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And Short-Term Dynamics of the Wetlands in the Amboseli Savanna Ecosystem, Kenya

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And Short-Term Dynamics of the Wetlands in the Amboseli Savanna Ecosystem, Kenya Long- and Short-Term Dynamics of the Wetlands in the Amboseli Savanna Ecosystem, Kenya by Sunita Sarkar A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biology Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2006 ©Sunita Sarkar 2006 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION FOR ELECTRONIC SUBMISSION OF A THESIS I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract The wetlands of the semi-arid savanna ecosystem of Amboseli are the critical dry-season range for a diverse wildlife population, as well as for livestock and humans. Changes in the migratory patterns and increases in the population of the elephants in the ecosystem, as well as a shift in the lifestyle of the growing human population from predominantly nomadic pastoralist society to a sedentary agrarian community, has had far-reaching effects on the ecosystem and the wetlands. In this thesis, the current status of the wetlands and the changes in vegetation over the last four decades were examined using satellite imagery and long-term census data. Studies were also conducted to determine the impact of grazing by elephants and other large mammals on wetland vegetation, and the flooding patterns and extents of some of the wetlands were examined. Long-term aerial count data indicated that the wetlands that are currently protected by the Amboseli National Park have been under increasing use year-round by elephants since 1975. These wetlands showed a rapid increase in extent between 1950 and 1976. This corresponds to the elephant-driven decline in Acacia xanthophloea woodlands, which may have changed the hydrology of the area. Since then, only one of the wetlands, Longinye, has shown dynamic changes in extent. This is either the effect of the blockage of water flow by vegetation or the creation of new channels by elephants and hippopotami. The wetlands had a diverse range of wetland habitat from areas of open water with scattered tall Cyperus papyrus communities in the centre of one wetland to large expanses of seasonally inundated C. laevigatus and Cynodon dactylon dominated habitats fringing the wetlands. Most of the wetland habitats were composed of short sedges and grasses, which was shown to be the direct result of elephant grazing. Elephants tended to keep the vegetation of a control wetland short and of low biomass during both wet and dry seasons, whereas the vegetation in a treatment wetland, where elephants were excluded, showed a rapid increase in biomass and height. Other herbivores were shown to maintain conditions of short vegetation of low biomass through grazing pressure in the dry season. The impact of natural and simulated grazing on growth of the vegetation was studied and only under simulated grazing pressure was growth increased in the seasonally inundated C. dactylon grasslands, as well as the floating mat communities dominated by C. laevigatus that occur in the shallow water wetlands. This indicates that natural grazing may be detrimental either to the plants or the soil. The wetlands that are under human use had predominantly shallow water and seasonal wetland habitat. Deep water habitat with C. papyrus communities was only present in one of these wetlands, Kimana, which is also the only wetland outside the park that is used by livestock and wildlife, as well as to irrigate a large area of land around the wetland. Two other wetlands, Namelok and Lenkir that were predominantly used for irrigated agriculture, were largely composed of seasonally inundated wetland habitat. A fourth wetland, Esoitpus, has been almost completely drained and this has most likely resulted in the development of A. xanthophloea and C. dactylon dominated riverine and C. laevigatus / C. dactylon dominated seasonally inundated wetland communities. Overall, the wetlands in the park provide a measure of habitat diversity that may be useful for various invertebrate and vertebrate communities. However, the present lack of tall sedges may negatively impact the bird community. This state can be reversed by the exclusion of elephants from iii some wetlands for short periods of time. On the other hand, the wetlands outside the park appear to be facing rapid draw-down. Hence, there is an urgent need for sound water management practices for these wetlands. iv Acknowledgements There are two people without whom I would not have written this thesis, thus fulfilling one of my ultimate goals of having a PhD, and they are Dr. David Western (Jonah) and Dr. W. D. Taylor (Bill). Jonah first introduced me to Amboseli as an intern in his Amboseli Monitoring Program. This gave me the opportunity to appreciate the beauty of the landscape, even without the trees, the exquisite elephants, and the life-giving green of the wetlands of this part of my country. I would not have gotten a chance to mesh animals, plants, and water together to create what is now this thesis, if it hadn’t been for Jonah’s lifelong work on understanding the ecosystem function in Amboseli. Jonah has provided the long-term data sets and the maps that I use in chapter 2, and through his funding the remote sensing data was made available and the enclosure study and all my field expenses were possible. For all this and your input into the preparation of this thesis, thank you Jonah. Without Bill, however, none of this would have come to fruition. Without ever meeting me, Bill gave me a chance to pursue my goal and has always had more faith in my abilities than I have. He has guided me when I needed it the most. He has given me encouragement and, more importantly, been enthusiastic about the project throughout. For your interest in Africa, and all things African, for your kind and understanding supervision and guidance, and for financial assistance through research assistantships, I thank you Bill. I would have no data if it were not for David Maitumo, veteran field assistant for the Amboseli Monitoring Program and the African Conservation Centre (ACC), Nairobi. His help was invaluable in the field. Without him I would not know one plant from another and which dung pile was from which animal! He carried out most of my field work for chapters 3 and 4 when I was in Waterloo and always gave his best. He spent an entire week driving and walking across Amboseli to collect data for chapters 2 and 5. Asante sana David, for your unassuming ways, your knowledge, and your help, in the most important way, in every chapter of this thesis. The entire staff of ACC has had some role in getting me to this point. A few, however, have been critical. Daniel Macharia, GIS and Remote Sensing Specialist, is still rather new to ACC but has already become one of the most important people to my work. I have never met Daniel in person, but he has never denied me any help I needed for chapters 2 and 5 of this thesis. He accompanied David Maitumo to the field to collect data and he has emailed me numerous times answering numerous questions that I have had. For your continued assistance to someone you have never met in person, Asante sana Dan. Victor Mose, assistant extraordinaire, who is with the monitoring program, is very dear to me. He has been my go-to person for data and has always been willing to help and has done so promptly. For all your help, asante sana, Vic. Sam Kamau, Teresa Njeri, Zippy Wanakuta, Eluid Wanakuta, and Lucy Waruingi all either with or formerly of ACC have been of support in one way or another and I want to send them all a big THANK YOU! I must include Byron Anangwe of RCMRD for his tireless help with acquiring the satellite images and with all the questions I had. I want to also thank my committee for volunteering their time on different occasions so that I could fulfill the requirements for my degree. They have always been enthusiastic and full of comments and questions. Dr. Hawthorn, thank you for thinking of me when you read about African issues. Thank v you, Dr. Hawthorn, Dr. Murphy, and Dr. Warner. I also want to thank Anne Grant for her assistance with the data analyses for chapters 2 and 5, and the Department of Geography at the University of Waterloo, for access to GEOMATICA software used in the analyses of these data. Jennifer Lehman, the best Graduate coordinator a department can have, thank you for all your help. I must acknowledge the financial support I received through NSERC PGSB, OGSST, the University of Waterloo Doctoral Thesis Completion Award, and Teaching and Research Assistantships. My family that has always been my strength and source of inspiration, thank you for always being there for me and for believing in everything I do. My friends, who have always seen the good in me, who have called to ask how I was doing during the painful task of writing a thesis, Ashnoor and Maya thanks for this especially, who have accepted me for who I am and have always believed in me, thank you! My colleagues at the lab, Sunni for her friendship, companionship and for being my gym buddy, Mo for being a great first office mate and for our discussions, Vicky for just being Vicky, and Scott for his help with thesis-related issues, are just a few of the people I must thank. You have all been very helpful in your own way in getting me to this point in my degree.
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