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Muscular Considerations for Movement

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Muscular Considerations for Movement Hamill_ch03_063-104.qxd 11/2/07 5:20 PM Page 63 CHAPTER 3 Muscular Considerations for Movement OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, the student will be able to: 1. Define the properties, functions, and roles of skeletal muscle. 2. Describe the gross and microscopic anatomical structure of muscles. 3. Explain the differences in muscle fiber arrangement, muscle volume, and cross-section as it relates to the output of the muscle. 4. Describe the difference in the force output between the three muscle fiber types (types I, IIa, IIb). 5. Describe the characteristics of the muscle attachment to the bone and explain the viscoelastic response of the tendon. 6. Discuss how force is generated in muscle. 7. Describe how force is transmitted to bone. 8. Discuss the role of muscle in terms of movement production or stability. 9. Compare isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions. 10. Describe specific considerations for the two joint muscles. 11. Discuss the interaction between force and velocity in the muscle. 12. Describe factors that influence force and velocity development in the muscle, including muscle cross-section and length, the length–tension relationship, neural activation, fiber type, the presence of a prestretch, and aging. 13. Explain the physical changes that occur in muscles as a result of strength training and elaborate on how training specificity, intensity, and training volume influence strength training outcomes. 14. Describe types of resistance training and explain how training should be adjusted for athletes and nonathletes. 15. Identify some of the major contributors to muscle injury, the location of common injuries, and means for prevention of injury to muscles. Muscle Tissue Properties Stabilize Joints Irritability Other Functions Contractility Skeletal Muscle Structure Extensibility Physical Organization of Muscle Elasticity Force Generation in the Muscle Functions of Muscle Motor Unit Produce Movement Muscle Contraction Maintain Postures and Positions Transmission of Muscle Force to Bone 63 Hamill_ch03_063-104.qxd 11/2/07 5:20 PM Page 64 64 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement Mechanical Model of Muscle: The Factors Influencing Force and Velocity Musculotendinous Unit Generated by Skeletal Muscle Role of Muscle Strengthening Muscle Origin versus Insertion Principles of Resistance Training Developing Torque Training Modalities Muscle Role versus Angle of Attachment Injury to Skeletal Muscle Muscle Actions Creating, Opposing, and Cause and Site of Muscle Injury Stabilizing Movements Preventing Muscle Injury Net Muscle Actions Inactivity, Injury and Immobilization One- and Two-Joint Muscles Effects on Muscle Force–Velocity Relationships in Skeletal Summary Muscle Review Questions Force–Velocity and Muscle Action or Load uscles exert forces and thus are the major contributor necessary. Although it is not the function of this chapter to Mto human movement. Muscles are used to hold a describe all of the muscles and their actions, it is necessary position, to raise or lower a body part, to slow down a fast- for the reader to have a good understanding of the location moving segment, and to generate great speed in the body and action of the primary skeletal muscles. Figure 3-1 illus- or in an object that is propelled into the air. A muscle only trates the surface skeletal muscles of the human body. has the ability to pull and creates a motion because it crosses a joint. The tension developed by muscles applies compres- sion to the joints, enhancing their stability. In some joint Muscle Tissue Properties positions, however, the tension generated by the muscles can act to pull the segments apart and create instability. Muscle tissue is very resilient and can be stretched or Exercise programming for a young, healthy population shortened at fairly high speeds without major damage to incorporates exercises that push the muscular system to the tissue. The performance of muscle tissue under vary- high levels of performance. Muscles can exert force and ing loads and velocities is determined by the four proper- develop power to produce the desired movement out- ties of the muscle tissue: irritability, contractility, comes. The same exercise principles used with young, active extensibility, and elasticity. A closer examination of these individuals can be scaled down for use by persons of limited properties as they relate specifically to skeletal muscle tis- ability. Using the elderly as an example, it is apparent that sue will enhance understanding of skeletal muscle actions strength decrement is one of the major factors influencing described later in the chapter. efficiency in daily living activities. The loss of strength in the muscular system can create a variety of problems, ranging IRRITABILITY from inability to reach overhead or open a jar lid to diffi- Irritability, or excitability, is the ability to respond to stim- culty using stairs and getting up out of a chair. Another ulation. In a muscle, the stimulation is provided by a example is an overweight individual who has difficulty walk- motor neuron releasing a chemical neurotransmitter. ing any distance because the muscular system cannot gen- Skeletal muscle tissue is one of the most sensitive and erate sufficient power and the person fatigues easily. These responsive tissues in the body. Only nerve tissue is more two examples are really no different from the power lifter sensitive than skeletal muscle. As an excitable tissue, skele- trying to perform a maximum lift in the squat. In all three tal muscle can be recruited quickly, with significant con- cases, the muscular system is overloaded, with only the trol over how many muscle fibers and which ones will be magnitude of the load and output varying. stimulated for a movement. Muscle tissue is an excitable tissue and is either striated or smooth. Striated muscles include skeletal and cardiac CONTRACTILITY muscle. Both cardiac and smooth muscles are under the control of the autonomic nervous system. That is, they are Contractility is the ability of a muscle to generate tension not under voluntary control. Skeletal muscle, on the other and shorten when it receives sufficient stimulation. Some hand, is under direct voluntary control. Of primary interest skeletal muscles can shorten as much as 50% to 70% of in this chapter is skeletal muscle. All aspects of muscle struc- their resting length. The average range is about 57% of ture and function related to human movement and effi- resting length for all skeletal muscles. The distance ciency of muscular contribution are explored in this chapter. through which a muscle shortens is usually limited by the Because muscles are responsible for locomotion, limb physical confinement of the body. For example, the sarto- movements, and posture and joint stability, a good under- rius muscle can shorten more than half of its length if it is standing of the features and limitations of muscle action is removed and stimulated in a laboratory, but in the body, Hamill_ch03_063-104.qxd 11/2/07 5:20 PM Page 65 CHAPTER 3 Muscular Considerations for Movement 65 Frontalis Galea aponeurotica Temporalis Occipitalis Orbicularis oculi Zygomaticus Sternocleidomastoid Orbicularis oris Trapezius Masseter Deltoid Buccinator Pectoralis major Coracobrachialis Latissimus dorsi Teres minor Serratus Triceps brachii anterior External oblique Teres major Biceps Brachialis under biceps brachii Anconeus Rectus Flexor carpi radialis abdominis Flexor carpi ulnaris Linea Brachioradialis alba Extensor carpi Removed radialis longus external oblique Extensor digitorum Extensor carpi Internal radialis brevis oblique Extensor carpi ulnaris Palmar aponeurosis Transversus Gluteus Iliotibial band abdominis medius Iliopsoas Tensor fasciae Gluteus latae Pectineus maximus Adductor longus Gracilis Adductor magnus Sartorius Vastus lateralis Rectus femoris Peroneus longus Vastus medialis Calcaneus Tibialis anterior Biceps femoris tendon Adductor magnus Soleus Semimembranosus Peroneus longus Semitendinosus Extensor hallucis Peroneus brevis longus Plantaris Gastrocnemius Anterior Posterior FIGURE 3-1 Skeletal muscles of the human body: anterior and posterior views. (Reprinted with permission from Willis, M. C. [1986]. Medical Terminology: The Language of Health Care. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.) the shortening distance is restrained by the hip joint and motion, that is, pushing another’s limb past its resting positioning of the trunk and thigh. length, is a good example of elongation in muscle tissue. The amount of extensibility in the muscle is determined by the connective tissue surrounding and within the muscle. EXTENSIBILITY Extensibility is the muscle’s ability to lengthen, or stretch ELASTICITY beyond the resting length. The skeletal muscle itself cannot produce the elongation; another muscle or an external Elasticity is the ability of muscle fiber to return to its rest- force is required. Taking a joint through a passive range of ing length after the stretch is removed. Elasticity in the Hamill_ch03_063-104.qxd 11/2/07 5:20 PM Page 66 66 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement muscle is determined by the connective tissue in the mus- body temperature by producing heat. Fourth, the muscles cle rather than the fibrils themselves. The properties of control the entrances and exits to the body through vol- elasticity and extensibility are protective mechanisms that untary control over swallowing, defecation, and urination. maintain the integrity and basic length of the muscle. Elasticity is also a critical component
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