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Nitrobenzene This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 230 NITROBENZENE First draft prepared by L. Davies, Office of Chemical Safety, Therapeutic Goods Administration, Australian Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra, Australia Plese note that the pagination and layout of this web verson are not identical to those of the (to be) printed document Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization, and produced within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals. World Health Organization Geneva, 2003 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), established in 1980, is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The overall objectives of the IPCS are to establish the scientific basis for assessment of the risk to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals, through international peer review processes, as a prerequisite for the promotion of chemical safety, and to provide technical assistance in strengthening national capacities for the sound management of chemicals. The Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC) was established in 1995 by UNEP, ILO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, WHO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Participating Organizations), following recommendations made by the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development to strengthen cooperation and increase coordination in the field of chemical safety. The purpose of the IOMC is to promote coordination of the policies and activities pursued by the Participating Organizations, jointly or separately, to achieve the sound management of chemicals in relation to human health and the environment. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Nitrobenzene. (Environmental health criteria ; 230) 1.Nitrobenzenes - toxicity 2.Nitrobenzenes - adverse effects 3.Environmental exposure 4.Risk assessment I.International Programme for Chemical Safety II.Series ISBN 92 4 157230 0 (LC/NLM classification: QV 632) ISSN 0250-863X ©World Health Organization 2003 All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from Marketing and Dissemination, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel: +41 22 791 2476; fax: +41 22 791 4857; email: [email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications — whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution — should be addressed to Publications, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; email: [email protected]). The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. The World Health Organization does not warrant that the information contained in this publication is complete and correct and shall not be liable for any damages incurred as a result of its use. CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR NITROBENZENE PREAMBLE xi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xx 1. SUMMARY 1 1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods 1 1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure 1 1.3 Environmental transport, distribution and transformation 2 1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure 4 1.5 Kinetics and metabolism 5 1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems 6 1.7 Effects on humans 8 1.8 Effects on organisms in the environment 9 1.9 Hazard and risk evaluation 10 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 12 2.1 Identity 12 2.2 Physical and chemical properties 12 2.3 Conversion factors in air 14 2.4 Analytical methods 14 2.4.1 Sampling and pretreatment 14 2.4.2 Analysis 15 2.4.2.1 Environmental monitoring 15 2.4.2.2 Biological monitoring 15 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 21 3.1 Natural occurrence 21 3.2 Anthropogenic sources 21 iii EHC 230: Nitrobenzene 3.2.1 Production 21 3.2.2 Production processes 22 3.2.3 Production losses to the environment 23 3.2.4 Non-industrial sources 24 3.3 Uses 26 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMATION 28 4.1 Transport and distribution between media 28 4.1.1 Air 28 4.1.2 Water 28 4.1.3 Soil and sediment 29 4.2 Abiotic degradation 31 4.2.1 Air 31 4.2.1.1 Direct photolysis 31 4.2.1.2 Indirect photolysis (photo-oxidation) 32 4.2.2 Water 34 4.2.2.1 Hydrolysis 34 4.2.2.2 Direct photolysis 34 4.2.2.3 Indirect photolysis (photo-oxidation) 34 4.2.3 Soil and sediment 35 4.3 Bioaccumulation 36 4.3.1 Aquatic species 36 4.3.2 Terrestrial plants 37 4.4 Biotransformation 38 4.4.1 Aerobic degradation 38 4.4.1.1 Biodegradation by non-acclimated microorganisms 38 4.4.1.2 Biodegradation by acclimated microorganisms 40 4.4.1.3 Degradation of nitrobenzene in soil 44 4.4.2 Anaerobic degradation 46 4.5 Ultimate fate following use 47 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 49 5.1 Environmental levels 49 5.1.1 Air 49 5.1.2 Water 50 iv 5.1.2.1 Industrial and waste treatment effluents 50 5.1.2.2 Surface water 52 5.1.2.3 Groundwater 53 5.1.2.4 Drinking-water 55 5.1.3 Sediments 55 5.1.4 Soils 55 5.1.5 Food 56 5.1.6 Occurrence in biota 56 5.2 General population exposure 56 5.3 Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation or use 57 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM IN LABORATORY ANIMALS AND HUMANS 59 6.1 Absorption 59 6.1.1 Oral exposure 59 6.1.2 Dermal exposure 59 6.1.3 Inhalation exposure 61 6.2 Distribution 61 6.2.1 Oral exposure 61 6.2.2 Dermal exposure 62 6.2.3 Inhalation exposure 62 6.3 Metabolic transformation 62 6.3.1 In vivo metabolic studies 62 6.3.2 In vitro and ex vivo metabolic studies 67 6.3.3 Biochemical and mechanistic considerations 68 6.3.4 Metabolism in erythrocytes 74 6.4 Elimination and excretion 78 6.4.1 Oral exposure 78 6.4.2 Dermal exposure 80 6.4.3 Inhalation exposure 80 6.5 Retention and turnover 81 6.5.1 Protein binding in vitro 81 6.5.2 Body burden and (critical) organ burden 81 6.6 Reaction with body components 81 6.7 Biomarkers of exposure 83 v EHC 230: Nitrobenzene 7. EFFECTS ON LABORATORY MAMMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 85 7.1 Single exposure 85 7.1.1 Oral 85 7.1.2 Dermal 86 7.1.3 Inhalation 87 7.1.4 Intraperitoneal 88 7.2 Short-term exposure 88 7.2.1 Oral 88 7.2.2 Dermal 91 7.2.3 Inhalation 94 7.2.4 Subcutaneous 96 7.3 Long-term toxicity and carcinogenicity 96 7.4 Mutagenicity and related end-points 103 7.4.1 DNA interactions 103 7.4.2 Mutation 104 7.4.3 Chromosomal effects 106 7.4.4 Cell transformation 106 7.4.5 Genotoxicity of nitrobenzene metabolites 107 7.5 Reproductive toxicity 108 7.5.1 Effects on fertility 108 7.5.1.1 Oral 108 7.5.1.2 Dermal 110 7.5.1.3 Inhalation 110 7.5.2 Testicular toxicity 112 7.5.2.1 In vitro studies 112 7.5.2.2 In vivo studies 114 7.5.3 Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity 116 7.6 Skin and eye irritation and sensitization 117 7.7 Haematological toxicity 118 7.7.1 Oral 118 7.7.2 Dermal 122 7.7.3 Inhalation 122 7.8 Immunological effects 123 7.9 Mechanisms of toxicity 126 7.9.1 Methaemoglobinaemia 126 7.9.2 Splenic toxicity 131 7.9.3 Renal toxicity 132 7.9.4 Neurotoxicity 133 7.9.5 Carcinogenicity 134 vi 7.10 Toxicity of metabolites and interactions 139 7.10.1 Nitrophenol 139 7.10.2 Aniline 139 7.10.3 Interactions with other chemicals 140 8. EFFECTS ON HUMANS 141 8.1 Poisoning incidents 141 8.1.1 Oral exposure 141 8.1.2 Dermal exposure 143 8.1.3 Inhalation exposure 144 8.2 Occupational exposure 145 8.3 Haematological effects 147 8.4 Hepatic effects 148 8.5 Renal effects 149 8.6 Neurological effects 149 8.7 Other effects 150 8.8 Subpopulations at special risk 150 9. EFFECTS ON OTHER ORGANISMS IN THE LABORATORY AND FIELD 153 9.1 Microorganisms 153 9.1.1 Toxicity to bacteria 153 9.1.2 Toxicity to protozoa 153 9.1.3 Toxicity to fungi 155 9.2 Aquatic organisms 155 9.2.1 Toxicity to algae 155 9.2.2 Toxicity to invertebrates 155 9.2.3 Toxicity to fish 159 9.2.4 Toxicity to amphibians 164 9.3 Terrestrial organisms 164 9.3.1 Toxicity to plants 164 9.3.2 Toxicity to earthworms 164 10.
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