises- andpapersread by thestudents themselves. Theyaredivided into 8grades of which proseminaris the first. 7 UNESCO Institute for Education,The Education andTraining of Teach- et's for Primary Schools.Hamburg: The Institute,1964,p.19. . ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHERS 59

. Students who wish topreparefor the State examination for teachers register in the Faculty of Philosophy to study the science of education (Eqiehungswissenschaft) Future. commercial school- , teachers register in the Faculty of Economics and Social Science. Future secondary schoolteachers register in the 'Faculty of Philos- ophyorin that of Mathematics-NaturalScience, dependingonthe subjects they wish to teach. Elementary Schoolteachers (V olkeschullehrer)...- Theeduca- tion of elementary schoolteachers, which in Hamburgincludes teachers Of the elementary school and of the practicaland technical secondary school, requires at least6 semesters of study at the University of Hamburg. In additionto thecoursesin education and in the related fields of psychology mentionedby Professor Geissler, the student attendscoursesin his special subject selected fromamongGerman language and literature, history, religion, English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology,geography, music, drawing, handcraft, needlework, homemaking,gymnastics. Side by side with this theoretical work, the studentpursueshiS practical professional study (SchulpraktiseheAusbildung) at the Pedagogical Institute of the University. Theory-and practiceare combinedso asto give him training in didactics and methods. The practical training includes 3 school practicalexercises and 2 periods of so-called school assistant service. In the schoolprac- tical exercises students ingroupsof 8 insummerand 10 in winter observe and participite in teachingat a school, under the direction ofafaculty member. The school practicalexercises, with the duration of each,are : I.Introductory practice (Einftihrungspraktikum)-2 daysaweek for 1 semester IL German practice (Deutsches Praktikum)-1 dayaweek for 1 semester III. Practice in the special subject (Wahlpraktikum) The first school assistant servicemaybe either social assistant service(Sozialhelfexdienst)orrural school assistant service (Landschulhelferdienst).It is from 4 to 6 weeks in duration, dependinguponthe place of work.- The social assistant service aimsto introduce the future teacher to glacial pedagogical work at youth offices, 'schools, and other. places,, It generally is done during vacation inba children'sdayor convalescent home, in the vocational guidance-section ofanetn- ploymentorotlieryouth office,oratan orphanage. During the ,periqdtpf his assistant service, the student is assignedtoamember of the Pedagogical Institqte, yamserves ashis adviser,Oncome

A a. 60 GERMANY REVISITED 4. pletion.ofthe service,areportonthe student'swork is sentto th( PedagogicalInstitute. The studentalso writesadetailedreporton hisassistant servicein which he aimsto show that he hasacquired .ayiunderstanding of theproblems of thesbcialirpedagogicalwork Ar". of the placewhere he served. eji The cityschool assistantservice(Stadtschulhelferdienst)canbe entered theearliest after the4thor5th semesterof studY.The studentmust have participatedwithsuccessin the requireddidac- tic lecturecoursesand be familiarwith the basicliteratureon methods ofelementary schoolwork.He musthave performedthe prescribedpractice teachingsowell that hecanbe expeetedto be capable ofconductingaclass. The city schoolassistant service isat least 6 weeks indutation. Itcanbe carriedout only in theCity of Hamburg andthere only in the classesof the elementaryand- of the practicalsecondary school. Itis entrustedto teachers willingto undertakethe work voluntarily becauseof interest in thefutute generationof teachers. In preparationfor the service,the student selectsfromalist the teacherunder wh9m hewishes to do hisassistant service.This teacher becomeshis asiistant'steacher (Helferlehrer).A member of thestaff of the Pedago 1 Instituteserves asthe studerit's adviser. ye* Beforetbe beginningof fhe servicethe studentconsultsthe SchoolAssistant Officeasto his themes ofinstructiop andpresents his adviserwithaplan showing the fieldand method awork planned.This preliminaryconference with theadviser is held,early enoughsothat changescanbe made. If integratedinstruction (Gesatntunterricht)is.given in theelementaryorin the practical secondary schoolthe student takes,if possible,asingle theme Mr the entireperiod of assistantservice. Incaseof school instruction by individualsubjects (gefachertenUnterricht)he has German, arithmetic,and social studiesin the classesof the elementary school. Intheupperclasses he hasGerman andarithmeticas required subjectsandathird subjectaccording to choice.His working loadis 18 toamaximum of 20 hoursaweek. Thestudent is requiredtoprepareeach unit ofinstruction in detailand in writ- . ing. Afterthe student has becomefamiliar with theclass andwith the teacher'smethod of work, hetakesoverinstruction fromtime to Wife andduring the last 4 weekshe teaches hidependentlyto the extent agreedupon.The student cannot beused to take theplace ofanabsent teacher. Theassistant's teacheris askedto be in complete0 charge of thedaily work ofthe student. To theextent 'that it is possible,the studentparticipates,in theteachers' meetings when invitedtoxioso.

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A 4 ELVAEMrTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS 61 , Oncompletion of the service the assistanCs teacber sends ina report tothe Pedagogical Institute. Ifthe student's achievements arenot sufficient, theInstifute decidesonwhether the studentmay repeat the serviceorbe advised to drop his studies. WitIO 6 weeks after completion of the ftssistant service, the student presentsawritten report to his adviser givingabrief account of the 4ssentia1 experiences in his practice teaching,or e abasic problem in practice teaching. After combletion of at least 6semesters of Universitystudy and successful achievement in theoretical and practical professional studies, t4e studentmayapply for admission to the State examinationfoiqualificationa§teacher in elementary schools, and in_practical and technical secondary schools. Success in the examinatioriqualifies for temporary appointmentasteacher in elementary school service (Lehrer in Volksschuldienst).Perma- nent appointment (endatige Anstellung) requiressuccessin the second teachers' examination (zweite Lehrerprtifung). This is taken at the earliest after 3yearsof serviceas ateacher. Teachers for Special Schools.--For admissionto study at the University of Hamburg, in preparationfor the examination for qualificationastaacher of handicapped children, the applicant must (1) be qualified forpermanent appointinentitAanelementary

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schoolteacher,(2) haveproved, 1 throughyearof serviceasEv- sistant ataschool forthehandicapped,that hehas theinclinatiol and adaptabilityfor teachingtheparticulartype ofhandicapped children,and (3)is notmore than 30yearsofageif hewishesto teachchildrenwhoare deaf, hard-of-hearing,.orhavea speech difficulty;nptover36years ofageif hewishestoprepare for teachingthe blindandpartiallyseeing;orthe mentillyretarded. In each instancetheDirectorof theHamburgSchoolAdminis- tration(SenatorderSchulbehörde)decideson admission. In each instance also,the adviserfortheoreticaleducation(Leiterder wissenschaftlichenAusbildung)is theDirectorof thePedagogical Institute oftheUniversity.Theadviser forthepracticaltraining (Leiterder praktischenAusbildung)is thespecialistof theHam- burgSchoolAdministrationconcernedwithschoolsfor the and for deaf childrenwithdefectivespeech,forschools fortheblind and partiallyseeing,orfor schoolsfor thementallyretarded._ Attainment ofq4alificationasteacher ofhandicappedchildren requires 'at least 2yearsoftheoretical;studyat theeUniversityof .Hainburg. Thesubjects ofinstructionforteachersof children. are who deaf,hard-of-hearing,snd whohavespeechdifficultyare: a 1.Psychology;survey of thestructure,function,and the central disturbancesof soltr nervous system.

.1 2.Structure, funCtion,anddisturbancesof the Organsof speech sense. and 3. Normal andpathologicalphonetics(rOystology,pathology,and hy- giene of thevoice andspeech). 4. Psychologyof thePhard-of-hearingand.speech-handicappedchild. 5. Educationand care of thehard-of-hearingandspeech-handicapped. HiStory, organization,andwritingontheeducationof thehard-of-t hearingand thespeech-handicapped. 9 .4 The practicalworkisl)ursuedunder the direction.ofteachersat all 3types of schoolsincluding1yearataschoolfor th*deaf,and halfa year each at aschoolfor thehard-of-hearingand ataschool forchildren with'defectivespeech. Thecandidatealso isrequired to 'complete 18 hoursaweek(Wochenstunden)ofindepeudent teaching. Further,he mustobservethe teachingocexpetienced teachers during4 hoursaweek.Theseinstructionvisitsareto be so arranged thattheapplicantill lespit;)cnowtheinstruction and theindividualworkat thearious 1elsand inthe forms. 'various Observation ofteachingandKacticeteachingare followed byconferences . under the ditedimiof theclassteacher., The\ 2-yearcourse closes withawritten,an oral, anda' practical 'examination.Thecommitteeappointedby theSchoolAdmintp . tration ofHamburgincludes: f ELEMENTARYAND SECONDARYSCHOOL TEACHERS 63 1. The Supervisorfor SpecialSchools of the.School Administrationof Hamburgaschairman. 2.Teachei;of theUniversity ofHamburg whd haveparticipattid in the applicant'sinstruction. tr- 3. Teachers who haveparticipated in theapplicant's trainingat the schools forthe hard-of-hearingand speech-handicappedchildren in 4 Hamburg. 4.The schoolphysician forschools for thehard-of-hearing andspeech- handicapped. Success in theexaminationis marked byacertificate of qualification for regularappointmenta teacherat schools for the deaf, hard-of-hearing,and speech-defective. The theoreticaland practicaleducation ofteachers for the blind and for the mentallyretarded followasimilarpattern. The certificate attained isacertificate of qualificationfor regularappoint- mentasteacherat schoolsfor the blindand partiallyseeingorfor the mentallyretarded. SecondarySchoolteachers.Studyin preparationfor qualifica- tionassecondaryschoolteacher ofGerman, classicallanguages, modern languages,history, andgeographyis Offered in theFaculty of Philosophy;and inmathematics; chemistry,biology,and in geography inrelation togeology.and mineralogy,in the Factilty 'Oa

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Inner Courtyard inadIenveg School,Hamburg-BIllstedt l.s , 0.0 II , 64 GERMANY REVISITED ofMathematics-Natural Science .at all4niversities.In natui 1 sciences it isoffered alsoat the JustusLiebig Hochschuleof Git- senand at allInstitutes ofTechnology. Dependingupontherequirementsof the universityconcernes:, the studentselects 2or3 subjects fromI of the 2faculties. One(if- the Aubjects,regardlessof faculty,maybe religionorphysic.11 education. Inaddition, allcandidates forteachingarerequiredto study philosophyand education.Studentsmaychoose furthersub- jects, but-theseadditional subjectsdo not formapart of thea requiredcurriculum. Admission toCvstudyrequirespresentation ofacertificateof -maturity froma'secondaryschoolorevidence ofequivalent schooling. Thestudy is8 semestersin durationand closes withaState examinationtaken beforeanexaminationcommitteeappointed- by theMinistry ofEducation ofthe Stateconcerned. For the studyof educationat thQ,Unifersityof Hamburg,it is recommended thatfuturesecondaryschoolteachersselect lecture coursesand exercisesfrom thefollowingfields/ 1.Lectures:

(a) Generalpedagogic, historyof pedagogics,theory of.theschool, and generaltheory ofinstruction. (b)Generalcharacterology andpsychology ofdevelopment. 2.Exercises: (a)In the Scienceof Education . Seminaron ahistoricalor systematic theme. (b) At thePedagogicalInstituteonbasic pedagogicalquestions in the subjectshe is plinningto teach. In addition duringsemester. 2, 3or4, pedagogicalobservation in- cludesaperiod of 4weeks ofpractical workatanelementary school 1 dayaweek from8, to 10a. m.and 1 dayaweek from8 a. m.tonoon,whilepractical workatasecondaryschooloccurs daily from theend of thefall vacationafter the fourthsemester to the beginningof thewintersemester. The professionaltraining ofthe secondarkschoolteacher, following thefirst Stateexamination whichmarks completionof the 4-year period ofgeneraleducation, is describedby Dr.Eugeg Millerasfollows:

On obtaining thediploma awardedby tho publiceducation boards..4. candidatesareattachedtoasecondary schoolin the capacity ofStudien- referendar[apprenticeteacher] foi% theirpractical* trainingand instruct- tion in methods.The periodsospent isconsideredto beoneof preparatory service...and in additionto the workrtinvolves,'candidatesare ex- pected to takethecoursesand practicalactivities ofseminars organized by the educationauthorities. Theprofessional traininggiven during the period ofpreparatory servicecoversall fields of-school activity:the ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARYSCHOOL TEACHERS 65 . . theory and practice of discipline, secondary educationregulations, equip-

ment, socialfservices, school organization and legislation,the literature 1 of education. Such training also includesthe principles of education, the method of each subject, and, for studentsonthe science side,anintro, duction to teaching in the school laboratories.In the majority of the Lander [states] the period of preparatoryservice laststwo years, except in the south of the country, where it isamatterofone year or one year and a half, but whereanextensionto two years is already contemplated. The study of psychology is alsoincluded in thd\secondaryteachers' profssional training. Theparticular ajcts which )1'regiven emphasis ... and thewayin which theyarepserfted,, dependonthe insttuctors

.41 concerned and inpartoncircumstances. Thispart of the professional trainingprogrammeis neither fixednorcompulsory, and follows thelines onwhich the subject is approachedin the university concerned. The practical work done during theperiod 'Ofpreparatory service... consists of attending lessons given by the teachersof their school, giving lessons themselves under the supervision ofthe teachers, attending lessons given by their fellow*-students,and participating in the criticaldiscussion of the practice lessoné." - :10 Completion of the2-year period ofpreparatory serviceis marked by the professionalorsecond State examination.Itgener- ally includesawrittenpaper ;'Anoral examination inpedagogy, methods, psychology, andschool organizationand legislation;and trial lessons in secondary schoolclasses at different levels.Asuc- cessful candidate receivesacertificate of qualificationassecondary schoolteacher which qualifiesfor temporaryappointmentas a teacher. When afterseveralyearsof successful servicein'asecondary school the teagherattains permanentappointment, he becomesaSt udienrat.

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MANIA I UnitedNations Educational, Scientific 'andCultural Organization[and] International Bureau of Education. Secondary TeacherTraining. Publication : No.155 : Paris/Geneva: UNESCO/IBE,1954,p.87. 13

411

Chapter VI P

HigherEducation

T HEGERMAN F.'cleralRepublic hasover100institutionsof Ihigherlearningincluding, inadditiontoafew miAcellaneous schools:

N 2kcadethies:1 Medical and1 Mining\ 81 Specialized institutions(Hochachulen): AdministrationiState),1; Agriculture,1; Art,10; Economicsand pont*,1;Music,10;' Pedagogics, 42;Theology Catholic,10;Ttieology Protestant (Evangelical),4; andVeterinary medicine,2 ' 8 Institutesof technology 7 OtherscientifIcinstitutions I Schoolofgymnastics

17 Universities -

Each oftheseinstitutions isplayingarole inthe broadfield of education.Themain focusof thischapter,however, isnoton'the largernumber oftechnicaland specializedinstitutionsof higher learningbutonthe 17 classicaluniversitiesof theFederal Reiiublic ofGermany. These17 institutionsof higherlearningprovide themain link with theeducationaltraditions ofold. Lacethepecializedinstitu- tions for °teacher training discussedin chaptery,.they helpmold the future.Whathi:Ivensto academicfreedomandto thebalance., betweenknowledge foritsownsake andknowledgefor the benefit of eachindividualand ofsocietyinfluences theformandsubstance ofgovernment,communitytorganizationanddevelopment,and the vitalityof thenationand itsrelationshipto theworldcom- inunity.

66 1.0 HIGHER EDUCATION 67

ACADEMIC FREEDOM 7 Prior to 1933 theGerman university usuallywas apractically autonomous institution founded and supported bythe State. In Prussia itwasunder the directsupervision. of the Ministry of Education which prescribedits statutes, defiru4 itsfunctions, and granted its privileges.In Prussianot in theother Statesthe Statewasrepresentedat each university byacurator (Kurator) whose function itwasto actasintermediary between theuniversity and the Ministry. , The chancellor(Rektor)was,at the head of theself-administration of the university.Elected annuallyfromamongthe fullpro- fessors, hewasassfsted by theSenate (of which hewaschair- man). The Senate, inturn,wascomposed of the vice-chancellor, the deans of the variousfaculties, andmembers elected fromthe ,corpsof kofeasors.At the head ofeach facultywasthe dean (Dekan), elected annually. fromamongthe professors of the fac- WWIEach facultywasresponsible for theinstruction in its field.It held examinations forand conferred academicdegrees. On qualified scholars it alsoconferred the vrniafrgendi whichgavethem the privilege of teachingin the facultyas aprivate teacher (Privat- dozent).' Academic freedom allowedthe professorindependence in his duties, except for certainlimitations imposedby requirements of the Stateexaminations. With theexception of keepingin mind the examinationsfor his chosenprofession, thestudentwasfree to selectauniversity, tomovefromone university to another, and to choosehis subjectsof study.

LOSS OF ACADEMICFREEDOM

With the establishmentof NationalSocialism, universitiesin Germany becamenational institutionsunder the directionof the National Ministryof Education. TheStates furnished thefunds for theupiTersitieswithin theirrespective borders,but the faculty member&wereofficers of theNation. Throughadecree of April1, 1935, for unificationof administrationin institutions of higher education,auniversity consistedofaninstructional staff(Dozen,- tenschaft),includingall .activelyengaged instructorsandas.

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I A Privatdozent teachesat the universityat the discretion ofafullpro-. fessor whoactsashissponsor. \\ 68 GERMANYREVISITED sistants, andastudeig pody(Studentenschaft),madeupof full matriculated studeAofGermandescentandmother-longth regardlessofcitizenship.2 The chiefadministrativeofficer oftheuniversitythechan- cellorbecameit8 Flthrer.Hewasappointedby the\National Minister of Educatidandwasresponsibleto him. alone.Impor- tant alsowerethe leader(Leiter )- oftheinstructionalstqf.and the leaderof thestudent body.Bothwere, appointed by theNa- tiOnalMinister ofEducation,the formeronthenominAtionofthe chancellorand theDistrictLeader ofthe National-S'OcialistUni- veisityTeachersAssociation;the latteronthe nominationof the chancellorand the DistrictLeader ofthe NationalSocialistStu- dent,Association.BothwererespOnsibleto thechancellor. Thevice-chancellorand thedeans ofthefaculties alsowere,appointed bytheNational,MinisterofEducatibnontherecommenda- tion of thechancellor.A Senatecomposed ofthe leaderof thein, structionalstaff, thekader of thestudentbody, thevice-chancellor, the deans,and 2pthermembersappointedby the chancellor,of whomone'was fet'omthe NationalSocialistUniversity-Teachers Association,assisted the chancellorinanadvisorycapacity. .; Each facultywas responsible for theinstruction inits field.The dean wasthe leaderof hisfacultyaid couldappoint hti'own alternate.Hisadvisorybodywas afaculty,committeewhichdn- cluded theregularandextrordinaryprofessorsiond-two in structors withtemporaryappointments,named bytheleaderof theinstructionalstaff. 1 Questionsconcerninglearningorstudieswere referred in the firstinstance to thedean; concerning . theteachingstaff, tothe leader of theteachirigstaff;concerningthe *studentbody,to the leader ofthestudentbody. Iffurtherconsideration.wasnecessary it-wasreferredto thechancellor.

4. -The tontinuing-Nfit4onalGovernmenttontrolofinstitutionsof highereducationwasassuredbyprpceduresestablishedfor adding new members to the teachingstaff.Shoyvingthatpne was qualified . to feach inan institution of higlieeeducationand obtaihingthe license P ta doso were practitallyidenitiAlpriorto tileNational HabilitationRegulationQf December13, 1934.Underthenew regulation, habilitation,orprovingone'sfitness,becamea pkte- requisitefor, thelicenseto teach. / N fro P . . 0 4. t /II ft2 DeutacheWissenschaft, ErziehungundVolksbildung . of the [Officialnewspaper National'andPrussian Viniteriesof Science,Educationand Public Instructionand of EducationAdministrationsof other States]Heft8.: 142; 20.April 1935.

1 as J 46

HIGHER. EDUCATION . 69 .4 " The degree of doctororof licentiatewasrequired of the applicant, with habilitation -Mpg attainedat the earliest in the third yearafterthe close of universitystudy. After approval of the candidate's habilitation thesis by the faculty concerned, thecandidate wal3 asked to present himself fora.scientific discussion., If the chancellor mid the Maltywerefavorably imprened, the degree of habilitationwasconferredonreceipt of authority:from the National educationoffice. Dependingonthe field for which it wasissued, the degree, for example,might bei habilitated doctorof philos6phy(Dr. phil. habil.), habilitateddoctor of medicine (Dr. med. habil.),orhabilitated licentiate in, theology(Lic. theol. e habil.). 0 . The applicant then applied to the National'Ministryfor license to teach. 6-wasassigned, through the 'State ethicationoffice; to an a o opate faculty" for 'a public examination in teaching (öffentlicheehrprobe) consisting, inaperiod ofaweek, of 3- hour lectures in thecandidate's field of study. If, through previou lectuns, ...the faculty already had formedanopinion,the require- mentcoalbe limited to I hour. Aftersuccessin the publicexam- ination, the candidate appliedto the State education office for admission to the 47weektrainingcoursefor university teachers. This course wasintended to familigrize him' with themain questions of science ''andresearch in Telation to NationalSocialism, and to develop his' community spirit beyondthat of faculty boundaries. 4 On the basis of the assembledreports, the State education office, with the apProval of theNational Minister ofEducation, granted orrefused the license. Once attained,the licensewasgood at all institutions of highereducation in ,Germany, with transferfrom ,oneinstitution to another requiring theconsent of the N4tional Minister of Education. The Miister Couldarrange attansfer and alsoTould revokeorlimitalicon IicnNs.31

POSTWARREORGANIZATION OFUNIVERSITIES p. t. SI

a In the reopening of schoolsin 1945, elementaryaroand secondary schools had first priority. Initiallyitwan,estimated that itwould take at least 2yeasts toprepirefor the liquidation of Naziinflu. encesin kiither education,and tocareproperly .for othermatters connectedwitlfwthereonstruction, rehabilitation; and reforhiof German university life.Actually the implementationof plans wait speeded up,congiderablyto meet the need for continuityineduca-

3 Ibid., He 12-14; ea Januar 1935, fr 4

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tion, particularlyinmedicine,theology,and thepreparationof secoridary schoolteachers.MilitaryGovernnontlookeduponthe universities,withtheirpre4933faculty traditionofself-govern- mentpxtendingbackto theMiddleAges,as potential "higher schoolsofdemocracy."It hopedthatesti'university to put wouldbe`able forwardacitizens'committeecapable oftakingchargeand doing the job, Li and notmerelyworkingunderMilitaryGovernment directiv6.4 1 , ., t Theecitizens,'committeesenvisionedbyMilitary were generally Government kno*nas "planningconrynittees"andconsistedof rankingfaculty members 'kvhohadoppOsedNationalSocialism. (Many ofthemhad been removedfrom theirpositionsduring 'the * Naziregime.)

4 E. f Y.,Hartshorne,ReopeningGermanUniversities. Weekly MilitaryGovernment InformationBulletin43: 6-9;May 27,1946.

* 4 ' 0 z HIMINEDUCATION 71 In rebuilding teaching staffs the "procedureon'denazification wastb allow the committees to start /from scratch andpropose newteaching staffs. Candidates for teachingpostswereexamined by the committees. Thenewcaculties thenwereproposed to Mili- tary Government for approval. 'This proceduregavethe universities the initiative by allowink them to omit Nazinamesfrom their lists of proposals. Except foraminimum custodial staff,no staff member could begin work before, he received specificap- proval from Military Government.

. "The principal problemon4studentswasselection of the most gifted and the mostdeservitig.Therewere on an average4 appli- cants forevery vacancy...the universities thus found themselves inan emergencysituation where selective tests and inter- viewsa novelty in the German practicebecame absolutely essential."Again -theway wasleftopenfor faculty initiative, with Military Government exercisingasupervisoryfiinction. A problem for scholars,wasto adjustsubjectstudies tocon-, temporary needs. For example, they needed to-restore the balance between study of the hungcnities for the sake of the humanities and for the sake of humanit Addressesat thereo ,-"?t!the University of Frankforton February1, and at the sfty cr1 WuerzburgonFebruary 5, 1946, reflected theopportunity to ,regain academic freedom. They stressed the respongibility for recognizing changesduring the 12-year period between wintersemester 1932-33 awl 1945. The speakers pointedout the dangers of toonarrowspecialization. To meet the challenge. of change,they urged that students broaden their studies bk includingsubjectsifnfields outside of their specialization,° Suchwerethe hopes for education at the thresholdofa newera- in 1946. By the spring of1949 countless reportstidbeen prepared by Occupation authorities -and :Germaneducators- and adminis- tratorsoneducation in general andoneducation at thevartus levels; including higher education. Untoldnumbers *of interViews had been held relating toGerman education. British, French,and United States officials of Military GovernmentandGernianscon- cerned directlyorindirectly with German highereducation had

5 Ibid.,p.8-9. s f. 6Kurt Blaum, Karl Geller, und Georg Hohmann.Die Bildungs- undErzi4- hungsaufgabeder heutigen Universitlit.FrankhirterUniversitAtgreden,Heft 1. Frankfurt-Main:Verlag G.-Schulte-Bulmke, 1946, '24p". und Georg Wun- derle, Das Ideal derneuendeutschen Universitat. WitrzburgerUhiver- sititoreden Heft 1. WUrzburg: Verlag Ferdinand &Wipe),1946, 14"p.

1 . 72 GERMANY REVISITE15','

spoken fortherecord. Thelatter includeduniversityadminiF, trators, professors,teachers,assistants, librarydirectors,uni versitystudptsandeducationaliv-mindedpublic officialsanc businesspeople.Picked .4 at random andlisted,belowareefew comments fromsuchsourceswhich reflectsomeof therealitie:. 16 with whichGermanuniversitieswerfaced:

. 1. Germanintellectualsrealize thattheir universitieshave "fallenbe- , hindthe times." . at, 2. Two unsuccessft.ilwarsin 30yearsand the nullificationof creative thoughtunderNational Socialismcrippled Germanintellectuallife. 3. 'The roleof universityeducation insocietyasfound inEnglandand the UnitedStates hasno counterpart in Germanuniversities.

4. MUT12 year§of NationalSocialism andthe resultingdebaclewedo not trust ou'r.opinips. 5. .Wewere too exhausted at the end ofthewarandtooiconcerned, withsurvival1 duringthe yearsof cold andhungertoconcern our-

selveq withh ereducation. IA 6. Onlysince theEuropeanRecoveryProgram beganto, take effect have vtte begunto feel solidearth underourfeet. - 7.Sincewedo not.know who willwinthe Eastorthe Westwesay nothing. t I 4 k IN 8. Wegrew-so accustomed 4- ,to silence anddistrust underNational So- cialism thatwehavenotlearnedto discuss anythin%inancatylos-. phere of . ihtellectualfreedom. , 4.Weare so overloadedwithteaching andadministrative duties anc4 with tryingto earnaliving thatwe,havenotimeor energyleft to thinkabout thefuture. 47, 10.Veastsince 1933wehave beensoisolatedfromthe rest of the world thatwedonot know the achievements I! elsewhere andhaveno criteria basedonthe experienceof others forconsidering whatwe

mightaccomplish., Ole 11.The Nazistalkedsomuch aboutthe next1,000yearsthatweprefer to focuson present tasks; weyandourstudents tendto lookupon effoçts toplah fo'rthe futureorto exPressourideals andidealistic hopesas pretentious Ad demagogic. 12. GreatBritain andthe UnitedStatesha4tablekocieties in which universitiescan adjust andflouilsh;weheeetsodeiyheld together (f., by'bureaucracyandadivision of,functions whichpas littlerelatir- . ship totradition.Univers'les cannbt adjust to sucha tempoKary soma order. a ' 13. OccasionallyoneMeetsaold proftssorand oftena Young teac whorecognize thenecessi y for reform. 14. Many students--r:especiallyfrom middle:classfamiliesarethoroughly digested withuniversityeducation,

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DiningHaII-4re7iUniversity of tlerlin ,1 110 A In spite of the hardships-Lphysical, iAtellectual, atidgpiritual all 14traditithialuniversities and 3new onesin the Federal Re-

Public (including, the Saar, which has been reunited with the Re- public) and Berlinwerereopened within appioximately3 yeitri after the end of the War.

4d. CLASSICALUNIVERSITIES / t , One university born in the Vost-World War IIerais the Free University of Berlin.Foundedin 1948 for students in the Western Sectors of that city, it standsas ademocratic protestAgainstthe limitationsonacademic freedomat the communist-dothinated Humbolt Vniversity in the Eastern Sector of Berlin. Alargepro- portion of the faculty" and student body of HumboltUniversity deserted the. SovietriZone and helpedto 'wild the Free Uniirersity. Grants from the Ford Foundation and frOmU. S. Military Govern- ment profided the financial basig for the university. 9 Another', which might be classedas a newinstitution -since .World Wath II, is the University of Mainz.Originally founded in 1476, it aseached its heightin the period of Eplightenment,wap closed formorethanacentury, and had its rebirth as.the,Johannefit Gutenberg University duTipg zonaloccupation by tte French. The thirdnewunivdrsitythbe opened in.Wdstern Germanywas the University of the Saarat Saarbtuecken, fQunded aiki supported,*.

.s ' tie s. ; , 4 B ' GERMANYREVISITED at' 'jointlyby the laarlandersansilothe FrenchOccimationForces.Tiie beginningsofamedital1,acu1t,were established at thehoipitt1 inHomburgin1946.Faculties of science,arts, and.la*weree: velopedin 1948whenall thefacultieswerecbmtinedintoa university--4hefirst suehinstitutionin thehistory.ofthe§aar.,From itsbeginning 'the,universitystroNTe ,toemphissizeinterhAtidnal unile*rstandinganda.European rathertharil-aationalpoint(of yiew.Asa bilingualinstitution wittSaar apdFrench Aupport,it is makinga contsibutim towardGerman-Pienchunderstanding and isreachingout intoother countriesto promotethe "European" idea. .) The 1 other14 classicaluniversities 'intheFederalRepublicof Gexmanywere founded prior toth0rergence of AdolfHitlerand the brandof-vrevOutionaryideology whichdenied theobjective ground of truthand resultedin nihilism. Severdltad perk*when theirdoors-wereclosed butallwereinoperationwhen Hitleras- sumedpower,wereClosedin 1945,and reopenedafter WorldWar II: -All17uriiersitiesarelisted belowin-thealphabeticalorder of thecities'inwhich theyarelocated. City ad % ,University 1.Berlin(West)__Free Universityof(Freie.UniversitätBerlin) e. 414w 4M4.-.4. 0.4 am. ado wr 44. 2. Bonn 4WD RhenischFrederickWilliarnUriiversityof (Rhein- ischeFriedrichWilhelms'UniversitätBonn) 3.Cologne Universityof(UniversitätzuKöln) 1. Erlangen FrederichAlexanderUniversityof t (Friedrich SA Alexander UniversitätErlangen) 5.Frankfortonthe 4I Main . Johann WolfKangGoetheUniversityof(Johann WolfgangGoetheUniversititFrankfurtam Main) IS 44. 6.Freiburgin 8.. 4/ Breisgau,_ Albert LudwigUniversityof (AlbertLudwigs UniversitätFreiburg imBreisgau)

7. GoettingenIawwb 414. George AugustUnIversityof (GeorgAtigustUni4t versitätGottingen) , 8.Hamburg,_ eDD Dow. mio University 11411 .of (,UniversitätHamburg)

9.Heidelberg alb ,ww4 a..OW Rupert CarlUniversityof (RuprechtKarlUni- - versität,Heidelberg) '10.Kiel ChristianAlbertUniversitybf (ChristianAl- id. 1%. :brechtsUniversitatKiel)

11. Mainz MM. *Maomm....1=1 MED4.m..11ems.VW, JohnGutenbergUniversityof(JohannesQuten-. bergUniversitlitSfainz) 12.Marburg \,,PhilippaUniversity of(Philipps-UniversitätMar- Nburg) 44 . 18.Munich 4 ae - LudwigMaximilianUniversityof (LudwigMaxi- p. miliansUniversitit)pinchen)

14. =ID I.Muenster GM, dim WestphalianWilliamUniversitydf (Westfilische 3 WilhelmsUniversitätMunster)

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FACULTIES

structionis dividedbasicMly intothe 4 facultiesof flaw,med.- ,ciáe, philosophy,and theology,withvariationsat the differentum- versifies.Atsome institutions the facultieiofphilosfophyand law are more compreliensivethanat others. Atmost institutionsgeii- eralscienci.andin 9, mathentaticg,areoutside fifefaculty ofphi- ' losophy°; insome,economics,polittralscience, andsocial science areseparate from law.In addition,3 institutionshaveagriculture; 2 haveveterinarymedicine and1affitulty.of forestry.Belo*are tlistedthe 17types of facultiesin alp1abeticalorder witiruniver. sifiesbeing listedby city: :- Univer f Location bycity7 -.4-c-fif,4 .''11'1'4.*: ': 1. Agricultursei ti;zi;'1'-'-'';,;:t.'i,,,, ftliche Fa- -....-...,..... kultät) .. , *poi; Goettipgen,Kiel f.;.. :.... .,.. 2. ) Catholic theology(Katho h na. I. 8-.',:i ''j ,-1,..W: logische Fakultat) '.I...:f -,, :1. Ronnf.,1Teiburg,Main; Mu- .. nich, Muenster,Tuebingen, .\.. Wuerzburg 3.. Economics(StaatswirtschaftlicheFa- kultat) ftnich 4. Economicsand socialscience (Wirt- hhafts-und Sozialwissenschaftliehe4 Fakultät) Berlin,Cologne,Frankfort, Hamburg )

5.Evangelical; theology "c'1111k (Evangelisch- 4 TheologischtFakuität)______tiorin,Erlangen,Goettingen, a

. 9 Hamburg,Heidelberg,Kiel, -Mainz, Marburg,Muenster, Tuebingen 6.Forestry (ForstlicheFakultät) Goettingen 7. Law (Juristische Fakultät) Berlin, Erlanken,Heidelberg, Munich I. , 8. Law and economics(Rechts- und 4 01 WirtschaftswissensihaftlichdtFa- Aultät) Mainz,Saarbruecken,Tue- , , bingen tie 9. Law and politicarscience(Rtchts- und 01, . StaatswissenschaftlicheFakultat)._Bonn; Freiburg,Goettingen, Kiel,Marburg,Muenster, Wuerzburg 10. Lealscience(Rechtswissenschaft- . liche FOultat) Cologne, Frankfort, t. e. Hamburg,

..9`» fe, a' 1 A %Berlin refers tiWest Berlin only.

11 ,11 HIGHER RUCATION 77. st Universitifaculty6 Location by city 11., Mathematics andnatural science (Ma- thematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche . Flikultät) _ _ _ Berlin, Bonn, Cologne;Goet- -, . tingen,Hamburg, Muen- °E) ster, Tuebingen .12.Nliidicine(Medizinische Fakultiit) All 13.islaturalscience (Naturwissenschaft- liche Fakultiit) Erlangen, Frankfort,Mainz, Munich,Saarbruecken, Wuerzburg 14.Naturalscienceandmathematics (Naturwissenschaftliche- Mathema- a tische Fakultät) _ ____Freiburg,Heidelberg ' 15.Philosophy (Philosophis,eFakultat)All 16. *Veterinarymedicine41(Tierarzliche . Fakultlit) Munich P. 17. Veterinary medicine(VeteriniirThedi- . zinizche Fakultät) Berlin

-1

-a EXAMINATIONS

Prerequ'haelo thestudy ofsomesubjectsarespeciallanguage examinations. Forex!tmple, Latin isarequirement for'promotion to the doctorate in thefaculties oftheology, philosophy,,medicine, and law. In the facultiesoftnathematics-naturalscience and of agriculture, it isnot.' Examinations in subjectsstudied in thevarious facultiesare of 3 majortypes:State examinations,examinattions for awarding . the doctdrate,and,diploma examinatiops.In addition,there is the final examinationin theology whichis preparatoryto examinati9ns for 4ch'urch service condtictedby church..authorities. *. The State examinationsareconducted by theState toserve specific needs in health,education, and law.Responsibilityrests in the handsof ministerial'officers.For instance,in .tlp faculties *: of philosophyand of mathematics-naturalscience, eAmintati4rns in teanicaleducation=7-especiallyfor theposition ofsecortdary schoolteacherareState examinations.Study of lawatauniversity closep withaState examination agdo medical, dental,anapharma-

ceutical study,and study in severaloth6r-fields. . is. Promotion to the doctorate;resulting in theconferring ofihe doctor's 'degree,requiresadissertation preparedunder Ihe direction'.of.aprofessororunderateacher qualifiedto adyiseadoctoral candidate.The doCtoral candidate'sadviier iknownasit `doctor . lather." .d A

-*, .1( ea^ 78 GERMANY REVIS1174)

Asaformal endingto universitystudy for thosenot strivingftr scientificachievement interms ofpromotionto the doeforate or:ftr aState examination,diploinaexaminationshave beenestablished in individualsubjects. The diplomahas been usedformany years in s'pecializedfields suchasengineeringand economics.It is beingused increasingly in universityfaculties. Inthe facultyof philosophy,-adiploma examination hasbeen establishedin psychology.In the facultyof mathematics-naturalscience, diplomaexaminationsare given in biology,chemistry, geology,physicalchemistry, andphysics.Con-. tray to thepractice ofunivet-sitiesin the UnitedStates,German universities giveno semesterorannual examinations!

STUMM GENERALE I In thepast decade Gerinanunixcersitieshaveeliminatedthe vestiges of NationalSocialismand havereturnedalmost entirely to' the system ofhighereducationprevalent before1933. Someuni- versityeducators haveexpressed disappointment,aethefact 'that solittle hasbeen changed.Many had hopesthat thetotal destruc- tigp of NaziGermany wouldprovideopportunity. fora new ap- Machto the problemsof highereducation andfor eliminatjonof someof theweaknesses thathad been preseritin thepre-Hitler universitysystem. In spite ofthe fact thatnodrastic ckangesin German highereducationtook place,some serious efforts havebeen made tocorrectsomeobviousfgaults. Oneof thesefaults isthe tendency towardoverspecialization. The German universityis basedon a13-year elementaryand secondary schootprogramdesignedto comploteastudent'sgeneral education priorto his enrollmentat the university.Con4equently, the Germanuniversity studentregistersin the facultyof his choice immediatelyuponhis matriculation.In contrastto the studentata university in theUnitedtates,who isrequired,totakeavarying number of generaleducationcourses tofulfilltherequirementof the first Aademicdegree, theGermanstudent hasnosuch obliga- _tion andcanselect all hiscourseswithinasingle field,solongas he- meetsthe requirementsfor thedegree heis seeking.Further- k more,the empfiasisonresearch, thatisamarkedcharacteristic of Germanhighereducation,tends todraw thestudent intoa nar- 4 rowfield muckieafrerthan hiscounterpart inthe United8tates, whosenarrowi:oealization beginsafter heenrolls in thegraduate school. That thistendencytowardnarrow specialization helpedto developapolitical andsocial aloofnessornaiVeteamonguniversity HIGHEREDUCATION 2-b"4 79 -. 7-41%mouft,

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a Photo by D. Foitrick Art Institute Visitors;Munkh 47. facultiesand students has beenrecognized bymany Germanedu- caturs. Toovercomethis weakness,l'anumber of plansto -extend general education into theuniversityhave beendeveloped under the geneKal titleof Studium Generale. One approachtoward,this goal,which requiresnoreotganization in universityprocedures, placesdifectlyonthe professorthere- sponsibility forntigrating'particular, subjectswith the broader aspects of ulfiversitytraining. Theprofessorpresents his'technical lecturesto emphasize relationAipsajwthe-various fields,of knowledge. Insomesubjects, theserelationshipsare*quite obvious; in others,theymaybe muchmoreobscure. Thisprocedure, there- fere,is relativelydifficult tocarry cout,sincelectures generally emphasize what isof.particularimportanceto6 the developmentof, thesubject at hand.The demandsof linlited timeand rigidexam- inationrequirementsmaycrowdout themoregeneral aspectsof the interdiMplinaryrelationshipswhich havespec* general educationvalue. MOP A secondapproach thathas beentried byanumberof universities. isthe universityday (diesUniversitatis). Atthe Univer- sity ofTuebingenwfor ,exampfe,onedayperweekwasset asideas the Universityday,onwhich specialkturesby outstandingpro-

4 , 80 GERMANY REVISITED

fessors wertscheduledto provideabroad, general education bael\ . ground forOlestudents. None of the regularlecturesorseminar of the various facultiescould be scheduledonthisdaysothatai studeMs would have opportunityto participate. This planen countered immediate difficulties.In the first place, the shortage01

universitstaff and thegreat increasenenrollments made 11 almost impo.ssibletu takeoneday out of 'the regular universit work for generaleducationpurposes.Secondly,alarge numbcr of students, having lo3tmuch valuable time duringthe War, recognized the generalvalue of the university day,butwere un- willingto sacrifice time that otherwise might Ledevotedtoward adegree. The strong desireto completeadegree with all .possible haste crowded otherconsiderations into the brickground.At thr present time, when theageof university students again hasap- proached normalcy,the university day might enjoyagreatermeas- ureofsuccessthanwasthecasein the immediate postwar period. An attemptto developageneral educationprogram wasmade by the Leibniz Collegeof Tuebingen University. In this college, students whose secondary schoolproficiency did not reachac- cepted university admissionstandardswereplacedinspecial coursesto eliminate the;e deficiencies. Theylived together ina dormitory and developjdclosor relationships Nvith their teachers thanwasthe general rulein German higher edutation.A similar program wasdeveloped lit the University ofHeidelberg through the'establishment of the. CollegiumArademicum,..a resident dormitory that providednotoniN:food and lodgingat reasonable rates, - but conductedaneveningprogramof lectures and discu§sions of general education value.. The problem of achievinganadequate balance beMeengeneral education andnarrowspeeialization is byno meanssolvtd. The effdrts &scribed above, however,have focus0 the thinkingof manyuniversityleadersOnthe need for improvement. A scholarly magazine entitled StildiumGenerale isnowin its tenth. yeat. Progress towardasolution of .the problem isbeing made.

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STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

.4" The.prewarGerman university considered itself responsible &i7 for the intelievtual development of the student. Itiiidnot, in general, attempt to provide guidance outside the classroomor concern itself with student housing, he,alth, employment, and other services foundonalmostevery campusin the United Sthtes. The student himself enjoyedahigh degree of freedom. He could select whatevercourseshe wished. Attendanceat lectureswitsnotcorn- pulsory. Therewasscarcelyalimitonthe number of hoursa student could select. Student books showingashighas40 hours perweekwerenot unusual. In eral,astudent could set hikown paceand could present himselfr anexamination whenever he felt hewasready for it. This basic academic freedom ,has been retained in the German suniversity. Postwar conditions, however', have influenced the universities to extend.,Vipir.,.., services to students beyond the purely

intellectualrecoil-frit**.Immediately after thi?yar,. when housing, food, and other necessitieswereextremelyscarce, anumber of universities operatedslow-costmesshalls for students and began to develop dormitory facilities. These preliminarysteps have led to ageneral recognition ofawider sphere of responsibility toward the student thanwasthecasein the past. At the request of German universities,anumbrr of specialists in student guidance havegone to Germany from the 11nited States in receptyearsto actasad- visers to German insutions in this field. A numberf German educators also visitthe United States to study the ser'vices and proceduresat institutions, in the UnitedStates: , A basic chanie in the economic status of German students has contributed toWard these developments. The studentsof today con*from all walks of life withaconsiderable percentagerepre- senting low-incomegroups.Consequently,ahigh percentageearn partorall of their universify-expenses. Comiiderable initiative has been shown by the students Wrough theirownassociations to de- velopvitployment opportunities, low-gost foodand lodging scrrvices, and otherresourcesto 'enable the student with limitedmeansto comple* his education. There is evidence that universityadminis-. trators, faculty committees, andmanyindividual faculty members( have developedairinterest in the student which is much broader than the traditionalpreoccupation.with his purely intelledual

(tvelopment.St 14ent personnel servicesappearto be gaininga HIGHER EDUCATION 83 broadacceptanceas auniversity responsibility,shared by the administration, thefaculties, and thestudent otganizations... /,

AMERICAN STUDIES ATGERMAN UNIVERSITIES

A development in thepostwarCurriculumof German universities hasbeen the wide introductionof American studies. This development hasbeen caused bytwo. :ctors primarily:Thepres- enceof UnitedStates Forces .inGermanyas anoccupationarmy, andarecognitiononthe part of\German educatorsof the role that the UnitedStates has assumed inworld atikirs.A large number of German universityprofessors havevisited the UnitedStates in recentyearsto examine AreaStudyprograms' and American Studiesprogramsat institutions. Thenumber ofcoursesdealing With American-subjects,aswellasthe enrollmentof students in thesecourses,hasgrownby leaps andbounds. Theemajority of German universitiestodayfrecognize AmericanStudiesas amajor field of study foradoctor's degree..An AmericanStudies association, encompassing allStates of the FederalRepublic has been organized. A scholarlyjournal is beingpublished andlibrary and research facilitiesarebeirig expanded. The United States Goirernment,through theInternational Edu- cational ExchangeService and theUnited StatesInformation Agency, has providedassistance ta 'thismovement. Thousands of American books and periodicalshave beenmade available to German universities.A large numberof piofessors-and graduate students have received grant4to studyin theUnited States; professors fromthe United States havegoneto German univer- sitiesaslecturers. Informationcenters in Germanyaugment and supplement the materialsavailableto German institutions. This development aimsto be beneficialto both Americanand German higher education bybroadeningthe outlook ofstudents, helpingtoovercome narrow nationalism, and strengtheningties between Germanyand the UnitedStates..

I V

ft *ChapterVII

Interest inForeignEducationalResearch andDevelopment

014LOWINGadecades'of isolationand limitedralatiofiswith Fother countries, Gerrhanysoon after World WarII began the . renewal ofcontacts with theoutsideworld. Inthe fieldof education this renewalmaybeseen particularlythroughGermaninter- . est in the activities ofthe followinginstitutions:

S. I. 4k

INSTITUTE FORINTERNATIONALEDUCATIONAL,RESEARCH AT.FRANKFORTON THE MAIN (DIE HOCHSCHULEFURINTERNATIONALE PADAGOGISCHEFORSCHUNGIN FRANKFURT AMMAIN).

Among institutionsin theFederalRepublic ofGermanyinter- ested in educationalresearch andin educationaldevelopmentsin .othercountries, the IatituteforInternational EdiicationalRe- search atFrankfortonthe Mainranks high.Itwas foundedon November16, 1950, bya groupof schoolmenin Hesse 'Whoin the spring of that,year,had formedanAssociationforEmpirical EducationalReseiarch and theFurtheranceof EducationalStudies (Gesellschaft furPadagogischeTatsacheforschungund weiter- führendepädagogischeStudien)in,Wiesbaden.The Stateof Hesse declared itselfprepared tosupport theInstituteas a permanent institution,the City ofFrankfortplaced:atits disposala war- ruinedschool togetherwithaliberal fundforremodeling,while the Officesof the,UnitedStates HighCommissionerforGermany furthered theproject withadditionalfunds. , In March1951, the Institutewas established intemporaryquar- ters. By July,1, 1952,thepermanentquarterswere sufficiently 84 e FOREIGNEDUCATIONAL RESVARCHAND DEVELOPMENT 85 ready foruse.In additionto thenecessary lecturerooms,library, work andadministrationrooms,therewere26roomsfor students andafew apartmentsfor prOfessors.The formergymnastics hall waschanged toanauditorium withaseatingcapacity of 225. Accordingto its StatuteOf October 25,1951, ,the Instituteisan independentregisteredfoundation under4thlicfaw.It is underthe supervision ofthe Ministerof Educationvf Hesse.Freedom of research andinstructionaresecured insofaiastheyarenotcon- trary to the BasicLaw of theFec4eral Republicof Germany.Sec- tion IV oftheStatute.placesinternational educitionalresearchin the foregroundasthe aim of theInstitute.SpecificAlly theInstitute is 'chargedwith thefollowing tasks: I 1. To conducteducationalresearch andto dissethinate there- sults for theimprovementof cultureand education. \\ 2.To promote furthereducation ofspecialists ineducational researchand toprepare persons for specialeducational taskssuch assthooladministrationand supervision. 3.To adviseandsupport teachersand educationalprgapiza7 tions in thecarryingout of researchprojects andin the evaluation of suchresearch, andto cboperatewith otherGerman, foreign, and internationalofftes incomparativeeducation studies. 4.To furtherthe theoreticaland practicalintroductionof teachers ofalltypes of schoolsin the methodsof educational research. Thequalificationsfor staffmembership itthe Institute,either irf researchorteaching,arethesame asataState institutionof higher education.The researchand teachingbodies includeregular professors, extraordinary'professors,lecturers andassistants, German andforeignguest professorsandlecturers,and other scieptificcoworkers. TheSenate iscomposed ofthe regularand extraordinaryprofessorsand. of 2representativeseach from amongthe lecturersand the assistants. S. TheDirector of theInstitute iselected bythe Senateandap- pointed foranindefiniteperiod by theMinister ofEducation.He is the chairman otthe Board ofDirectors whichalso includesthe secretary and thetreasurer. Admissionas a student requiresacertificate Ofmaturity. Further it requires:(1) Completedprofesionaltraining,(2)at least 1yearof practicalexperienceat a'schoolafter suchtraining, (3) aptitudeand qualificationfor study,and (4) inthecaseoff students fromothercountries, sufficientmastery of theGerman , language. c . . . To enable Axingteachers totakeayear's leaveof absencefor attendanceat the Institute,the Ministerof Educationin Hesse 86 GERMANYREVISITED arrangedthat'beginningwith schoolyev1953 8 schoolpersons a yearwould begranteCeavefrom teachingin Hesseto attendthe Institutewith fundsplacedat their disposalinsofarasneeded for their stay of2 semestersinFrankfort.Heexpressed thehope that - the educationalauthoritiesin otherStates oftheFederalRepublic wouldmake similararrangements fortheirteachers. The-Institute also isopento applicantsfrom otherGermanStates andfrom abroad`whohavemeans to support themselveswhile inFrankfort. The Institute hasno entranceorstudy fees.ThereareiiTo .finaj examinationsor diplomas. Publicationsresultingfromresearch at theInstitutearepublishedunder thenameof theauthor. The fieldsof studyandresearchduringacademicyear -1955-56 were:(1)Educationalpsychology;(2) schoollaw, schooladmin- istration,and schoolsupport;(3) teitchingplan, teachingmethods, and teachingmaterials. In the first issueof 4news publicationdatedNovember1953 apd calledMitteilungenund, Ishichrichten,tbe Institutepointhout thatan important part ofthedevelopmentof theInstitutewasthe "beginning..ofwork withstudentson' April20, 1953whenthesum- mer semester started.Forresearchworkat the-Institutethe Min- istry ofEducationof Hessegrantedleaveof absence.for 1yearto -6 elementaryschoolteachersand 2middleschoolteachers,whohad completedtheir formalprofegsionaltraining.The Cityof Frank- fortgrantedleave toa secondary schoolteacherwhohadatem- porary appointment.TheMinistryofEducationofNorthRhine- Westphaliagrantedleaveto theprincipalofan elementary school and theSenate ofthe City-of Berlingrantedleave to2 elementary schoolteachers. Allleavesweregiyenwithsubsistence.In addition; theState ofHesseprovidedastipendof 150Germanmarks to each of itstraineea.Throughfundsgrantedto theInstitutein 1953-54 forusein specialinstances,theInstituteinvitedateacher, witha temporaryappointment,Anda woman_educator,with the doctor ofphilosophydegree ineducationto attend. StudyTours.Partof theanhualstudy piogramisatour abroad withmembersof the teachingandresearchstaff.Through such tours, theInstituteaims tohavestudentslearnaboutschool syAtemsandeducation inothercountries,and thefactorsaffecting them, inorderto help thestudentsto becomeaware of the similar- ity ofeducationalproblemselsewhere. 4 The studytoursare planned in sucha wayasto helpto broaden the mental horizon ofstudentsthroughtheexperienceofnew living'conditions.Studytoursestablisheducationalrelationswith coworkers inothercountries,and withtheirinstitutions,and 44s. FOREIGNEDUCATIONALRESEARCH AND DEVELOP.MENT 87

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wekoto byRenner StudentUnionjohannWolfgang Universityof 1Prankortonthe Main

strengthen existingconnections. It is 'feltthat only throughmutual visits is alasting, fruitfulexchange experiencepossible. Inhis reportonthe 1955 studytour Dr. Schultzestates, "It ispleasantto be able to tell how'manyguests haveccnneto the Instituteat Frankfortenthe basis ofourtours abroad,and how the excfiange 88 GERMANYREVISITED ofinformation,tesearchreports,and otherpublicationsof the Instituteareconstantlyincreasing."I The firsttourwasto Englandand France.Its aimWas to study tile effectof theEducationAct of1944onthe Englishschoolsys- tem. At thesame time thecontrast inrhythmbetweenthe 2cap- itals ofParis andLondonwasplann'edto enablethe.studentsto recognize 2.differentwaysof life. Yugoslavia, Creec$and Turkey wertkecountries ofthe second tour which lasted30 daysbecauseof theextent of theareacovered. ltspufposewasto gainacquaintancewith theeducationalsystems ofcountrieswhichdifferhistoricallyandpolitically,and where theintellectualinfluence ofSherulingpoliticalpower on education wasplainly visible. The thirdtour lastingfromSeptember7 to14, 1955,was to Holland andBelgium;the fourth,.that fromMay22tc;June 6, 1956, includedDenmarkand Sweden.Accountsof the1955 and 1956 toursare giwn in thespecialissuesforNovember1955 and September1956respectivelyof theInstitute'spublication Mitteilungen undNachrichten. Supplementaryto theworkin researchtheIhstituteoffers leCtures andexercitiesat .whichattendanceis required.Below is the required programfor thesummer semesterof 1956.2 . ..6 MONDAY: 8:30-9:30 Introductio4andexercises inedu- ( cationalandpsychologicalsta- tistics TUESDAY: 8:30-10:00 Introductionto school law WEDNESDAY: 8:30-10:00 Problems ofmaturityandguidance 4 10:30-12:00 Assembly THURSDAY: 8:30-10:00 UntilWhitsuntide:Danishand Swedisheducation(preparatory to the studytour) AtterWhitsuntide:The middle schoolin theGermansystem of edycation FRIDAY: 8:30-10:00 UntilWhitsuntide:Introductionto theInstitute'sprojectsin edit= cationalpsychology AfterWhitsuntide:Researchin thepsychologyofadolescents from 13to 15years ofage

A I WalterSchultze, Berichttiber dieStudienreisederHochschulenach Hol- land undBelgien vom 7.-21. September1955.MitteilungenundNachrichten. Sonderheft: 3;November1955. 2Mitteilungenund Nachrichten,11: 6-7;April1956. -44o FOREIGN EDUCATIONALRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 89 Publications.--LAmong the earlrputlicationsof the Institute was one onschools inWeaernEurope (Die Schw le:n in Wesieur- opa)' givinganaccount of elementary; secondary, and vocational education, and of school reformin each of 10 countries: Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Germany,italy, the Netherlands, Norway; Sweden, and Switzerland. Examples of other publicationscontributingto the literature in educationare3 books basedonresearch carriedonin 1953-64 when the authorswerestudenfcoworkersat the Institute': &hut- rersuche in der BundeArepublikDeutschland: Neue Wegeund Inhalte in, der 1'olksckule;.4 DasSitzenbleiberproblem: Uiiter

suchung iiber das VersagenronKitufernin'der Volksschule;5 and Plan und Wirklichkeit insozialkundlieftn Untervicht: Linter. suchungen, Erfahrungenund Vor§chliige° (School' Experiments in the Federal Republic of Germany:isiew.Methodsand Content in the Elementary School;The Problem of the Non-promotedChild: Investigation of Failure by ElementarySchool Children; and Plan and Reality in SocialScience Instruction:Research, Findings and. Recommendations). According'toMitteilungen und Nachrichten ofJuly 1956, each of the 3 student authorsmentioned above has receivedpromotion. Orie has been appointed principal ofanelementary school, another has been made principalof a. middle school, and the third hasbeen promoted toahigher rankas asecondary school teacher. TheIn- stitute's influenceonteacher education is reflecled,for example, in the summoning ofoneof its 1954-55 students to bealecturer at the Pedagogical Academy in Wuppertal and of anotherto the Teachers College in Braunschweig. Frankfort Tests.The Institute also haspreparedaseries of tests called "Frankfort Tests" includingamongothers:(1) A test in reading with understanding to test the understanding of silent reading by children from'10 to 12yearsofage;(2) avocabu- lary test for children from 10 to 14yearsofage;and (3)atalent test in problems for thought to aid in decisions concerning school transfers. . 3 Erich Hylla tind W. L. Wrinkle, Bad Nauheim: Im Christian-Verlag,1953; 663p. E. 4 Herbert Chiout. Dortmund: Wiseriiwell Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1955.234p. 5 Herbert Frornmberger. Dortmund: W. Criiwell Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1955. 247p. 6 Wolfgang Hilligen. rrankfurtamMain: Borlwerk-Verlags-Gesellschaft, Jährig & Co., 1954. 241p. 90 qb GERMANYREVISITED Library.The libraryof theInstitutehasa collection ofabout 31,000volumesand 320currentperiodicals.Itincludesastudy library,ahigh schoollibrary,.acollectionofteachingaridlearning materials,anda tests library.Thes1udylibrary the began in1952, as. Institvtelibrary.Itscollectionofpublicationson edtcational psyeholog,psychology ofdevelopment,educationalresearch,comparativeeducation (vergleichendeErziehungswissenschaft),so- ciology,schoollaw,schoolfinance,and school the statisticsrepresents Institute'sareas of work.In eachof theseareas the library strivesto maintain a completecollectionofpublicationsissued .since1945. The foreignpublicationsincludeprima4ilytheAnglo- ..;axon andSwiss,andbeyondthese,literaturefrom tries. othercoun- Otherbranchesofpsychologyandeducationas 'subjects wellas,other are considere4accordingtosignificapceforthe of theInstitute. objectives 'theHighSchool Libraiyof theCityof originto the Frankforctracesits SchoolMuseumfoundedby theFrankfo0Teachers Associationin1912.Destroyedbywariii1943, it in was reopened 1948,andattachedto ttvInstituteforInternational Reseatchin Educational 1952. Thislibraryisconsideredsupplementalto the teachers'librariesin theschoolsofFrankfort..Its cludes collectionin- publicationsinsufhfieldsasconcern the generaland sionaleducationof profes- tocherswithparticularstressonthoseforuse intheoreticalandpracticaltraining. Thecollectionon teachingandlearningmaterials man and foreign includesGer- schoolbooks,maps, pictures,othervisual andschool aids, equipment.Thetests libraryendeavorsto gatheras completea colleolion as possible oftestsdevelopedinGermariy in othercountries. and

EDUCATIONALCEOTERINWIESBADEN (PiDAGOGISCH( ARBEITSSTELLE,WIESBIDEN) 4 TheEducationalCenterinWiesbadenwas established as a center for in1947 educationaldocumentation'andinformation. :b Specif- icallyit: pi 1.Gathersmaterial on education inGermanyAndabroadand nateseducational dissemi- informationto officials,educationalorganizations, teachers,students,and otherinterestedpersons. 2.Serves aisa clearinghouse andcenter foreducationalresearch. 6 (1 3.Rendersassistanceinpracticat(schoolworkatthe istry of request ofthe Min- Educationor, widerarrangementwith,theMinistry, school consUuction prepares plansandprovides/educationalmaterial.

ver FOKEIGNEDUCATIONAL.RESEAIICHAND DEVELOPMENT 91

4.Servesas anexchangerentet-for the furtherance of international educational relation:041ndrenders assistance in the exchange of teachers, students, andpupils.

0.Servesas apublicationcentvr, for: -A (a)BibliographicalmaterialincludingallGrrman educational publications. e (b) A monthlyperiodical called Bildungund Erziehurig(Trpining and Education), whichstresses comparative education, educational psychology, andgeneral didactics. \ (c)A series of publicationsoncomparative education edited by FranrHilker, Directorof the Institute.

CENTRAL OFFICE FOREDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES (ZENTRALSTELU FURAUSLANDISCH( BILDUNGSWESEN),

The mainfunction of fhe Central Mice for Eiluc.ationin Other Countries is similar,to the informational and advisory service which theInternational EducationalRdations Branch of the United ,States Office ofEducation rendersto universities, colleges, and State certificationoffices in making advisory interpretationsin terms of education in the UnitedStates, of credentials for studies completed in other.countries. When the German'universities reopened in 1945,2 types of foreign studentsapplied for Admission:%Regular foreign students and students whoweretakertto Germany' during the Waras workersor asprisoners andwithlater became displacedpersons' unable toreturn to theii homelands. The admissionquestion fac- ing the universitieswashow to evaluate the previous educatroaof :these foreign students. The universitieswerequite well aveed that for admission,j theprevious education offoreignstudents should be equivalentto that of German students and that knowh edge and achievement should be the equalto that for German

secondary school graduates. .4. The basis for these requirements is GermannecessitY, according to the Dire4or of the Central Office. To upholdadefiniteintel- lectual standardat German universities necessitatesnoAlan minimum requirement of knowledge, capacity,.an4 adjustability. Secondly, according to the Director, German universitiesare con- vinced thataitweringof requirements would le'sienthe value of German education in other countries. In addition, foreigncoun- triesareinterested in havi-ng thesonsand daughters they sendto institutions of higher education in Germany subjectto thesame requirements and4o thesameachievement Standardsasthe Ger-, manstudents. , 92 GERMANYREVISITED Thedecisiononadniissions-is basedon an evaluation of their . educationaccordingto level,ofknowledge andachievement,as comparedwith'the termanmaturityexaminationand qualification foradmissionto universitystudy inthe student'shomeland.This interpretationrequirespenetratingstudy ofthe educationalsys- tems ofothercountries,observationof changingeducational go.Ms,andobservationof culturalconditions.' Experienceat thebeginningof thecentury hadshown that independentprocedureby theinstitutionsof highereducation broughtlack ofuniformityininterpretation.To remedythe situ- ation theConferenceof GermanInstitutionsof HigherEducation (Konferenz41erdeutschenHochschulen)inFrankfort,authorized theEducationalAdministrationof Prussiatoprepareauniform standard. Theresultwastheestablishment in1904 of theOffice of MatriculationAffairsof ForeignStudents(Auskunftstellein Immatrikulationsangelegenheitenvon Ausländerp),located in the PrussianMinistryofEducationuntil1945. Fromits beginning, it hadserved forall ofGermany. With thereopeningof theuniversitiesafter theWar andthe arrival ofstudentsfrom othercountries, theneed foracentral office forthe,interpretationof schoolingcompleted alfroadbecame urgent. InAugust146, theGermanNorthwestUniversityAssoci- ation (Nordwestd4tscheHochschultag)establishedthe Central Officefor theInterpretationof ForeignStudentTranscripts(Zen- .tralstellefar dieBegutachtungausländischerVorbildungsnach- weise)called, sinceJuly 1949,theCentralOffice forEducationin OtherCountrieswith itsSecretariatinGoettingen. Contraryto practiceprior to1945, theCentralOffice forEdu- cation inOtherCountriesdoes notrender decisions withreference to. studiescompleted inothercountries;it indicatesits opinion.The decision ismade bythe Ministryof Education,theinstitutionof highereducation,ortheexaminationofficerequestingtheopinion. Otherfunctions ofthe CentralOfficeare :(1) Gatheringma- terialon educational systemsandtypes of schoolsin othercoun- triesincludingofficial datasuchasschoollegislation,studyplans, andeXamination regulationsand otherpublicationsoneducation; and (2)analysis ofthis materialforuseincomparative edueation. d

7Walter Wienert.AusländefandeutschenHochschulenund dieBewertung ausländischerZeugnisse.(Foreignersat German . Institutionsof HigherEdu- ,cation and theEvaluation oftheCredentials.)DieSammiung,Heft 3: 79; Man 1949. 177 'FOREIGNEDUCATIONAL RESEARCHAND DEVELOPMENT 93

, EXCHANGE PROGRAMS Gt;rman AcademicExchange Service (Deutscherkkadernigeher Austauschdienst).In 1923 the Thstitutefor Social and Political Science at the University ofHeidelberg, founded the firstorgani- zation foranexchange of scholarships withthe United States.8 In the followingyear,1924, The Institute ofInternational Education in NewYoricestablished the American-GermanStudent Exchange as aspecial department withinthe Institute and offered13 scholarships to Germanstudents. The offerdeveloped intoanexchange, leading in the earlypart of 1925 to the officialfounding of the Academic ExchangeService. In the fall of1925 itwasmoved to Berlin andextended to includeundergraduate and graduatestu- dents in fields other thanpolitical science. A branch officewasestablished in 1927in London (Anglo- German Academic Bureau),and in 1930 in Paris (OfficeUniversi- taire Franco-Allemand).During the NationalSocialist period branch officesorother liaison organizationswereestablished in places suchasMadrid, Barcelona,Rome, Budapest, Copenhagen, and Stockholm. In1945 the headquarters of th'eGerman Academic Exchange Servicein Berlinweredestroyed. Atameeting in Munichin 1949; the Ministers ofEducation of the West GermanStates and the Vice-Chancellorsof the West German universitiespassedaresolution that the GermanAca- demic ExchangeService be revivedat Bonn and the servic.ewas reestablishedofficially atameeting thereonAugust 5, 1950. The GermanAcademic ExchangeService is governedby its GoverningBoard and the GeneralMeeting of its members.The costsarecovered by membershipsubscription andcontributions from the FoundationAssociation for GermanScience (Stiftver- band für dieDeutsche Wissenschaft),from the Ministriesof Education of theStates of the FederalRepublic of Germany,from the Foreign Office, andfrom the NationalMinistry of Interior. Educational ExchangeServke (PlidagogischerAustausehdienst). The Educational ExchangeServicewas'established inJan- uary1952asthe Teachers' gridHigh School Students'Ex- change (Lehrerund Schiller Austausch).On April1, 1952, it becameaspecial department withinthe GermanAcademic Ex- change Service.Since October 1,1955, it has been functioningas anindeperidentestablishment of thePermanent Conferenceof - Ministers of Education.

I I German Academic Exchange Service:A Survey. Bonn:DeutscherAkade- ischerAustauschdienst,[1954],p.2.

p 94 GERMANYREVISITED , 4 ,

GERMAN-AMERICANCONFERENCESOF HISTORIANSAND TEACHERSOF HISTORY (AMERIKANISCH-DEUTSCHE HISTORIKER UND GESCHICHTSLEHRER-TAGUNGEN) The ,first .. German-AmericanConference ofHistorians andTeach- ersof Historywasheldat theInternationalSchoolbookInstitute of theKant TeachersCollegeat Braunschweigfrom May 12to 23, 1952.9 TheconferencewasTheresult ofaworkagreemeq madein August 1950,at the UNESCOSeminar inBrussels,Belgium between theCommittee for,History Instructionof theStudy Group of theGermanTeachersAssociation(Ausehuss fürGeschichtsun- terricht derArbeitsgemeinschaftdeutscherLehrerverbands)and the NationalCouncil forthe SocialStudies,aDepartment ofSocial Studies ofthe NationalEducationAssociation ofthe UnitedStates ofAmerica. Theagreementprovided forthe exchangeof history schoolbooksand theircriticalexaminationasto whetherthe history of eachcountry andthe m'utualrelationsbetween the2coun- trieswere presented withoutprejudice. In eachcountrya com- mitteewasappointedto judgesome30 of themost significantand widely usedhistories forall typesof schoolsandagelevels. Atthis first conferencethe 2committeesmet to discusstheir findingswith historians,teachers ofhistory,andrepresentatives ofteachers' associations. TheparticipantsincludedAmericanaqd Germanhistorians or" andrepresentativesfromAustria,Belgium,Denmark,England, France,Greece,Holland,Italy, Norway,andSwitzerland. Many of theparticipantswere members of associationswhich hadbeen workingclosely withthe HistoryCommittee oftheGermanTeach- ers'Associationforsometime inorderto freeGermanhistory books fromfalsejudgmentsand nationalisticprejudices. To obtainconcrete resultsfromth,conference,the meetingwas divided intoseveralcommitteesto organizethematerialpresented into epochsbriefly givingthe historicalevents andproblemspre- sentedfalsely,insufficiently,orwithprejudicein Americanand Germanschoolhistories.Theparticipantsfromçermanyand from theUnitedStates hadthe taskofpresenting toricalfacts about theirrespectivecountriesand therelationsof he2 countries to each otherasthey wishedthemtoappearin theschoolbooks of thecountry. 4

a Die 1.amerikanisch-deutsche,Historiker-undGeschichtslehrer-Tagung, 12. bis 23. Mai 1952.InternationalesJahrbuchfirGeschichtsunterricht.Band II. (The1st German-AmericanConferenceof HistoriansandTeachersofHis- tory, May 12te23, 1952,InternationalY earbookfor HistoryInstruction, Volume II.)Braunschweig:VerlagAlbertLiiithach,1953,p. 121-448. FOREIGN EDUCATIONALRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 95 The American resolutionmentioned 11 points in theevents in American history whose adequatehandling is omitted inGerman school histories. One pointstresses the continuous interaction between the United States andEurope and the rest ofthe world, andurgesgreater attention to socialand industrial history.An- otherurges moreintensive presentationof the late 19th and the 20th century world historyand applies, not onlyto Europe and the United States,..butto the Far East, since civilizationshould not be divided intoaft East andaWest. On the basis of their findingsin American schoolhistories the 8 German committeesworked out definiteresolutions correspond-. ing to main epochs: ,theMiddle Ages, thebeginning of the modern period from 1500to 1800, the intellectuallife of Germanyabout 1800, the Empire ofBismarck, the FirstRepublic from1918 to 1933, and the ThirdEmpire. When theseformulationswere presented to theconferfncethey "underwenta very opencritique" and it wasVelt that"they shouldserve as recommendations to schoolbook authorsand to historyteachers,toarrangeschoolbooks and instruction in the mist'objectiveand unbiased form possible." A number ofAmerican bookpublishers had pieviouslydeclared themselves readyto take the Germancritique intoconsideration in neweditions. In Germany,large schoolbookpublishersareworking moreandmorewiththe HistoryCommittee of theTeachers Association. The secondconferencecalled theGerman-AmericanConference of Historians(Amerikanisch-DeutscheHistorikertagung)was heldat Braunschweigduring the periodof August23-31, 1955. At this conferencediscussionwaslimited toGerman-American relations in thesocial, cultural,diplomatic,and economicfields. In itsrecommendationsthe Conferencestated:'° NV1 confirmand emphasizeanewthe proposalswhichwere adopted by the AsstGerman-Americanhistorians'conferenceheld inBraunschweig, May 12-23,1952. We recommendthat thesediscussions,which have served to clarifyourthinkingonthe historyof both Germanyand the United States, becontinued infutureconferences.Especiallywe rec- ommend thatafuture German-Americanconferenceqhouldconcernitself' withadiscussion ofsignificant booksand articlesand the preparationof acritical bibliographyof German-Americanrelations andon more recent periods ofAmerican-German relations.We recommendfurther thatthe points of view statedin theatta,_!,:paperbe givenconsideration intext- books for the teachihgof history. '

,:b 10 Relations between GeI; and the UnitedStates of Americain the 18th and 19th Centuries.Braunschweig:German-AmericanConferenceof Histbrians heldat Braunschweig,August 23-31,1955, (Processed).2p. 96 GERMANY REVISITED Among the pointsprincipally emphasizedare : 1.The r61d of Germans in the settlementand expansion of theAmerican colonies. 2. The influenceof German immigrantsonAmerican social, intellectual, and econOmiclife. 3. The influenceof American democraticideas in Germany. 4. The maintenanceof friendly diplomatic andcommercial relations between theGerman Empire and the UnitedStates to the close of the 19thcentury. The secondpart of thepaperis concerned withGerman-Ameri- canrelations duringthe 20thcentury:,1900-1914, 1914-1918, The UnitedStates and theWeimar Republic 1918-1933,and Americaand the ThirdEmpire 1933-1941. 4

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES

An InternationalWorkshoponGuidance at Weilburg," like thoseonSocial Studiesat Heidelberg (p. 45) andonTeacher Education forWuerttemberg-Baden (p.54)gavGerman educators opportunityto.renew-contacts andexchange ideas with theirlolleaguesin othercountries. Other internationalconfereriees provided similaropportunities. For example,twowereheldonVocational Education.The first, in Stuttgartfrom July25 to August-4,1950,wasarranged by the Wuerttemberg-BaderiMinistry ofEducation in cooperationwith Education 'Sections.ofthe U. S. LandCommission forWuerttem- berg-Baden andthe U. S. HighCommissioner forGermany. De- voted tovocational educationin general, thisconference was'attended hy 35teachers aridofficials from France,Germany, the Netherlands,.Sweden, Switzerland,and the UnitedStates. Its report, publishedinanEnglish and inaGerman edition, alsopro- videsaninternationalsurveyof vocationaleducation inGermany andadozen othercountries.'2

IIProceedings:Findings andRecommendations for theGerman Schools. Frankfurt/Main:Office of theUnited States HighCommissioner forGer- many, December 1951, 171p.(InternationaleArbeitstagung über"Guidance" Weilburg,15. Juli bis17 August 1951,Verhandlungsberkht:Ergebnisse und Vorschliige für diedeutsche Schule.Frankfurt/Main: Office ofthe United StatesflighCommissionerfor Germany,December 101,214 p.)- 12 Harold Robinson,and others, editors.Problems of VocatiOnalEducation: An InternationalSurvey. (FirstEnglish edition tutniVatedfrom the second German edition.)Stuttgart: Verlag Reinhold,January 1952, 150p.(Harold Robinson, undAndere. Problemedes berullichenBildungswesens: EineInter- nationaleStellungnahme.Stuttgart: Verlag ReinholdA. Miter,1951, 144 p.) . , FOREIGN EDUCATIWAL RESEARCH AND ;DEVELOPMENT 97 , The Second International ConferenceonVocational Education washeld in Maulbronn, Germany from July 17 to 21, 1951.'3 Itwas promoted by the Vocational Education Section dire U. S. Land Commission for Wuerttemberg-Baden and arranged incoopera- tion with the Wuerttemberg-Baden7Ministry of Education and the German Vocational TeachersAssociations. The countriesrepre- sentedwereFrance, England, Western Germany, Norway, Switz- erland, and the United States. Followinganintroductiononthe concept of "citizenship," the report is devoted to:Demands of citizenship inademocracy,specific, problems in cuiriculum and methods, specialized citizenship needsamongdifferent types of institutions and students, educat- ing teachers to develop citizenship qualities in vocational school students, and out-of-school citizenship activities sponsored by schools and other agencies. Commentsonthe delegates to the 2 conferencesonvocational education suchas"They gathered...notasdelegates of their home organizationsorgovernments butascolleagues"express what the readersensesin the accounts of other international conferences. ,

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

The Federal Republic of Germany becameamember of UNESCO onJuly 11, 1951, when its representatives signedthe Constitution of UNESCO at London. TheCultural Branch of the German Foreign Office haoaspecial section for dealing with questions connected with UNESCO. The head of the ForeignOffice is.a member of the German National Commission forUNESC6.1 The German National Commissionbeganasi foundationcom- mittee in January 1950ataconference convene4 through _private initiative at tad Sodan. The conferencerepresented circles inter- ested in intellectual cooperationon aworld-wide basis. In Novem- ber1960the Committeewasestablished at Frankfort is the ,Ger- manCommittee for UNESCO Work. After becomingamember af UNESCO, the Federal Republicrecognized the German Commit- teeasthe National CormilissionforVNESCOand changed its naine accordingly.

13 Education forCitizenship,inVocational Schools. Stuttgart:Verlag Reinhold A. libeller, 1962,64p. 98 GERMANY REVISITED Early in 1951,when admission ofWest Germanywaswell under way,UNESCO began pteparationfor the establishmentof 3 international UNESCOinstitutes; namely, theUNESCO Institutesfor Social Sciencesin Cologne, for Youthin Munich, and for'Edu- cation in Hamburg. The Institutein Hamburg isinternational.Housingwas provided by theCity of Hamburg whichalso bears thecurrentex- pensesfor housing. TheInstitute is alsosupported by the Federal Republic and( theGerman NationalCommission for UNESCO. The Institute inMunich issupported by .the FederalRepublic, the State ofBavaria, and theGerman NationalCommission for UNESCO. The Institutein Cologne foundedin 1951 by UNESCOin col- laboration withthe GermanNational Commission,is supported by the FederalRepublic, theState of North Rhine-Westphalia,the City of Cologne,and the German NationalCommission.

INTER NATIONES

Founded in1952 isanonprofitorgas tion, Inter Nationes located inBonn, Marienstrasse6, iss s by Government fundsandprivate donations.Aiming 't mote goodwilland mutualunderstanding betweenthe German-.ple and those of other lands,it seeks to assist indevelopingan awareness abroad of Germany'scultural heritage,and the facetsof its lifetoday; and toencourage,within the FederalRepublic,awider appreciation ofthe cultureand life of othercountries and people. Functioningas aclearinghouse ofinformation, itreports it

answeredsome50,000 inquiries fromthe free world..during its firsts4yearsof existence,and supplied informationand materials to students,teachers, professors,research scholars,studygroups, . journAlists,publishers, libraries,and universities. Itcooperates innumerouspublicationprogramsby making informationavail- able towriters, publishers,and foreign journalists;and supply- ing editorialprojects inGermany and abroadwith textualand pictorialmaterial. On request it rendersinformationaland advisoryserviceto. foreignindividualsor groups, who plan to studyormake lecture tours in Germany,and to Germanswith similarplans for abroad. Its referencelibrary ofapproximately5,000 volumesincludes handbooksonother countries,documentationonGermany,and foreignlanguagepublicationsdealing withGermany. FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 99 Inaseparate building in Bonn,Baumschulallee 21, Inter Na- tiones offersaforum" and study center where guests from abroad canmeet German colleagues for interchangeof ideas. Herere- search scholars and publicists from abroad find working facilities and help with technical arrangements. The widerangeof services offered by Inter NationestO broaden and deepen international 'contacts and exchange, requires close cooperation withnumerousforeign and German governmental and private agencies, international organizations, academic societies, and, in general, with institutions. dedicated to international understanding and worldpeace. BIBLIOGRAPHY

. . -

English

ALLIED CONTROL AUTHORITY. Basic Principles forDemocratization of Educa- tion in Germany. Directive No.54. Berlin: The Authority, June 25, 1947. 2p. Basic Law and Occupation Statute. Frankfurt:Office of the High Commis- sioner for Germany, 1 February 1950. 123p. Berlin Constitution and ElectortilLaw, 1950. Washington: U. S.Government Printing Office, January15, 1951. 99p. ,BonnCoilstitution:Basic Law for the FederalRepublic of Germany, The. Department of State Publication 3526,European and British Common- wealth Series 8. Washington:U. S. Government Printing Office, 1949. 52P. DUNN, ARTHUR WILLIAM,comp.,The Social Studies in SecondaryEducation: A Six=Yeár, Program adapted bothto the 6-3-3 and the 8-4 Plan of Or- ganization. (Report of theCommittee On Social Studies of the Commission onthe Reorganization of SecondaryEducation of the National Education Association.) Washington:U. S. Government Printing Office,1916. 63p. Bureau of Education Bulletin,1916, No. 28. Educational 'and Cultural Activitiesin Germany Today:Reprints from information Bulletin, Monthly Magazineof the Office of U. S. HighCom- missioner for Germany.1950 Ed. Frankfurt: Office of theU. S. jligh Commissioner for Germany,19110. 93,p. SI Education and Training ofTeachers for Primary. Schools:A conference called by the Unesco Institutefor Education, heldat Hamburg from 4 to 9 January, 1954, The. Hamburg:Unesco Institute for Education,1954 (Processed). 75p.

4 Education for Citizenship in VocationalSchools. (Basedonthe Reports of the Second International ConferenceonVocational Education, Maulbronn, Germany,,1951.) Stuttgart: Verlag IteinholdA. Mueller, 1952. 64p. GermanAcademic Exchange Service: A Survey.Bonn: Deutscher Akade- - mischer Austauschdienst695418p.

101. 102 GERMANYREVISITED

German FederalRepublic: EducationalDevelopmentsfrom 1946-to 1951. (Fromthereport presentedto the XIVthInternationalConferenceon PublicEducation byEugen Loeffler,delegate of theGerman Federal Republic.)InternationalYearbook ofEducation,1951. Publication No. 137. Paris/Geneva:UNESCO/InternationalBureau ofEducation, 1951. p. 120-29. Germany1947-1949: TheStory inDocuments.Department ofState Publica- tion3556,European aiidBritishCommonwealthSeries 9.Washington: U. S.Government PrintingOffice, March1950. 631p. GURLAND,A. R.L. PoliticalScience inWesternGermany: Thoughtsand Writings,1950-1952.Washington:Library ofCongress, 1952(Proc- essed).118p.

Handbook ofGermanAffairs.Washington:German DiplomaticMission, 1954. 179p.

HARTSHORNE,E. Y.ReopenirgGerman Universities.MilitaryGovernment WeeklyInformationBulletin,43: V.5-9; May 27,1946. HIRLEKAR,YmittiNABAtArducationin .Germany:PersonalImpressions and Experiences.Boniy:The PopularPress Ltd.,1955. 152p. HYLLA, EttICHJ., andFRIEDRICH0. KEGEL.Education inGermany: AnIptro- duction forForeigners.Frankfurta.Main: Hochschulefür Internationale PlidagogischeForschung,1954. 71p. I InternationalConferenceon ComparativeEducation. (Rasthaus,Chiemsee, Germany,25-29 April,1949.)Frankfurt-Main:LotharWoeller,1949. 88p.

InternationalConferenceonpublicEducation,Geneva 1955,XV1IIth,Financ- ing ofEducation:A ComparativeStudy.Publication No.163. Paris/ Geneva:UNESCO/InternationalBureau ofEducation,1955. 284p. InternationalWorkshoponGuidance,Weilburg,July15 to August17, 1951, Proceedings:FindingsandRecommendationsfor theGerman Schools. Frankfurt/Main:Office ofthe UnitedStates HighComMissioner for Germany,1951. 171p. a InternationalWorkshoponSocial Studies,Heidelberg,July 17to August 26, k 1950. ProceedingsandSuggestionsfor theFormation ofSocialStudies in the publicSchools ofGermany.Frankfurt/Main:Office ofthe United States HighCommissionerfor Germany,June 1951.154p. LINDEGREN,ALMAM. Educationin Germany.Washington:U. S.Governmçnt PrintingOffice,1939. 145p.(Office ofEducation,Bulletin1938, No.t.15.) PermanentConferenceof MinistersofEducation ofthe Laenderin the Federal Republic ofGermany,Chairman ofthe SchoolsCommittee.Edu- cationalDevelopmentsin theFederalRepublicof Germanyin the SchplasticYear1955/56. Geneva:19thInternationalEducationalCon- qt ferenceat Geneva,July 1956(Mimeo.),24p. 4 PILGERT,HENRY P.Community andGroup Lifein WestGermanyWith Spe- cialReferenceto the Policiesand Programsof theOffice of'the U. S. HighCommissionerfor Germany.[Frankfurt]:Office ofthe U. S.High CommissionerforGermany,1952. 91p. I. BIBLIOGRAPHY 103 aw The West German Educational System: with Special Reference to the Policies and Programs of the Office of the U. S. High Commissioner for Germany. [Frankfurt]:Office of the U. S. High Commissioner for

Germany, 1953. 136p. we PILGERT,IENRYP., ,and FRIEDRICH FORSTMEIER. The Exchange of Persons Program in Western Germany. [Frankfurt]:Office of the U. S. High Commissioner for Germany, 1951. 89p. Quarterly ReportonGermany, 7th: April 1-June 30, 1951. Frankfurt/Main: Office of the U. S. High Commissioner for Germany, 1951. 132 p. Relations Between Germany and the United States of America in the18th and 19th Centuries. Braunschweig: German-American Conferenceof Historians held at Braunschweig, August 23-31, 1955 (Processed). 2p. Report of the United States Education Mission toGermany.Deparement of State Publication 2664, European Series 16. Washington: U. S. Govern-

ment Printing Office, 1946. 50p. , ROBINSON,HAROLD, and others, ed.Problems of Vocational Education: An International Survey. (Report of the International ConferenceonVoca- tional Education Stuttgart1956and Facts and FiguresonVocational Education in Various Countries.) Stuttgart: Verlag Reinhold A. Mueller, 1952. 150p. STIRK, S.- D. German Universities through English Eyes.London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd., 1946. 72p. Teacher Education for Wuerttemberg-Baden: The Esslingen Plan. (Report of the International Workshop held at Esslingen/Neckar.) Stuttgart: Ver- lagvonErnst Klett, 1949; 136p. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION [AND) INTERNATIONAL BUREAUOFEDUCATION. Secondary Teacher Train- ing. (XVIIth International Conference on-Public Education.) Publication U. No. 155. Paris/Geneva: UNESCO/IBE, 1954..202p.

VONMERKATZ, HANS JOACHIM; WOLFGANG METZNER; and A. HILLEN ZIEGPV.LD, ed. Germany Today: factsantifigures. FrankfurtamMain: Alfred Metz- nerVeirag, 1954. 413p. WENKE, HANS. Education in WesternGermani:A Postwar Survey. Wash- ington: Library of Congress, 1953 (Processed). 102p. WEguy, EDGAR BRuci. Teaching Social Studies in High Schools.Third ed. Boston: D. C. Ileath and Co., 1950. 594p. Young Germany: apprentice to democracy. Department of State Publication 4251, European and British Commonwealth Series 24. Washington:U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1961. 78p. ,

Genus Catalogs, study plans, examination regulations,reports, and similar materials from universities and otkerinstitutions of higher education. Regulations, study plansorguides (Richtlinien), toldprogramsof study for elementary, secondary, and vocational schools issuedby ministries of

education and school officials. -

4s A

`111 a

104" GERMANY REVISITED ANGER, HANS.Zur KritikderTestpsychologie.FrankfurtA. Main: Hoch- schulefür InternationalePidagogischeForschuni,1955. 23p. ArbeitakreisPidagogischerHochschulen.SchulpraktischeAusbildungin Hoch- ., schulmissigerForm. (Vortrigeund Protokolledes Ersten Hockscbultag6 am 18/19 Mai195finJugenheimanderBergstrasse.)Weinheim/Berg- strasse: Julius BeltsVerlagsbuchhandlung,1951. 79p. BAUERLE,ITHEopott.Perskinlichkeitsbildung(lurch Gemeinschaftserziehung. (BerichtUber die Wiirttemberg-RailischenFeriengemeinschaften,1949- 1951.) Stuttgart:Verlag ReinholdA. Willer,1952. 28p. BLAIN, KURT;KARL GEttlica,undGeoRG IimimANN.Die Bildungs-und Erzie- hungsaufgabeder heutigenUniversitiit.FrankfurterUrliversitlitsreden, Heft I.Frankfurt- Verlag G.Schulte-Bulmke,1946. 24p. BRAND, PETER.Schuireife undMilieu: EineUntersuchungan Schuineulintren. (Herausgegebenvonder HochschuleAir InternationalePidagogischeFor- schung.)FrankfurtamMain:Hirschgraben-Verlag,1955. 60p. Bctaimot,KARLHEINRICH.SrhUlergutschten,Eine UntersuchungOber Schillerbeobachtungund SchillerReurteilung.(Herausgegebenvontier HochschulefürInternationalePidagogischeForschung.)Frankfurtam Main:HirschgrabesVerlag, 1655.64p. CilIOUT,HERBERT.Schulverauehein derBundesrepublikDeutschland:Neue Wegeund Inhaltein der ,) Volkschule.Herausgegebenvonder Hochsehule fürInternationalePidagogischeFotschung.)Dortmund: W.CrUwell Verlagsbuchhandlung,1953. 234p: DeutscherHochschWfilhrer,1955/56.(Herausgegebenauf Grundamtlicher Unterlagen\PornVerbandDeutscherStudentenschaften.)Bonn: Wilhelm StollfussVerlag,1955. 248p. DeutscheSchulerziehung:Jahrbuch desDeutschenZentralinstitutsfür ErziehungundUnterricht1940. (BerichtOber dieEntwicklungder DeutschenSchule1933-1939.)Berlin: VerlagvonE. S. &littler& Sohn, . 1940. 899p. EBEL,KARL,Redakteur.DieStaatlichenHandelsschulen derPreienunt HansestadtHamburg.Hamburg:Schulbehörde,1954. 304p. Eu.wEIN,THOMAS. Pflegt diet.deutscheSchule litirgerblewusstsein?Ein Bericht Ober diestaatsbilrgerlicheErziehungin den höherenSchulen derBundesrepublik.MUnchen:Isar Verlag,1955.312p. Fragen derSchuireformin WUrttemberg-Badin:Eine Verkentlichungder PidagogischenArbeitsatelleStuttgArt furDeutscheDiskussionsgruppen. (Bericht "derAbteilung AirErziehungund KulturelleAngelegenheiten der MilitArregierungWUrttemberg-Baden.)Stuttgart;Etnst Klett,1949. 20p.

FROMMii40°itt:0`.',,AERBEaT,DasSitzenbleiberproblem:UntersuchungenUber dat Versagenvon Kindern in derVolkschule.(Herausgegebenvonder Hoch- schulefür InternationalePidagogischeForschung.)Dortmund:,W.Crag- wellVerlagsbuchhandlung,1955. 247p. HECKEL, HANS.ObersichtUber dasSchul inBundesgebiet.Weld- , mannscheTaschenausgaben.Neue Reihe,Heft 1:Beriin-Koln:Weidmann- Greven-Verlag,1952. 188p. *BIBLIOGRAPHY 105 HILKER, FRANZ. 'DieSchulen in Deutschland: (Bundesrepublik und..West- Berlin). (Herkusgegebenvon der Hochschule für Internlitionale Pida- q gogische Forschung.) Bad Nauheim: Im Christian Verlag,1954. 9tp. HILLIGEN, WOLFGANG. Planund Wirklichkeit im sozialkundlichen Unterricht: Untersuchungen, Erfahrungen und Vorschlage.Herausgegebenvonder Hochschule für Internationale PAdagogische Forschung.) Frankfurtam Main: Bollwerk-Verlags.-Gesellschaft, Jáhrig& Co., 1954.. 241p. HIRSCH, ERNSTE. _Vain Geist und Recht tierUniversitat: Akademische Ansprachen.. (Veroffenttichuni der Freien Universitat Berlin.) Berlin- Wilmersdorf: H. tieenemann KG, 1955.

HYLLA, ERICH.Die Hochschuiefür InternationalePaciagogischeForschung in FrankfurtamMain. Frankfurtam.Main: Kern* Birner, 12 Marl 1953. 16p. RF.RNHARD KRAAK.Regabtenpriifung für den Cbergangvonder GrundschulezuweitekührendenSchulen: Ilandbuh und Testhefte.(int Auftrage (ier HochsChule für Internationale Padagogische Forschung.) Weinheima.d.B.:Julius Beltz, 1954. 32p.

,und W. 1..WRINKLE,Die Schulen in Westeuropa. (Im Auftrage der Hochschule für Internationale Plidagogische Forschung.) Bad Nauheim: Int Christian Verlag,.1953. 663p. Internationale Arbeitsgemeinachaft für Sorialkunde in Heidelberg. Verhand- lunoberkht und Voischlige für die Gestaltung des socialkundlkhenUn- terrichtsin derdeutschew-8chule.(17.Junbis 26. August 1950.) Frank- furt/Main:Office of the U.S. HighCommissioner for Germany, 1951.

18613. Interuationale Arbeitstagung über"Guidance."Verhandlungsbericht: Ergeb- nisse und Vorschligle ftirdieodeutsche Schule.(Weilburg,15.Juli bis 17. August 1951.) Internationales Jahrbuch für Geschkhts Unterricht. (Herausgegebenvonder Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Lehrerverbande, Gewerkschaft,Erzie- hung und Wissenschaft, Bayerischer Lehrerverin.)BandII. Braun- schweig: VerlagAlbrtLimbach, 1953. 391p. *

-KILLY, WALTHER.Studium General# und studentisches Gemeinschaftsleben. Berlin: Duncker&Humblot, 1952. 118p. LAN* WALTHER, Kontmentator. Die Schule in der Reichsverfassung.Berlin: VerlagvonReimar Hobbing, 1929. 228p.

,Preussisches Schulrecht, SonderausgabeRand VI, 1. Halbband und 2. Halbband. Berlin: Carl Heymanns Verlag,1933. 1215p.

LEBER, ANNEDORE.313 Berufe für junge Midchen.Eterlin-Schöneberg: Mosaik- Verlag G. M. R. H.1 11963. 159p. . .. Lehrerbildung für Wlirttemberg-Baden: EsslingenPlan. (Bericht der Inter- nationalen Arbeitsgemeinschaft in Esslingen/Neckar1949.) Stuttgart: Verlatvon Ernst Klett, 1949. 142p. V. LUPPERT,ELISABETH. Lehrer Bildung:Ein Programa'. Wiesbaden: Verlagder lifessischen Lesebuchstiftung, 1952.. 208p. 1

4 . . .11' , ; 4 40 0, ¶- 106 GERMANY REVISITED

. LoFFLER, EUGEN.Das OffentlicheBildungswesen inDeutschland. Berlin:Ver- i lagvonE. S. Mittler undSohn, 1931.144p. MEHNERT, .LAUS,und HEINRICHSCHULTE, Redakteuren..Deutschla,nd-Jahr- buch 1 53.Essen:Rheinisch-WestfaliscleVerlagskontoifG. M. B.IL, 1953. 6Op. 7, 4. MERKT, HANS,Bearbeiter. DokumentesurSchulreform inBayern. (1ftraus- gegebenvomBayerischenStaatsministeriumfür Unterricht undKultus.) München:Richard PflaumVerlag, 1952.384p.. Mitteilundenund Nachrichten11.; April 1956. MitverantwortungundMitverwaltung derJugend im Leben derSchule. ' (Herausgegebenvom Kultministerium Wiirttemberg-Baden.)Stuttgart: Verlag ReinholdA. Muller,1950. 63p. ItoBINscsx,HARoth, undAndere,Redakteuren. Problemedes Beruflichen Bilthingswesens:Eine InternationaleStellungnahme.(Bericht der inter- nationalenTagung iiberberufliches Schulwesen,Stuttgart 1950, undIn-. formationen Ober dasBerufsschulwesen inverschiedenen Ländern.)Stutt- I.t gart: VerlagReinhold%A. Muller,1951. 144p. 4SCHNEIDER,FRIEDRICH. DasNeunte Schuljahr.Stuttgart: VerlagReinhold A. Muller, 1952.63p. Schule inOffentlichkeitund Leben:Eine Sammlungaktueller.Beiträgefür ErziehereScOulpo4tiker,Eltern undalle, die,.ander Pidagogikund Bildung lebendigenAnteil Thmen.(Herausgegebenvonder Arbeitsge- meinschaft der Studienassesarenin LandeNordrhein-Westfalen.) Ge- mener Gesprache 2. Ratingen:Bucbdruckereiund Verlag M..Brehmen, December1953. 107p. SCHUVT211, WALtER.Bericht überdie Studienreiseder Hochschulenach Hol- land unctBelgienvom7.-21. September1955. Mitteilungen undNach richtenSonderheft 3-4;November 1955. StifterverbandMr die Deutsche.WissenschaftE. V.,Vademecum deutsche, Forschungsstatten.Bonn: Scheur& Kroth, 1953.459p. A SiudiumGenerale: Berichtüber zweiWeilburgerArbeitstagungen,30. August bite 1. Septemberund 3. bis15. September1951.(Zusammengestelltund BearbeitetvonFriedrichTenbruck undWilhelm Treue.)[Frankfurt/ sink Office ofthe U. S.HighCommissioner forGermany], 1952.152p. 9. eiser durchdas höhereSchulwesen desDeutschenReiches: Schuljahr. 1935. (1m Auttragedes Reichs-und PreussischenMinisters fürWissen- .schaft,Trziehungund Volksbildung,bearbeitetvonder Rei6`stellefür Schulwesen, Berlin.). Berlin:WeidmannscheBuchhandlung,1936. 256p. Schuljahr1936. 2. Jahrgang,1937. 252p. Schuljahr1937. (Im Auftragedes Reichsministersfür Wissenschaft, -Erziehungund Volksbildung.)8. Jahrgang,WeidmannscheVerlagtbucb- handlung,1988. 220p.

, WHINERT,WALTER.Auslinderandeutschen Hochschulenund dieBewertung auslindischer4eugnisse,Die Sommlune Heft 8:1774-79; Min19411. . . WUNDERLIO, GEORG.Das Idealder fieuen deuischen Universitat.Warzburger UniversititsredenHeft1. WUrzburg:Verlag FerdinandSchöningh, I 1946. 14p. : c.::'` ,4 4

. I aI:, : ;., - , . . ' ,71-..?;* , . . Id. ?`. ' /4 " t !. ",). . t :, 404 41144 \r44,4- kKL-d 4- , : ja4.2..aft ..1,:754; 1..3414 ?Itt:.;!, 1",11,i;itt...; ); 44 4 .<1 4:!_11_1(1,61 BIBLIOGRAPHY 107 Wurttemberg-Baden Kultininisterium.5 Jahre Kultministerium WUrtetem- berg-Baden: Ein Tätigkeitsbericlit, 1945-4950. Stuttgart: Kultminister- ium, 1951.108p. &MOLD, Kurr,und PAULROTHKUGEL) Redakteuren. Die Pidagogischen Akademien:Amtliche Bestimmungen.(Weidmannsche Tasaitenausgaben für die preussische pi Schulverwaltung.) Heft70. Berlin: Weigimannsehe . Buchhandlung,(-1931.239p. P§-42-57

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