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Phrases and Simple Sentences 8 PHRASES AND SIMPLE SENTENCES This chapter is an informal discussion of the structure of simple sen­ tences in Tzutujil. Section S.l is a presentation of the internal structure of the three major types of phrasal constituents in sentences: noun phrases (S.l.l), prepositional and relational noun phrases (8.1.2), and predicate phrases (S.1.3). Section S.2 is on the internal structure of simple sen­ tences. There arp discussions of the basic or obligatory constituents of simple sentences (8.2.1), of additional or optional constituents (8.2.2), of word order (S.2.3), and of existential, locative, and possessive sentences (S.2.4). 8.1 PHRASES S.l.l Noun Phrases Noun phrases (NPs) in Tzutujil function as subjects of intransitive verbs and stative predicates, agents and patients of transitive verbs, ob­ jects of prepositions, and possessor-objects of relational nouns. They may also function a s predicates in stativ~ sentences (i.e. as predicate nouns). Noun phrases may be full NPs, pronominal NPs, or embedded sentences. Pro­ nominal NPs are discussed later on in this subsection after full NPs have been presented; sentential NPs are discussed in chapter 10 in section 10.2 on embedded clauses. The constituents of full NPs are listed below in their normal relative order. Most constituents of the NP have been discuss~d individually in detail in other chapters of this work; references to relevant sections on particular NP constituents are enclosed in parentheses. 2S 0 Phrases and Simple Sentences 281 Full Noun Phrase Constituents 1. Definite article (7.1.7.1), or demon~trative (3.5, 7.1.6) 2. Indefinite article (7.1.7.1), number (5.2.2), or quantifier (5.2.2.2) 3. Modifying adjective (6.1), or restricting noun used as a modifying adjective (6.1, 8.1.1) 4. Diminutive particle or plural (and diminutive) particle 0.1.7.6) 5. HEAD NOUN (chapter 5) (N.B.: head nouns may be inflected with a plural suffix (5.1.1) or for possessor (5.1.2) with au ergative prefix coreferential with the possessor NP in position 8.) 6. The particle ~hik 'other' 0.1.7.4) 7. Demonstrative/locative particle (7.1.6) 8. Possessor NP (5.1.2) (N.B.: the possessor NP is cross-referenced on the head noun with an ergative prefix.) 9. Modifying adjective (6.1), restricting noun (6.1, 8.1.1), and/or a prepositional phrase (7.1.2, 8.1.2) or relational noun phrase (5.2.1,8.1.2) 10. Relative clause (10.2.1) Note that there are a number of other elements that may occur in an NP that are not strictly immediate constituents of the NP itself, for example: (1) the adverb laj 'very', used with modifying adjectives preceding head nouns, and the modifier-connector suffix -V, used on monosyllabic modifying adjectives and restricting nouns that precede head nouns (see 6.1.1); (2) the third person plural absolutive proclitic ee, ~"hich frequently accompanies numbers above one in an NP; (3) quantifying adverbial particles such as xa 'only, just' 0.2.4) and modal particles such as!.~ irrealis; and (4) the contrastive/topic-shifting particles k'ii(~) and k'aa(~) (7.1.7.3), which may occur immediately following the definite article. None of the NP constituents listed above, taken individually, are obligatorily present in a given NP. Single nouns alone without other NP constituents commonly occur as full NPs, especially; (1) if they are used 282 Tzutujil Grammar generically, referring to a class; (2) if they denote masses; (3) if they denote inanimate objects; and (4) if, in general, they do not refer to a specific individual of the class of entities they denote. The tendency for nouns to occur alone without other NP constituents seems to be strongest in prepositional and relational noun phrases indicating oblique sentential arguments, but is also not uncommon with patients of transitive verbs. E.g. (1) Jaa7 xuumaj ch'eyoj ak'aal. she B3-A3-began to-hit boy 'She began to hit boy(s).' (2) Nwaajo7 ya7; I-want-it water 'I want water.' (3) Jar ijqa7n xuuya7 rexkeej chwe. the burden B3-A3-gave cramp to-me 'The burden gave me cramps.' (4) In k'o pa jaay. Bl be in house 'I am in (the) house.' (5) Jar aak'aalaa7 xkeek'aq aab'aj pa rwi7 ja jaay. the boys B3-A3p-threw rock on top-of the house 'The boys threw rock(s) on top of the house.' (6) Jar ajq'iij xwajch' rna ch' ij ch' . the diviner was-run-over by car , 'The diviner was run over by (a) car. (7) Xuuchoy chee7 tza7n ikaj. he-cut-it tree with ax 'He cut tree (s) w:!th (an) ax. , Proper names usually do not occur with other NP constituents except that (1) they are often used with the definite article ~(E)' especially if they are Subjects or topics, and (2) they require one of the four proper , name proclitic elements: Aa 'youth', Ta (~) 'Miss' , Taa7 'Sir, Mr. , or Naan 'Lady, Ms., Mrs.' (see section 5.2.5 on proper names). E.g. Phrases and Simple Sentences 283 (8) (Jar) Aa Xwaan xb'e k'in Aa Teeko. the youth Juan went with youth Diego , 'Juan went with Diego. (9) (Ja) Ta Xwaana xb'e Sanpaawlo. the Miss Juana went San Pablo , 'Juana went to San Pablo. There are also NPs that occur without head nouns, such as headless relative clauses (e.g. (I~», and anaphoric elliptical constructions with an article or demonstrative and an adjective (e.g. (11». (10) K'aja7 k'aari7 xtipeeti ja nchojmarsaani. and then B3-will-come who B3-straighten-out-foc , And he who straighten , then will come --- will it out. (11 ) a. Nwaaj07 jun kaq. B3-Al-want a red 'I want a red (one).' b. Nwaaj07 ja kaq. B3-AI-want the red 'I want the red (one).' c. Nwaajo7 ala7 kaq. B3-AI-want that red 'I want that red (one).' Although no single NP has been recorded with all of the possible NP constituents at once, a given NP may contain many of them, since there are only a few co-occurrence restrictions among them. The co-occurrence re­ strictions are: (1) The definite article does not occur with a 1 demonstrative. (2) The indefinite article, numbers, and quantifiers normally 2 do not occur together. (3) Rarely, if ever, does more than one modifying adjective or restricting noun precede the head noun. (4) If the head noun is an enumerative noun (see 5.2.3, and later on in this subsection), then there cannot be a preceding modifying adjective or restricting noun. (5) If the head noun is possessed, then the ergative prefix on the head noun must agree in person and number with an overt possessor NP. However, if the 284 Tzutujil Grammar possessor is given information then it is normally omitted with only the ergative prefix on the head noun indicating the possessor. If the possessor is non-third person, then normally it is indicated only with an ergative prefix on the head noun; an independent non-third person pronoun usually occurs in the possessor NP position only if it is contrastive or emphatic. And (6), usually if there is a possessor NP (which would normally follow the head noun), then either no modifying adjective, restricting noun, prepositional or relational noun phrase, or relative clause follows it, or the possessor NP is fronted to the beginning of the sentence. Apparently, this is to avoid ambiguity, since in most cases it would be impossible to tell if the following modifying adjective, etc., pertained to the possessor NP or to the head noun preceding the possessor. On the other hand, there are some notable co-occurrence possibilities. First, the definite article or a demonstrative may occur with the indefinite article or an indefinite quantifier. The combination of definite and indefinite markers together indicates that the referent denoted by the head noun is identifiable (i.e. definite) but not presently given information (i.e. in­ definite; see Chafe 1976). In other words, apparently when a speaker uses both definite and indefinite markers together he/she assumes the hearer can identify the referent, but also assumes that it is not presently in the consciousness of the hearer and that he/she is introducing it into the hearer's consciousness (see sentences (12), (14), (16) below and sentence (123) in chapter 7). Second, there are no restrictions on the number of possessor NPs that may follow the head noun (i.e. head noun of NP of NP of NP, etc.; e.g. ruutz'ii7 ruuchaaq' rxayil nnimaal nb'esiino 'dog of younger sister of wife of older brother of my neighbor = my neighbor's older brother's wife's younger sister's dog'; see sentence (17) below). And there are no re­ strictions on the number of modifying adjectives, restricting nouns, prep­ ositional and relational noun phrases, and relative c'lauses that may be concatenated after head nouns (see sentences (15), (18), (19), and (24) below). Some examples of NPs in sentences follow. The NPs discussed are en­ closed in brackets. Note that some NPs occur within other larger NPs. Phrases and Simple Sentences 285 (12) [Jaa la7 jun aachiJ najt k'o wi7 chee waawe 7. that a man far live front to here 'That (identifiable but not previously mentioned) man lives far from here. ' In (12), the NP consists of the demonstrative jaa la7, the indefinite article jun, and the head noun aachi.
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