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PLASTICS IN THE UK: JONATHAN CULLEN PRACTICAL AND PERVASIVE MICHAL DREWNIOK ... BUT PROBLEMATIC. ANDRÉ SERRENHO SUMMARY

Plastics are ubiquitous in and recycling of plastics is waste in coming decades modern society, owing to their challenging. from all the products made usefulness, durability and how of plastic that we have been This report tackles this data cheap and easy they are to accumulating. problem by mapping plastic produce. This makes plastics flows through UK society, Recycling more plastics in the both a blessing and a curse. collating data from disparate UK could reduce incineration We manufacture a myriad sources on the production, emissions, avoid mismanagement of plastic materials, used in use, disposal and recovery of of exported waste and replace countless consumer products, plastics. With the resulting map the need for the production of which are highly valued by of UK plastic flows, we can new plastics. However, current society. Everything from milk understand the latest trends UK recycling capacity is only 12% to window frames, in plastics use and identify of waste collected, and this is from sunglasses to face masks, opportunities for reducing the hampering the benefits recycling contains plastic. Plastics impacts of plastics in the future. could provide. are pervasive due to their We found that the way we There are several other practicality and profitability. have been disposing of plastics actions we should take, such And yet, plastics have a problem. plays a critical role in two as reducing excessive use of The making, use and disposal serious environmental impacts: plastic packaging, and reducing of plastics creates challenging greenhouse gas emissions and the range of used in pollution issues. Significant CO2 plastic ocean pollution. These various products to improve emissions are released across problems arise because plastics recycling yields. These should the life-cycle of plastic products are not circular in the UK. Less be combined with improved and poor disposal means plastic than 3% of plastics consumed practices in the makes its way into our waterways are made of UK recycled plastics, industry, and enhanced reuse and oceans, creating serious and the vast majority of waste and recycling of plastics to environmental impacts. ends up being incinerated, achieve a meaningful reduction landfilled or exported. Without in greenhouse gas emissions. Fixing this problem is not simple. any action this problem will get Even finding good data, on worse, as we will generate more the production, use, disposal

The authors have asserted Thanks to: the Alliance for Available for download at: their right under the Copyright, Sustainable Building Products www.refficiency.org/ Designs and Patents Act 1988 (ASBP), Axion, British Plastic publications/the-p-word/ KEY MESSAGES to be identified as authors of Federation (BPF), PlasticEurope, this work. VinylPlus, RecovinylPlus and Research in this report is funded by UKRI as part of CirPlas: The • The two most important • Increasing recycling capacity • Action is urgently required Glass Alliance Europe for help in environmental impacts of in the UK could both reduce to reduce the impacts of Jonathan M. Cullen, Cambridge Creative Circular gathering the data. plastics are greenhouse gas emissions and prevent ocean plastics. We must address Michal P. Drewniok, Plastics Centre. André Cabrera Serrenho Please cite as: Cullen JM, emissions and ocean waste waste pollution. Our limited the excess use of packaging, pollution. These problems domestic recycling capacity the variety of polymers used Drewniok MP, Cabrera Serrenho Copyright © 2020 are being aggravated by the leads to waste exports to in similar products, practice A (2020) The ‘P’ Word – University of Cambridge way we have been disposing countries with poor waste in production, Plastics in the UK: practical and of plastics. management practices. and promoting reuse and Design by New Rhythm Design pervasive ... but problematic.” recycling of plastics.

PAGE THREE: SUMMARY

The story of plastics over PLASTICS ARE the last 75 years is one of PRACTICAL insatiable growth driven by plastic’s prized properties and low costs compared with other materials.

Demand for plastic, and From 1950 to 1990 global other materials production of plastic increased sixty-fold (from 1.5 to 90 Mt), compared with four times for Plastic 350 Cement steel, nine times for glass, and twelve times for aluminium. Aluminium Glass Growth has continued steadily from 1990 until today, with production increasing by three and a half times worldwide, as 250 Steel seen in Fig.2. During this period, Fig.1 Global annual primary plastic production, by end-use. plastic demand outpaced steel, glass and aluminium, and kept abreast with cement.

Plastics are a uniquely practical The attractiveness of plastics production increasing from 1.5 x 1990=100 Much of this growth in demand group of materials. They are has led to rapid growth in the Mt in 1950 to 438 Mt in 2017 inde has been driven by increasing strong, lightweight, flexible and global (Fig.1). (Fig.1). In fact, growth in plastic 150 populations and per captia durable. They can be shaped demand far outpaced global The first fully synthetic plastic, wealth in developing economies into almost any form. And they GDP over this period. called Bakelite (phenylol- around the world. In contrast, are cheap to make. ) was invented by This has made plastics a demand for plastic in the UK The unique properties have led Leo Baekeland in 1907. By 1941, profitable business over many plateaued, with consumption to plastics being used in many more than 20 further plastic decades. remaining constant over the past thousands of products, bringing types (polymers) had been 50 decade, at about 6 Mt per year. Plastics are now used across convenience and ease to our created and plastics began a variety of sectors, including modern lives. Plastics find use finding their way into products in packaging (36%), building in supermarkets, in packaging to in housing, automotive, aviation, 0 and construction (16%) and the reduce food waste, in hospitals, and electrical products. 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 textiles sector (14%), as well in protective clothing to limit However rapid growth in plastic as consumer and institutional infection, and in homes, in Fig.2 Demand for plastics is compared with steel, cement, production was only realised products (13%). appliances, phones, wires and aluminium and glass from 1950s onwards, with water pipes.

PAGE FOUR: PLASTICS ARE PRACTICAL PAGE FIVE: PLASTICS ARE PRACTICAL 100% Types of plastic produced worldwide in 2017 Plastics PLASTICS Others 90% Additives encompasses ARE PS a myriad of PUR PERVASIVE 80% PET different PVC HDPE materials and 70% PP &A LDPE products, each PP 60% with their own unique properties, There aren’t official statistics The supply chains of plastics about plastics in the UK, and are complex, since each polymer only few disparate publications and application is sourced 50% uses and issues from PlasticsEurope and Waste in different ways. However, & Resources Action Programme most of the plastics used in (WRAP) show us snapshots of the UK were made in other for recovery a few stages along the supply countries, and most of them chain of plastics. However, this were imported as finished goods 40% data is still insufficient to tell sold to final consumers. For after use. us how much and which types this reason, the production of of plastics are used every year, plastics in primary form in the where they came from, on UK only supply less than 20% of We tend to think of plastics Plastics are defined as: any what products they are used UK consumption. as one uniform material. But of a group of synthetic or and how they are disposed of. Fig.3 shows that we use a huge 30% plastic, unlike other materials natural organic materials that And knowing this is essential variety of different polymers. such as steel, concrete and may be shaped when soft and to identify what problems are We even use several different , encompasses numerous then hardened. This includes being caused by plastics and polymers for the similar types materials (or chemical many types of resins, resinoids, what opportunities exist to of product. However, this formulations, as shown in Fig.3) polymers, cellulose derivatives, mitigate them. mixture the polymers causes and product configurations. casein materials, and , which can be extruded into For this report, we had to additional problems when 20% This makes the recovery of shapes, used as , drawn conciliate available data plastics are disposed of. Each plastic material after use into fibres and woven. on plastics with UK trade polymer has to be separated particularly challenging, as each statistics in order to estimate from waste, because it is chemical formulation needs to be Fig 4. shows the flow the the polymer composition in recycled in a different way. Yet, treated separately. plastics through the UK society, annual trade flows. By doing mixing polymers in products 10% including the production, import this, we were able to trace the makes it more difficult to and export of plastic materials flows of various polymers from separate them with enough visualised as a Sankey diagram. production to transformation, purity to allow recycling. Less use, and disposal. pure recyclates will also lead to POLYMER ABBREVIATIONS (PP), Low Density Polypropylene (LDPE), the use of recycled plastics in , and Acrylic (PP&A), High Density (HDPE), lower value applications. (PVC), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), (PUR), (PS), Additives, Others. Fig.3 Types of plastic produced worldwide in 2017. of plastic produced worldwide Fig.3 Types 0%

PAGE SIX: PLASTICS ARE PERVASIVE PAGE SEVEN: PLASTICS ARE PERVASIVE PAGE EIGHT: PLASTICS FLOWS PAGE NINE: PLASTICS FLOWS PLASTIC FLOWS indirect imports imports UK 2017 imports 1.1 Mt 3.6 Mt 3.4 Mt

plastics in consumption consumption primary form end-use by type by application intermediate production in UK Agriculture 0.1 Mt PP PP PP 1.3 Mt PP Automotive 1.0 Mt PE-HD/MD PE-HD/MD PE-HD/MD 0.8 Mt PE-HD/MD

PE-LD PE-LD Construction PE-LD 0.9 Mt PE-LD 0.6 Mt PET PET 0.5 Mt PET PET PVC PVC UK production 0.5 Mt PVC PMMA PVC Packaging 1.6 Mt PMMA PMMA 2.2 Mt ABS PMMA ABS ABS ABS PUR PUR PUR PUR PA Textiles PA PA PA 0.2 Mt PC PC PC PC

Consumer Products other other 1.9 Mt other 2.0 Mt other

intermediates Total consupmtion 6.4 Mt exports indirect exports 0.6 Mt 0.9 Mt

exports Fig.4 Sankey diagram showing the flows of plastics in the UK from production 1.9 Mt losses in primary form to end-use products, 2017

POLYMER ABBREVIATIONS Standard Types: Polypropylene (PP), Medium/high density polyethylene (PE-HD/MD), Low density polyethylene (PE-LD), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC), Poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), (PUR), (PA), (PC), Other: Polystyrene (PS), Expanded polystyrene (EPS), Other thermoset (OTS), Other (OTP), Unsaturated polyester (PES), Silicone (S). Our modern production processes, use and disposal PROBLEMS of plastics create challenging WITH pollution issues, from the PLASTIC Plastics are useful, durable, cheap 80% of these emissions. Burning release of CO2 emissions and easy to shape into products, plastics, which are derived and these desirable properties from fossil fuels, creates 17% of have led to spectacular growth in emissions, with recycling and demand over the last century. Yet, landfill much smaller (Fig.6) to plastic waste found in their success is both a blessing Single use plastics, such as and a curse. Plastics create plastic cutlery, straws, stirrers challenging pollution issues, from and carriers , make up only the release of CO2 emissions to waterways and oceans. a tiny fraction of CO2 emissions plastic waste found in waterways from plastic, and yet these and oceans. items, dominates current plastic The use of plastics in the UK waste strategy. There is a need generates 26 million tonnes to develop policies to address of CO2 equivalent emissions impacts from all products. The (Mt CO2e), every year, across sheer number of different plastic the whole life cycle of plastic materials and products, means a products. Production, both in the variety of intervention strategies UK and overseas, accounts for and polices will be needed.

durable and other plastic Non-UK products production 99.96% straws, stirrers, plastic cutlery 59% and carrier bags 0.04%

UK landfill Fig.5 issues 26 Mt CO 2e 0.3% 2% UK recycling 5% Non UK treatment

12% incineration

21% UK production

Fig.6 Whole life carbon emissons from UK plastic consumption

PAGE TEN: PROBLEMS WITH PLASTIC PAGE ELEVEN: PROBLEMS WITH PLASTIC We have all seen images of the The UK generated 3.4 Mt of these destinations leads to waste devastating effect plastics can plastic waste in 2017–with roughly being illegally dumped, resulting cause in marine environments one third sent to landfill, one in plastic entering waterways and and across all ecosystems. third to incinerated, and one third marine environments. These environmental impacts for recycling (Fig. 7). The UK’s PLASTIC AT Fig.7 shows our best estimate of result directly from the limited recycling capacity meant end-of-life flows of UK plastic mismanagement of plastics only 0.4 Mt of plastic waste and their destinations. We waste and the durability of was recycled in the country. The estimate that up to 2% of UK plastic products. However, in remaining 0.7 Mt were exported END OF LIFE plastic waste (0.06 Mt) may end countries with efficient waste to other countries, purportedly up in the oceans. UK 2017 management, plastic waste rarely to be recycled. Yet, in poor waste ends up in the oceans. management practices in some of UK landfill 1.0 Mt waste imports 0.09 Mt

0.4 Mt

EU dumped 0.3 Mt Other Europe incineration 1.3 Mt 0.2 Mt SE Asia

waste generated 0.2 Mt China in the UK 3.3 Mt Oceania

America

Other marine debris 0.06 Mt recycling 1.1 Mt We estimate that the UK is responsible 0.06 Mt of plastics entering the oceans, every year. However, only a small fraction (0.9%) of this waste enters directly from the UK to oceans. The lion’s share of marine debris from UK plastic waste result from the exports to other parts of the world where waste is mismanaged. Fig.7 End-of-life treatment of UK plastics, 2017

PAGE TWELVE: PLASTICS AT END OF LIFE PAGE THIRTEEN: PLASTICS AT END OF LIFE WHAT GOES IN 1MUST COME OUT We saw in Fig.1 that global consumption. Therefore, the demand for plastic has grown higher through rate today, at extraordinary rates. In fact, compared to historically, it is estimated that at some reflects the gradual shift from point, between 2017 and 2018, exponential to linear growth in we produced the 10 billionth consumption, and perhaps some metric ton of plastic (10,000 shortening of product lifetimes Mt). About 9,200 Mt was (although it is difficult to unpick virgin plastic sourced almost these two effects without exclusively from fossil fuels. better data.) Another 800 Mt was from The balance of flows for the recycled sources. Only 8% of all UK is quite different. In 2017, plastic material made to date the UK consumed 6.4 Mt of has been from recycled content. plastic products (see Fig.4) About 2,750 Mt of plastic and generated 3.3 Mt of waste material is locked up in plastic plastic (Fig.7) with a through products which are still in rate of only 51%. Given plastic use today. These products consumption in the UK is accumulate in society and are relatively stable over time, this known as in-use stocks. Most of low through rate points to more the remaining plastic produced, durable plastic products being some 7,000 Mt over the course consumed and these products of history, has been discarded accumulating as in-use stocks, in landfills or nature (78%), with the generation of waste incinerated (13%) or recycled delayed. (8%). The history of plastic The UK processed 3.4 Mt of Table.1 Plastic recyclability in each. production is a far cry from plastic waste (including an being anything like circular! additional 0.09 Mt of imports) On an annual basis, the balance with roughly a third going each of plastics consumed and to incineration, landfill and discarded is much closer. In recycling (Fig.7). UK’s limited 2017, humankind consumed recycling capacity meant 438 Mt of plastic products that only 0.4 Mt of the total and created 328 Mt of 1.1 Mt sent for recycling, was ALMOST ALL waste (a through rate of 74% processed locally. The remaining compared to the accumulated 0.7 Mt of ‘recycled’ plastic historical rate of 70%). The waste was sent overseas, PLASTICS CAN difference between plastics yet, with little assurance flowing into use, and out of that recycling was actually BE RECYCLED, use, comes about because undertaken in these countries. some products remain in use for longer than a year (called BUT IN REALITY durables), and this combined with growth in demand, means THEY ARE NOT waste generation lags behind

PAGE FOURTEEN: WHAT GOES IN MUST COME OUT In the UK we collect only 4% ofGRASPING packaging from AT STRAWS OCEAN WASTE POLLUTION consumer sector (18kt out of 395kt) and almost non of this isPackaging recycled accountedin the UK. 90% for a is third Very little recycling data is a key barrier that holds back exportedof UK plastic for “recycling”.consumption in collected for the remaining the development of policy MACROPLASTICS most of plastic marine debris process domestically, and as result Only2017, 6.7%with ofon plasticaverage packaging 46% of two thirds of UK plastics and regulatory instruments from China and SE Asian must export plastic waste to other being recycled. consumption, which includes for these larger slices of Every year, as much as 13 Mt film (26 kt) are plastic bags. of plastic waste enters the countries. countries. Yet, these countries will Among the packaging materials, durable plastic products used the market. Furthermore, often have high rates of waste oceans. This is more than In 2018, China stopped importing the highest recycling rate was in agriculture, automotive, UK regulatory bodies, in our mismanagement, with plastic twice the annual consumption several types of plastic waste, for plastic bottles (PET/HDPE) construction, textiles and view, have become fixated on waste being dumped in open of plastics in the UK. Most While most developed countries, at 74%, while consumer plastic consumer products. Efforts to specific single-use consumer landfills, being burned or finding 2film was as low as 3.5%. Roughly address the recycling of these products, which although highly plastic waste enters the ocean such as the UK, produce more 3due to inadequate poor waste its way to rivers and oceans. two-thirds of plastic bottles are products have been slow coming. visible, make up only small plastic waste than they can recycled in the UK, whereas all fractions of plastic demand and management systems. In 2010 We suggest that the absence plastic film waste is currently environmental impact. of comprehensive flow data sent overseas, with no guarantee across all UK plastic flows is the waste is handled correctly. OCEAN WASTE IS A BIG ISSUE, BUT THE PLASTIC STRAWS, buds each year. These seem like plastic straws, made from paper, TAKE-AWAY big numbers. are often coated with plastic for UK CONTRIBUTES LESS THAN 1% OF DRINK STIRRERS AND waterproofing, which contributes Yet, if we take plastic straws as BUDS to micro-plastic waste and an example, 4.7 billion straws makes recycling difficult. MACROPLASTIC OCEAN WASTE. Much attention has been given equates to only 1.9 thousand to plastic straws, drink stirrers, tonnes of plastic, a small fraction We are not suggesting that the and cotton buds, culminating (0.03%) of the UK’s total plastic environmental impacts from with DEFRA imposing a ban in consumption (6.4 Mt). Of the 13 plastic straws, drink stirrers England from October 2020. million tonnes of marine litter and cotton buds should be These three items are highly entering oceans each year, ignored. It is sometimes wise to visible to the public, are difficult plastic straws make up just address low hanging fruit first. to collect and recycle, and when 1/4000th. Furthermore, litter But we question whether our released to the ocean, take collection studies on British limited capacity to push through centuries to degrade. Studies beaches show that plastic regulatory change, however estimate that the UK consumes straws and stirrers make up only well-intentioned, should be 4.7 billion plastic straws, 316 2–7% of the litter items, whereas spent on such a small prize. Textiles million plastic stirrers and 1.8 cigarette filters comprise 20– Pollutants, such as aromatic Cosmetics billion plastic-stemmed cotton 80%. And popular alternative to Microplastics are a significant hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy 0.04 Mt source of plastic pollution and metals tend to adhere to the Vehicle environmental impact. These surfaces of microplastics and tyre dust 0 Seb, cancontamination. you bring the The humble take- On a simple mass basis, PS can accumulate in food chains. t .2 TAKE–AWAY TRAYS are plastic particles smaller than M 7 away tray is a ubiquitous example. and EPS packaging is 30 times 9 M The UK consumes 63 thousand OC 5 mm and they occur in the .1 more important than plastic About 0.95Mt of microplastics 0 t tonnes of polystyrene (PS) and Both styrene-based polymers are environment as either primary or straws and focusing regulatory make their way into the global expanded polystyrene (EPS) easily recycled and yet the UK has secondary microplastics. action to address the lack of marine environment every year, packaging, with 90% used for only the capacity to recycle 2% recycling facilities of PS and EPS, Primary microplastics are small with 28% from vehicle tyre 0.95 Mt plastic pots, tubes and trays of the UKs styrene-based waste for example, might be a more plastic particles deliberately dust, 24% from marine, road and (PPTs). These short lasting, arisings. PS and EPS packaging effective use of time and effort. manufactured for abrasives or building paint, 24% pellet spills, 0 single use packaging items are .2 are not separated for kerbside 20% textiles and 4% cosmetics. 3 cosmetics, which later find their commonly used for keeping collection and are therefore M t way to the environment. t M food hot or cold and preventing There are no simple options for 3 either landfilled or incinerated. 0.2 Secondary microplastics preventing microplastics entering Marine, road result from the mechanical the ocean, but improving plastic and building degradation of larger plastic waste mismanagement, making paint paint and textiles more durable, particles, e.g. by washing Pellet spills garments made of plastic fibres and limiting car travel, all help. or from the natural erosion of Fig.8 Global annual microplastics plastic waste. waste in the marine environment.

PAGE SIXTEEN: GRASPING AT STRAWS PAGE SEVENTEEN: OCEAN WASTE POLLUTION If we carry on the current are not circular in the UK (Fig. Recyclability currently patterns of use of plastics, 9), with only less than 1% of depends also on the levels we will have to deal with plastic demand being supplied of purity of the various approximately 6 Mt of plastic with recyclates. polymers. Yet, a wide variety PROJECTING waste every year in the UK. All of different polymers for the Although most recent policies polymers are recyclable, but not same or similar applications have been targeting single-use in the UK. Some polymers are is a challenge for polymer plastics, these only account not even collected via kerbside. separation and contributes for 0.04% of plastics used in FUTURE FLOWS Our limited capacity to recycle to low recycling yields. A the UK. However, increasing plastics in the UK (currently reduction in polymer mixing a UK recycling capacity could UK 2017–2050 only approximately 400 kt variety in waste streams would prevent mismanagement of per year) means that most of contribute to recycle more plastic waste and improve what is deemed to be recycled plastics and avoid emissions of material circularity. As a result, is exported, and some of this new plastic production. this would reduce the need to plastic does not necessarily end produce new plastics for the UK up being recycled or managed every year, and thus avoid the properly in their destination emissions of producing them. countries. As a result, plastics

indirect THE UK HAS 42 MILLION TONNES imports 3.6 Mt imports 1.1 Mt imports OF PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN USE

intermediate production in UK Construction Vehicles Agriculture Agriculture 0.1 Mt mismanaged Agriculture plastics in 0.6 Mt Vehicles primary form Vehicles 9 end-use M consumption 1.0 Mt t intermediates waste exported Construction Construction 3.4 Mt t 0.9 Mt M

0

2 Packaging 3.3 Mt incinerated 3.3 Mt Packaging Stock in service UK production 6.3 Mt 1.6 Mt 2.2 Mt 42 Mt

3.6 Mt landfilled Textiles Textiles 0.2 Mt t M recycled 0 Consumer Products 0.4 Mt Consumer Products 1 2.0 Mt 2 Mt

recyclates Packaging Textiles Consumer 0.2 Mt 0.8 Mt Products 0.6 Mt exports 0.9 Mt indirect exports

1.9 Mt exports losses

Fig.9 Sankey diagram showing the small fraction of recycled plastic waste that would be made if UK kept current capacity — almost no circularity

PAGE EIGHTEEN: PROJECTING FUTURE FLOWS PAGE NINETEEN: PROJECTING FUTURE FLOWS

Consumption of plastics UK Waste generation, UK

8 6

7

5 Others

6

4 PUR 5

Consumer Products Mt Mt PVC 4 3 PET

3 Packaging PE-HD/MD 2

2 PE-LD POLYMER ABBREVIATIONS Construction Polypropylene 1 (PP), Low density 1 polyethylene (PE-LD , Medium/high density Vehicles PP polyethylene (PE-HD/ Textiles MD), ), Polyethylene Agriculture Terephthalate (PET), 0 0 Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC), Polyurethane 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 (PUR). Other.

Fig.10 Anticipated demand by application, 2018–2050. Fig.11 Anticipated waste generated by polymer, 2018–2050.

Our work on mapping the flows plastics in the UK. And since 50% more waste by 2050 than of plastics over time allows these plastics are short-lived, we are producing now. us to estimate the stocks of they end up being disposed This is both a problem and an plastics currently in service. within one year of consumption. opportunity. Currently our limited Since the various products However, we found that almost capacity to recycle plastics in made of plastics have different half of plastics currently in use the UK (about 400 kt per year) lifespans, plastic disposal are in construction, and these means that most ‘recycled’ happens at different points products often last for decades. plastic is exported, with no in time. Luckily, if we are able We have built a backlog of plastic UK demand for plastics is guarantee that it is recycled to know how much plastic is in construction which will only properly. Yet, by increasing currently being used, we can become available as waste over recycling capacity in the UK, estimate how much waste will the coming decades. As a result, expected to remain constant we could process the growing be generated in the future. we estimate that if we keep our volumes of plastic waste, and patterns of use of plastics, we will Plastic packaging accounts for avoid the need to produce so end up generating approximately over the next 30 years. 40% of annual consumption of much new plastic.

PAGE TWENTY: PROJECTING FUTURE FLOWS PAGE TWENTYONE: PROJECTING FUTURE FLOWS Solutions to address plastic pollution exist, but POSSIBLE many of the technologies PATHWAYS are not yet ready to scale FORWARD and may be linked to

unintended consequences. Increasing recycling capacity result, a substantial increase in emissions generated during in the UK could avoid recycling capacity wouldn’t lead production. However, most of mismanagement of exported to a meaningful reduction in these plastics have a higher waste and avoid production of the production of new polymers potential for emissions at new plastics. This would reduce and their associated emissions. the end-of-life, particularly if 30 plastics emissions, as it is shown Further savings will have to landfilled or composed. This is an in Fig.12. This figure also shows come from a combination of area of active research and there Business as usual the emissions savings achieved other strategies, such as: is an opportunity for innovation by halving the demand for in the production of non-fossil Increase in increasing UK packaging per capita. Packaging fuel-based plastics with better recylcing capacity recycling capacity CHEMICAL RECYCLING 25 has high throughput and very life-cycle emissions performances short lifetimes, so a reduction Plastics recycling is currently than conventional plastics. Landfill in demand would rapidly reduce done using mechanical recycling production emissions and processes, which processes –50% demand for REUSE AND DESIGN packaging per capita the impact of plastic waste plastic waste into the secondary 20 Recycling management. This could be done products without significant Better product designs Incineration by preventing food waste—and changes to their chemical that foster longer lives and thus the packaging that comes structure. However, using more reusability can promote plastics with it. However, almost 40% energy it is possible to reduce demand reduction. 2e

0 of plastics consumed annually the polymers in plastic waste 15 are not seen by final consumers. to basic molecules that can

Mt C INNOVATION IN THE These are mostly packaging be used to synthesise new used in B2B transactions, plastics. This recycling would PETROCHEMICAL and so there is a meaningful enable higher grades of recycled INDUSTRY plastics, increasing recycling 10 opportunity to reduce this type The chemical and petrochemical of packaging. yields. Chemical recycling is industry is one of the largest Production still not available at commercial global industrial sources of However, the potential for scale. But if powered with zero- emissions savings of the emissions. An important source carbon energy sources, chemical of emissions in this sector is measures above combined is recycling could enable the 5 the result of CO2 generated as still modest (Fig.12), reducing replacement of more new plastics emissions from current 26 Mt a product of chemical reactions production, and thus lead to required to make some of the CO2e to 20 Mt CO2e by 2050. substantial emissions savings. This is because even with precursor molecules used maximised recycling capacity, in plastic production. There 0 are opportunities to explore 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 recycling yield losses are very BIO PLASTICS innovative methods to avoid high, due to polymer mixing are produced from these emissions and to deploy in waste streams and the biomass feedstock instead of carbon-capture processes in the limitations of the mechanical fossil fuels. As a result, these Fig.12 UK plastics emissions/waste for the following scenarios: Incineration, Recycling, petrochemical industry. Production and Landfill. recycling processes. As a plastics have much lower

PAGE TWENTYTWO: POSSIBLE PATHWAYS FORWARD PAGE TWENTYTHREE: POSSIBLE PATHWAYS FORWARD PLASTIC PACKAGING PROBING NEW FILM SOLUTIONS Plastic packaging film is RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS FROM CIRPLAS, THE CAMBRIDGE CENTRE 4commonly used for perishable FOR CIRCULAR ECONOMY APPROACHES TO PLASTIC WASTE foods, to limit the food’s contact with oxygen. In 2017, the UK study to look at the viability consumed 395 kt of plastic film, of a circular business model. but due to the lack of recycling The translation of the circular capacity in the UK, only 4% of economy in business models waste arising were collected for that eliminate plastic is relatively recycling. The remaining was unexplored and so there’s little either landfilled or incinerated. guidance for practitioners who would like to adopt such a model. The researchers are addressing this gap by mapping how Charpak has approached the circular economy and by estimating the impact of their efforts. Before any company will look at embedding circularity, they KHALED SOUFANI are going to ask a very simple BRIGITTE STEGER question: how will it impact on “CIRCULARITY BY me financially? Communities, “IS CHARGING DESIGN – CIRCULAR companies and governing bodies PEOPLE FOR PLASTIC BUSINESS MODELS” need to see practical business BAGS ENOUGH?” cases and models in action. Today’s cradle-to-grave economy If the UK’s experience is anything sees around 80 per cent of plastic “Minimising plastic leaking into to go by, the answer appears to landfilled, incinerated or lost into our environment is a responsibility be a resounding ‘yes’. The 2015 the natural environment. It is we take very seriously, so we introduction of a 5p minimum argued by some that we are using must ensure plastic becomes a charge for plastic bags caused resources 50 per cent faster resource and not waste,” says consumption to drop by about PLASTIC than can be replenished. It has Charpak Managing Director Paul 90%. But attitudes and habits also been said that by 2030 we Smith. “Why transport essential vary around the world, as social will require the natural resources plastics resources nationwide, or scientists in the CirPlas Team at Food waste is a much larger are fresh vegetables & salad Food stored in the fridge will sources of two Earths, and by overseas, and risk ocean plastics the University of Cambridge – Dr contributor to climate change (1.85 Mt), sauces, pasta, rice, typically stay fresh for 7–14 days 2050, three. We need a circular when the plastic resource is Teresa Perez, Dr Patrick O’Hare than the plastic used for cakes, desserts, oils, fats, longer than food stored at a room economy with re-use of products required for manufacture and re- and Dr Brigitte Steger – discover. packaging food. In fact, WRAP confectionery (1.06 Mt), drinks temperature of 22°C. Storing and recycling of embedded manufacture within the UK? We Uruguay’s 2019 law introduced estimated the food waste in the (0.99 Mt), bakery (0.73 Mt) and fresh produce in a plastic in the materials into new products for as want to be part of the solution.” a 4c charge and stipulated UK generated 25 MtCO2e last meals (0.59 Mt). We calculate fridge can help to retain moisture long as possible. We need to shift from a that bags be biodegradable. year, which is almost exactly that reducing this food waste and freshness, Yet, only lemons Consumers broadly welcomed Cambridgeshire-based packaging culture of mass consumption the same amount created by to zero, could in turn lead to a and peppers, from a selection the idea. Ramón had been company Charpak believes it and waste towards renewability, whole life emissions for all 20% reduction in plastic film of 17 fruit and vegetables refusing bags for years even plastic products consumed waste and a 5% reduction in types, showed any significant is the first in the UK to adopt dematerialisation and reduced resource loss. Our need to though people thought he was (26 MtCO2e). Overall, some plastic bottles, used to for improvement (of5 more than a ‘localised circular economy’ strange. Daniela had re-used in which local plastic waste is reduce, remake and recycle is 9.5 Mt of food, out of a total packaging the food. three days) in storage-life when carrier bags as rubbish bags and 44.5 Mt purchased, is wasted refrigerated inside a plastic . collected, re-processed and re- a continuous journey towards Refrigeration in the home is now had to buy the latter but from UK households and The other 15 fruit and vegetables manufactured into new packaging. circularity that will define vitally important for maintaining she knew this was better for the businesses. The largest share remained just as fresh when The company has been chosen our relationship with the freshness and extending the environment. Yet controversies of food waste from households stored without packaging. by Prof Soufani’s team as a planet forever. storage-life of food and drinks. remain, despite an amazing

PAGE TWENTYFOUR: PLASTICFUTURE PROJECTIONSPACKAGING FOR UK PLASTICS PAGE TWENTYFIVE: PROBING NEW SOLUTIONS 80% reduction. For example, on patent (PCT WO2019/229255), by the movement of ions, usually current protocols required for feedback from the wide range of biodegradability, Uruguay copied developed with the support of hydrogen ions, through an ion- reliable performance. participants that attended. The an EU definition which didn’t the university tech-transfer permeable medium or membrane. feedback from the workshop Identification of the consider lack of infrastructure office Cambridge Enterprise informed the final report, Towards Based on the type of biocatalyst parameters provided design and disintegration in marine and secured university as materials: used and the mode of clues for optimising and then environments. One of the local well as industrial support Examining the relative impact of operation, BESs can broadly manufacturing can be applied solutions: a bag made of starch (OMV Group) for up-scaling materials in the natural source be classified as Microbial Fuel to academic studies of redox that dissolves in the sea to help and commercialisation. A water and soft drinks value chain. Cells (MFCs), Biophotovoltaics chemistry. We anticipate the protect Uruguay’s long coastline. Translational Prize of the EPSRC The report contains a next step to (BPVs) and Enzymatic Fuel techniques will also offer new Centre for Functional and “share the outcomes of this work ‘Plastic is easy to throw away’, Cells (EFCs). MFCs can tools for the study of complex Sustainable Nano has recently with academics at the University Sayuri in Tokyo comments, be further sub-divided into devices such as batteries, been awarded to this project of Cambridge and relevant experts referring to both practical and photosynthetic Microbial Fuel fuel cells and solar cells with for development towards to potentially inform research moral considerations. Plastic Cells (photoMFCs), Microbial opportunities to improve commercialisation. and the development of a bags simply go into general Electrolysis Cells (MECs), mechanistic understanding methodology to model the future waste for incineration, free of With further research advances, Microbial Electrosynthesis and operating efficiencies. We impact of materials that could charge. This changes in 2020: photoreforming could contribute Systems (MESs), Microbial test our electrical performance guide decision-making”, and we shops must charge a minimum of ERWIN REISNER to a carbon-neutral society by Desalination Cells (MDSs) and and efficiency using advanced are now exploring how to take this 1yen. However, providing bags is simultaneously generating clean Microbial Solar Cells (MSCs) electrochemical approaches forward to inform further research intrinsic to Japanese customer “SUNLIGHT-DRIVEN hydrogen fuel, mitigating waste such as Fourier Transform In this project we design, within the University. Through service: ‘We travelled to France. CONVERSION OF and producing bulk chemicals for Voltammetry, where the develop and build a series of being part of the CirPlas network In the supermarket they asked PLASTICS WASTE INTO a sustainable chemical industry harmonics of the electrochemical candidate reactors which can and hosting the forum, CISL has for money for the bag! What a response can real subtle details HYDROGEN FUEL” accommodate bacteria or other been able to engage and share rip-off,’ the Tairas recall. While about reactor performance ADRIAN FISHER biologically active materials the its work with a much wider Mrs Taira now uses her own bags 8 million tonnes of plastic flow limitations and efficiencies. which are reported to degrade audience than it could before, when shopping, resistance to into the ocean each year, an “TECHNOLOGICAL plastics. We use these to study engaging academics directly in giving and receiving purchases environmental crisis that is PLATFORMS FOR candidate biological substrates BEV CORNABY business focused research, as well ‘naked’ lives on. expected to worsen as plastic use for personal protective HARNESSING and as an outreach platform for “TOWARDS as providing new opportunities In South Africa, a 43c plastic equipment skyrockets during ELECTRICITY FROM inclusive education. Here we to connect businesses and bag levy was introduced in report the design approach and SUSTAINABLE the COVID-19 pandemic. WASTE PLASTICS” academics on potential new areas 2003 but then quickly reduced Research in the Reisner Lab at inclusive education activities PACKAGING of research. after pressure from the plastic which were carried out with the University of Cambridge has One future sustainable MATERIALS” https://www.cisl.cam.ac.uk/ industry. In 2020 the government partner organisations both in the established a chemical recycling technological approach which is resources/circular-economy/ announced an increase from 12c UK and internationally To support and amplify the impact method powered by sunlight not widely commercially available towards-sustainable-packaging- to 25c. Shoppers accumulate of work CISL was undertaking on to mitigate plastic waste and yet falls under the engineering In this investigation we have relative-impact-of-materials bags but not necessarily to use the relative impact of materials, generate green hydrogen fuel. In umbrella of bioelectrochemical applied our electrochemical for repeated future supermarket in early February 2020, CISL this “photoreforming” process, systems (BESs). BESs are design engineering approaches visits. Lele, a resident in Cape organised and hosted CirPlas a special material called a typically electrochemical devices to develop optimised reactor Town, said “If I am a customer, Forum 2: Relative impact of photocatalyst harvests solar that employ biological materials, designs for waste utilisation [and] you say to me ‘do you want materials: connecting business, Business Briefing energy to break apart plastic termed as biocatalysts, to and conversion to electrical a ?’ I will always say policy and research to deliver waste into pure hydrogen gas generate electricity as well as energy. These are based on ‘yes’ even if I have one. ” He solutions. CISL designed the and useful chemicals. The key value-added products. These the development of rigorous explained that he tends to re-use Forum event to (1) explore and benefits of photoreforming systems rely on the ability quantitative experiment- bags only once, for example, as showcase work being done in include its simplicity, use of certain microbes or other based models for multi-scale bin liners. Hence the plastic bag the University on the impact of renewable solar energy, biological substrates to export bioelectrochemical reactor levy has not had the anticipated of plastics and the potential operation at room temperature electrons outside of their systems. When we have a impact on reducing plastic bag cells, a mechanism referred alternative materials and solutions, and compatibility with non- system of representative Towards consumption. recyclable waste such as to as exoelectrogenesis. The and (2) connect businesses, equations and/or a set policy makers and scientists to sustainable Charging for plastic bags is microplastics and food- electrons can, then, be harvested of systematic data from packaging materials contaminated plastic. for reductive power and discuss the challenge and share Head office Cape Town Examining the relative not a panacea. While saving experiments, the question arises Brussels 1 Trumpington Street The Periclès Building PO 313 impact of materials in the their perspectives,Cambridge Rue de la Science 23 proposedCape Town 8000 chemical products. In these CB2 1QA, UK B-1040 Brussels, Belgium South Africa natural source water and money is a strong motive to whether the measurements T: +44 (0)1223 768850 T: +44 (0)1223 768850 T: +32 (0) 2 894 93 19 The Reisner Lab’s work on [email protected] [email protected] soft drinks value chain electrochemical systems, a low approaches, [email protected] potential reduce single-use plastic waste, this topic has recently been allow for reliable identification solutions. For CISL, the forum trust in the infrastructure and redox potential of an oxidation of the parameters of the highlighted in the Sunday reaction at the anode and a high presented the opportunity to share recognition that one is ‘doing Times as one of 11 great model. Identifiability of the and discuss the outcomes and the right thing’ are equally redox potential of a reduction parameters of a specified ideas from British universities reaction at the cathode implications of a scoping study it important. Aside from bags of that could change the world bioelectrochemical devices were was undertaking on the relative course, there are sadly also create a potential difference. explicitly calculated and used to www.cisl.cam.ac.uk @cisl_cambridge (26th April 2020 edition). The Electroneutrality is guaranteed impact ofwww.cisl.cam.ac.uk materials, getting plenty more plastics in the sea. technology is protected by a develop the applied potential/

PAGE TWENTYSIX: PROBING NEW SOLUTIONS PAGE TWENTYSEVEN: PROBING NEW SOLUTIONS In response, we propose a new Each of these option works of inventiveness and moving hierarchy to challenge and for of select range of plastic forward. But what if, when we promote debate. At the top we materials and products. And in were inventing new polymers, place RETHNK, to push us to practice we currently recycle, we were to screen them, not PURSUING THE question what materials are incinerate and landfill in roughly just for functional performance really needed. Then we seek to equal proportions. Thus, we and scale-up cost, but also REDUCE the amount of material think it is right for a considered against environmental impact through better lightweight decision to be made between and end-of-life options. Could RIGHT OPTIONS designs. Next we suggest these three options, for every we design our way out of the EXTEND LIFETIME by designing plastic we handle. problems of CO2 emissions and products that last longer or can ocean wastes? Could scientists, Plastic’s properties of strength, consumption of plastics is challenge for the UK’s target One final thought, is to ponder be reused or repurposed at end- not just create new and more manufacturability, low costs, generates 26 MtCO2e emission of net-zero emissions by 2050. whether we could wind the and colour options make it across the whole life cycle. of-life. Finally, we list RECYLING, interesting polymers, but create When all else fails, we turn to clock back, to a time where we prized among materials. The The second is pollution of RECOVERY, LANDFILL at the new, more interesting, and more landfill, and surprisingly, around had less demand for plastics and class of material we call waterways and oceans with same level of the hierarchy, no sustainable plastics. one-third of plastic waste fewer different plastic materials. plastics, is, however, far from plastic, which is much more longer prioritising recycling over generated in the UK still goes to This runs counter to our sense Now there’s a challenge! a single homogenous material. challenging to quantify. energy recovery, over landfill. landfill. This solution, if facilities Instead it is wide-ranging set of With the myriad of different are managed well, avoids both many materials and numerous plastic materials and product in CO2 emissions and ocean waste. products, each with its own use, it is little wonder that finding But here lies the problem. unique set of characteristics. the right solutions to address For nearly 50 years we have This is what makes plastics emissions and ocean waste, for promoted the waste hierarchy, so practical and pervasive in each material, is challenging. where preferred options for modern society. But we need to Each plastic has its own set of waste treatment are (in order): stop thinking of plastics as one unique solutions and challenges. waste prevention, reuse, material and stop looking for a recycling, recovery (incineration) single solution to address plastic For some plastics, such as PET, and disposal (landfill). This pollution problems. the separation, collection and approach has been successful We need recycling of the material is This report presents a in reducing waste to landfill (the relatively simple; recycling rates comprehensive view of UK least preferred option), with a for PET approach 60%. plastics, including a novel five-fold reduction in standard Other plastics such as plastic tailored analysis of flows, stocks, and waste going to landfill, between film and the styrene-based trade flows, along the supply 1996 and 2015. Alongside this, polymers, are collected but not chain (Fig.4). We’ve traced the we have actively promoted recycled in the UK. Recycling post-use waste arising through recycling, changing the whole solutions is challenging for these to incineration, landfill and culture of the nation to separate, plastics which often contain recycling options, both in the UK clean and recycle their plastics. mixed plastic layers and are and overseas (Fig.7). And we’ve for the contaminated by food. Instead, Despite many years of waste calculated the current in-use these waste plastics are sent hierarchy advocacy, plastic stocks of plastic products for overseas for ‘recycling’, with no recycling in the UK has largely the UK (Fig.9) and used this to guarantee that these materials failed. Only 12% (0.4 Mt) of the myriad of infer future demand for plastic will actually be recycled. For plastic waste generated in the (Fig.10) and generation of plastic other plastics, such as PP and UK, is recycled in the UK. A waste (Fig.11). PVC the recycling process can further 0.7Mt is sent overseas plastics We’ve noted that for some use almost as much energy as for ‘recycling’ (we hope), and plastics flows, data are already making the plastic from virgin the remainder is either landfilled prevalent, for example, the material. For these materials, or incinerated. we use. recycling rates of plastic packing, recycling is rarely profitable, It is not surprising that pursuing yet in other areas of the flow unless subsidies are applied. a single solution, for mixed map, such as durable products, When recycling is uneconomic bagged of plastic materials and there are significant knowledge we can try incineration. Here products, has not yielded the gaps and much research is still combustion energy is recovered dividends we had hoped. The yet to be undertaken. as steam and generates waste hierarchy, it turns out, Two main environmental electricity, to recover some of provides only a simple heuristic, problems require urgent the plastic’s value. However, which is inflexible for the myriad attention. The first is CO2 the burning of plastic still of plastics we produce. The one emissions, where the UK’s produces CO2 emissions, which size fits all approach has failed. Fig.13 Waste/Emissions Hierarchy

PAGE TWENTYEIGHT: PURSUING THE RIGHT OPTIONS PAGE TWENTYNINE: PURSUING THE RIGHT OPTIONS UK FIRES: Legally binding targets to achieve evidence about successful net-zero emissions by 2050 pathways to deployment. LOCATING RESOURCE have now been passed in sixty UK FIRES is a major research EFFICIENCY AT countries including the UK. These programme, comprising a PROJECTS AND THE HEART OF targets are an extraordinary consortium of subscribing challenge for the complex supply FUTURE INDUSTRIAL industrial partners from resource- chains that transform material intensive sectors working with STRATEGY resources into societal benefit. academics from Cambridge, PARTNERSHIPS However, the requirement Imperial College, Oxford, Bath, for radical change creates Nottingham and Strathclyde who opportunities for innovation are funded from 2019-2024 by a and could lead to a renaissance £5m programme grant from the for manufacturing in the UK. Urgent action is required for global network of partners and EPSRC. The collaboration is co- CIRPLAS: Delivering net-zero depends on waste plastics as eight million a range of Cambridge-based ordinated through a Living Lab. locating Resource Efficiency THE CAMBRIDGE tons of plastic enter the oceans research projects to tackle at the heart of future Industrial Find out more at CENTRE FOR every year and plastic pollution contemporary challenges from Strategy. This requires access to www.ukfires.org has become a serious threat to manufacturing more sustainable CIRCULAR ECONOMY data on material use, information our local and global ecosystem. materials to driving innovations APPROACHES TO about options for change and The export of British waste in . The PLASTIC WASTE has reached record numbers in 18-months UKRI funded project recent years as Britain does not targets the development of a have the requisite infrastructure sustainable plastics economy by to recycle its own plastic waste understanding the local and global and severe shortages in landfills distributions of plastics, innovate have become commonplace alternatives to plastics and following China’s restrictions in develop novel technologies for 2018 on foreign waste imports. the utilisation of waste plastics. CIRPLAS is a recognised think- Find out more at tank, nurturing a multidisciplinary www.energy.cam.ac.uk/Plastic_ research culture between Waste/about_cirplas

C-THRU: It is hard to imagine the C·THRU is 3-year international world without the modern multi-disciplinary research CARBON CLARITY petrochemical sector: chemicals project, which is funded by IN THE GLOBAL and their derivatives are all- the VKRF Foundation and PETROCHEMICAL pervasive. Plastic, rubber and begins 1 October 2020. It SUPPLY CHAIN synthetic textiles adorn our aims to deliver foresight on buildings, vehicles and countless the future interventions and other elements of the modern innovation opportunities in the built environment. Modern petrochemical sector required to agricultural systems could not minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) function without synthetic emissions. This will be achieved fertilizers and the pharmaceutical by delivering the world’s most sector as we know it would not comprehensive, reliable and exist. Nevertheless, the modern transparent account of current petrochemical sector exerts and future emissions for the a large environmental burden, sector. This account and the being responsible for 30% of final underlying modelling methods, industrial energy use, including tools and data will support 10% of global oil and gas demand, strategic policy and business and drives 17% of global industrial decision-making to promote CO2 emissions. And demand for the global sustainability of the chemicals is expected to at least petrochemical sector. double by 2050.

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Solutions to the plastic waste americanchemistry.com/ Food & Rural Affairs (Defra). problem on land and in the Polyurethane-Recycling. 20. Darrah, C., K. Firth, and J. Hedger, oceans, in Plastic Waste and 13. Polyester (PES)(C7H2 Br3O3) Analysis of Branded Items found Recycling. 2020, Elsevier. p. 415- REFERENCES on UK Beaches. Results from 446. Plastic Recycling, in AZO Materials. 2012. Surfers Against Sewage Big 27. Islam, M.S., M.J. Uddin, and K. Spring Beach Clean: Summit to 14. Silicone: The Plastic Alternative. Alshehri, Plastic Waste and Sea Brand Audi. 2019, eunomia. Carbon Footprint Generation Due and share in consumer sector by type 2. Zheng, J. and S. Suh, Strategies 2018; Available from: https:// SECTIONS 21. PlasticFlow 2025 Plastic to the Consumption of Bottled [21], PS / EPS plastic packaging waste to reduce the global carbon earthhero.com/silicone-the- Packaging Flow Data Report. 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PAGE THIRTYTWO: TECHNICAL NOTES AND REFERENCES PAGE THIRTYTHREE: TECHNICAL NOTES AND REFERENCES Dr Jonathan M. Cullen Dr Michal P. Drewniok Dr André Cabrera [email protected] [email protected] Serrenho Department of Engineering [email protected] University of Cambridge Trumpington Street, CB2 1PZ

Resource Efficiency Collective is a research initiative at Cambridge University. Together, we seek answers to a challenging question: how can we deliver future energy and material services, while at the same time reducing resource use and environmental impact? At the heart of the Resource Efficiency Collective lies a stock - standard research group, with the normal mix of PhD students, research associates and staff. But by calling ourselves a Collective we hope to be more inclusive, to blur the boundaries a little, and to invite our many friends and colleagues to participate. Please feel free to join in! For more information please visit www.refficiency.org