UPSC WITH NIKHIL

MONTHLY CURRENT AFFAIRS JUNE 2020

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TABLE OF CONTENT 1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE ...... 3 4.4 COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT ...... 62 1.1 THE WARP AND WEFT OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY ..... 3 5. ENVIRONMENT ...... 64 1.2 INDIA AND ITS ISLANDS ...... 5 5.1 FLOODING IN THE METROPOLITAN ...... 64 1.3 MPLADS SUSPENDED ...... 7 5.2 PEATLAND ...... 65 1.4 ELECTRONIC VOTING MACHINE ...... 9 5.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OUR COASTAL 1.5 SUPREME COURT RELAXES BS-IV DEADLINE ...... 11 INFRASTRUCTURE ...... 67 1.6 POLITICAL ADS - ‘ONLINE’ ...... 13 5.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ETHICS ...... 71 1.7 DECRIMINALIZATION OF ADULTERY ...... 14 5.5 SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION ...... 73 1.8 SECRECY OF BALLOT ...... 15 5.6 OIL SPILL IN ARCTIC CIRCLE ...... 74 1.9 CIVIL SERVICES BOARD (CSB) ...... 15 6. SOCIAL ISSUES ...... 75 2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ...... 16 6.1 INDIA'S RURAL EDUCATION: AN OUTLINE ...... 75 2.1 AFGHAN PEACE PROCESS ...... 16 6.2 PRADHAN MANTRI SHRAM YOGI MAAN-DHAN (PM-SYM) ...... 80 2.2 SIR CREEK PACT ...... 19 6.3 MISSING AT BIRTH: ...... 81 2.3 GREAT DEPRESSION ...... 20 6.4 SCORING LOW ...... 82 2.4 SYRIA RESPONSIBLE FOR 2017 CHEMICAL WARFARE ATTACKS: OPCW ...... 22 6.5 GLOBAL NUTRITION REPORT 2020 ...... 84 2.5 BORDER TRADE ...... 25 6.6 NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2020 ...... 85 2.6 US SUGGESTS A G7 EXPANSION ...... 26 6.7 DAUGHTERS HAVE EQUAL RIGHT TO INHERIT PROPERTY ...... 89 2.7 ISRAEL AND THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES ...... 29 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ...... 90 3. ECONOMY ...... 31 7.1 NIF BOOSTS NEW VARIETIES OF ANTHURIUM .... 90 3.1 INDIAN GDP CALCULATION ...... 31 7.2 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD IS WEAKENING ...... 91 3.2 MGNREGA ACT, 2005 ...... 33 7.3 OXYTOCIN ...... 93 3.3 OIL’S ROUT: ON FALL IN PRICES ...... 37 7.4 CONNECTING CHENNAI – ANDAMAN AND 3.4 THE CONCEPT OF HELICOPTER MONEY ...... 38 NICOBAR ISLANDS (CANI) ...... 94 3.5 RECAPITALIZATION OF REGIONAL RURAL BANKS 7.5 FUEL FROM ALGAE ...... 95 (RRBS) ...... 39 8. MISCELLANEOUS ...... 96 3.6 FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION...... 40 KHANGCHENDZONGA NATIONAL PARK, SIKKIM ...... 96 3.7 BOT MODEL...... 44 PADMANABHASWAMY TEMPLE CASE ...... 97 3.8 HOW TO PAY FOR THE STIMULUS ...... 45 CLEAN PLATES CAMPAIGN ...... 97 3.9 GST COMPENSATION ISSUE ...... 48 ASEAN-INDIA NETWORK OF THINK TANKS (AINTT) .. 98 3.10 ‘DOING BUSINESS’ INDEX ...... 51 FIFTH WORLD CONFERENCE OF SPEAKERS OF 4. DEFENCE AND SECURITY ...... 54 PARLIAMENT (5WCSP) ...... 99 4.1 INDIAN CYBER CRIME COORDINATION CENTRE . 54 LOYA JIRGA ...... 99 4.2 BIOTERRORISM ...... 58 THE MONTREAL CONVENTION 1999 (MC99) ...... 100 4.3 NATIONAL MISSION ON INTERDISCIPLINARY 1947 TRIPARTITE AGREEMENT ON GURKHA CYBER-PHYSICAL SYSTEMS (NM-ICPS)...... 61 SOLDIERS ...... 100

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MONGOLIAN KANJUR ...... 101 FIRST INDIGENOUS PNEUMONIA VACCINE ...... 110 HUL DIVAS ...... 101 WINTER DIESEL ...... 111 SANTHAL REBELLION ...... 101 LOW-COST SUPERCAPACITOR ...... 111 BHASCHAN CHAR ISLAND ...... 101 ASSAM KEELBACK SNAKE ...... 111 NAGORNO-KARABAKH REGION ...... 101 STRIPED HAIRSTREAK AND ELUSIVE PRINCE ...... 111 MONT BLANC ...... 102 GOLDEN BIRDWING ...... 112 AZAD PATTAN ...... 102 CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF INDIA ...... 112 INDIA BHUTAN TRADE ROUTE ...... 102 DOLPHIN NUMBER DIPS IN CHAMBAL RIVER ...... 113 NAG RIVER ...... 102 PIED CUCKOO ...... 113 TUTING-TIDDING SUTURE ZONE ...... 102 RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK ...... 114 NATURE INDEX 2020 ...... 103 RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK ...... 114 AXONS ...... 103 NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK ...... 114 THAAD ...... 104 DEHING PATKAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY...... 115 DIGITAL EPIDEMIOLOGY ...... 104 MELGHAT TIGER RESERVE ...... 115 KALA AZAR DISEASE ...... 104 ARCTIC SPILL ...... 115 AZAD PATTAN HYDEL PROJECT ...... 105 GREEN GROWTH EQUITY FUND ...... 116 KOHALA PROJECT ...... 105 INDIAN-BULLFROG ...... 117 CPEC ...... 106 INDIA ENERGY MODELING FORUM ...... 117 ISTANBUL CONVENTION ...... 106 PARTNERSHIP TO ADVANCE CLEAN ENERGY VALLARPADAM CONTAINER TERMINAL ...... 106 RESEARCH (PACE-R) ...... 117 ASEEM PORTAL ...... 107 EXTREME HELIUM STARS ...... 118 NATIONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION SCORPIONFISH ...... 118 (NSDC) ...... 107 MONKEY PARK ...... 118 ASPIRE ...... 107 BIODIVERSITY PARK ...... 119 ITOLIZUMAB ...... 108 ANCIENT MARINE ALGAE - COCCOLITHOPHORES .. 119 'SHUDDH' ...... 108 NATIONAL CENTRE FOR POLAR AND OCEAN PNEUMOCOCCAL POLYSACCHARIDE CONJUGATE RESEARCH (NCPOR) ...... 119 VACCINE ...... 108 MACAWS ...... 120 ASTHROS ...... 109 RED-KUKRI-SNAKE ...... 120 CORONAE IN VENUS ...... 109 SPECIAL-WINTER-GRADE-DIESEL ...... 120 ASTEROID 2020 ND ...... 109 YADADRI TECHNIQUE ...... 120 COVID PROTECTION SYSTEM ...... 109 SEAWEED ...... 121 AJO NEO...... 110 SCHIZOTHORAX SIKUSIRUMENSIS ...... 121 BILIRUBIN ...... 110 INTERNATIONAL HORSESHOE CRAB DAY ...... 122 RFID TAGS ...... 110

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE 1.1 THE WARP AND WEFT OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY The foundation of the nine-judge bench emerged out of an order of reference filed against the Sabarimala judgement on the review petitions. The new bench would have to interpret the nature and purpose of the religious liberty clauses of the Constitution. In modern years, there have been several such cases concerning the sometimes conflicting relationship between the right to freedom of religion and individuals' rights to integrity and equality.

1. Madesnana ritual: It is a 500-year-old ritual held in Karnataka at the Kukke Subramanya Temple. The ritual includes people rolling over plantain leaves left behind with food half-eaten by Brahmins, often belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The expectation is that their skin will be cleansed of impurities by this act. A divisional bench of the Karnataka High Court put a stop to the practise in 2012, following a petition by progressive-minded people, but allowed it to continue in a changed form where devotees could now voluntarily choose to roll over leaves containing food which the people of any community did not taste or partially eat. Two years later, the order was lifted by another divisional bench of the High Court, which permitted the original form of madesnana. The court noted that the practise did not violate any law and that prohibiting it would harm devotee’s feelings and impact their right to freedom of religion, which was constitutionally guaranteed. After a challenge, a temporary ban on madesnana was imposed by the Supreme Court of India in 2014.

2. Female genital mutilation: The Dawoodi Bohras, a sect of Shia Islam with one million members in India, practise Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in India. When a girl is seven years old, the operation is usually performed and includes the complete or partial removal of the clitoral hood. A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) case was brought before the Supreme Court of India in 2017, seeking a ban on FGM in India. The petition argued that the practise violated the rights of children under Article 14 of the Constitution of India (Right to Equality) and Article 21 (Right to Life). FGM can lead to complications such as difficult deliveries and urinary infections in later life. The defendants claim that Khafz is an integral part of the religion of the group, and Articles 25 and 26 protect their right to practise religion. The group claims that "acts of religious purity" include male and female circumcision.

3. Parsi women and entry to sun temple: The place of worship for Zoroastrians is a Fire Temple in Zoroastrianism. In India, there is a religious practise of not allowing Zoroastrian women to enter in the Fire Temple and the Tower of Silence if they marry a non-Zoroastrian person. The Supreme Court has ruled that a Parsi who married outside her community must be permitted to join fire temples and engage in other religious rituals by overturning a prior Gujarat High Court order that upheld the practise. The entry of menstruating women and non-Parsis inside the Fire Temple is also not permitted. Petitions have been made arguing that the laws regulating Parsis' personal lives in India are fundamentally discriminatory and there is a need for state intervention to fix them. The challenging task of balancing the right to freedom of religion and the rights of individuals to dignity and equality would be faced by the Court.

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1. Freedom of Religion: India is a nation which is pluralist and diverse. The groups and communities with their diverse religious or cultural practices need to be protected, given that they have played an important role in society. In an attempt to preserve different activities, the Constitution of India acknowledges both freedom of religion as an individual right (Article 25) and the right of religious communities to control their own religious affairs (Article 26).

2. Reasonable restrictions: Communities that can be a source of people's unity can also be a source of injustice and exclusion. Some members of religious and cultural groups may be subject to social norms that are patriarchal and oppressive. Religion and social life are inextricably interrelated in India. Religious and social roles also help each other. The "untouchability" practise is expressly forbidden by the Constitution and the "ex-communication" practise reflect the influence that some religious beliefs may have on the social status of marginalised parts of society. Recognizing the need for certain vulnerable parts to be covered, the Constitution states that Articles 25 and 26 are subject to public order, morality and health. Article 25 is therefore subject to other constitutional rights provided by the Constitution, as well as to the authority of the State to enact legislation on social change. Finding the middle ground: There is a need to balance the freedom of cultural and religious groups and also to ensure that, because of group compulsions, individual rights are not completely violated. The doctrine of essential practices: "Over the years, by using the jurisprudence of" basic practises of a religion, "the Supreme Court has sought to balance the two impulses of upholding religious sovereignty and imposing individual rights. In its previous decisions, the court ruled that only certain rituals that are "important" to a religion are protected by the Constitution. All such rituals are deemed subject to the intervention of the state. On the grounds that such practises were manifestations of superstition as opposed to faith, the courts have struck down a variety of rituals around religions. The adherents have opposed this questioning the competency of the “secular” courts to make such distinctions in religious practices. Way forward: The principle of anti-exclusion: One way to strike a balance between the two rights would be to check whether the effect of the disputed religious practice causes harm to individual rights or not. If it does not, then it encourages religious expression, but if it does, it should be forbidden. The question is not whether the practise is genuinely religious in this method, but whether its impact is to delegate, to exclude a segment of society.

The Bombay High Court used a similar method in dealing with a petition questioning the exclusion of women from the Haji Ali Dargah inner sanctum. The court found that this practise was a breach of equality for women and struck it down. Even in the case of Sabarimala, both Justice D.Y. Chandrachud's concurrent opinion and Justice Indu Malhotra's dissenting opinion decided that the anti-exclusion principle should be the measure of the permissibility of such religious and cultural practises. Conclusion: The interests of women who have been at the end of patriarchal policies for many years and of other disadvantaged groups are at risk. A life of dignity and equality for all, both in the public domain and in the society, is envisaged by the Constitution. The constitutional interpretation by the court, in this case, would go a long way to guaranteeing members of a society the fundamental norms of justice , equality, and independence.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 1.2 INDIA AND ITS ISLANDS ANDAMAN ISLANDS Importance of Andaman Islands: Emerging Sino-Indian competition: This can be seen through China's routine deployment of submarines, the construction of submarine surveillance networks, and the expansion of Chinese naval bases with the formation of a military base in Djibouti. In addition, by widening the scope of the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI) as the Maritime Silk Path, China challenges India's hegemony in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) as India has joined hands with Japan and the US in the Malabar Naval Exercises. Strategic Importance: Provisional Government of Free India  The role Andaman & Nicobar in the development of the Japan occupied the Andaman and Nicobar region's security scenario is critically dependent on India's Islands during World War II. Look East Policy (LEP) and Indo-Pacific Strategy. Netaji, head of the Azad Hind Fauj, declared  For India, these islands have a unique location because they the establishment of the Free India Provisional Government (Azad Hind) on the stretch India's land surface and maritime boundary right to islands in 1943. the mouth of the Malacca Strait. Leveraging these islands Azad Hind declared war on the Indo-Burma will improve India's relationship with the countries of Front against the Anglo-American allied ASEAN. powers immediately after the government- Economic importance: in-exile establishment.  The presence of these islands, which could be a possible source of underwater resources, is the source of almost 30 Cellular Jail percent of India's EEZ. A colonial prison situated in Port Blair (South • Fisheries, the key community of these areas can be given a Andaman) was the Cellular Jail, also known as push to build a modernised and sustainable ecosystem of Kala Paani. The British used it to exile political prisoners. inland fisheries and aquaculture integrated with the vision During the struggle for Indian independence, of the 'Blue Economy.' many prominent freedom fighters, such as • Large-scale hydrocarbon exploration is feasible, including Batukeshwar Dutt, Yogendra Shukla and deep sea oil drilling and methane gas hydrate production, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, among others, etc. were imprisoned here. Today, the complex • It is possible to explore the varied environment for its serves as a shrine to a national museum. medicinal plants and exotic plant species, and to propagate sustainable agriculture and horticulture practises conducive to the agro-climatic conditions of the regions. • Tourism can be encouraged to further help improve the region's economy to a large extent due to its rich flora & fauna and attractive geographical locations & topography. IMPORTANCE OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

• The extension of these islands has granted India 20,000 sq. km. of territorial waters and 400,000 sq. km. of Economic Zone Exclusive (EEZ). • The lagoons and EEZ around the Lakshadweep Islands have substantial economically valuable fisheries and mineral resources. • The Nine Degree Channel, located near Lakshadweep Islands, is the most direct route for ships sailing from the Persian Gulf bound for East Asia. Proximity to the Indian western coast as well as to other island nations such as Sri Lanka and Maldives, nearness to busy shipping lanes, and wide geographical spread makes these islands extremely important for ensuring security of Sea Lanes of Communications (SLoCs) and also for maritime security of India. The islands have gained prominence in terms of national security following the Mumbai attacks of 2008.

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INDIA’S EFFORTS FOR ISLAND DEVELOPMENT: • A single tri-service (land, sea & air) theatre command was established by the Ministry of Defence (MoD) to exploit the strategic advantage provided by these islands in 2001. • Off the coasts of Andaman (E.g. Tat Rakshak) & Lakshadweep (E.g. Neptune II), security forces have conducted frequent coastal security exercises. • The Island Development Agency (IDA) was founded in 2017 to concentrate on community-based tourism for the holistic development of the islands. Under its aegis, main infrastructure projects are carried out on a priority basis, such as the upgrading of Diglipur Airport near Port Blair and the development of Minicoy Airport, the increase of satellite bandwidth, etc. • The Ministry of Home Affairs has also relaxed restrictions on tourists, such as the Restricted Areas Permit (RAP) requirement to visit 29 inhabited islands, to improve tourism.

CHALLENGES • Environmental: more than 90 percent of the islands are forests and are environmentally vulnerable and many islands lack drinking water, it is difficult to entertain the possibility of any new settlement. • Also mass tourism would have an effect on the fragile environment, so the only possible way is to allow high-value, low-volume tourism on different islands, which is also approved by the Supreme Court of India. • Geographical: Threats such as frequent earthquakes (2004 tsunami triggered by an earthquake near the Nicobar Islands) must be included in every development plan. • Infrastructure: Because of bureaucratic obstacles, an undersea cable connection between India's mainland and the islands remains incomplete even after several years. Internet access is stated to be sporadic, even at the naval base in Port Blair, the capital. • Road construction, airstrip construction, and even jetty construction are sluggish, as heavy rainfall limits construction operation and the distance from the mainland adds to construction costs. • A big problem is the monitoring of the southern group of islands. The destruction of the road by the tsunami has meant that only air and sea connect the two groups of islands. • Social: The Andaman and Nicobar (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation (ANPATR), enacted in 1956, protects indigenous peoples and has declared reserves for areas inhabited by them. Without permission, no visitor is permitted to venture close to these reserves. Moreover, as is evident from the recent death of American explorer John Chau at the hands of local people, several tribes such as Sentinel oppose any contact with outsiders. WAY FORWARD • Enhance engagement: promote migration from the mainland and carefully open up some of the uninhabited islands strategically placed to tourism. Other ways of doing so include is to open these islands for commercial operations, as a matter of soft strategy, to supplement the Strait of Malacca. • Reinforce military infrastructure: the development of the necessary infrastructure on the islands would allow the establishment, in the event of conflict, of an anti-access and area-denial zone of maritime exclusion. • Improve the execution of the Coastal Protection System, with particular emphasis on the establishment of coastal police stations equipped with sufficient manpower and interceptor ships. • Improve the uninhabited islands' vigilance by keeping watch at points of entry and exit. Station air assets in the region of the island and put watchtowers and radar sensors in put. • Address the problems of turf wars, finances, and poor decision-making at the Andaman Unified Command. • Permanent naval fleet location in the Islands to supplement the Vishakhapatnam-stationed Eastern Fleet. • Electronic sensors are deployed to allow automatic vessel identification and long-range identification and tracking systems. 6 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• Improving economic activities in the region in different ways, such as: o Develop deep sea fishing off the Andaman coast, as fishing on these islands is highly sustainable. o Expedite the proposal to establish a transhipment terminal at Great Nicobar's Campbell Bay, just 90 km from the Malacca Strait (the main sea route between the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean). o To draw the private sector and foreign alliances in order to meet the enormous financial requirements and the technical and administrative skills to execute these projects optimally. • Tourism as a soft power: India has in the past promoted mountaineering / adventure expeditions in the Himalayas along international borders and opened Tawang to foreign tourists to communicate that in these areas it has effective jurisdiction and control. o Open up uninhabited islands, where access is currently limited, by allowing Indian and foreign tourists (similar to China's approach to the South China Sea, where Hainan Island has been established as a tourist hub). o Establish desirable tourist enclaves within these islands' national parks (as is done in South Africa's Kruger National Park). o Develop a well-defined policy integrating adequate protection for marine-based activities such as scuba diving, sailing, deep sea fishing, liveon-board diving, etc. Such practises will keep a check on security issues such as poaching etc. and environmental concerns such as marine life loss etc.  Seek stronger international collaboration: o In order to monitor Chinese submarines in the Indian Ocean, the Quad Alliance (India, USA , Japan & Australia) will mount sonar surveillance systems on islands. o A deeper engagement with Indonesia to import the materials needed for the construction of infrastructure, which would be much cheaper.

1.3 MPLADS SUSPENDED • The Union Cabinet has approved a 30% cut in the salaries of all Members of Parliament and a two year suspension of the MP Local Area Development (MPLAD) scheme so that the amount saved can go to the Consolidated Fund of India to fight COVID-19. DETAILS: • The Prime Minister has approved an ordinance to amend the Salaries, Allowances and Pension of Members of Parliament Act, 1954, to cut the salaries of MPs by 30%. • In addition, the Cabinet has decided to suspend the MPLAD funds for 2020-2021 and 2021-2022. * The amount saved from the scheme would be ₹7,900 crore. • All the amount saved would go to the Consolidated Fund of India. MPLADS • The Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) is a programme first launched during the Narasimha Rao Government in 1993, aimed towards providing funds for developmental works recommended by individual MPs. * The MPs were entitled to recommend works to the tune of Rs 1 crore annually between 1994-95 and 1997- 98, after which the annual entitlement was enhanced to Rs 2 crore. * The UPA government in 2011-12 raised the annual entitlement to Rs 5 crore per MP. • According to the document ‘Guidelines on Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS)’ published by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation in June 2016, “The objective of the scheme is to enable MPs to recommend works of developmental nature with emphasis on the creation of durable community assets based on the locally felt needs to be taken up in their Constituencies. Right from inception of the Scheme, durable assets of national priorities viz. drinking water, primary education, public health, sanitation and roads, etc. are being created.”

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• The guidelines recommend MPs to suggest works costing at least 15 per cent of their MPLADS entitlement for the year for areas inhabited by Scheduled Caste population and 7.5 per cent for areas inhabited by ST population. * “In other words, out of an amount of Rs 5 crore, an MP shall recommend for areas inhabited by SC population, Rs75 lacs and Rs.37.5 lacs for areas inhabited by S.T. population. * In case there is insufficient tribal population in the area of Lok Sabha Member, they may recommend this amount for the creation of community assets in tribal MPLADS fund should not be suspended: areas outside of their constituency but within their State • The MPLAD scheme was designed, and has of election,” the guidelines say. traditionally been utilized, to address and remedy Criticism about the scheme: gaps in our governance initiatives that may have • A conceptual flaw pointed out by experts is that it goes been overlooked by the state and central against the separation of powers. It allows individual government in their announcements of major legislators to encroach on the planning and development projects. implementation duties of the administration. • By de-centralizing the allocations of * Simply put, this scheme, in effect, gives an executive development funds, MPLADS has allowed function to legislators legislators to usher * The argument that MPs only recommend projects, but small scale and time-sensitive projects within the final choice and implementation rests with the district their respective constituencies authorities is strange; there are hardly any authorities in • It is believed that MPLADS is a targeted and the district who have the courage or the gumption to defy nimble instrument to customize micro level the wishes of an MP. interventions to alleviate distress. • Jurists have pointed out that the Constitution does not * Considering the above, it is argued that confer the power to spend public money on an individual suspending MPLAD, meant to execute legislator. developmental works in the constituency would • The CAG has flagged instances of financial be a huge disservice to the constituents and mismanagement and inflation of amounts spent. would undermine the role & functions of an MP. * The CAG observed flouting of rules and corruption while • MPLADS is one of the major means for an MP to implementing the scheme. direct development resources to his/her * Various construction works that are ‘not permitted’ had constituency. It is opined that it would have been been executed on the recommendation of MPs. better had the government brought in an order to • The Second Administrative Reform Commission’s report earmark the funds only to be spent for COVID-19 on “Ethics in Governance” takes a firm stand against the related expenditure. scheme arguing that it seriously erodes the notion of • In the fight against COVID 19, without waiting separation of powers, as the legislator directly becomes for the devolution of funds from the centre or the executive. states, parliamentarians would have been able to * It recommended its abrogation altogether, highlighting play a proactive role in bringing in much-needed the problems of the legislator stepping into the shoes of protection and testing equipment locally and so the executive. improve the capacity of our frontline healthcare • It is widely alleged that MPs use these funds and get a workers to address the spread of the pandemic. percentage as commission. By removing the resources at their disposal to * The MPs are alleged to use this avenue to enrich make critical interventions and bringing them themselves. There seems to be no local development but under the ambit of the Consolidated Fund of only self-development of MPs. India, the government has made all that • Money under MPLADS being used to appease or oblige impossible. two sets of people: opinion-makers or opinion influencers, and favourite contractors. Sometimes these two categories overlap.

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* An often-heard tale is that of the contractor being a relative, close friend, or a confidant of the MP, and the contractor and the MP being financially linked with each other. CONCLUSION: • Reports of underutilization and misutilization of MPLADS funds continue to surface at regular intervals but there seems to have been no serious attempt to do anything about it till now. There are innumerable instances of misuse of these funds • Therefore, it would be in order to convert the two year suspension into the complete abolition of this undesirable and unconstitutional scheme.

1.4 ELECTRONIC VOTING MACHINE Since 2001, the Election Commission has been conducting all elections through EVMs. • The Indian EVM is a stand-alone computer that is a direct recording system. • Several times, the Election Commission has explained that Indian EVMs do not speak to any computer outside their own device, be it via wired network, internet, satellite, and bluetooth or Wi-Fi. • The EVM is not linked to the server, so it is not possible to cyber-hack Indian EVMs unless an authorized entity acts with malafide intent. • A whopping 55.38 crore individuals cast their votes in EVMs in parliamentary elections in 2014.

EVM CHALLENGE: FORENSIC LAB TEST FOR EVMS • The Election Commission has rejected all the allegations of EVM tampering over the years and obtained scientific evidence in 2017 to support its assertion. • In May, the Bombay High Court ordered EVMs from the 'Parvati constituency in Pune' to be investigated. • The order to rule out tampering was given during the 2014 Maharashtra legislative assembly elections. • One control unit was sent to the laboratory, one ballot unit and two batteries. A control unit and a ballot unit form an EVM. • The system is a stand-alone, non-networked, one-time programmable device that is neither externally operated by a computer or nor could be connected internally or to any network, according to the report received from the laboratory. • After being submitted to the high court, the report was made public. • In order to show that the computers are incorruptible, the Election Commission has also thrown open the EVM hackathon competition. No political party, however, showed interest.

HOW THE WORLD HAS DEALT WITH EVMS: USA: • The US is the world's oldest modern democracy, but it does not have a standardized method of voting. • Some states continue to use ballot papers, although others have turned to e-voting. • A key point in the US electronic voting experiment was the connection of its voting machines to a server and the use of the internet. It makes them easier to cyber-attacks. • Some unseen Russian hands have been accused of manipulating the choice of voters in the last presidential election.

Germany: • In 2005, in Europe's largest democracy, electronic voting was adopted. • Germany purchased voting machines from a private corporation in the Netherlands to hold its elections. 9 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• Several layers of deficiencies were later identified to the machines. • The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany held in 2009 that it was illegal to use electronic voting devices in elections and noted that such a method lacked accountability.

Estonia: • It became the first country in 2005 to pass a law mandating electronic voting using the internet. • Estonia claims to have carried out the first national Internet-based elections in 2007. It went on for 3 days.

Latin America: • Brazil and Venezuela have been quite successfully using electronic voting on a wide scale.

METHODOLOGY USED TO PICK EVMS: • To ensure that EVMs record the actual vote, the Election Commission puts in place a multilayered security protocol. • The Election Commission carries out the first-level check of the machines, months before the actual vote. • All leaders of political parties are present to observe the exercise. Faulty computers are eliminated. • The machines pick the EVMs on the basis of randomization. This procedure does not allow for prior information or a scheduled setting in a particular constituency or polling booth for a specific EVM. • For the pairing of the ballot unit and the EVM control unit, there is a double randomization procedure • This step makes it difficult for an individual to know how to pair the machines and which machine will be used in which circle. • The final order of the candidates shall not be put on the ballot unit of the EVM till the last day of withdrawal of names. • EVMs are again checked for proper functioning after this is completed, usually 13 days prior to the polling. • During this activity, the leaders of political parties and candidates are present. • They sign a certificate stating that after the procedure finishes to their satisfaction, the EVMs are in order. • The EVMs are sealed with a special security number before being eventually sent to the polling booths. The members of the parties or candidates are also present at this point and sign the stamp. • In order to wipe out the possibility of predictability, the Election Commission places the candidates' names in an alphabetical order for each electorate. • In addition, the Election Commission announced that all potential elections would be held with the VVPAT, making it possible for each voter to see that only the candidate chosen would obtain his / her vote. WHEN THE SOLUTION BECAME THE PROBLEM: The controversy over failing VVPATs – • Reports emerged during by-elections for four Lok Sabha and ten State Assembly seats of a large-scale failure of the voter-verifiable paper audit trail machines. • The malfunction was so widespread that 73 booths of the Kairana parliamentary constituency in Uttar Pradesh, 49 booths of the Maharashtra seat in Bhandara-Gondiya and one booth of the Nagaland Lok Sabha seat were ordered by the Election Commission to be re-elected. • The Chief Election Commissioner has accused the VVPAT machines of malfunctioning due to extreme hot weather and sensor sensitivity to sun. • This is very troubling because they were exposed to harsh weather conditions when the trials for VVPATs were performed in 2011 and 2012.

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• The second explanation given by the CEC, was the inexperience of the workers who first handled these devices, seems more likely. • It is important to note that after an all-party meeting in 2010, it was precisely to eliminate the last remnants of concerns about EVMs that VVPAT machines were introduced. • Indeed, in 2013, the Supreme Court of India acknowledged the initiative of the EC to implement VVPATs and directed the government to provide sufficient funding for them. • However, in an affidavit to the Supreme Court last year, the government postponed sanctioning the funds for more than three years, which almost jeopardized the development of the requisite number of VVPAT machines to fulfil the EC's pledge that it would supply the machines at every polling station during the 2019 general election.

CORRECTIVE ACTS TAKEN BY EC: • The latest VVPATs are supposed to have sensors with hoods over them to protect against direct light exposure. • For use in humid areas, moisture resistant paper will be obtained. The decision was taken by one of the two state-owned companies that produce VVPATs, the Electronics Corporation of India. The role of the EC in assuring the confidence of the people in democracy is paramount. In democracy and its protective institutions, the loss of popular trust spells nothing but tragedy. But there is no doubt that the EVMs have made India the proud world leader in the election sector. Our method is now full proof since the launch of VVPATs.

1.5 SUPREME COURT RELAXES BS-IV DEADLINE Supreme Court (SC) extended the deadline for the sale and registration of BS-IV emission norm compliant vehicles. Evolution of emission norms • The first stage of mass emission norms came into force for petrol vehicles in 1991 and in 1992 for diesel vehicles. • In 2000, passenger cars and commercial vehicles were met Euro I equivalent India 2000 norms. • By 2001 Bharat stage II norms (based on Euro 2 emission norms) were brought into force. o Bharat Stage Norms are the standards set up by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under Ministry of Environment Forests and Climate Change, to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines including motor vehicles. o The exhaust gases now covered under the norms are: Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and Particulate matter. o These norms are based on the European standards. • The first Auto Fuel Policy (2003) layed down for further adoption of Bharat stage III norms. • Later, Bharat Stage IV were implemented April 2010 onwards. • The roadmap in the proposed draft Auto Fuel Policy 2025 envisaged implementation of BS IV norms across the country by April 2017 in a phased manner and BS V emission norms in 2020/2021 and BS VI from 2024. • However due to drastic rise in air pollution specially in Delhi and other parts of North India, the Centre in 2016 announced that India would skip the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020 shifting from BS IV norms. • Further in 2018, SC had ruled that no BS-IV vehicle would be sold or registered in India from April 1, 2020. • It ruled that any extension of time in introducing new emission norms would adversely impact the health of citizens as the pollution has reached an "alarming and critical" level. • However, recently SC extended the deadline because of the “extraordinary” situation arising out of lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. • SC allowed sale of 10% of the unsold stock of BS IV vehicles within few days after the end of the lockdown due to COVID-19, except in Delhi and the National Capital Region.

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• BS VI requires both automobile manufacturers as well as oil marketing companies to tweak their respective products. For optimal results, BSVI-compliant engines will have to run on BS VI fuel, as new-generation engines running on lower quality fuel will emit a quantum of toxic gases comparable to that generated by BS IV engines.

Major standards under BS VI • Nitrogen oxide level for BS VI-grade diesel engines and petrol engines will be brought down by 70% and 25%, respectively. • BS VI also reduces the particulate Matter (PM) limit by 80% from BS IV for diesel vehicles and also introduces PM limit for petrol vehicles. • In addition to emission standards for new vehicles, the regulations provide specifications for reference and commercial fuels. o The sulfur traces in BS VI fuel is five times lower (10 ppm) as compared to sulfur traces in BS IV fuel (50 ppm), which is a reduction of 80%. • Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are being introduced with the roll-out of BS VI norms, which were not a part of BS IV. • Real Driving Emission (RDE) will be introduced in India for the first time with the implementation of Bharat Stage VI emission norms. • It will measure a vehicle’s emission in real-time conditions against laboratory conditions. • Onboard Diagnostics (OD) has been made mandatory for all vehicles which will give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the status of the various vehicle sub-systems.

CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING BS VI NORMS • Increased cost: Following the norms will add on to the cost of cars, which will reduce the demand exacerbating the low growth of automobile industry. • High investment: To produce BS VI compliant fuels, the refineries need to upgrade their technology with high investments. • Future disruption: The next round of revision is due in 2023 and this might provide a small window for the producers to produce BS VI compliant vehicles and might bring a disruption after the revision. • Not the best standards: It can be observed that, although the country is looking to meet the best European standards, Europe stands as the third best standard across the globe. o China has gone ahead of Europe by combining the key parameters from the US and Korea to frame its own regulations.

WAY FORWARD • Strong compliance system: The government should introduce a strong system of compliance, penalty, emissions warranty and Recall programme. Emissions warranty and extended emissions warranty to cover the in-service life of vehicles is an important step. • Amend Central Motor Vehicles Act to enable implementation of remote sensing monitoring for on-road surveillance as well as more effective integration of OBD. • The states should define and issue the check list for inspection of emissions control systems in vehicles and prevent tampering • Awareness: The local bodies should fasten up the enthusiasm in cities for BS VI, also to inform and influence next round of revision of regulations of BS-VI in 2023 for stronger real-world emissions and in-service compliance requirements for vehicle sold.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 1.6 POLITICAL ADS - ‘ONLINE’ With politicians and political parties rapidly adopting the digital advertising channel to manipulate voters, in order to ensure free and fair elections, there is an urgent need to control them more effectively.

Details: info "A" voluntary code of ethics "was agreed upon by the Election Commission and online sites, including Facebook , Google and Twitter, for the 2019 general election and all future elections after 2019. The Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) has agreed to coordinate the different steps listed in this code with the participants. The 'Code of Ethics' has been established to ensure that social media sites are used openly, reasonably and ethically to uphold the legitimacy of the democratic process for elections. The key "Voluntary Code of Ethics" characteristics are as follows: * Social media sites will voluntarily participate in awareness-building initiatives for information , education and collaboration among their users, including electoral laws and other related instructions. * A high priority dedicated grievance redress channel or dedicated teams have been developed by social media sites to take expeditious action on the ECI cases recorded. * Social Media Platforms and ECI have developed a notification mechanism by which ECI can notify the relevant platforms of potential violations of Section 126 of the R.P. Act, 1951 and other electoral laws. In compliance with Sinha Committee recommendations, the Platforms have undertaken to process any violations reported under Section 126 of the RP Act, 1951 within three hours. * Networks can ensure that all political ads on their networks are pre-certified by the Supreme Court 's guidelines from the Media Certification and Monitoring Committees. * Participating platforms are committed to promoting openness, by using their pre-existing labels / disclosure technologies for such ads, in paid political ads. In paid campaign ads, the Code of Ethics promises to promote transparency.

Worries:  In India, advertisers on social issues, elections or politics have spent 39.1 crore on Facebook since February 2019, when the data became available; political advertising on Google amounted to 29.3 crore. This illustrates the increasing significance of digital ads and the influence of money that could inhibit smaller parties. Although the sums spent on digital ads can seem small relative to other parties' election advertising budgets, given the higher engagement rates possible, the effect on the online space is exponential. The rate of engagement is the proportion of individuals who saw the advertisement and wanted to press, like, post, or comment on it. The absence of legal help to control this area of electioneering is a problem. • Since digital advertising is highly decentralised and people can be hired to build impressions and promote their opinions on social media sites, it is a challenge to keep track on election spending. • Study of online advertisement data for the recent election of the Maharashtra Assembly shows that it is not easy to classify the sources of funds in digital political advertising. The information given about the sources does not seem real. The accountability as accepted in the code of ethics is severely compromised by this. • The increasing use of 'attack commercials,' which are usually caricatures, edited video clips, altered pictures, memes, and pointed words, to threaten rival parties and candidates. It is uncertain if these political ads were pre-certified under the 'voluntary code of ethics' by the ECI's Media Certification and Oversight Committees.

Way Ahead:  A legislative recognition of the code of ethics will enhance the code. The requirements listed need to be efficiently implemented and both the ECI and the Digital Media Outlets are responsible for this.

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 The recent announcement made by Twitter CEO that his company can no longer allow political advertising is a laudable move forward and must also be taken into account by other platforms.  The Code 's formulation foresees a successful start, but it is ultimately a job to do. The concerned parties need to follow the commitments made in the Code of Ethics in letter and spirit.

1.7 DECRIMINALIZATION OF ADULTERY The Supreme Court has refused to review its 2018 judgment which decriminalized adultery. LAW ON ADULTERY IN INDIA • Indian Penal Code (IPC) Section 497 states, "Whoever has sexual intercourse with a person who is and whom he knows or has reason to believe to be the wife of another man, without the consent or connivance of that man, such sexual intercourse not amounting to the offence of rape, is guilty of the offence of adultery." • Section 497 also states that a man found guilty of adultery "shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years, or with fine, or with both." • Section 198 (2) the Criminal Procedure Code: The code allows a husband to bring charges against the man with whom his wife has committed adultery. Supreme Court Judgement, 2018 ISSUES WITH IPC SECTION 497 • In the Joseph Shine v. Union of India • The law treats married women as the ‘property’ of their case, the Supreme Court declared that husbands on the ground that their relationship with other married IPC Section 497 and CrPC Section 198 was persons depends on the “consent or connivance of her husband”. unconstitutional. Section 497 (adultery) The law gives power to a husband to control the sexuality of his of IPC cannot “command” married lawfully wedded wife. couples to remain loyal to each other for • In the event of a man committing adultery by means of sexual the fear of penal punishment. intercourse with a married woman or an unmarried woman, this • Unequal treatment of women invites law does not confer any right on the man's wife to prosecute the the wrath of the Constitution, and that adulterous husband or the woman with whom the husband has any provision treating women unequally indulged in sexual intercourse with. isn't constitutional. • Only a man can be a victim or accused/culprit under the existing • Autonomy is intrinsic in dignified human reading of Section 497 of the IPC. The offence of adultery is, existence and Section 497 denudes according to Section 497, committed by a man against a married women from making choices. man. There is no rationale in treating one party involved in • Subordination of any sex over the other adultery as a victim and the other as a criminal. In doing so, the is clearly unconstitutional. law violates article 14 of the constitution since it creates an • Adultery is no longer a crime, but it will irrational classification between men and women. continue to be grounds for divorce. • The law gives a married man a right to blame an outside agency • The court held that mere adultery can't for the breakdown of his marriage. If the relationship has lost its be a crime unless it attracts the scope of foundation of trust, it makes more sense that the couple Section 306 (abatement to suicide) of the approaches the courts for a mutual divorce than put a third person IPC. behind bars for breaking their marriage. CONS OF DECRIMINALIZATION OF ADULTERY • In a country beset with rising divorce rates and cases of marital infidelity, the decriminalization of adultery will critically endanger the institution of marriage. • Decriminalization of adultery will increases the risk of fostering extra-marital affairs. • The emergence of divorce as the way out will catalyze the break-up of marriages, leaving little children in the lurch.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 1.8 SECRECY OF BALLOT The Supreme Court in its recent judgment held that Secrecy of ballot is the cornerstone of free and fair elections. BACKGROUND: • The judgment came on an appeal against the Allahabad High Court decision setting aside the voting of a no- confidence motion in a zila panchayat in Uttar Pradesh in 2018. • The High Court found that some of the panchayat members had violated the rule of secrecy of ballot. It relied on CCTV footage to conclude that they had either displayed the ballot papers or by their conduct revealed the manner in which they had voted. SUPREME COURT JUDGEMENT ON SECRECY OF BALLOT • The principle of secrecy of ballots is an important postulate of constitutional democracy. The choice of a voter should be free and the secret ballot system in a democracy ensures it. • It is the policy of law to protect the right of voters to secrecy of the ballot. Even a remote or distinct possibility that a voter can be forced to disclose for whom she has voted would act as a positive constraint and a check on the freedom to exercise of franchise. • Section 94 of the Representation of People Act upholds the privilege of the voter to maintain confidentiality about her choice of vote. • However, a voter can also voluntarily waive the privilege of non-disclosure. The privilege ends when the voter decides to waive the privilege and instead volunteers to disclose as to whom she had voted. No one can prevent a voter from doing. Nor can a complaint be entertained from any, including the person who wants to keep the voter’s mouth sealed as to why she disclosed for whom she voted. • The apex court referred to Section 28(8) of the Uttar Pradesh Kshettra Panchayat and Zila Panchayat Adhiniyam, 1961. This provision states that a motion of no confidence shall be put to vote in the prescribed manner by secret ballot. • The apex court ordered a re-vote of the motion within the next two months. It ordered the Allahabad District Judge or his nominee to act as the presiding officer.

1.9 CIVIL SERVICES BOARD (CSB) • Punjab government has notified Civil Services Board (CSB) for providing fixed tenure of IAS officers. • CSB will be headed by Chief Secretary, with Personnel Secretary, and either Financial Commissioner (Revenue) or Home Secretary (who so ever is senior in the pecking order) as its members. • The board provides for the state to follow Centre’s guidelines on giving a fixed tenure of at least two years for cadre officers. They cannot be transferred before that and if anyone recommends their transfer then the board will examine and effect it. The final authority is the Chief Minister. • In October 2013, the Supreme Court had mandated minimum tenure for bureaucrats. Punjab is the 20th state to adopt these rules. ADVANTAGES OF CSB: • If the officials have a fixed tenure they will be able to provide better administration. • The officials will also feel safe and try to stick to the rules instead of pleasing political bosses. • Every official requires 3-6 months to get into the groove at his new place of posting. If he stays there for two years, it would mean better delivery and stable tenure to people. CRITICISM • Appointment and transfer of IAS officers are a prerogative of the state. If their term is fixed, it will not only create functional and administrative problems, but also overstep the authority and jurisdiction of the state government. • The political leadership of ruling party in the state has usually always had a say in postings and transfers of district officials in the state. With the fixed tenure rule and Chief Secretary’s board having all power to examine

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www.upscwithnikhil.com a recommendation for a transfer, the leaders feel their influence has been reduced to a naught and all power handed to the CS. • It will make them less answerable and accountable to legislators. A healthy working relationship between Ministers, MPs, MLAs and civil servants is critical for good governance.

2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2.1 AFGHAN PEACE PROCESS • The US began the war in Afghanistan in 2001 after the 9/11 attack. The aim of the US-led coalition was to overthrow the Taliban. • The war in Afghanistan, however, was derailed as the U.S. changed focus from 2003 towards Iraq. • As the Taliban launched their insurgency in 2005 after recovering, regrouping and refinancing themselves from their refuge in Pakistan, the final goal of a secure and peaceful Afghanistan started to recede. • The rebellion has since gained traction and also revealed the political vulnerabilities of the U.S. After taking office in 2009, President Barack Obama approved an increase in the number of U.S. troops with the intention of achieving a decisive victory over the insurgency. • At the same time, he declared that the drawdown of forces would begin in 2011, and that the Afghan security forces would take over all military operations by 2014. • This only encouraged the Taliban insurgency, however, and revealed the vulnerabilities of the Afghan army and police forces in terms of numbers, training and facilities to deal with the post-2014 situation. •In 2014, the U.S. declared the withdrawal of the majority of soldiers, but under Operation Resolute Support, a few thousand U.S. troops were to remain behind to "advise, train and assist" the Afghan security forces. • In 2017, the United States For "Afghanistan and South Asia," President Donald Trump set out a plan. • His strategy was different from that of his predecessors as it claimed that "not for nation-building" but limited to "killing terrorists" was American participation in Afghanistan. With a change from a time-driven approach to one based on circumstances, he called this strategy "Principled Realism".

There were two pillars behind this policy: —Military participation: additional troops playing two roles: counter-terrorism operations and training of the Afghan powers. —Political Involvement: If the situation shifts in that direction, a mediated political settlement with the Taliban. • Since October 2018, representatives of the Taliban and US officials have met to conclude a peace treaty.

ROLE OF USA IN AFGHAN PEACE PROCESS: • A proposed peace plan has been concluded by U.S. and Taliban negotiators. This plan for a structure was based on years of direct and indirect discussions between the two sides. • Under the arrangement, foreign terrorist organizations such as al-Qaeda and the self-proclaimed Islamic State will have to be refused safe haven by the Taliban, and have to enter into direct negotiations with the Afghan government, and also agree to announce a ceasefire. • In return, within eighteen months of a definitive agreement, the United States will withdraw troops from Afghanistan. OTHER COUNTRIES' CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PROCESS: 16 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• Attempts to achieve this draft peace structure have been made possible at various stages with the assistance of Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Qatar. • However, the proposal does not explain the position that regional states will play in reaching a final settlement. • Just like the long war in Afghanistan was fueled by regional rivalry, regional states have a role to play in resolving it.

• Pakistan: -- Pakistan has been a key player in all stages of the long war in Afghanistan. -- The US has vowed to follow a policy of pressure to punish Pakistan for its malignant behaviour, including by allowing Taliban leaders and fighters to live and organize freely from within its territory. -- However, Pakistani civilian and military leaders are hopeful about the new draft structure, because its pursuit has slowed the escalation of the pressure campaign. -- A limited agreement that does not require Pakistan to take responsibility for its past actions in Afghanistan is probably the best-case scenario for Pakistan.

• In China: -- The interests of China in Afghanistan are more closely associated with Pakistan, while the fears of Beijing regarding violent extremism and terrorism are out of line with the actions of Pakistan. -- The U.S. and Chinese negotiators have worked together to help the peace process in Afghanistan, and Beijing would want to be adequately active to resolve its counter-terrorism and border security issues. -- China has a lot to offer in terms of promoting the peace agreement in Afghanistan, especially economically through investments in Pakistan (the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor) or Central Asia (the Silk Road Economic Belt) under the Belt and Road Initiative.

• Russia -- Russia held a second round of Taliban talks without the involvement of the Afghan government in February 2019. -These talks risk alleviating pressure on the Taliban and improving its position further, but could be leveraged to assist the U.S. diplomatic effort. -- The governments of the U.S. and Afghanistan should find ways to take advantage of the initiatives of Moscow and turn up to any talks hosted by Russia, even if only to deny the Taliban an uncontested boon.

• India -- India plays a role as a responsible democratic nation and a true friend and neighbour to Afghanistan, with minimal intervention options in Afghanistan.

INDIANS ARE ACTIVE IN AFGHANISTAN IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS: • Social infrastructure growth, such as hospitals, schools; • Public facilities such as the Salma dam and the construction of Parliament; • Humanitarian aid, for example, medical missions; • preparation of soldiers and military officers; • Military combat, such as military helicopters and helicopter repairs from the old Soviet period. -- India is possibly worried that any negotiation that could bring the Taliban back into the Afghan government could dilute its political power in Afghanistan.

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-- India's hedge against Iran could pave the way for a continuing economic position by investing in the construction of the port of Chabahar (the only Iranian port with direct access to the Indian Ocean).

AFGHAN, AS INDIA'S ENIGMATIC ADVANTAGE: • Afghanistan is the gateway to India's North-South Corridor. • Having a rich source of oil in Afghanistan will help India fulfil its demand to the full. • India has established the port of Chahbar to increase imports and exports to Afghanistan and to fight Pakistan in the West Sea. • Elusive peace in Afghanistan could support TAPI 's India project. • Help India resolve the one-road-one-belt projects in China. Indian impact if the Taliban comes to power: • Pakistan will gain tremendous strategic leverage and the same will be lost to India. • Entry to central Asia from India will be impaired. • The Taliban may turn to India after conquering Afghanistan to increase terrorist activity. • Pakistan would then concentrate solely on the Indian frontier. • It will use it against India, as China has also increased its stakes.

REASONS FOR INDIA TO BE A PART OF THE TALIBAN RECONCILIATION PROCESS: • Regional stability: security and stability are the pillars on which it is possible to construct growth. Peaceful communities and a trouble-free regional environment would provide the regimes with room to focus more on growth as Taliban threats of violence in the region are reduced. • Countering the vested interests of China and Pakistan: India should play a significant role through the Quadrilateral Party, plus 2 talks to thwart China's attempts to position puppet regimes that can play according to its own vested interests. This could be contrary to the hopes and concerns of India. • Connectivity with Central Asia: India will largely depend on Afghanistan's domestic environment to trade with Central Asia and to reap the benefits of enhanced connectivity. A stable and cooperative Afghanistan would be a crucial pillar of India 's strategy towards Central Asia. The new Indian trilateral transit deal. It is a big step in this direction for Iran and Afghanistan. • TAPI for Energy Security: Violence Free Afghanistan is desideratum to complete the TAPI project and to maintain its benefits through Turkmenistan's energy supplies. • Gateway to the strategy of 'Connect West': Afghanistan will serve as a gateway to the growing rigour of India's West Asian strategy. • Afghanistan minerals: the cost of access to minerals would be minimal and helpful for the expansion of Indian industry development.

WAY AHEAD: • India needs to make its stance on Afghan issues tougher. India needs to pull together other stakeholders, such as Russia to Iran, to make their stance clear. • India should make the US more vocal that leaving the Taliban unfinished would leave the area in the same or worse situation as it was before. The Taliban 's complete surrender is good for the stability of the USA and the region.

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• India needs to use soft image as a tool and it should emphasize that the voice of the Afghan people is most important, so the US should try to stabilize the region instead of giving power to some form of government. • It is a fact that there is no military solution to the conflict. But instead of placing a diplomatic effort behind the full power and wealth of the United States, successive administrations have preferred to place the military mission first. They have often deployed just enough resources to have an effect on the ground, while minimizing attention from increasingly weary constituents in the United States. It is long past time for a different approach. • The U.S.-Taliban draft structure is precisely the kind of high-stakes diplomacy necessary to end the long war in Afghanistan, or even just the U.S. duration of that conflict, which is the longest war in U.S. history.

2.2 SIR CREEK PACT • Sir Creek is a 96-km strip of water disputed between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch marshlands. • “Sir Creek” is named after a British representative. • It was originally named Ban Ganga. • The Creek opens up in the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Kutch region of Gujarat from the Sindh Province of Pakistan. WHAT IS THE DISPUTE? • The long-standing India-Pakistan Sir Creek border dispute hinges in the actual demarcation “from the mouth of Sir Creek to the top of Sir Creek, and from the top of Sir Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus”. • Pakistan claims the entire Sir Creek based on a 1914 agreement signed between the government of Sindh and the rulers of Kutch. • India claims that the boundary lies mid-channel, as was depicted in a map in 1925 and implemented with pillars placed to mark the boundary. • The dispute between India and Pakistan, with respect to Sir Creek, is the inability of both the countries to agree on a definite border with the fear of losing out on a vast amount of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rich with gas and mineral deposits.

Importance of Sir Creek: • Sir Creek does not hold much strategic or military significance. • The core importance of Sir Creek is because of fishing resources. Sir Creek is considered to be one of the largest fishing grounds in Asia. • Further, it assumes significance because of immense potential economic benefits as the marshlands are estimated to be rich in hydrocarbons and shale gas.

CONTEXT • The third edition of WION’s global summit was held in Dubai. • With “Navigating and negotiating global imperatives” as its theme, the summit brought together policymakers and global thought leaders for dialogues that offered insights on the way forward. • The 2020 summit served as a platform for global leaders to have a dialogue on a common global agenda. 19 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• Several topics, including balancing and recalibrating Pakistan’s diplomatic strategy and getting the youth to participate in democracy, were discussed at the summit. • At the event, Former Pakistan Minister Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri recalled the plan for Sir Creek pact.

2.3 GREAT DEPRESSION > With the novel coronavirus pandemic severely affecting the global economy, some experts have begun comparing the current crisis with the Great Depression — the devastating economic decline of the 1930s that went on to shape countless world events. > Italy, Spain, India, and the United Kingdom are among countries in lockdown. > A state of emergency declared in the United States on March 13 and major restrictions rolled out across several states since then, which are set to be widened, have sounded alarm bells louder than the ones ending volatile trading in global bourses. > Shuttered state and municipal governments, closed school gates, empty tills in restaurants and bars and boarded-up businesses are all part of an induced economic coma, with the hope that reanimation will occur when the brunt of the coronavirus has passed. > Experts have warned that unemployment levels in some countries could reach those from the 1930s era, when the unemployment rate was as high as around 25 percent in the United States. > Currently, unemployment levels in the US are already estimated to be at 13 per cent, highest since the Great Depression, according to a New York Times report. > In the pandemic-induced depression scenario, a sudden negative supply shock reduces the labor supply (in person-hours), thereby causing sharp decreases in employment, output, and income. ANALYSIS: What was Great Depression? > Great depression was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized world, lasting from 1929 to 1939. It began on “Black Thursday,” October 24, 1929. > It began after the stock market crash of October 1929, which sent Wall Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors. > Over the next several years, consumer spending and investment dropped, causing steep declines in industrial output and employment as failing companies laid off workers. > By 1933, when the Great Depression reached its lowest point, some 15 million Americans were unemployed and nearly half the country’s banks had failed. In almost every country of the world, there were massive job losses, deflation, and a drastic contraction in output. > Unemployment in the US increased from 3.2 per cent to 24.9 per cent between 1929 and 1933. In the UK, it rose from 7.2 per cent to 15.4 per cent between 1929 and 1932.

What caused the Great Depression? > Throughout the 1920s, the economy of the United States expanded rapidly, and the nation’s total wealth more than doubled between 1920 and 1929, a period dubbed “the Roaring Twenties.” > The stock market of the US was the scene of reckless speculation, where everyone from millionaire tycoons to cooks and janitors poured their savings into stocks. > As a result, the stock market underwent rapid expansion, reaching its peak in August 1929. > By then, production had already declined and unemployment had risen, leaving stock prices much higher than their actual value. > Additionally, wages at that time were low, consumer debt was proliferating, the agricultural sector of the economy was struggling due to drought and falling food prices and banks had an excess of large loans that could not be liquidated.

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> 1929, the American economy entered a mild recession as consumer spending slowed and unsold goods began to pile up, which in turn slowed factory production. > Nonetheless, stock prices continued to rise, and by the fall of that year had reached stratospheric levels that could not be justified by expected future earnings. > On October 24, 1929, as nervous investors began selling overpriced shares in masse, the stock market got crashed. > A record 12.9 million shares were traded that day, known as “Black Thursday.” > Five days later, on October 29 or “Black Tuesday,” some 16 million shares were traded. Millions of shares ended up worthless, and those investors who had bought stocks “on margin” (with borrowed money) were wiped out completely. > The global adherence to the gold standard, which joined countries around the world in a fixed currency exchange, helped spread Economic depression: economic woes from the United States throughout the world, > Economic depression is a time period when especially Europe. the economy slows down and there is > In short, the Great Depression was induced by a large negative widespread unemployment, lack of investments and scarce demand for shock to aggregate demand. consumer goods. GREAT DEPRESSION & IMPACT ON INDIA: > An economic depression is primarily caused > The Depression had an important impact on India’s freedom by worsening consumer confidence that struggle. Due to the global crisis, there was a drastic fall in leads to a decrease in demand, eventually agricultural prices, the mainstay of India’s economy, and a severe resulting in companies going out of business. credit contraction occurred as colonial policymakers refused to > When consumers stop buying products and devalue the rupee. paying for services, companies need to make > German economic historian Dietmar Rothermund writes in a budget cuts, including employing fewer workers. 1980 paper at the Indian History Congress > The other major factors that lead to > “The decline of agricultural prices, which was aggravated by economic depression: British financial policy in India, made substantial sections of the • Stock market crash peasantry rise in protest and this protest was articulated by • Decrease in manufacturing orders members of the National Congress.” > The effects of the Depression • Control of prices and wages became visible around the harvest season in 1930, soon after • Deflation Mahatma Gandhi had launched the Civil Disobedience movement • Oil price hikes in April the same year. • Loss of consumer confidence > There were “No Rent” campaigns in many parts of the country, and radical Kisan Sabhas were started in Bihar and eastern UP. > Agrarian unrest provided a groundswell of support to the Congress whose reach was yet to extend into rural India. > The endorsement by farming classes is believed to be among the reasons that enabled the party to achieve its landslide victory in the 1936-37 provincial elections held under the Government of India Act, 1935– which significantly increased the party’s political might for years to come.

WHAT ENDED THE GREAT DEPRESSION? > In 1932, the country elected Franklin D. Roosevelt as president. He promised to create federal government programs to end the Great Depression. > Within 100 days, he signed the New Deal into law, creating 43 new agencies throughout its lifetime. > They were designed to create jobs, allow unionization, and provide unemployment insurance. Many of these programs still exist. > They help safeguard the economy and prevent another depression. > In the last, the Great Depression reshaped America, shifting migration patterns, and spawning new styles of music, art and literature. Under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, however, it also prompted creation of an 21 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

www.upscwithnikhil.com array of programs like unemployment insurance, Social Security retirements benefits, and bank deposit insurance that make a repeat unlikely. THE DIFFERENCE: > The 1929 economic crisis was triggered by stock market speculation, while the reason underlying the current crisis is the fact that we are face to face with a freeze in the economy due to the coronavirus epidemic. > There was a situation in both the 1929 and 2020 coronavirus crises that had an adverse effect on workers. The further the coronavirus spreads and the further the economy shrinks, its impact on unemployment becomes deeper. > The two crises are not only economic, but they rather stand out as a social and, in fact, as a political matter. In the event that the coronavirus epidemic is prolonged, it appears the unemployment issue will be the most serious matter in the social and political domain. > The key difference today is that unlike other financial crises, health concerns trump economic ones. > The zero growth we now project for 2020 will mark the second-weakest year for the global economy in almost 50 years of comparable data, with only 2009, in the depths of the financial crisis, worse. CONCLUSION: The higher the toll of the virus, and the longer the outbreak lasts, the more damage to the world economy. Economy can return to normalcy as it happened after past recessions but once life is lost, it cannot be restored. Hence, it is time for showing patience, contributing towards containment of this virus, supporting to the livelihood of masses and show compassion to deprived section of the society who are worstly affected due to the outbreak of this virus.

2.4 SYRIA RESPONSIBLE FOR 2017 CHEMICAL WARFARE ATTACKS: OPCW The world’s chemical weapons watchdog for the first time explicitly blamed Syria for toxic attacks in the country, saying President Bashar al-Assad’s regime used sarin and chlorine three times in 2017.

BACKGROUND: > In February, 2017, forces loyal to President Bashar al-Assad launched an assault on the Eastern Ghouta that reportedly left more than 1,700 civilians dead. > The attacks on March 24, 25 and 30 in Lataminah killed civilians and medics as well as wounding dozens of people. > Lataminah, at the time of the attack, was an important logistical hub for opposition groups, who had in previous weeks launched devastating attacks against the regime-held city of Hama. > Both Lataminah and Khan Sheikhoun were used as a supply point for militias opposed to the Assad regime. > With extensive help from the Russian Air Force, both towns have now been recaptured by Syrian and allied forces. > The latest findings were the first to be released by the new Investigation and Identification Team (IIT). > The IIT was established by OPCW member states last year after Russia - whose forces are backing the Syrian military - vetoed a UN Security Council resolution to extend the joint mission’s mandate. > It was tasked with identifying the perpetrators of chemical weapons use in Syria, as determined by the separate OPCW Fact-Finding Mission. > The use of chemical weapons is a war crime and is prohibited in a series of international treaties. These include: • The Hague Declaration concerning Asphyxiating Gases • The 1925 Geneva Protocol • The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) • The Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) REGULATION OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS:

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> Although toxic chemicals had been used as tools of war for thousands of years, with the use of techniques such as poisoned arrows, arsenic smoke, or noxious fumes, their use was long stigmatised by an association with both unnecessary cruelty and unfair play, something beneath the standards of ‘civilised’ battle. > Because of this, international efforts to ban chemical weapons took a prominent position in many early disarmament agreements. > First Agreement: The first international agreement What OPCW has found? limiting the use of chemical weapons dates back to > As per the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical 1675, when France and Germany came to an Weapons (OPCW), 106 people were affected by the agreement, signed in Strasbourg, prohibiting the use of incidents in the opposition-held village of Latamina. poison bullets. > The government has denied ever using chemical > Almost exactly 200 years later, in 1874, the next weapons. > However, a joint UN-OPCW mission had also accused agreement of this sort was concluded: the Brussels government forces of using Sarin in an attack on the Convention on the Law and Customs of War. town of Khan Sheikhoun, which reportedly killed more > Brussels Convention: The Brussels Convention than 80 people, just days after the incidents in nearby prohibited the employment of poison or poisoned Latamina. weapons, and the use of arms, projectiles or material to > It also concluded that government forces had used cause unnecessary suffering, although the agreement chlorine as a weapon on other occasions during the civil never entered into force. war. > Hague Peace Conference: Before the turn of the > For its first report, the IIT focused on incidents in nineteenth century, a third agreement came into being. Latamina, about 40 km (25 miles) north-west of the city The chemical disarmament efforts of the twentieth of Hama, in late March 2017. century were rooted in the 1899 Hague Peace > On the basis of the information obtained, the IIT Conference. concluded there were reasonable grounds to believe that: • The contracting parties to the 1899 Hague Convention • On 24 March, an Su-22 military plane belonging to the declared their agreement to ‘abstain from the use of 50th Brigade of the 22nd Air Division of the Syrian air projectiles, the sole object of which is the diffusion of force, departing from Shayrat airbase, dropped an asphyxiating or deleterious gases’. M4000 aerial bomb containing Sarin in southern > Second Hague Convention: A second Hague Latamina, affecting 16 people Convention, in 1907, reiterated earlier bans on • On 25 March, a Syrian air force helicopter, departing employing poison or poisoned weapons. from Hama airbase, dropped a cylinder on the Latamina > Despite the above measures, the world witnessed the hospital. The cylinder broke through the roof, ruptured use of toxic chemicals in warfare to an unprecedented and released chlorine, affecting 30 people extent during World War I, with the first large-scale • On 30 March, an Su-22 belonging to the 50th Brigade attack using chemical weapons taking place at Ieper, of the 22nd Air Division of the Syrian air force, departing from Shayrat airbase, dropped an M4000 aerial bomb Belgium, on 22 April 1915. By the war’s end, some containing Sarin in southern Latamina, affecting 60 124,200 tonnes of chlorine, mustard and other chemical people agents had been released, and more than 90,000 soldiers had suffered painful deaths due to exposure to them. Close to a million more people left the battlefields blind, disfigured or with debilitating injuries. > The Geneva Protocol: The 1925 Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, commonly known as the 1925 Geneva Protocol, bans the use of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons in war. What are nerve agents? > Nerve agents are a group of human-made substances that target part of the body’s nervous system to shut down its organs and overload the brain. > Chemical weapons that use nerve agents like tabun, sarin and VX are known to kill people with gruesome efficiency.

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> Just 10mg of VX, for instance, can kill a human in just 10 minutes. A smaller dose can take up to an hour to be lethal. How it was found? > Any nerve agent can affect a person through the skin, > These toxins were first discovered by accident in the breathing, ingestion, or all three routes, depending on the 1930s during research on agricultural insecticides. substance and how it’s used. > In their search, German scientists made two organic > Special bombs can weaponise the agents as a liquid, firing compounds containing phosphorus that were very them out as a breathable gas. effective at killing insect pests. > However, they soon discovered that, even in Effect of Nerve Agents: minuscule amounts, the substances caused distressing symptoms in humans exposed to them. > Nerve agents can be absorbed through inhalation or skin > The two substances—too toxic to be used as contact. commercial insecticides in agriculture—became > Unlike traditional poisons, nerve agents don’t need to be known as tabun and sarin. added to food and drink to be effective. > They are quite volatile, colorless liquids (except for VX, which is said to resemble engine oil). The concentration in the vapor at room temperature is lethal. Do antidotes exist? > The symptoms of poisoning come on quickly, and > Nerve agents are damaging to the human body include chest tightening, difficulty breathing, and very because they cause a build-up of acetylcholine. likely asphyxiation. Associated symptoms include > This causes constant triggering of the neurons and vomiting and massive incontinence. therefore, constant contraction of muscles. > The chemicals work by disrupting the central > These spasms can be treated with antidotes that shut- nervous system. off acetylcholine receptors in the brain. Antidotes do exist, > The body uses a molecule called acetylcholine to but send messages between cells—when an acetylcholine > they have to be administered quickly, or the effect of molecule arrives, it causes an electrical impulse to be the nerve agent cannot be reversed. sent. > Usually, two antidotes (atropine and pralidoxime > The body constantly has to remove those chloride) are used which interfere with the acetylcholine molecules from the receptors; acetylcholine binding to the neuron receptors. otherwise there would be a dangerous build-up. > These antidotes work in the exact opposite way of > It uses an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase to do anti-depressants which encourage the uptake of that. However, a nerve agent stops neurotransmitters through the synapse. acetylcholinesterase from doing its job. > Chemicals like Prozac encourage neurons responsible ABOUT OPCW: for feelings of happiness (such as dopamine and > The Chemical Weapons Convention entered into serotonin) to be transmitted through these receptors. force on 29 April 1997. > Decontamination can also drastically reduce the > The event marked the birth of an international lethality of chemical weapons as the longer a chemical weapons disarmament regime headed by substance is left on skin and clothes the more of it can the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical enter the bloodstream. Weapons (OPCW). > As the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention, the OPCW, with its 193 Member States, oversees the global endeavour to permanently and verifiably eliminate chemical weapons. THE CONVENTION: > The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (the CWC), is comprised of a Preamble, 24 Articles, and 3 Annexes — the Annex on Chemicals, the Verification Annex, and the Confidentiality Annex. > The Convention aims to eliminate an entire category of weapons of mass destruction by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or use of chemical weapons by States Parties. 24 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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> States Parties, in turn, must take the steps necessary to enforce that prohibition in respect of persons (natural or legal) within their jurisdiction.

CONCLUSION: The detailed report will likely lead to fresh calls for accountability for the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Given the findings, it is now up to the Executive Council of OPCW and the Conference of the States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention, the United Nations Secretary- General, and the international community as a whole to take any further action they deem appropriate and necessary to prevent such attacks.

2.5 BORDER TRADE Context • In February 2019, India agreed to revoke the Most Favoured Nation ( MFN) status to Pakistan in the aftermath of the Pulwama attack; it subsequently levied 200 percent customs duty on all Pakistani products entering India. • India and Pakistan closed their airspace again in February after the Balakot airstrikes, with Pakistan holding the ban in effect for almost five months. • India suspended trade across the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir in April 2019, citing misuse by Pakistan-based elements of the trade route. • And more recently, Pakistan cut off diplomatic and economic relations with India following the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Bill, expelling the Indian ambassador, partially shutting down air space and halting bilateral trade. Economic Relations • Bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was estimated at $2.5 billion in 2018-19, with India's exports to Pakistan amounting to $2.06 billion and India's imports from Pakistan amounting to $495 million. • India 's decision to revoke MFN status and place a 200% duty affected Pakistan's exports to India, dropping from an average of $45 million per month in 2018 to $2.5 million per month from May to August in the last four months. Western Border Trade • Depending on the type of trade and the trade route, the amount of losses incurred by traders in both India and Pakistan has varied. • For instance, bilateral trade was heavily in favour of Pakistan through the Wagah-Attari land route; India's imports from Pakistan accounted for 82 percent of total land route trade in the last two years. • Much of this company has been severely affected since February, with just a handful of products continuing to be imported, including rock salt. Economies on the Frontier • Border economies owe their life to cross-border economic opportunities, unlike national economies. Owing to political shifts, trade bans, price and exchange rates and tax fluctuations, these economies typically undergo a sudden boom-bust period. • The costs and benefits are reciprocal to the border economies on both sides, as seen elsewhere in South Asia, such as through the development of India-Bangladesh border haats; much more in cases such as Amritsar where major economic activity is largely dependent on border trade with Pakistan.

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As an example- Amritsar • Amritsar is landlocked, is not a metropolis, and does not historically have a big industry. Therefore, any decision on trade between India and Pakistan has a direct effect on the local economy and on the citizens of Amritsar. • Since February, according to estimates on ground, 5,000 families have been directly affected in Amritsar because of breadwinner dependence on bilateral trade. • Merchants and their staff members, customs house agents (CHAs), freight forwarders, labour force, truck operators, dhaba owners, fuel stations, and other service suppliers are Closing shop and going out of business. Changing the balance of trade and its effect on the economy • Sometimes, disrupting the commercial apple cart can have more consequences than expected. • For example, gypsum, imported from Pakistan, has been used for cement plants in India as well as in Nepal. • Trucks carrying these consignments returned with unique items such as yarn from mills in Uttar Pradesh to Punjab to prevent empty backhauling on the return trip. • The freight rate of trucks from Uttar Pradesh to Punjab has increased from ₹3 to ₹7 per kg in the absence of gypsum trade, as recorded on the field, with a single trip absorbing the cost of the entire journey. • Previously, due to trade disturbances, prices of tradeable commodities that were kept under control due to the balance-out mechanisms of foreign trade are now experiencing fluctuations. Pakistan is also taking a blow

• On the Pakistani side too, there is gloom. Exports of cotton from India to Pakistan are expected to be most affected by Pakistan 's decision to fully suspend bilateral trade, ultimately hurting Pakistan's textiles. • The lawn industry, which will now have to procure more costly cotton from alternative markets in the United States, Australia, Egypt or Central Asia; or there is a strong probability that Indian cotton, along with other goods, will be routed through third countries such as the United Arab Emirates and Singapore, thus raising the proportion of indirect trade, which is projected to be more than double Conclusion • In the spirit of nationalism, their respective governments have, by and wide, stood by the trade brotherhood on both sides. • But on both sides, residents in border economies have mouths to feed, which calls for a solution. • What are the alternative livelihood sources that can be produced in order to keep border economies afloat? It's time to think about options and come up with them.

2.6 US SUGGESTS A G7 EXPANSION US President Donald Trump is keen to expand G7 to include India, Russia, South Korea and Australia.

BACKGROUND > The 46th G7 summit of the leaders of the Group of Seven was originally scheduled to be held on June 10 through June 12, 2020, at Camp David in US. > However, US President Donald Trump postponed the summit until at least September 2020.

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> The last time the US hosted the event was in 2012. President Barack Obama held it at a government owned property, Camp David. > The US President Donald Trump has announced his decision to postpone the G7 summit till September and has decided to invite India, Russia, Australia and South Korea to the meet. > The decision to include India as part of the larger Grouping comes close on the heels of several faceoffs between Indian and Chinese troops along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in eastern Ladakh. > Both sides have been trying to resolve the issues as per the established mechanisms and communications channel. > The US has recently released a new vision document on China in which it has accused that country of exploiting the rule-based world order and attempting to re-shape the international system which would favour the interests and ideology of the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP). > The report titled, ‘United States Strategic Approach to the People’s Republic of China’, has been released by the White House and it has declared that it is “responding to the CCP’s direct challenge by acknowledging that the two major powers are in a “strategic competition and protecting” their “interests appropriately”.

Origin of the group > France, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and What is G-7? > G7 stands for “Group of Seven” West Germany formed the Group of Six in 1975 so that the industrialized nations. noncommunist powers could come together to discuss economic > Comprising the United States, the United concerns, which at the time included inflation and recession Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and following an OPEC oil embargo. Canada (and the European Union), the group > Canada joined the following year. meets annually to discuss a range of global > Russia eventually joined in 1998 — and its inclusion was meant as issues, managing to usually find a common a signal of cooperation between East and West after the Soviet stance. Union’s collapse in 1991. > It used to be known as the G8 (Group of Eight) until 2014 when Russia was excluded What is the need of such expansion? because of its annexation of Crimea from > The G7, formed in 1975-76, comprises the US, Canada, the UK, Ukraine. > The group includes the United States, the France, Germany, Japan, and Italy. United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Japan, > Not all of these countries are among the most advanced now. France and Italy. Together, the G7 countries > India is both a military and economic giant but isn’t part of the represent 40% of global GDP and 10% of the G7. world’s population. > So, its expansion, just like that of the United Nations Security > It is an informal bloc and takes no Council, is called for. However, there is more than that to Trump’s mandatory decisions, so the leaders’ moves. declarations at the end of the summit are not > China has emerged as the new nemesis for the US and many other binding. countries, particularly after the coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan. > The G-7 does not have a formal constitution > Having India and others in the G7 is Trump’s way of countering or a fixed headquarters. The G-7 nations the rising influence of China on the world stage. > On the decision meet at annual summits that are presided over by leaders of member countries on a to invite other countries including India, according to the US rotational basis. president “The G7 as a grouping is not representing properly what is going on in the world. And it is a very outdated group of countries.”

Difference between G-7 and G-20 > They have similar names and similar functions. While the G7 mainly has to do with politics, the G20 is a broader group that focuses on the global economy.

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> It’s also known as the “Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy” and represents 80% of global GDP. > It gathers leaders from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States, as well as the European Union. > Founded in 1999 after the Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998, the G20 started off as a meeting of finance ministers and central bank governors. > However, as a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the G20 was upgraded to head of state level in an inaugural summit in Washington, D.C. China’s angle > The tension between the US and China is escalating over the coronavirus pandemic, with Trump accusing Beijing of not divulging timely information about the disease and demanding a probe into the origins of the virus. > However, China has rejected all US allegations of a cover up regarding the COVID-19 outbreak. > Trump is also aggressively pushing for decoupling China from global supply chains which could hurt the world’s second-largest economy in the long run. > The US currently holds the annual presidency of G7 countries. In view of the coronavirus pandemic, there were talks of the summit being held virtually. However, Trump had been suggesting that it be held in person. > During the summit, the G7 president normally invites heads of G-7 & India states of one or two countries to attend the meeting as a special > Calling the existing Group of Seven (G-7) invitee. club a “very outdated group of countries”, US > Last year, French President Emanuel Macron had invited Prime President Donald Trump said that he wanted Minister Narendra Modi to the G7 Summit. Prime Minister Modi to include India, Russia, South Korea, and attended the G7 meeting in the French town of Biarritz in August Australia in the group; although it was last. unclear whether he wanted the expansion to > Trump’s invitation to Russia is regarded as a source of concern be permanent for China as Beijing had built up close relations with Moscow ever > Last year, the G-7 summit was held on August 24- 26 at Biarritz in southwestern since it was expelled from what was previously known as G8 in France, where Prime Minister Narendra Modi 2014 by Trump’s predecessor Barack Obama, following Russia’s was invited to attend as a special guest of takeover of Crimea. French President Emmanuel Macron. > Since then, Russia has emerged as a close strategic ally of China. > India joining an expanded G-7 that perceives China to be an imaginary enemy Significance for India will result in India-China bilateral relations > The proposed G-11 grouping would recognized India’s place deteriorating. amongst the world’s richest nations, and acknowledge its global > The US is keen on roping India in not only voice. because the latter has become the fifth- > A seat at the G-7 would go a long way towards solidifying India’s largest economy in the world, but also commitment to fashioning itself as a key manufacturing because India is considered an important pillar for the US’ Indo-Pacific Strategy. destination in the coming years > The US has long sought to strengthen > It would be in India’s interests to adopt a foreign policy stance India’s role as a counterbalance to China in premised on multilateralism over isolation, to counter-balance the the Indo-Pacific region. military power divide between itself and China The road ahead The decision to expand the grouping, however, cannot be taken by the US alone. Other members such as the UK, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Canada, have to not only agree to Trump’s proposal to expand the grouping but also on the new members that he wants to add, said a diplomatic source of one of the G7 member countries.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 2.7 ISRAEL AND THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES United Arab Emirates and Israel have agreed to establish full diplomatic ties as part of a deal to halt the annexation of occupied land sought by the Palestinians Joint statement for their future state. The announcement makes the * Israel and the United Arab Emirates, helped by the US, UAE the first Gulf Arab state to do so and only the third have arrived at an important peace agreement that has Arab nation to have active diplomatic ties to Israel after the potential to change the geopolitics of West Asia and Egypt (in 1979) and Jordan (1994). beyond. * The U.S., the UAE and Israel will sign deals on direct flights, security, telecommunications, energy, tourism What is the big deal? and health care. * The UAE will establish diplomatic relations with Israel * The two countries also will partner on fighting the in return for giving up a stated plan to annex the West COVID-19 pandemic. Bank, the main territory of a state that the Palestinians * ―Opening direct es between two of the Middle East‘s want. most dynamic societies and advanced economics will transform the region by spurring economic growth, What about the Palestinians? enhancing technological innovation and forging closer * The Palestinian Authority, which seeks a two-state people-to-people relations. solution, lashed out against the deal as a ―betrayal‖ by the UAE. * It rejected and denounced the UAE, Israeli and US trilateral, surprising, announcement,‖ * The Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist militant group that de facto runs the Gaza strip, and views the relationship with Israel as a fight to the finish, called it a ―stabbing in the back of our people‖ by the UAE. * For the Palestinians, the Israeli commitment that it will not pursue its plan to annex the West Bank, is an empty concession – the deal does not address the Palestinian demand for statehood. * They have relied on Arab backing in their struggle for independence and the announcement marked both a win and setback. * As the deal halts Israeli annexation plans, the Palestinians have repeatedly urged Arab governments not to normalise ties with Israel until a peace agreement establishing an independent Palestinian state is reached. * Unlike the past two Arab-Israeli peace agreements, Palestinians do not figure prominently in the current one.

When Egypt and Israel made peace, the laer agreed to return the Sinai back to Egypt and signed ―A Framework for Peace in the Middle East‖ agreement, which promised the establishment of an autonomous self- governing authority in the West Bank and Gaza and called for the full implementation of the UNSC Resolution 242 that demanded Israeli withdrawal from the occupied territories. * The Jordanian-Israeli treaty came after Israel agreed to the formation of the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and Gaza. * But in the UAE-Israel deal, Israel has not made any actual concession to the Palestinians. The annexation plan was a threat. The withdrawal of the threat was packaged as a concession, which the Emiratis accepted. * Israeli enters into a peace agreement with an Arab country without our returning to the 1967 borders. How have the Arab states reacted? * Saudi Arabia had strongly rejected the proposals for Israel-Palestine peace unveiled by the US in January this year, which included a plan to hand over Jerusalem to Israel and permit it to extend its sovereignty to all Jewish settlements in the West Bank. * But, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MbS) has been hailed as an ally by the Trump administration is silent on the deal. * There is speculation that the UAE could not have taken its extraordinary decision on Israel without the backing and support of the House of Saud.

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* The smaller Gulf States of Oman and Bahrain have quickly fallen in line behind UAE.

How does the region‘s geopolitics change? * If the Arab states do fall in line, it would dramatically bring all Sunni nations in the region in an anti-Iran alliance with Israel that they have secretly wished for all these years. * The deal will send ripples through other parts of the world. In South Asia, it will put pressure on Muslim dominated Pakistan.

How does Trump gain? * The recognition grants a rare diplomatic win to Mr. Trump ahead of the November election as his efforts to see an end to the war in Afghanistan have yet to come to fruition while efforts to bring peace between Israel and the Palestinians have made no headway.

India‘s response * Many countries, including the European powers and India, have welcomed it, while Turkey and Iran have lashed out at the UAE.

Israel-Egypt peace deal * Arab-Israeli ties have historically been conflict-ridden. Arab countries, including Egypt, Transjordan, Syria and Iraq, fought their first war with Israel in 1948 after the formation of the state of Israel was announced. * After that, Israel and Arab states fought three more major wars — the 1956 Suez conflict, the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Yom Kippur War. * After the 1967 war in which Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights from Syria, Arab countries convened in Khartoum and declared their famous three ―‗Nos‘ — no peace with Israel, no talks with Israel and no recognition of Israel‖. * But it did not last long. After the death of Egypt President Gamal Abdel Nasser, his successor started making plans to get Sinai back from Israel. His efforts, coupled with American pressure on Israel, led to the Camp David Accords of 1978. * A year later, Israel and Egypt concluded their peace treaty, as part of which Israel withdrew from Sinai in return for Egyptian recognition.

Israel-Jordan peace deal * In 1994, Jordan became the second Arab country to sign a peace treaty with Israel. * In 1988, after an initial agreement reached between the two countries collapsed, Jordan abandoned its claims to the West Bank and said it would accept a deal between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel. * Following the Oslo Accords, under which the PLO recognised Israel and was allowed to form the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and Gaza, time was ripe for an Israel-Jordan deal. * The enmity between the two countries came to an end in July 1994 with the Washington Declaration. * The UAE-Israel agreement comes after 26 years. If more countries in the Gulf follow the UAE‘s lead, it would open a new chapter in Arab-Israel ties.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 3. ECONOMY 3.1 INDIAN GDP CALCULATION In 2015, a new methodology for calculating the country's GDP was developed by the Central Statistics Office.

• Change of base year to 2011-12 (from 2004-05) to capture the unorganized sector data from NSSO’s Employment- Unemployment Survey (EUS) of 2011-12.

• Adoption of National Account System (SNA) Recommendations, 2008: O Gross Value Added (GVA) & Net Value Added (NVA) valuation at simple prices. O To make the new measure more consumer-centered, considering GDP at market prices as headline GDP rather than GDP at factor expense. O Treating unincorporated companies as quasi-corporations that hold accounts. • Incorporation of the MCA21 database: Ensuring broad coverage • Gross Fiscal Deficit is defined as the excess of mining , manufacturing & services in the private sector. Earlier, of total expenditure of the government over the contribution of companies was measured using the Industrial the total non-debt creating receipts. Production Index & Annual Industry Survey. • Net fiscal deficit can be arrived at by • Wider financial sector coverage through the inclusion of stock deducting net domestic lending from gross brokers, stock exchanges, asset management firms, mutual funds fiscal deficit. and pension funds, as well as SEBI, PFRDA and IRDA regulatory • Revenue deficit arises when the bodies. Earlier figures included mostly commercial banks and government’s actual net receipts is lower NBFCs. than the projected receipts. o Revenue deficit signifies that government’s • Adopted Effective Labour Input (ELI) Method: Earlier, all groups own earning is insufficient to meet normal of workers were presumed to contribute equally. Through functioning of government departments and assigning weights to various groups of workers based on their provision of services. productivity, the new approach solves the differential problem of o An increase in the ratio of revenue deficit to labour productivity. gross fiscal deficit indicates an increase in the • Usage of recent survey and census results: Existing data from utilization of borrowed funds for revenue recent surveys has been included in the estimation of GDP. Uh. E.g. purposes. 2010-11 Agricultural Census; 2012 All India Livestock Census; 2013 • Trade deficit: A nation has a trade deficit if Debt and Investment Survey of All India, etc. the total value of goods and services it imports is greater than the total value of ISSUES IN GDP ESTIMATION IN INDIA those it exports. Concerns about the quality of the new GDP series in India stem • Factor income: It is determined by from legacy issues with the country's national accounting system, subtracting income made by citizens of a which were either left unaddressed or exacerbated during the country on their foreign investments from 2014-15 baseline year change exercise. income earned by foreigners on their • Volatile Revisions: In overall GDP numbers, the revisions investments within the country. (between advance estimates & updated estimates) appear to have • Financial transfers: They include interest an upward bias, raising concerns about the credibility of GDP earnings and foreign remittances. results. In addition, unpredictable revisions generate problems for • Current account deficit: trade deficit + policymakers who, based on initial projections, make decisions. factor income + financial transfers • Balance of payments: The balance of • Informal sector overestimation bias: The new GDP series payments is the sum of all transactions assumes that the informal manufacturing ('quasi-corporations') between a nation and all of its international sector has expanded at the same rate as the formal manufacturing trading partners. sector, which in the new series may have exaggerated growth in the informal sector.

• Use of Deflators:

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www.upscwithnikhil.com o Wholesale price index (WPI) as deflator for several sectors of the economy (particularly services) is inappropriate. o Currently, in GVA calculation, instead of deflating output and input with their respective prices, common output deflator is used, which assumes that input & output prices move in same direction and thus, creates a bias. E.g. When oil prices were low, and input inflation was falling, while output inflation continued to rise, there had been a tendency of growth overestimation. • Use of MCA21 database: The use of an untested corporate database, MCA-21 and the manner in which it is used in National Accounts for calculation under new GDP series is contentious. o MCA-21 database also lacks state-wise details, which has GDP Deflator distorted state-level GDP. These changes have enormous • GDP price deflator is a ratio of price levels implications for the borrowing limits of states (3% of GSDP as in two different years that accounts for mandated by FRBM Act 2003), and on the devolution of resources inflation in the prices of goods and services. to states by the Finance Commission. • GDP Deflator = Nominal GDP at Current Prices (2018) / Real GDP at Constant Prices ✓ Most of the relatively prosperous states such as Delhi, Kerala (Base Year 2011) ×100 and Karnataka saw a further boost to their GSDP, which allowed • Quantitatively, the production may not them to borrow more. have improved and the growth rate may ✓ Some states like Bihar and West Bengal saw their economies appear to be high only because of inflation in shrink, forcing them to reduce spending to meet fiscal deficit the prices. targets. • GDP Deflator enables comparisons of real ✓ Devolution of funds by Finance Commission will be impacted as GDP from one year to another. formula includes both fiscal performance & income distance. • Shift from establishment to enterprise approach: The new GVA methodology shifted data collection from establishments (or factories) to enterprises (or firms). All the value added at enterprises classified as "manufacturing firms" goes into the calculation of manufacturing GVA. But, the activities of firms are much more diverse than factories (e.g. some subsidiaries may only look into services like transportation) and would not qualify as manufacturing. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) vs Gross • Administrative Issues: Lack of transparency and effective audit Value Added (GVA) of the GDP database point to inadequate oversight of the Central • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the Statistics Office (CSO), which is responsible for the National monetary value all final economic goods and Accounts Statistics. Recent resignation of 2 members of National services produced in a country during a Statistical Commission (NSC) and non-appointment of new specific period of time. independent members appointed by the government further o Domestic territory means political frontiers of the country including its indicates lack of autonomy in statistical system in India. territorial waters, commercial vessels WAY FORWARD operated by country’s residents etc. & also • Existing data sources including MCA21 database should be includes country’s embassies & consulates properly authenticated before plugging it into National Account located abroad. Statistics. • GVA is measure of value added in goods and • New data sources and methodologies can be explored e.g. using services produced in economy i.e. GVA = transactions-level GST data to estimate expenditure-based economic output – input. estimates of GDP. • GVA is sector specific while GDP is • The shift from establishment approach to enterprise approach calculated by summation of GVA of all sectors of economy with taxes added and subsidies will be successful only if all the disaggregated information in are deducted. MCA21 database on activities of a firm is classified properly into • Central Statistics Office (CSO) in the appropriate sectors. Ministry of Statistics and Programme • Greater transparency on the methodology and better data Implementation (MoSPI) is responsible for dissemination standards can help improve the credibility of the the compilation of National Account Statistics official GDP numbers. The recent merger of Central Statistics including GDP.

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Office (CSO) and National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) can help CSO to adopt transparent data practices of the latter. Growth rates are critical for internal policy making as it has a bearing on both monetary and fiscal policies. E.g. If we over-estimate the growth rates, we might keep interest rates too high from a cyclical perspective, which might prolong growth stagnation. Therefore, it is important to see the broader message behind the concerns raised and make the process of GDP estimation more robust according.

3.2 MGNREGA ACT, 2005

Under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 the proportion of young workers is increasing.

> The ratio of young workers among total MGNREGA employees grew from 7.73 percent in 2017-18 to 9.1 percent in 2018-19 and 10.06 percent in 2019-20.

> In recent years , the overall number of individuals employed under MGNREGA has also increased.

> The rising trend of the young workforce among MGNREGA workers could be a reflection of the following events:

-- Demonetisation and demonetisation

Z Approximately 1.5 million jobs have been lost following demonetization. There has been a fall in the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) amid this loss of jobs.

Z Many workers opted for MGNREGA for subsistence as a result of job losses.

-- Introduction of the Goods and Service Tax (GST)

Z GST implementation has increased economic performance, but many small businesses have been forced out of business by the complexity of the new tax system, forcing unemployment.

Many small and medium businesses have also been forced into debt by a uniform tax regime via GST.

Z Both of these occurrences have triggered economic instability, leading to a rise in workers opting for jobs under MGNREGA.

MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005 > The Act aims to improve the protection of rural people's livelihoods by ensuring a hundred days of wage employment for a rural household in a financial year whose adult members (at least 18 years of age) volunteer to do unqualified work.

> It is a demand-driven, social security and labour law that aims to enforce the ‘right to work’.

> The entire burden of unskilled labour is paid by the central government. The implementation of the scheme is being controlled by the Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) in collaboration with state governments.

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> More than 65 percent of the work performed under the project consists of agriculture and related activities.

> This has helped to a greater degree to minimise rural poverty. The World Development Report 2014 has also described it as a 'stellar example of rural development.' Plan Livelihoods in Full Employment (LIFE)

> In April 2015, the Ministry of Rural > Moreover, as part of MGNREGA, the central government is Development established a 'Livelihoods in working on an initiative to provide skills and training to make it not Full Employment' project under the Mahatma only a job creator, but also to improve skilled workers across the Gandhi National Rural Employment country. Guarantee Act (Project LIFE-MGNREGA). > The purpose of the project is to foster self- Present Deficiencies in MGNREGA 'S Implementation reliance and develop the skills base of MGNREGA workers, thus improving the > Low wage rates: Currently, MGNREGA 's wage rates are lower livelihoods of workers in order to enhance than the equivalent national minimum wages in 17 states. their current status from partial to full jobs. Different rulings have upheld that the MGNREGA wage rate can DDU-GKY (Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana) not be less than the state's minimum agricultural wage rate. The > Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya low wage rates have resulted in a lack of interest among Yojana (DDU-GKY) Antyodaya Diwas, was employees in working for MGNREGA schemes, making way for announced by the Ministry of Rural local control of contractors and middle men. Development on 25 September 2014. > Under the National Rural Livelihood Mission > Inadequate allocation from the budget: The performance of (NRLM), it is a demand-based, skills training MGNREGA at ground level is subject to the adequate and programme with a placement pledge. uninterrupted flow of funds to the States. In recent years, funds > DDU-GKY focuses exclusively on young have dried up many times in states due to the lack of "mother people between the ages of 15 and 35 who sanctions" from the central government, which hampers work in belong to disadvantaged families. KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) the peak season. More than 80 percent of the funds are depleted > KVK is an integral part of the National within the first six months, almost every year. Thus, in real terms, Agricultural Research System (NARS), which the government's assertion of "record allocation" does not hold aims, through technology evaluation, true. refinement and demonstration, to evaluate location-specific technology modules in > Regular payment delays: The Union Ministry of Rural agriculture and allied enterprises. Development considers wages paid once the FTO (Fund Transfer > KVKs have acted as the Information and Order) is signed by the second signatory. However, delays take Resource Centre for Agricultural Technology, place even in the processing of signed FTOs, for which the promoting public and private sector projects Management Information System (MIS) does not calculate to develop the district's agricultural economy compensation. Despite the order of the Supreme Court and and connecting the NARS with the extension system and farmers. initiatives and GO (Government Order) by the Union Ministry of > The KVK scheme is funded 100 percent by Finance, no provision has yet been worked out in the MIS for the Government of India. calculation of full wage delays and payment of compensation for > Agricultural universities, ICAR institutes, the same. Therefore, the government's claims of producing 92 per relevant government agencies and non- cent on-time payments are misguided. governmental organisations (NGOs) working in agriculture are sanctioned by KVKs. > Employees penalised for administrative lapses: The Ministry > In 1974, the first KVK was set up in withholds wage payments for employees of states that do not Puducherry. comply with administrative requirements within a defined period of time (for example, submission of audited fund accounts of the previous financial year, certificates of use,

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www.upscwithnikhil.com certificates of bank reconciliation, etc.). This bizarre system has no logical or legal reason. It is beyond all reasoning as to why managerial lapses will penalize workers. > The banking puzzle: In terms of workers and facilities, rural banks are highly de-capacitated and thus still remain extremely crowded. Usually, workers have to visit banks more than once to withdraw their salaries. In certain instances, the bank passbooks are not updated due to the great rush and weak infrastructure. Often, because of the difficulty and the expense involved in getting wages from the bank, workers do not get their wages during times of need. > Defective MIS data: Increased corruption and weakened transparency are rooted in the excessive reliance (real-time MIS being one of them) on technology for the implementation of MGNREGA. There is increasing evidence of how real-time MIS has made MGNREGA less transparent for staff, decreased front-line officials' transparency, and helped centralise the program. It has also drawn an image on the ground which is far from the truth. One has to think about delinking the MGNREGA implementation from the real-time MIS. You should upload the data to the post-implementation MIS. It can also be a MIS based transactions. > Non-payment of unemployment allowance: A significant number of unemployment allowances are actually shown in the MIS. But the central government's inaction to ensure payments of the same has shown that the government continues to use the MIS for its convenience and does not value its own database. Some Initiatives to streamline MGNREGS > Genuine job cards are deleted to meet 100% DBT targets: • NREGAsoft is a local language enabled work Genuine job cards are deleted at random as there is an immense flow based e-Governance system which administrative burden in MGNREGA to meet 100% Direct Benefit makes available all the documents like Transfer (DBT) implementation targets. There are some examples Muster Rolls, registration application in states such as Jharkhand where the districts later requested to register, job card/employment register etc. • GeoMGNREGA uses space technology to resume work cards after interventions by civil society in the develop a database of assets created under matter. Although the government has boasted about savings MGNREGS using technological interventions based on Aadhar, the fact is that a large number of legitimate like mobile based photo geo-tagging and a work cards and ration cards are being removed and their due GIS based information system for online rights have been stripped of genuine individuals. recording and monitoring. • Support for Drought Proofing: In 2015-16, > Too much centralization weakens local governance: the real- provision of additional employment of 50 time implementation of the MIS and the centralised payment days in drought affected areas over and system have left the members of the Panchayati Raj Institutions above 100 days per household under practically without any role in the implementation , monitoring MGNREGS was approved. and redress of MGNREGA grievances. As they hardly have any • Increased accountability: Various citizen centric mobile Apps like Gram Samvaad power to resolve problems or make payments, it has become a Mobile App and JanMnREGA (an asset burden. The implementation of MGNREGA has been largely tracking and feedback app for MGNREGS depoliticized by the over-centralization of the system, and local assets) have been developed, which aim to transparency has been largely diminished. empower the rural citizens by providing > Administration that does not meet local priorities: MGNREGA direct access to information and improve may be an instrument for the creation of decentralised accountability to the people. governance. However, with the government almost dictating its • Project 'LIFE-MGNREGA' (Livelihood In Full execution, the responsibility now practically rests on the citizens Employment) aims to promote self- reliance and, in particular, on the local elected officials. Governments still and improving the skill base of the MGNREGA use the planning tactic of bottom-up individuals to obtain political workers, and thereby improving the mileage, but when executing the schemes, they never reach local livelihood of the workers, so that they can move from current status of partial objectives. The spirit of the programme has been damaged by employment to full employment status. further connecting MGNREGA to the construction of Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), individual household toilets, anganwadi centres and rural 'haats' and the plans of gramme sabhas and gramme panchayats are never honored. This is also a direct infringement of the Act.

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REFORMS INTRODUCED AND THEIR BENEFITS: Transparency in wage payments, asset development and payment for materials: 100% of asset geo-tagging, AADHAAR linkage of bank accounts, IT / DBT transfers for all salaries, and material payments and job planning based on the Geographic Information System (GIS) have been initiated. The generation of payments within 15 days has risen from 26% in 2014-15 to 91% in the current period.

Durable asset formation: The 60:40 wage-material ratio mandated at Gram Panchayat level frequently led to the creation of non-productive assets simply because in that Gram Panchayat, 60 percent had to be spent on unskilled wage labour. The first major change was to allow 60:40 at the level of the District rather than at the level of Gram Panchayat.

The ratio of expenditure on unskilled wage labour to total expenditure remains higher than 65 percent, despite this change. This has provided for a new emphasis on sustainable income-generating assets. It allows for the versatility to pursue only certain efficient properties.

A very large number of individual beneficiary schemes such as goat sheds, dairy sheds, Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G), farm ponds, water soak pits etc. have also been taken up. • Development of sustainable community and individual beneficiary assets Such services have allowed the underprivileged to have access to alternative livelihoods that are sustainable.

Similarly, the development of the Anganwadi Centres (AWC) has been a major initiative to establish sustainable community properties. In collaboration with the Ministry of Women and Child Development, nearly 1,11,000 AWCs are being built.

Work on solid waste management has also been taken up on a wide scale, leading to cleaner villages, higher wages, and more varied livelihoods for the poor.

The research carried out in 2018 by the Council for Social Development of individual beneficiary schemes under MGNREGS also reported MGNREGS income gains and diversification of livelihoods.

Mission Water Conservation Guidelines: In collaboration with the Ministry of Water Resources , River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation and the Department of Land Resources, were established in 2015-16 to concentrate on the dark and grey blocks where the level of ground water dropped rapidly.

This collaboration has facilitated the professional expertise of engineers, scientists from the Central Ground Water Board, to establish a detailed technical manual and to introduce a capacity-building programme for frontline employees.

To ensure better technical oversight, a special Barefoot Technicians programme has been rolled out.

Natural Resource Management (NRM): Over 60% of the resources are spent on NRM. The work of the NRM focuses on ensuring higher farmers ' incomes by raising both the region under cultivation and the crop yield. This is achieved by enhancing land productivity and increasing the supply of water. Control dam, reservoirs, renovation of conventional water bodies, land development, embankment, field bunds, field channels, plantations, contour trenches, etc. are the major works undertaken under NRM.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 3.3 OIL’S ROUT: ON FALL IN PRICES BACKGROUND • The world has witnessed economic slowdown because of the coronavirus outbreak • This has undermined energy demand worldwide, especially in China, which is the number one importer of crude oil • Factories have been idled and thousands of flights canceled around the world as the coronavirus outbreak that began in Wuhan, China, has become a global pandemic. • The International Energy Agency said it expects demand will contract in 2020 for the first time since the recession in 2009 that followed the global financial crisis.

CONTEXT • As the extent of the demand drop became clear, Saudi Arabia pushed the other OPEC+ countries to agree to the steepest supply cuts in more than a decade • Russia, a non-OPEC member, refused to agree to OPEC’s demands to cut 1.5 million barrels of oil production a day, and that in turn led Saudi Arabian state oil giant Aramco to announce cut in oil prices * After failing to come to an agreement to cut supply, Saudi Arabia and Russia over the weekend pledged instead to ramp up production, which could quickly flood global markets with oil at a time when demand has already weakened substantially. • Crude oil prices fell and hit a level of $33 per barrel. This marks the biggest price crash since the first Gulf War. This led to a crash in the shares of major energy firms in India including Reliance Industries and ONGC.

What is a price war? IMPACT ON INDIA • A price war is an economic tactic used by • First, as India imports around 80 per cent of its oil requirement, large players to regain lost market share. the collapse in oil prices will cut the country’s import bill, and • The idea is to cut prices, which forces the soften its current account deficit firms’ competitors to do the same. Eventually, the smaller and marginal firms * According to estimates, a one dollar decrease in crude oil price struggle to survive at such low prices — thus reduces the oil bill by around $1.6 billion per year. forcing them to quit the market. • In turn, the vacated market share is • Second, the fall in crude prices will also help ease inflationary regained by the large firm. pressures that have been building up over the past few months, though the impact will perhaps be felt more in the wholesale price index (WPI) than the consumer price index (CPI). * This will increase the space for the monetary policy committee to ease rates further. • Third, the collapse in crude oil prices, which comes at a time when concerns have been voiced over the central and state governments’ fiscal position, is likely to help boost government coffers. * As in the past, the central and state governments can choose not to pass on the benefits of lower prices to end consumers, and use this opportunity to shore up their revenues. * If they do choose to pass on the benefit of lower prices to consumers, it will help boost their purchasing power and stimulate demand. • Fourth, with Saudi Arabia drastically cutting its prices for term contract buyers, and other West Asia producers expected to cut their April crude OSPs following the trend set by Saudi Arabia, India’s HPCL and BPCL plan to maximize crude buying. * With Middle Eastern crude prices showing definite signs of softening, India will have to utilize this opportunity to the maximum extent possible by increasing its stocking.

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CONCERNS: STOCK MARKET SENTIMENT: • The U.S.’s main stock indexes plummeted and the Dow Jones Industrials crashed 2,000 points, as the slump in oil prices and the rapid spread of the coronavirus amplified fears of a global recession. • India’s benchmark index, Sensex witnessed its biggest single-day fall in absolute terms amid a global sell-off in equities. This came on the back of rising concerns over the economic impact of the COVID-19 outbreak and a plunge in crude prices that further fuelled worries about a global slowdown. Economic impact: • The fall in prices is bad news for the big oil companies and the shale oil companies which are highly leveraged. A collapse of these shale oil producers may set off defaults in the bond markets, setting off a non-virtuous spiral starting with the U.S. markets. • With stock and bond markets already in turmoil, the price war between the producers is only going to make the markets more volatile. India’s disinvestment targets:

• The Government has invited ‘Expression of Interest (EoI)’ for selling its entire stake in oil marketing company Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) as part of its plan to meet the disinvestment targets. • The oil price fall will affect the Centre’s disinvestment programme as big oil companies, expected to bid for BPCL, may either shy away or bid much lower than expected given the high uncertainty in the sector. Decreased exports: • The fall in prices may be beneficial to India in the short term, but India will have to deal with a global slowdown. • The fears of a global recession will have an impact on the Indian economy, given the higher levels of integration of the two. • India would have to bear the impact of reduced merchandise exports due to the slowdown in the developed economies. Since exports constitute a larger proportion of India’s economic growth, the reduced exports will further pull down the already low growth rates in India. CONCLUSION: • The government can use low oil prices to spur consumption but also retain some of the windfall gains to tackle the deficit. • The government must carefully assess the situation, monitor the sectors that are likely to be affected the most by disruptions in supply, and craft the necessary policy response.

3.4 THE CONCEPT OF HELICOPTER MONEY • With the Covid-19 pandemic here to stay for a long time and traditional monetary and fiscal policies limited in their efficacy, governments and central banks are looking at ways to avert an economic catastrophe. Some economists propose that non-repayable money transfer from the central bank to the government, which is ‘helicopter money’.

ABOUT • Helicopter money is the term used for a large sum of new money that is printed and distributed among the public, to stimulate the economy during a recession or when interest rates fall to zero. > It is also referred to as a helicopter drop, in reference to a helicopter scattering supplies from the sky. > Coined by the American economist Milton Friedman in 1969, helicopter money refers to a last resort type of monetary stimulus strategy to spur inflation and economic output. > It includes printing large sums of money and distributing it to the public so that people can spend more and boost the economy. > It also requires both monetary and fiscal policies to be carried out together, meaning central banks and governments cooperating with each other. 38 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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Is it similar to quantitative easing? > Helicopter money is an unconventional alternative to quantitative easing, but both aim to boost consumer spending and increase inflation. > While helicopter money increases monetary supply by distributing large amounts of currency to the public, quantitative easing increases supply by purchasing government or other financial securities to spark economic growth.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HELICOPTER MONEY: > No debt: Helicopter money does not rely on increased borrowing to fuel the economy, which means that it does not create more debt and interest rates can remain unchanged. > Economic growth: It boosts spending and economic growth more effectively as it increases aggregate demand – the demand for goods and services – immediately. Disadvantages of helicopter money: > Not reversible: Unlike quantitative easing, using helicopter money as a tactic is not reversible. It is not a feasible solution to revive the economy. > No change on interest rate: A country’s central bank sets its interest rates to reach economic growth targets. However, a helicopter drop means that a central bank cannot use interest rates to recover any costs, because the money is not linked to a borrowed asset (loan). > Over-inflation: Instead, the money is given directly to the public. This may lead to over inflation and cause damage to the central bank’s financials. > Significant devaluation of currency: It could lead to a significant devaluation of the currency on the foreign exchange market.

3.5 RECAPITALIZATION OF REGIONAL RURAL BANKS (RRBS) • The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has given its approval for continuation of the process of recapitalization of Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) by providing minimum regulatory capital to RRBs for another year beyond 2019-20, that is, up to 2020-21 for those RRBs which are unable to maintain minimum Capital to Risk weighted Assets Ratio (CRAR) of 9%, as per the regulatory norms prescribed by the Reserve Bank of India.

ABOUT: • The Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) were established in 1975 under the provisions of the Ordinance promulgated on 26th September, 1975 and Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976. > The objective is to develop the rural economy by providing, for the purpose of development of agriculture, trade, commerce, industry and other productive activities in the rural areas, credit and other facilities, particularly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural labour art sans and small entrepreneurs, and for matters connected therewith and incidental there to. > As per RBI guidelines, the RRBs have to provide 75% of their total credit under PSL (Priority Sector Lending).

PRIORITY SECTOR LENDING: > Priority sector lending focuses on the idea of directing the lending of the banks towards few specified sectors and activities in the economy > Private Sector Lending comprises the following: • Agriculture (which includes the sub-categories namely Farm credit, Agriculture Infrastructure and Ancillary activities). • Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises • Export Credit • Education • Housing 39 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• Social Infrastructure • Renewable Energy • Others > RRBs are primarily catering to the credit and banking requirements of agriculture sector and rural areas with focus on small and marginal farmers, micro & small enterprises, rural art sans and weaker sections of the society. > In addition, RRBs also provide lending to micro/small enterprises and small entrepreneurs in rural areas. > As per the law, the Centre holds 50 percent stake in Regional Rural Banks, while 35 percent and 15 percent shares are with the concerned sponsor banks and state governments respectively.

Highlights: > The CCEA also approved utilization of Rs 670 crore as central government share for the scheme of Recapitalization of RRBs (i.e. 50% of the total recapitalization support of Rs 1340 crore), subject to the condition that the release of Central Government’s share will be contingent upon the release of the proportionate share by the sponsor banks. > The capital will be used for those RRBs that are unable to maintain minimum Capital to Risk weighted Assets Ratio (CRAR) of 9 percent, as per the regulatory norms prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Capital to Risk (Weighted) Assets Ratio (CRAR): > Capital to Risk (Weighted) Assets Ratio (CRAR) is also known as Capital adequacy Ratio, the ratio of a bank’s capital to its risk. > The Capital to risk-weighted assets ratio is arrived at by dividing the capital of the bank with aggregated risk- weighted assets for credit risk, market risk, and operational risk. > The higher the CRAR of a bank the better capitalized it is. > CRAR is decided by central banks and bank regulators to prevent commercial banks from taking excess leverage and becoming insolvent in the process. • The Basel III norms stipulated a capital to risk-weighted assets of 8%. •In India, scheduled commercial banks are required to maintain a CAR of 9% while Indian public sector banks are emphasized to maintain a CAR of 12% as per RBI norms. > In this system, the funded and non-funded items and other off-balance sheet exposures are assigned weights according to the risk perception and banks are required to maintain unimpaired minimum capital funds to the prescribed ratio on the risk-weighted assets. > The notional amount of each asset is multiplied by the risk weight assigned to the asset to arrive at the risk- weighted asset number. > The Cabinet has also approved extension of scheme for Rebate of State and Central Taxes and Levies on Export of Garments and Made-ups from April 1 onwards till the scheme is merged with Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products. > This will give some relief to the exporters, who are badly hit by the coronavirus outbreak.

Significance of the move: > A financially stronger and robust Regional Rural Banks with improved CRAR will enable them to meet the credit requirement in the rural areas. > The move was taken to indirectly provide credit to farmers, small scale industries, rural artisans and entrepreneurs hit by the coronavirus outbreak.

3.6 FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION What is ‘Fourth Industrial Revolution’? -- The Fourth Industrial Revolution is conceptualised as an upgrade to the Third Revolution and is characterised by a fusion of physical, digital, and biological technologies. Instead of prolonging the current revolution, it will 40 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

www.upscwithnikhil.com mark a new stage-the impact of velocity, scope, and systems, and will lead to the transformation of entire production, management, and governance systems. In simple words , it is possible to suggest that the modern revolution is the emergence of cyber-physical structures that, while relying on the technologies and infrastructure of the Third Industrial Revolution, reflect completely new ways in which technology is incorporated into communities and even our human bodies.

-- In Britain in the 18th century, the 1st Industrial Revolution used water and steam power to mechanise manufacturing, harness steam power and the birth of a modern factory.

-From the last 3rd of the 19th century to the outbreak of World War I, the 2nd Industrial Revolution was propelled by advances in energy, transportation, chemicals, steel, and mass production and consumption.

-- Now the 4th Industrial Revolution, the digital revolution that has been taking place since the middle of the last century, is building on the 3rd. It is defined by a convergence of technologies between the physical, digital, and biological worlds that blur the boundaries.

How is this going to vary from the 3rd Revolution?

-- There are three reasons why today's developments are not only a continuation of the 3rd Industrial Revolution, but rather the arrival of a 4th and distinct one: the effect of velocity, scale, and systems. There is no historical precedent for the pace of current breakthroughs. The 4th is progressing at an exponential rather than a linear rate as compared to previous industrial revolutions. Moreover, almost every industry in every country is threatened by it. And the scope and depth of these changes signify the conversion of entire manufacturing, management, and governance structures.

Fourth Industrial Revolution: Impacts:

-On Enterprise:

> The developments underpinning the 4th Industrial Revolution would have a huge effect on companies. Many industries are seeing the implementation of new innovations on the supply side, which enable radically new ways of servicing existing needs and dramatically disrupt existing value chains in the industry. The standard, velocity, or price at which value is delivered will be increased.

As growing openness, customer interaction, and new patterns of consumer behaviour (increasingly built on access to mobile networks and data) push businesses to adapt the way they develop, sell, and deliver goods and services, this will also lead to significant changes on the demand side.

> It will allow the creation of technology-enabled networks that combine both demand and supply to challenge current sharing or demand-economy business structures. In the meantime, these technology networks can build completely new ways to access products and services. It will reduce the barriers to wealth development for corporations and individuals, altering the personal and professional environments of employees. The key impacts on business of the 4th Industrial Revolution are consumer preferences, product development, collective creativity, and organisational types.

-- On the government:

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> Increasingly, emerging technologies and channels will allow people to communicate with governments, express their views, organise their efforts, and even bypass public authorities' oversight. Nevertheless, governments will obtain new technical forces, based on pervasive surveillance systems and the ability to monitor digital technology, to expand their monitor over populations. They will, however, face growing pressure to change their existing approach to public engagement and policymaking.

-- Concerning security:

> The Fourth Industrial Revolution would have a significant effect on the nature of national and international security, impacting both the likelihood of war and its nature. Technological developments can generate the ability to reduce the extent or effect of violence through, for example, the creation of new types of defence, or greater precision in targeting.

-- Effects on individuals:

> Not only can the 4th Industrial Revolution affect what people do, but also who they are. Identity and all the issues associated with it will be affected: sense of privacy, conceptions of ownership, habits of use, the time people spend on work and leisure, and how they build jobs, develop skills, meet people, and cultivate relationships. Constant connection can deprive individuals of one of the most valuable assets of life: the opportunity for meaningful interaction to pause, reflect, and engage.

Pros and cons of the Fourth Revolution in Industry:

-- Productive ones:

> World Economic Forum study on FIR concludes that it will have an unavoidable effect on work scenarios worldwide that will disrupt former, well-established firms, introduce sweeping changes to labour markets, and alter business models on the basis of new economic theories.

> The Fourth Industrial Revolution has the ability to increase the amount of global income and boost the quality of life of people across the globe.

> Technical progress would also lead to a supply-side miracle in the future, with long-term increases in productivity and quality.

> The cost of transportation and communication will decrease, logistics and global supply chains will become more competitive and trade costs will decrease, opening up new markets and driving economic growth.

-- Negative points:

As the spread of computers expands economies and disrupts labour markets, the revolution is likely to increase inequality in the world.

> The main social problem associated with the Fourth Industrial Revolution is inequality.

> Suppliers of intellectual and physical resources to innovators, shareholders and investors tend to be the largest beneficiaries of innovation, illustrating the growing wealth disparity between those who are dependent on capital versus labour.

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> The net replacement of jobs by machines could worsen the difference between returns to capital and returns to labour as automation substitutes for labour across the entire economy.

> With this revolution, it is also possible that the crucial factor in development will be talent, rather than money, in the future.

This would lead to a labour market that is increasingly divided into low-skill / low-pay and high-skill / high-pay divisions, contributing to an rise in social tensions in turn.

> Not only can the Fourth Industrial Revolution affect what we do, but also who we are. It will influence our identity and all the related issues: our sense of privacy, our conceptions of ownership, our habits of consumption, the time we spend on work and leisure, and how we grow our jobs, grow our abilities, meet people, and maintain relationships.

India and the fourth revolution in industry:

-- Potential:

> India offers potentially enormous market access. > There is a very lucrative demographic dividend with Indian youth, accounting for approximately 20 % of the global workforce by 2020. India will play a crucial role in shaping the world's fourth industrial revolution in a responsible, scalable and inclusive way, with more than 50 percent of its population under the age of 27. > The middle class is on the rise. > Within two decades, India is expected to become the fifth largest consumer market. Within this context, any mode of consumption, entrepreneurship, start-up or industry can be seen as an opportunity to scale.

> Measures have already been taken by the subcontinent to become an e-government. The government has made attempts, for instance, to enrol its citizens in a national database. With 1.2 billion Indian citizens enrolled so far, Aadhaar is the world's biggest biometrics database.

> India also wants to become an AI centre, with the government recently announcing its National AI Program to support the growth of the country's AI-related technologies.

> India is also growing rapidly in the innovation ranks. The nation jumped up five spots on the Global Innovation Index last year, ranking 57th out of 125 nations. India was ranked first in the category of ICT service exports.

> India also has a large start-up scene, which, except for the US and the United Kingdom (UK), is estimated to have more companies than anywhere else in the world.

> With one of the world's youngest labour forces, considerable technological skills, the second largest number of mobile internet users and the second largest English-speaking population, India is well placed in the post- fourth industrial revolution period to expand its global leadership.

> With the right accelerator combination-like regulatory mechanisms, ecosystems of education and government incentives

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-- India is able to lead the fourth industrial revolution while improving the efficiency, equity and sustainability of its own growth and development performance at the same time.

-- The enablers of updating India 's sustainable transition to the fourth industrial revolution include:

- Creation of an enabling ecosystem through incubators and accelerators to develop and scale innovations in ‘Future Now’ Cleantech sectors like clean energy, climate-smart agriculture, circular economy, green buildings and e-mobility is critical from the Indian context, to achieve transformative goals.

- Proactive initiatives and policies to build on the positive aspects of the new industrial revolution and preventing further widening of the inequality gap are necessary. The Government of India, through its unique initiatives like Digital India, Startup India and Make in India Initiative is bolstering the opportunities for industry 4.0 and green entrepreneurs.

- Participation of relevant ministries (like MoEFCC, MNRE) and Government-led coalitions (like International Solar Alliance) must be leveraged to champion this on-going movement.

- World Economic Forum, in partnership with the Government of India has set up the Center for the Fourth Industrial Revolution India to design and pilot practical tools for specific technologies. Such platforms and coalitions must be leveraged to assess the feasibility and scale innovative business models - Access to finance commensurate with maturity of the business model and beginning stage of the start-up lifecycle is extremely important to scale innovations. While Government-led initiatives like Start-Up Sangam will play a key role in crowding capital, private sector participation through grants, seed funding, equity capital and mainstream debt is necessary to scale innovations

-Corporations will play a key role in promoting this ongoing trend, leveraging the ART Model – Alliances, Relationships enabled through Technology.

-- India is currently at the height of the technological revolution and the transition to a prosperous and inclusive growth path will be accelerated by pioneering technologies, enabling policies and financial availability. Such innovations would contribute to the emergence of 'new-Gen' business models, characterised by DICE- Entrepreneurship driven by design , innovation and imagination to generate positive social , environmental and economic effects.

3.7 BOT MODEL The Union government would soon re-adopt the Build- Operate-Transfer (BOT) model for the execution of highway projects over the Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM).

> In order to foster private involvement, HAM was brought in by the government in 2015 and it served the purpose for a few years before banks red-flagged lending for these ventures.

> HAM is a mixture of formats for Engineering, Procurement , and Construction (EPC) and BOT.

> Need to Re-Adopt: BOT will see private investment coming in upfront, which is expected to benefit the centre as the exchequer will not have to pump in money in such projects.

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP) MODELS The commonly-adopted PPP model includes: 44 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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> BOT: It is a traditional PPP model in which it is the responsibility of the private partner to design, develop, operate (during the time under contract) and move the facility back to the public sector. -- Partners in the private sector have to fund the project and assume responsibility for the design and maintenance of it. -- The public sector would make it possible for partners in the private sector to raise money from consumers.

-- A major example of the BOT model is the national highway projects contracted by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) under the PPP mode.

> Build-Own-Operate (BOO): In this model, the private party will maintain control of the newly constructed facility.

- The public sector partner decides, on mutually agreed terms and conditions, to 'purchase' the goods and services provided by the project.

> Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT): In this variant of BOT, the project is passed to the government or private operator after a negotiated period of time. For the construction of highways and ports, the BOOT model is used.

> Build-Operate-Lease-Transfer (BOLT): In this method, the government grants a concession to a private company to construct (and probably design) a facility, to own the facility, to rent the facility to the public sector, and to transfer ownership of the facility to the government at the end of the lease term.

> Design-Build-Operate-Transfer (DBOT): In this model, the private party is solely responsible for the design, development , finance, and operation of the project for the concession duration.

> Lease-Develop-Operate (LDO): Either the government or the public sector agency maintains ownership of the newly developed infrastructure facility in this form of investment model and collects payments under a lease arrangement with the private promoter. In the construction of airport facilities, this is often pursued.

> Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM): The central government pays 40 percent of the cost of the project and the developer arranges the remaining number.

3.8 HOW TO PAY FOR THE STIMULUS Given the economic impact of the pandemic, economists have been deliberating on the appropriate economic policy response. Some economists have argued for a more active government intervention to revive the economy in the form of greater public spending. This will ensure greater amount of money in the hands of the people which can boost the demand and help economic revival. However there are concerns that the greater public spending will increase the fiscal deficit and this expansion of public spending will have to be financed. Considering that the economy has stalled and the government will not be getting its revenues, the “general” government (that is, Centre plus states) fiscal deficit is expected to shoot up to around 15% of GDP when the permissible limit is only 6%. The announcement of a bailout or relief package would only further increase the fiscal deficit. The government’s fiscal deficit (the total amount of borrowings to bridge the gap between its spending and revenues) will be way over the permissible limit.

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Increasing taxes: Theoretically public spending can be financed by higher tax rates for both direct as well as indirect taxes.

Challenges: However, when the economy is in a recession this option may not work as incomes would have decreased and subsequently there would be decreased expenditure on purchase of goods and services. This is already evident as the government is facing a major shortfall in revenues through GST. New avenues for tax revenues are not feasible in the short term.

Domestic debt financing: One of the available options to finance the government expenditure would be to issue debt to the public.

Challenges: However, with the economy stalled, there isn’t enough money in the market for the government to borrow from. Data show that savings of domestic households have been faltering and are barely enough to fund the government’s existing borrowing needs.

Moreover, as the government borrows more from the market, it pushes up the interest rate. This would affect private investment.

External borrowing: The government could also consider borrowing from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Challenges: In case of debt financing, the borrowed money will have to be repaid in hard currency. This would require India to earn hard currency by stepping up exports by substantial proportions. This would be a difficult task under present circumstances given that Indian exports have been faring poorly since 2014 and the multiple shocks that have been witnessed in global output and trade. Other significant issues when considering borrowing from the World Bank and the IMF include the issue of conditionalities and the extended time frame required for loan negotiations. Also external borrowing accounts as being a national debt as compared to domestic borrowing. Most economists believe developing economies like India should not have debt higher than 80%-90% of the GDP. At present, it is around 70% of GDP in India. Foreign investors have been pulling out and rushing to safer economies like the US, and are unwilling to lend in times of such uncertainty.

Money financing: Another option worth exploring is money financing which involves borrowing from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Deficit monetisation by the RBI involves printing new money. This involves the “direct” monetisation of government deficit. This is also termed ‘money financing’ as it increases the money supply.

Mechanism of money financing: In this case, the government asks the RBI to print new currency in return for new bonds that the government gives to the RBI. Now, the government would have the cash to spend and alleviate the stress in the economy.

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This is different from the “indirect” monetising that RBI does when it conducts the so-called Open Market Operations (OMOs) and/ or purchases bonds in the secondary market Significance: Money financing tool provides an opportunity for the government to boost overall demand at the time when private demand has fallen. Government expenditure using this new money boosts incomes and raises private demand in the economy. Recently, the Bank of England extended a direct monetisation facility to the UK government to help revive the slowing economy.

Challenges: Until 1997, the RBI “automatically” monetised the government’s deficit. However, given the concerns regarding direct monetisation of government deficit this facility was ended by 1997. There have been concerns expressed by economists that money financing may lead to high intangible and institutional costs.

Fiscal profligacy: An argument against direct monetising is that governments are considered inefficient and corrupt in their spending choices. Extended fiscal profligacy in the past had led to the balance of payments crisis in 1991.

Inflation concerns: The standard economic argument against money financing is that it is inflationary. Retail inflation in India has been on the uptick breaching the central bank’s tolerance limit of 6%.

Printing new currency notes increases the flow of money in the economy. This leads to increase in inflationary pressures which lead to rise of prices of goods and services in the country. Deficit financing is inherently inflationary. High inflation can have an undesired effect on the economy. When there is inflation in the economy employees demand higher wages to survive. If their demands are accepted it increases the cost of production which de- motivates the investors. Deficit financing thus affects investment adversely. This could lead to a situation where India enters a phase of slow growth and rising prices often referred to as stagflation phase. Higher inflation and higher government debt provide grounds for macroeconomic instability.

Counter arguments: The article argues that the perception that money financing would be inherently inflationary as wrong. The article argues that whether a fiscal expansion is inflationary or not is related more to the state of the economy than the medium of its financing. Economic resources are currently unemployed. With enhanced public expenditure and the subsequent increase in demand these unused resources will get back to work and this will lead to an increase in output without inflation. The article argues that the enhanced public expenditure through money financing will help India revive its economy to pre-COVID-19 levels of output and employment.

Conclusion: Given the concerns that money financing may be imprudent to do so in the current circumstances, it is suggested that money financing must only be used as the last resort when all other options are exhausted.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 3.9 GST COMPENSATION ISSUE Rationale for the compensation formula: Several states had adopted a hard stance against the introduction of the GST system in India based on concerns that the implementation of the system would result in decreased tax revenues for the states. The GST subsumed several taxes, such as sales tax which were collected and appropriated by the states. Prior to GST, States exporting goods to other States collected a tax. GST being a destination-based tax, i.e., the State where the goods are sold receive the tax meant that manufacturing States would lose out tax revenue while the consuming States were expected to benefit from increased tax revenue.

To convince States to agree to GST, the compensation formula was introduced. The GST implementation required amendment of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India amounting to a federal provision amendment and hence ratification by the legislatures of half the States was necessary.

GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017: This Act assumed that the GST revenue of each State would grow at an annual rate of 14%, from the amount collected in 2015-16, through all taxes subsumed by the GST. Any shortfall from this assumed revenue was to be compensated from the central government till June 2022. The act makes the Central government constitutionally bound to compensate States for loss of revenue for five years. The amount had to be paid every two months based on provisional accounts. A compensation cess was imposed on sin and luxury items such as pan masala, cigarettes and tobacco products, aerated water, caffeinated beverages, coal and select passenger motor vehicles to finance the compensation payments. The compensation cess collected was deposited in the compensation cess fund.

Concerns: Delayed payment: The compensation amount due to the states has to be paid every two months based on provisional accounts. However, this has not been adhered to. States have expressed apprehensions about not getting their compensation on time with some states claiming that they had to incur debts to meet the expenses predicated on GST compensation revenues.

Decreasing growth rate: There have been multiple projections of a negative real GDP growth, almost zero nominal GDP growth for the financial year 2020-21 in the light of the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is likely to result in a significant shortfall for States from the assured tax collection as the guaranteed tax growth rate of 14% would be unachievable this financial year.

Shortfall in compensation fund: In the first two years of the compensation scheme, the cess collected exceeded the shortfall of States. In the third year, 2019-20, however the compensation fund collection fell significantly short of the requirement. This was on account of slowdown in tax collections as the economy slowed down coupled with negative growth in sectors such as motor vehicles which contributed to the cess fund. The shortfall was made up by excess collections in earlier years as well as some of the balance of inter- State GST from earlier years. Given the fact that the GST revenue fell 41% in the first quarter of 2020-21, the shortfall in cess collections and likely delays in payments to States is likely to continue in the current financial year as well.

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Contentious issue: The GST compensation has been an area of concern over the previous year with states repeatedly requesting the centre to ensure timely payment and the centre expressing the constraints in ensuring compensation payments. Some states like Punjab had even said that it may take the matter to the Supreme Court if the Centre does not release the dues, while other states were considering raising the issue in the GST Council which has a dispute redressal mechanism for disputes among the members of the council.

Possible solutions: Given that the Central government is constitutionally bound to compensate States for loss of revenue for five years and the current crisis, the following possible solutions to this issue can be considered.

Reducing the period of revenue guarantee: The Constitution could be amended to reduce the period of guarantee to three years (ending June 2020).

Concerns: This solution is very unlikely to find support from the states given that this move will only further weaken the state’s finances already battered by the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. In fact some states have been demanding that the cut-off date for ending compensation to the States be moved from 2021-22 to 2026-27.

Funding from central government revenues: The Central government could consider funding the shortfall in the compensation fund from its own revenue base.

Concerns: Given the fact that the Centre’s finances are already stretched due to shortfall in its own tax collection and the extra expenditure to manage the COVID-19 crisis may not allow the centre to do so.

Lowering revenue growth target: The Centre could convince States to lower the 14% growth target provided for in the GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017. The revenue target rate could be linked to nominal GDP growth which would take care of unexpected contingencies like the current pandemic crisis. Most economists consider the 14% target too ambitious. Considering a government’s inflation target of4%, this would imply a real GDP growth plus tax buoyancy of 9%. This proved to be unachievable even prior to COVID-19.

Concerns: Any such amendment would require the GST council to approve it. Given the composition of the GST council and the states being unlikely to agree to such a proposition, it would not be possible to bring such an amendment. The GST Council is a constitutional body with representation of the Centre and all the States. In fact some states have previously urged the Centre to raise the cess to compensate the States.

Borrowing: The Centre could borrow to finance its compensation payments to the states. The centre could borrow on the guarantee of the cess fund. The tenure of the compensation cess could be extended beyond five years until the cess collected is sufficient to pay off the borrowed debt and interest on it.

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Concerns: Given the fact that the fiscal deficit has already breached the prescribed limits of the FRBM act, the central government would be hesitant to borrow further. The borrowing from the domestic finance market may crowd out the private sector.

Significance: This solution provides a win-win situation for both the states and the centre and is likely to find acceptance from both. The states would be receiving the compensation amount as guaranteed by the GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017 while the central government would not have to worry about arranging resources in the current situation. The compensation cess would help the central government pay back the borrowed money in the long run. The sovereign guarantee on the loans would enable the availing of loans at attractive rates from the market. Flaws in the current GST system: The current design and implementation of the GST system has failed to deliver on the promise of enhanced economic growth and tax buoyancy.

Design flaws: The article argues that the assured 14% year on year tax growth for five years was too optimistic a target to achieve given the fact that neither the national aggregate nor any of the major States had such high growth rates for the previous five years. The fixed 14% growth rate may also have not been the right way forward. The article suggests that the GST compensation system should have been based on the successful design as implemented under the Value Added Tax (VAT) system. VAT was the precursor to GST. The design envisaged for the Value Added Tax (VAT) rates involved a similar compensation payment but the assured growth rate tapered over the years, thus incentivizing the state to undertake tax efforts on their side.

Implementation flaws: The frequent changing of rate slabs has led to confusion and has also led to litigation in some cases. This has led to politicizing of economic issues such as taxation and hence is a great cause of concern. The Centre’s moves to push more goods in the “sin tax” cess category, to earn revenue that is not shareable with the States, has been opposed by the states. The interstate GST and the administration of the e-way bill system is too complex and burdensome and has thus failed to reduce the transaction costs.

Way forward: The issue of GST compensation is just a small part of the larger concerns with respect to the GST system and there is the need for a radical overhaul of the GST system. The following provisions need to be considered.

Universal coverage GST must include all goods and services with very few exceptions, such as food and medicine. The article argues for the inclusion of petrol, diesel, electricity, transport and real estate as well. This will help ensure the widening of the tax base.

Adopting a single rate There is the need to go back to the original recommendation of a standard rate of 12%, to be fixed for at least a five-year period. The commitment to a low and stable rate, as observed in other federal democracies, is a must. 50 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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A low moderate single rate of 12% encourages better compliance, reduces the need to do arbitrary classification and discretion, reduces litigation and will lead to buoyancy in collection.

Ensuring states’ revenue autonomy Extra elbow room for the States’ revenue autonomy can be ensured by allowing the States non VAT able surcharges on a small list of “sin” goods such as liquor, tobacco, polluting goods such as sport utility vehicles, and industrial fuels such as diesel, aviation turbine fuel and coal. This would while allowing a single tax rate also helps ensure that sin goods are charged higher tax rates. Compensation payment The compensation-cum-reimbursement incentive must be retained, but it should be based on more realistic assured rates and also the assured rates should decrease over time. This will while ensuring state’s co-operation in the implementation of the GST system will also lead to a more economically viable and efficient model.

Third tier of government The new design must recognise the increasing importance of the third tier of government and address the issues being faced by them. Despite the empowering constitutional provisions of 73rd and 74th Amendments, the local governments do not have the promised transfer of funds, functions and functionaries. These local bodies face increased responsibility of providing government services especially in view of increasing urbanisation and decentralisation.

The article calls for some devolution of GST share to the third tier of government as well. Of the proposed 12% GST, 10% could be equally shared between the States and the Centre, while 2% must be earmarked exclusively for the urban and rural local bodies. The actual distribution across panchayats, districts and cities could be decided by the respective State Finance Commissions.

This provision will help ensure some degree of basic revenue autonomy of these institutions and help improve their performance in public service delivery and governance.

Simplified mechanisms There is also the need for an overhaul of the complex interstate GST and the administration of the e-way bill system A more simplified mechanism will help reduce the transaction costs drastically.

3.10 ‘DOING BUSINESS’ INDEX Context: The World Bank’s decision to halt its annual ‘Doing Business’ report on data authenticity issues.

Background Doing Business index: The doing business index estimates the cost to business from regulations. Erratic procedures and delays hamper business in India and simplifying procedures brings economic benefits. The survey assumes that lower tax rates are best and it supports lighter rules and regulation to encourage shifts from informal to formal sectors.

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India’s performance: India has consistently sought to improve its ease of doing business index ranking, as a means to attract foreign investments into India. Since 2015, India has invested considerable political and administrative capital to improve India’s global ranking, with impressive success. India has achieved remarkable progress in its ease of doing business ranking by registering a steep improvement from 142nd position in 2014 to 63rd rank in 2019.

Details: The World Bank has proposed the conducting of a systematic review and assessment of data changes that occurred subsequent to the institutional data review process for the last five Doing Business reports.

Concerns: The World Bank’s own internal watchdog, the Independent Evaluation Group, in its 2013 report, has widely questioned the reliability and objectivity of the index.

Lack of correlation: Available evidence point to the lack of correlation between the improvement in ranking and other critical economic indicators. Despite impressive improvement in the ease of doing business rankings for India, there has not been proportionate improvement in foreign investment inflows or other important economic indicators like capital formation and output growth. China, on the contrary, attracted one of the highest capital inflows even though its ease of doing business ranking was low.

Design flaws: There are many shortcomings in the design and implementation of the index. The data used for computing the index are obtained from larger enterprises in two cities, Mumbai and Delhi, by lawyers, accountants and brokers and not from entrepreneurs who are the primary stakeholders.

Deviation from other similar surveys: Also there is very little correlation between the rankings obtained from ease of doing business and the global enterprise survey conducted by the World Bank based on information collected from the companies. There is huge deviation in the findings of the doing business report and global enterprise survey on issues like the ease of legal and regulatory processes for new industries.

Flawed basis: There are serious doubts regarding the theoretical underpinning of the ease of doing business index. The simplistic generalisations that minimally regulated markets for labour and capital always produce superior outcomes in terms of output and employment may not be always true. The economic history shows rich variations in performance across countries and policy regimes as against the simplistic generalisation as assumed in the ease of doing business index.

Unwarranted implications: The focus on reducing regulations based on the “minimum government and maximum governance” principle has had unwarranted implications. The desire for better ranking in the index has encouraged countries to even slash down vital regulations which could have a detrimental impact in the long run. There are concerns that the index sidesteps societal costs of deregulating pollution, worker safety, and health risks.

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Environmental concerns: Countries like Brazil, India, and the U.S. have slashed environmental standards which are making significant contributions to climate change and threatening the ecological stability. Brazil has been opening up the pristine Amazon forests for developmental activities. India is considering an Environment Impact Assessment with dilutions to the existing environmental law. There has been the watering down of effluent benchmarks for power plants and automobiles and the production of fossil fuels like oil and shale gas have witnessed a boom in the U.S.

• Despite the unsustainability of these economic policies, these countries have exhibited higher ranking in the doing business rankings. China and India improved their scores sharply in the 2019 and 2020 edition of the Doing Business ranking, though these countries continue to be among the largest emitters of carbon effluents. The Environmental Performance Index ranked China 120, and India 168, out of 180 countries.

Worker safety: Slack business safeguards may prove to be detrimental to worker safety. For instance, to meet the ease of doing business targets, mandatory inspections are being done away with and “third party” inspection and employers’ self-certification are being promoted. This could severely compromise safety standards of factories. The 2013 collapse of the Rana Plaza garment factory in Bangladesh, the second deadliest industrial accident resulted from lackadaisical factory regulation. Labour rights: The states have been relaxing the labour laws to help attract higher private investment in their economies. However, the states seem to be neglecting workers’ well-being while considering changes to labour laws.

Authenticity of data: There have been concerns raised about the authenticity of the country-level data and also the changes in underlying methodologies made recently. Just the methodological changes have said to have impacted the rankings of many countries without any actual change in the ground realities.

Neglect of vital indicators: The survey neglects indicators like capital availability, availability of skilled workforce, infrastructure availability and entrepreneurship support systems which are as important as the other parameters in the doing business index.

Conclusion: Apart from relying completely on the WB’s ‘Doing Business’ report guidelines, India should also work towards coming up with a domestic policy measure to not only encourage foreign investments but also empower the already existing domestic players with easier business opportunities. The doing business index needs a total revamp wherein aspects such as safety standards, labour rights and environmental performance also find a provision

‘Make in India’: The ‘Make in India’ initiative has the main objectives of raising the manufacturing sector’s share in GDP to 25% (from 16-17% per cent) and creating 100 million additional jobs in the manufacturing sector by 2022. The share of the manufacturing sector has stagnated at around 16-17% of GDP. Annual GDP growth rate in manufacturing fell from 13.1% in 2015-16 to zero in 2019-20, as per the National Accounts Statistics.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 4. DEFENCE AND SECURITY 4.1 INDIAN CYBER CRIME COORDINATION CENTRE ABOUT I4C The Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) scheme was authorised for two years (2018-2020) in October 2018 to deal with all kinds of cybercrimes in a systematic and organised manner.

It is consistent with the 2013 National Cyber Security Strategy aimed at promoting the development of a safe computing environment and encouraging adequate trust and confidence in electronic transactions, as well as directing cyberspace defence behaviour by stakeholders. This centre is located in New Delhi.

One of the components of the scheme is the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP): o Other components are: National Cybercrime Threat Analytics Unit, Joint Cybercrime Investigative Team Group, National Cybercrime Forensic Laboratory Ecosystem, National Cybercrime Training Centre, Management Unit of Cybercrime Ecosystem, National Cyber Research and Innovation Centre.

NCRP is a citizen-centered project that will allow people to report online cybercrimes through the internet with a special emphasis on crimes against women, children, in special child pornography, material on child sexual exploitation, online content on rapes and gang rapes, financial crime, etc.

The appropriate law enforcement agencies in the states and UTs will have access to all cybercrime-related complaints and take action as required by law.

Regional Coordination Centers for Cyber Crime will be formed at the state / UT level and currently 15 states and UTs have given their consent to set it up.

CYBER-CRIME

Cybercrime is a broad term used to describe illegal activity in which computers or computer networks are a criminal activity weapon, target, or location, covering anything from electronic cracking to denial of service assaults.

The typical crimes in which computers or networks are used to facilitate criminal activity are also protected.

Cyber law is not a different legal structure in India. It is a mixture of laws on contracts, intellectual property, data security , and privacy.

The Information Technology Act, 2000 discusses the spectrum of crimes of the digital century. The medium and the object of such crimes are computer technology, mobile devices, apps, and the internet. Traditional criminal activities are now part of cyberspace, such as stealing, fraud , forgery, slander, and mischief. These have already been discussed in the Indian Penal Code. Police 'and' Public Order 'are objects of the State as per the Indian Constitution. States / UTs are thus solely responsible, through their law enforcement machinery, for the prevention , identification, investigation and prosecution of crimes.

INTERPOL REPORT ON CYBER ATTACKS > With over a million confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 virus across more than 200 nations and territories, coronavirus has spread its filthy feathers across the whole world. 54 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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> Globally, the total number of coronavirus cases neared 1.35 million while the death toll crossed 74,000. > However, some people are out there who seek to gain advantage from crisis. > According to an Interpol warning, cybercriminals are exploiting the coronavirus crisis and threatening to hold hospitals to ransom despite the lifesaving work they are carrying out. > The International Criminal Police Organisation has issued a global alert to health care organizations about the ransomware attacks, often disguised as official advice from government agencies, which are designed to lock administrators out of the critical IT systems they need. > Interpol’s Cybercrime Threat Response has detected a “significant increase” in the number of attempted ransomware attacks against key organizations around the world.

ANALYSIS:

Cyber Crimes:

> The bane of the internet, cybercrime refers to any and all illegal activities carried out using technology.

> Cybercriminals, who range from rogue individuals to organized crime groups to state-sponsored factions, use techniques like phishing, social engineering, and all kinds of malware to pursue their nefarious plans.

> Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a computer is the object of the crime (hacking, phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offense (child pornography, hate crimes).

Types of Cybercrimes:

> Cyberextortion: What INTERPOL has found? A crime involving an attack or threat of an attack coupled with a > INTERPOL has now issued a “purple notice” demand for money to stop the attack. Ransomware: One form alert to law enforcement in all 194 member of cyberextortion is the ransomware attack, in which the attacker countries (including India) to support the gains access to an organization’s systems and encrypts its global fight against this cybercriminal documents and files - anything of potential value - making the endeavor. In the alert, Interpol data inaccessible until a ransom is paid. > said organizations at the forefront of the > Cryptojacking: An attack that uses scripts to mine global response to the COVID-19 outbreak cryptocurrencies within browsers without the user’s consent. had also become targets of ransomware Cryptojacking attacks may involve loading cryptocurrency mining attacks, which were “designed to lock them software to the victim’s system. out of their critical systems in an attempt to extort payments”. > Identity theft: An attack that occurs when an individual > The agency’s Cybercrime Threat Response accesses a computer to glean a user’s personal information, Team had detected an increase in the which they then use to steal that person’s identity or access their number of attempted ransomware attacks valuable accounts, such as banking and credit cards. against key organizations and infrastructure > Cyberespionage: A crime involving a cybercriminal who hacks engaged in the virus response. into systems or networks to gain access to confidential > This despite less than one month ago, the information held by a government or other organization. operators of two of the most prevalent • Cyberespionage activities can include every type of cyberattack ransomware attack threats promising not to to gather, modify or destroy data, as well as using network- attack healthcare targets during the COVID- connected devices, like webcams or closed-circuit TV (CCTV) 19 crisis. cameras, to spy on a targeted individual or groups and monitoring communications, including emails, text messages and instant messages.

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> Software piracy: An attack that involves the unlawful copying, distribution and use of software programs with the intention of commercial or personal use. Trademark violations, copyright infringements and patent violations are often associated with this type of cybercrime. > Exit scam: The dark web, not surprisingly, has given rise to the digital version of an old crime known as the exit scam. In today’s form, dark web administrators divert virtual currency held in marketplace escrow accounts to their own accounts -- essentially, criminals stealing from other criminals. > Dark web: The deep web refers to all parts of the internet (sites, e-shops, forums, etc.) that are not accessible by a regular search engine like Google or Bing. About INTERPOL: > Founded in 1923, Interpol is an international police organization made up of 194 member countries. > The International Criminal Police Organization, or the Interpol is an international police agency that helps other law-enforcement agencies track criminals who operate across national borders. > In each country, an INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) provides the central point of contact for the General Secretariat and other NCBs. > An NCB is run by national police officials and usually sits in the government ministry responsible for policing. About INTERPOL Notices: > INTERPOL Notices are international requests for cooperation or alerts allowing police in member countries to share critical crime-related information. > Red Notice: To seek the location and arrest of wanted persons wanted for prosecution or to serve a sentence. > Yellow Notice: To help locate missing persons, often minors, or to help identify persons who are unable to identify themselves. > Blue Notice: To collect additional information about a person’s identity, location or activities in relation to a crime. International Telecommunication Union > Black Notice: To seek information on unidentified bodies. (ITU): > Green Notice: To provide warning about a person’s criminal > ITU is the specialized agency of the United activities, where the person is considered to be a possible threat Nations which deals with adopting to public safety. international standards to: > Orange Notice: To warn of an event, a person, an object or a > ensure seamless global communications and interoperability for next-generation process representing a serious and imminent threat to public networks safety. > building confidence and security in the use > Purple Notice: To seek or provide information on modus of ICTs operandi, objects, devices and concealment methods used by > emergency communications to develop criminals. early warning systems and to provide access Cyber Laws and Legislation in India and Abroad: At Global Level: to communications during and after Budapest Convention on Cyber Security: disasters, etc. > It is the first international treaty seeking to address Internet and computer crime by harmonizing national laws, improving investigative techniques, and increasing cooperation among nations. > It’s objective is to pursue a common criminal policy aimed at the protection of society against cybercrime, especially by adopting appropriate legislation and fostering international cooperation. International Governance Forum (IGF): > Internet Governance Forum (IGF) is a multi-stakeholder forum for policy dialogue on issues of Internet governance which brings together all stakeholders in the Internet governance debate. > It facilitates a common understanding of how to maximize Internet opportunities and address risks and challenges. > It is convened under the auspices of the Secretary- General of the United Nations.

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National Level: National Technical Research Organization (NTRO): > NTRO is a highly specialized technical intelligence gathering agency. > It develops technology capabilities in aviation and remote sensing, data gathering and processing, cyber security, cryptology systems, strategic hardware and software development, and strategic monitoring. National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): > National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre is envisaged to act as a 24x7 center to battle cybersecurity threats in strategic areas such as air control, nuclear and space. > It is placed under the National Technical Research Organization. CERT-In: > The Computer Emergency Response Team (CERTIn) has been designated to serve as the national agency to perform the following functions: • To collect and analyses information on cyber incidents • To forecast and give alerts of cybersecurity incidents • To provide emergency measures for handling cybersecurity incidents • To coordinate cyber incident response activities • To issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes and white papers relating to information security practices, procedures, prevention, response and reporting of cyber incidents National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC): > NCCC is a critical component of India’s cyber security against hackers and espionage as well as to track terrorist activity online. > It will scan the country’s web traffic to detect real-time cybersecurity threats and alert various organizations as well as internet service providers for timely action. It also will coordinate between intelligence agencies, specifically during network intrusions and cyber-attacks. Crime and Criminal Tracking Network System (CCTNS): > CCTNS is a nationwide network infrastructure for evolution of IT-enabled state-of-the-art tracking system around “investigation of crime and detection of criminals”. > It is initiated in 2009 which aims at to interconnect about 15000 Police Stations and additional 5000 offices of supervisory police officers across the country and digitize data related to FIR registration, investigation and charge sheets in all Police Stations. Information Technology Act, 2000: > It is the most significant piece of legislation addressing conduct in cyberspace in India. > It provides legal recognition to e-commerce and e-governance and facilitates its development as an alternative to paper-based traditional methods. > The Act seeks to protect the advancement in technology by defining crimes, prescribing punishments, laying down procedures for investigation and forming regulatory authorities. National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: > The policy provides for developing effective Public-Private Partnership and collaborative engagements through technical and operational cooperation and contribution for enhancing the security of cyberspace. Suggestive measures: > Key-features: > There are a number of steps hospitals and others can take to • Creating a secure and resilient cyberspace protect their systems from a ransomware attack: > Only open • Creating a secure cyber ecosystem, emails or download software/ applications from trusted sources generate trust in IT transactions > Do not click on links or open attachments in emails which you • Creation of a 24 x 7 National Critical were not expecting to receive, or come from an unknown sender Information Infrastructure Protection Center > Secure email systems to protect from spam which could be (NCIIPC) • Testing of ICT products and certifying them. infected > Backup all important files frequently, and store them independently from your system (e.g. in the cloud, on an external drive)

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> Ensure you have the latest anti-virus software installed on all systems and mobile devices, and that it is constantly running > Use strong, unique passwords for all systems, and update them regularly CONCLUSION: In the current situation, prevention and mitigation are key, with the malware mainly being spread by emails. The hospitals and healthcare companies need to ensure hardware and software are kept up to date, and that essential files are backed up. Moreover, the public needs to be encouraged to exercise caution when buying medical supplies online during the current health crisis, with criminals capitalizing on the situation to run a range of financial scams.

4.2 BIOTERRORISM Bioterrorism encompasses a wide variety of topics, from devastating terrorism with mass casualties to micro- events using low-technology but causing civil unrest, destruction, illness, injury and death. Over the past few years, the threat of bioterrorism, long overlooked and rejected, has escalated. In recent years , international terrorist threats have moved to the use of more lethal weapons for major civil destruction.

Most terrorists use explosives and firearms, but in order to inflict mass casualties, some groups now show interest in using chemical, medical, radiological, or nuclear ( CBRN) materials. Many nations are possessed of firearms, sought or willing to obtain them. As compared to accessing usable chemical, radiological or nuclear materials, it is simple to manufacture biological materials.

We're badly prepared to deal with a terrorist attack using biological weapons. The medical community should inform the public and policy makers about the threat, as has been done in response to the nuclear threat. We need to be prepared in the longer term to identify, diagnose, epidemiologically classify, and react adequately to the use of biological weapons and the danger of new and re-emerging pathogens. We should not pause, on the immediate horizon, the production and execution of strategic strategies to deal with civil bioterrorism.

What are Biological Weapons?

Biological weapons are complex mechanisms that transmit diseases that damage or destroy humans , animals or plants caused by organisms or toxins. They generally consist of two parts- A weaponized agent and system of execution.

In biological weapons, almost any disease-causing organism (such as bacteria , viruses , fungi, prions or rickettsia) or toxin (poisons derived from animals, plants or micro-organisms, or related synthetically generated substances) may be used.

From their natural state, the agents can be improved to make them more suitable as weapons for mass production , storage, and dissemination. Efforts to manufacture aflatoxin; anthrax; botulinum toxin; foot-and - mouth disease; glanders; plague; Q fever; rice blast; ricin; Rocky Mountain spotted fever; smallpox; and tularemia, among others, have been included in past biological weapons programmes.

The Biological Agents Classification

Biological agents and pathogens that can be used as weapons are categorised into three groups by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. They are:

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The highest priority is Category A agents, which are disease agents that pose a danger to national security and they can be passed on from person to person and/or contribute to high mortality and/or have a high potential for social disruption. There are anthrax, botulism, plague, smallpox, tularemia, and a series of viruses that cause hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, and Machupo, (via botulinum toxin, which is not passable from person to person). These disease agents occur in nature, but they could be controlled to make them more harmful (with the exception of smallpox, which has been eradicated in the wild).

Agents of category B are reasonably easy to disseminate and contribute to low mortality. These involve brucellosis, Q fever, typhus fever, ricin toxin, and other agents.

Category C agents include emerging disease agents that could be designed in the future for mass transmission, such as the Nipah virus.

Bioterrorism Targets

The world is devastatingly impacted by bioterrorism. Many bioweapons are relatively easy to manufacture, inexpensive and capable of mass destruction by simply using small quantities. Water supply and water delivery systems are possible targets for bioweapons as they are the vital need of any ecosystem health and also the smooth functioning of our industrialised society's commercial and economic field. Another ideal target for bioterrorism is agriculture, which uses highly infectious, virulent and resistant agents that cause countries to suffer from economic hardship. Furthermore, for biological hazard generation, livestock, plants and birds may also be targeted.

80% of pathogens used for biowarfare are of animal origin and 60% of human pathogens are zoonotic, according to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). In addition, there are many foreign animal agents that are readily available in nature and also from commercial sources (foot and mouth disease virus, Bacillus anthracis and African swine fever virus), which require little effort to treat and spread these pathogens.

Challenges from Non-State Actor

There is plenty of agreement that the use by non-state actors of biological weapons remains a concrete fact. When they were able to access such weapons, non-state actors did not hesitate to use weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and criminal groups were more than willing to support terrorist organisations in acquiring materials. Take two examples: the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) has routinely used chemical weapons from available Syrian inventories or produced its own primitive variants on Syria's battlefields. And when they wanted to sell nuclear material to what they believed was a terrorist organisation, many criminals in Moldova were arrested.

In addition to these events, there are several terrorism experts who agree that there is ample reason to assume that WMD technologies are being sought by terrorists. Terrorist groups continue to aggressively pursue WMD technologies, including biological weapons, from IS to Al-Qaeda.

Efficient steps of regulation Public health is an essential cornerstone of every national security system, and an effective response to bioterrorism is therefore needed. Multimodal and multi-agency methods can accomplish this, and all of these techniques are relatively straightforward. Efficient mechanisms of surveillance against bioterrorism include:

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¡ Biosecurity: Biosecurity is the system for protecting and regulating unauthorised entry, loss , theft, deliberate discharge, and therefore the possibility of transmission of infectious diseases to crops and livestock, quarantined pests, invasive alien species and modified living organisms. Biological Weapons Convention ¡ Vigilance instruments: Different past outbreaks have contributed A legally binding treaty that outlaws to the realisation that a regional and even global response is biological weapons is the Biological Weapons required. To ensure successful containment and the reduction of Convention (BWC). The BWC opened for casualties, early detection of a bioterror agent is crucial. signature on April 10, 1972, after being debated and negotiated in the United Nations disarmament forum beginning in ¡ Research programmes: The creation of medical instruments to 1969, and entered into force on March 26, address the danger of bioweapons requires a detailed 1975. There are 183 states-parties, including understanding of these microbes and the reaction of the human 109 signatory states, at present. Ten states immune system to them. (Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Israel, Kiribati, Micronesia, Namibia, South Sudan ¡ Risk management planning : Planning describes the steps needed, and Tuvalu) have neither signed nor ratified defines resources, assigns roles and responsibilities, and maintains the BWC. The BWC prohibits: overall collaboration that is vital to countering bioterrorism. ¡ The growth, storage, acquisition, retention and manufacturing of: India and Bioterrorism I biological agents and toxins of types and amounts which, for prophylactic, defensive or other peaceful purposes, have no Few incidents in the past have raised the risk of bioweapons in justification; India, such as the outbreak of Scrub typhus during the Indo- (ii) Weapons, equipment and delivery Pakistan war in 1965 in Assam and West Bengal of India. In 1994, vehicles designed for the use of such agents pneumonic plague outbreaks in Surat (Gujarat) and Bubonic plague or contaminants for armed conflict or hostile in Beed (Gujarat) resulted in mass casualties and increased purposes. exposure to India's defence and intelligence outfits. ¡ Transfer or assistance for the procurement of the agents, toxins, weapons, equipment The Nipah Virus outbreak in Kerala has the physical characteristics and delivery vehicles mentioned above. to function as a possible bioterrorism agent in 2018. In addition, as The Convention further allows states-parties was evident from the H1N1 virus, which claimed over 2,300 lives in to destroy or redirect the "agents, recent years , India still appears ill-equipped to face the threat of contaminants, weapons, facilities, and means of delivery" mentioned above within nine bioterrorism. months of the entry into force of the Convention for peaceful purposes. The BWC The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has does not ban the use of biological weapons introduced a model instrument where participation of both and toxins, but reaffirms the Geneva Protocol government and private sectors is a sine qua non to overcome any of 1925, which forbids their use. It also does such attack in order to keep India fighting ready to tackle a not prohibit systems for biodefense. bioterrorism attack. In India, a number of nodal ministries have been appointed to deal with bioterrorism-induced epidemics. A specialised force set up under the MHA to deal with chemical , biological , radiological and nuclear ( CBRN) attacks is the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF). It consists of 12 battalions, three from BSF and CRPF each, and two from CISF, ITBP and SSB each.

Defense Research and Development (DRDE) is the Defense Research and Development Organization's (DRDO) main biodefense laboratory in India. It is primarily involved in the production of protection against biological , chemical and toxicological materials which are malicious. On January 15, 1973, India signed the BTWC with some reservations and ratified the treaty a year and a half later , on July 15, 1974. It was one of the few countries to have expressed its reservations, which included: In particular, the Government of India would like to reiterate its understanding that the Convention 's purpose is to eradicate biological and toxic weapons, thus completely

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www.upscwithnikhil.com eliminating the possibility of their use. An exception with regard to biological agents or toxins that would be allowed for prophylactic, defensive or other peaceful purposes would in no way create a loophole with regard to the manufacture or retention of biological and toxic weapons.

Any aid that could be given under the terms of the Convention would be of a medical or humanitarian nature and would be in accordance with the United Nations Charter. India 'Special Chemicals, Species, Components, Machinery, and Technologies' (SCOMET) guidelines include a strict list of export control products that include dual-use goods, technologies and services.

The 'International Health Regulations' (IHR) that entered into force in June 2007 have also been updated by India to account for rapid identification and countermeasures of health emergencies.

Conclusion

Over the years, arms have switched from blades to malicious biological devices. While very few pathogens can be used as bioweapons, they were made efficient guns by their considerable ease of production along with the immense mass casualty and civil disturbance. Since bioterrorism attacks are unpredictable, in order to react appropriately, early detection, containment, treatment and communication are critical.

To insure our national security, new programmes and systems should be developed. In addition, in order to restrict access to biological materials, laboratory biosecurity and regulations should be established and revised on the basis of policy-makers' risk assessment. Increased partnerships between the academic sector, government private sector and nations, which will provide benefits well beyond the security of intentional acts of bioterrorism, are increased and urgent.

4.3 NATIONAL MISSION ON INTERDISCIPLINARY CYBER-PHYSICAL SYSTEMS (NM-ICPS) • The NM-ICPS is a comprehensive mission which would address technology development, application development, human resource development, skill enhancement, entrepreneurship and start-up development in CPS and associated technologies. Focus Area • Emphasis of the TIH, will be on human-computer interaction (HCI) • The NM-ICPS is a pan India mission and research, where projects will focus on design and development of covers entire gamut of the country that computer technology (interfaces) and the study of interaction includes central ministries, state between humans (users) and computers. governments, industry and academia. • The TIH will develop tools, education material, handson experiments with specialised tool kits, connecting with existing • The mission aims at establishment of innovation ecosystems. Technology Innovation Hubs (TIH), • It will interlink with different stakeholders and connect with other Application Innovation Hubs and Technology initiatives of the Government of India by providing an innovation Translation Research Parks (TTRP). platform for schools, colleges and advanced technical training institutes in the targeted areas. * These hubs and TTRPs will connect to • Also, the TIH will focus on human resource and skill development, academics, industry, central ministries and entrepreneurship and collaboration with other leading institutions. • Through the hub, the institute aims to develop a technology state government in developing solutions at interface for challenges concerning landslides, environment reputed academic, R&D and other (including climate change), air pollution, agriculture, cybersecurity, organizations across the country in a hub and defence forces, healthcare, and forensics. spoke model.

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• The mission implementation would develop and bring Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) and associated technologies within reach in the country, produce next generation skilled manpower in CPS, catalyse translational research, accelerate entrepreneurship and start-up ecosystem development in CPS.

SIGNIFICANCE • The project is also aimed to give impetus to advanced research in CPS, technology development and higher education in science, technology and engineering disciplines, and place India at par with other advanced countries and derive several direct and indirect benefits.

CONTEXT • The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has sanctioned Rs 7.25 crore to the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Mandi to establish a Technology Innovation Hub (TIH) at the institute.

• This is under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS).

4.4 COUNTRY BY COUNTRY REPORT CONTEXT > With Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) notifying rules for furnishing Country by Country (CBC) specifying information pertaining to all large multinational enterprises (MNEs), the Finance Ministry said that Joint Director of Income-tax (Risk Assessment)-1 has been designated as the Income-tax Authority before whom particulars of the parent entity and alternate reporting entity would be notified. BACKGROUND: > The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) had developed an Action Plan called “Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Action Plan 13” to ensure that a multinational enterprise would report its profit correctly where it is earned. > Under BEPS Action Plan 13, all large multinational enterprises (MNEs) are required to prepare a CBC report with aggregate data on the global allocation of income, profit, taxes paid and economic activity among tax jurisdictions in which they operate. > As per corresponding provisions of Indian Income Tax laws, every MNE group which has a constituent entity resident in India is mandated to notify its parent entity and alternate reporting entity and the countries where such entities are resident. > Such parent entity or alternate reporting entity is required to furnish a report called Country-by- Country Report specifying certain information including the aggregate information in respect of the amount of revenue, profit or loss before income-tax, amount of income-tax paid, amount of income-tax accrued, stated capital, accumulated earnings, number of employees and tangible assets not being cash or cash equivalents with regard to each country or territory in which the group operates. > It is also required to furnish the details of each constituent entity of the group including the country or territory in which such constituent entity is incorporated or organized or established and the country or territory where it is resident. > The nature and details of the main business activity or activities of each constituent entity is also to be furnished. > Central Board of Direct Taxes(CBDT) had notified rules for the purpose and the income tax authority for the purpose shall be the Joint Commissioner as may be designated by the Director General of Income tax (Risk Assessment). > In view of the above amendment and in exercise of the powers conferred by Section 286 of the Act, the Director General of Income Tax (Risk Assessment) has designated the Joint Director of Income Tax (Risk

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Assessment)-1 as the Income Tax Authority for the purpose of section 286 of the Act, with effect from April 1, 2020.

ANALYSIS: WHAT IS COUNTRY-BY-COUNTRY REPORTING (CBCR)? > Country-by-Country Reporting (CBCR) is a form of reporting by multinational enterprises (MNEs) initiated by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Action 13 Report. > A CBC report provides local tax authorities visibility to revenue, income, tax paid and accrued, employment, capital, retained earnings, tangible assets and activities of the concerned MNE. > In essence, CBC Report is an annual return that breaks down key elements of the financial statements by jurisdiction. > This CBC report is used as a corroborating material by Income-tax Authorities in carrying out a revenue risk assessment. It specifies certain information including: • the aggregate information in respect of the amount of revenue, profit or loss before income-tax, amount of income-tax paid, amount of income-tax accrued, stated capital, accumulated earnings, number of employees and tangible assets not being cash or cash equivalents, with regard to each country or territory in which the group operates; • the details of each constituent entity of the group including the country or territory in which such constituent entity is incorporated or organized or established and the country or territory where it is resident; • the nature and details of the main business activity or activities of each constituent entity. Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS): The (OECD)’ > Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) initiative seeks to close gaps in international taxation for companies that allegedly avoid taxation or reduce tax burden in their home country by engaging in tax inversions (moving operations) or by migrating intangibles to lower tax jurisdictions. > The OECD has issued 15 Action Items to address the main areas where they feel companies have been most aggressively accomplishing this shifting of profit — addressing the digital economy, treaty abuse, transfer pricing documentation, and more. > BEPS Action Item 13, in particular, aims to transform transfer pricing documentation, forcing multinational corporations to reconsider how transfer pricing details are reported to local tax authorities as well as worldwide with country-by country reporting.

ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD): > The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is a unique forum where the governments of 36 member states with market economies work with each other, as well as with more than 70 non-member economies to promote economic growth, prosperity, and sustainable development. > The Organization provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and coordinate domestic and international policies. > Today, OECD member countries account for 63 percent of world GDP, three-quarters of world trade, 95 percent of world official development assistance, over half of the world’s energy consumption, and 18 percent of the world’s population. Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS): > The Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures (MLI) to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) is an outcome of the OECD/G20 project to tackle base erosion and profit shifting, which is resorted to by multinational corporations through tax planning strategies by exploiting gaps and mismatches in tax rules. > India has ratified the multilateral convention in 2019 to implement OECD’s project on checking tax evasion, and the provisions enshrined in the framework will come into effect from fiscal 2020- 21 for bilateral tax treaties. 63 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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> The MLI will modify India’s tax treaties to curb revenue loss through treaty abuse and base erosion and profit shifting strategies by ensuring that profits are taxed where substantive economic activities generating the profits are carried out. > The MLI will be applied alongside existing tax treaties, modifying their application in order to implement the BEPS measures. • Out of 93 CTAs notified by India, 22 countries have already ratified the MLI as on date and the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with these countries will be modified by MLI. • For the remaining CTAs, effect of MLI will take place as and when these countries ratify the MLI. • CONCLUSION: Country by Country (CBC) Reporting will provide tax authorities with information to help them assess transfer pricing risks and further make determinations on how they allocate tax audit resources.

5. ENVIRONMENT 5.1 FLOODING IN THE METROPOLITAN When there is heavy and/or sustained rainfall, urban flooding is triggered, which overwhelms the drainage system's capacity. It is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanisation leads to developed catchments which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times, sometimes in a matter of minutes. In recent years, there has been a growing pattern of urban flood disasters in India, with major cities such as Mumbai and Chennai seriously affected. Global climate change leads to changed weather patterns and increased episodes of high-intensity rainfall events that occur in shorter periods of time, which has been the key reason behind this rising urban flooding frequency.

REASONS BEHIND FLOODING URBAN- Ecological Factors:  Strong and frequent precipitation. E.g. Inundations of Srinagar.  Synchronization of runoff from separate watershed parts.  Glacial Lakes Bursting. Uh. E.g. The Glacier of Chorabari in Uttarakhand.  Small-scale storms Yokohama Strategy Anthropogenic Factors: > The Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, • Bad urban planning: the inability of states to implement Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of zoning has led to a rise in floodplain invasions, often Action adopted in 1994 provides landmark allowed and properly approved by planning authorities. guidance on reducing disaster risk and the impacts of disasters. • Encroachment of floodplains-e.g. Most of the exurban > The review of progress made in development of Mumbai has been in townships along the implementing the Yokohama Strategy Ulhas River, with little respect for the river system 's identifies major challenges for the coming years in ensuring more systematic action to integrity. address disaster risks in the context of

sustainable development and in building • In 2015, Maharashtra deleted its River Regulation Zone resilience through enhanced national and policy-a move that residents are now protesting near the local capabilities to manage and reduce risk. Ulhas River and agreed to construct a new airport on low- lying land in Navi Mumbai.

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• Inefficient management of religious events such as Nasik's Kumbh Mela. This results in unnecessary river concretization, which narrows their channels down. • Surface sealing (which increases run-off) due to urbanization.

Deforestation: The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) reported in a March 2015 study that forest cover in the MMR had dropped from about a third of the total area in 1987 to 21% in 2015. Urban Heat Island Impact- As a result, rainfall has risen in and around urban areas. Insufficient disposal of solid waste-and its root segregation. This results in drains being blocked. Poor implementation of flood control schemes that took 56 years to complete, such as the Narmada River Project.

MEASURES TO PREVENT URBAN FLOODING: > Framework and Contact for Early Warning: The distribution of flood alerts using a wide variety of the new technology must be carried out. This will assist in delivering information in real time where conventional systems struggle.

> Urban Drainage System Design and Maintenance: Careful drainage system maintenance is important to ensure that water is not collected in one location. Hydraulic roughness is exacerbated by solid waste, creating blockage and generally reducing flow capacity. To allow the free flow of water, these drains need to be cleaned on a regular basis.

> Rainwater harvesting: Groundwater recycling has declined due to urbanisation and the peak runoff from rainfall and consequent flooding has increased. The twin objectives of lowering the peak runoff and raising the ground water level will be fulfilled. In India, several municipal corporations have already made it compulsory to collect rainwater.

> Protection of water sources: In the management of urban flooding, urban water bodies such as reservoirs, tanks and ponds also play a very important role in limiting stormwater runoff by collecting it.

5.2 PEATLAND The United Nations Environment Assembly in Nairobi, Kenya, recently adopted its first ever Peatland Resolution. The adoption of the global resolution on the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Peatlands encourages Member States and other stakeholders to put greater focus on the worldwide conservation, sustainable management and restoration of peatlands. It is not lawfully binding, however.

WHAT ARE PEATS? Peats are a heterogeneous mixture of plant material that has accumulated in a water-saturated region and is only partly decomposed due to the lack of oxygen (vascular plants, mosses and humus).

Peatlands are the natural areas covered by peat. Swamp forests, fens, bogs or mires are various forms of peat.

In permafrost regions towards the poles and at high altitudes, in coastal areas, under tropical rainforests and in boreal forests, they are mainly found. Russia, Canada, Indonesia, the USA, Finland etc. are the countries with the highest peatland areas.

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Several multilateral conventions take peatland into consideration such as UNFCCC, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Convention on Biodiversity and United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification.

Brazzaville Declaration: signed in the context of the 3rd Conference of Partners of the Global Peatlands Initiative (GPI), 2018, to encourage better management and protection of the Cuvette Centrale Region in the Congo Basin.

Global Peatlands Initiative: is an attempt to conserve peatlands as the world's largest terrestrial organic carbon resource by leading experts and organisations and to avoid them from being released into the atmosphere. It is headed by the United Nations Environment.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PEATLAND • Carbon Storage: While less than 3% of the global surface is covered, it is estimated that peatlands hold twice as much carbon as forests in the world. • Supporting the water cycle: controlling water flow, exerting a cooling effect by evaporation and cloud formation during hot periods, playing an important role in the conservation of contaminants and nutrients and purification of water, counteracting eutrophication of water bodies and also preventing salt water intrusion.

• Supporting rare and critically endangered biodiversity: A variety of endangered species, including Sumatran tigers, gorillas and orangutans, live in the tropical peatlands.

• Supporting livelihoods: in the boreal and temperate regions, they are the source of fruit, mushrooms and medicinal plants and of non-timber forest products in the tropical regions. The peat itself is also used as fuel.

• As a cultural landscape and archive: some of the most evocative geological finds of recent decades, such as the 'sweet tracks' of the 4th millennium BCE footpath.

Risks to Peatland: • Agricultural drainage: Drained peatlands are primarily used for agriculture and forestry, and for horticulture and energy production, peat is removed. CO2 emissions are measured at 1.3 gigatonnes of CO2 per year from drained peatlands. 5.6 percent of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions are equal to this.

• Commercial Forestry: It is the second largest cause of changes in peatland land use, mainly prevalent in Scandinavian countries , the United Kingdom, Russia, South East Asia, etc.

• Peat extraction and use: Peat is used by households on a wide scale as an energy source. It is also used for the production of growing media for skilled horticulture and for home gardening as raw material.

• Development of infrastructure: conversion of coastal peatlands to meet urban development, waste disposal needs, road development and other infrastructure.

Way ahead In order to preserve these endangered habitats and their services to people, a landscape approach is crucial and good practises in peatland management and regeneration must be communicated and applied across all peatland landscapes.

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 Rewetting: It is an vital phase in the regeneration of peatlands since their sustainability depends on waterlogged conditions.

 Plaudiculture and sustainable management techniques: This is a method of growing crops on damp soils, particularly in peatlands. Fish farming or the pursuit of ecotourism may be other sustainable techniques.

• Legal and Fiscal environment and Policies: It is important to properly enforce various policies that have been placed in place at both global and domestic levels.

• With the protection of conventional non-destructive uses and the implementation of novel management alternatives, local communities should obtain funding for the sustainable management of their peatlands.

• Building a market to finance the maintenance of peatlands: using financing instruments such as green bonds, private capital (equity and debt), government funding, etc.

• Institutional structure for collective action: It is important to develop integrated global partnerships.

• Limiting new agricultural and industrial practises that threaten their long-term sustainability and designing policies for long-term land use that encourage peatland conservation and protection.

• Capacity building: Focused action is needed for capacity building, outreach and awareness raising with funding from developed countries.

• To better understand their size and status and to enable us to safeguard them, a thorough mapping of peatlands worldwide is important.

5.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OUR COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE India has seen increasingly intense and frequent weather events and climate-induced natural disasters in recent years. The fragile coasts of the country are particularly vulnerable. Its coastal states, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu and Kerala, have been massively devastated by intense cyclones such as the recent Fani, Gaja and Hudhud, as well as severe floods. Many of these coastal states have strengthened their frameworks for disaster preparedness and response, developing reliable early warning systems and well-planned plans for evacuation. These initiatives have helped millions of people travel safely to disaster shelters, protecting the lives of the fragile coastal ecosystem's vulnerable population.

However, in rebuilding the critical infrastructure lost and damaged, and in recovering from the consequent disruptions caused by disasters, most of these states face major challenges. 500,000 homes, 6,700 hospital buildings and 100,880 lakh ha have been destroyed by cyclone Fani in April 2019. Of land for agriculture. Also damaged was the electricity system, taking the total losses to INR 500 billion. Studies and the damage estimate study show that it will take between five to 10 years for the coastal states to rebuild and recover.

INDIA'S COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE WEAKNESS

India is the third worst-affected nation due to natural disasters caused by the environment. In particular, the coastal regions of the country are extremely vulnerable due to rapid urbanisation, high population densities and related economic activities, such as agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, industry and trade. Nevertheless, the

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www.upscwithnikhil.com effects of climate change, including sea level rise, floods, storm surges and cyclones, are threatening growth gains. Increases in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are projected to worsen the impacts of climate change and the vulnerability of coastal ceosystems, mainly as a result of economic activities.

India today is expected to be at 'very high' levels of risk in terms of cyclone severity. The mangrove ecosystem that serves as a natural shield against cyclones and coastal erosion along the coastal regions has been severely degraded and faces even worse degradation due to the combined impacts of climate change.

In addition, the sea level rise (SLR) that has been reported at a rate of 2.5 mm per year since the 1950s has already affected India's coastline. By 2050, a predicted 15 and 38 cm rise in sea level along the coast of India is likely to affect 5,763 sq km of coastal states' combined area, resulting in the submergence of coastal areas, flooding and a rise in tropical cyclones and storm surges, threatening infrastructure.

The cost of damage from climate-related extreme weather events on infrastructure and housing was INR 3,65,860 crore, or three percent of India's GDP, according to data from the Central Water Commission (CWC). Weak or insufficient infrastructure, such as river drainage power, unplanned regulation and failure of flood control systems to withstand the climate effect, would further add to

OPPORTUNITIES AND PERKS

Planning and investing in climate-resilient infrastructure will yield many benefits for India and its coastal regions. During severe weather events, it will help prevent casualties, unlock growth capacity, and generate economic, social, and environmental co-benefits.

Avoiding loss and damage:

More than eight percent of India's land mass is susceptible to floods, according to the World Bank; approximately 5,700 kilometres are susceptible to cyclones; and 68 percent of the total territory of the country is susceptible to episodes of drought. India 's annual multi-hazard disaster losses are around US$ 9.8 billion, of which US$ 7.4 billion is lost solely because of floods. India's economic harm and climate change losses are estimated to be about 1.8 percent of its GDP annually by 2050, according to the Asian Development Bank. For a middle-income country like India that faces severe resource constraints, it will dramatically set the country back in terms of growth by incurring tremendous economic losses due to climatic calamities. Having the infrastructure 'climate-proof' for the most vulnerable coastal regions would enable the use of money for productive health initiatives and economic programmes. Ensuring growth and development: The coastal regions of India are of tremendous economic and strategic importance, as approximately 90% of their trade by volume (or 70% in terms of value) is carried out by sea. Reducing the burden of context risk by rising infrastructure resilience will create advantages that extend to the macroeconomic level across sectors. Protecting coastal areas, cities, business districts or ports with facilities for flood control, for example, would promote economic growth, long-term planning and investment in resources. A boost to entrepreneurship, creativity and profitable investment, in turn, will help the overall growth and development of India. Co-benefits: Targeting coastal regions for resilient infrastructure would provide co-benefits that are not connected to severe weather events. For instance, it would create direct employment opportunities for the coastal communities by building new resilient infrastructure or retrofitting existing ones. Similarly, significant social benefits can also be created by community involvement in the creation and management of climate- resilient infrastructure. The dependence of the local government on information, communications, automobiles, storage facilities and labour communities will reinforce community cohesion, as well as local-state-

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www.upscwithnikhil.com society relationships, even in non-emergency situations. Therefore, initiatives to create resilience will greatly contribute to social security and inclusiveness.

THE CHALLENGES

There are a host of challenges facing the coast of India, such as the liberalisation of coastal regulations; a lack of science evidence and regulatory frameworks; unplanned cities and urbanisation; insufficient municipal council capacity; and a lack of funds.

Liberalization Of Coastal Zone Regulations: The Union Cabinet approved the 2018 Notification of the Coastal Regulation Zone, which will lead to enhanced activities in coastal regions, thereby fostering economic development while also upholding the coastal region's conservation values. Environmental activists said, however, that the notification dilutes and opens up India's protective mechanism for fragile ecosystem for large-scale development projects. Since India 's coastline is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change such as erosion, cyclones and floods, the vulnerability will be further increased by facilitating infrastructure growth and shoreline construction. By opening up more commercial activities for 6,068 km of mainland coastline, India's own regulation has placed at risk the fragile ecosystem and infrastructure already vulnerable to extreme weather events and the increase in sea level.

Uncertainties in Modeling Future Climate Scenarios: Policy planners at the coastal region's national and sub-national level will need a definite risk assessment and data on the time, likelihood, occurrence and degree of potential risk to various infrastructures in order to be able to prepare for or retrofit existing new infrastructures. Such tests are either not available to the government or are not available in a accessible format that could guide public policy and decisions.

Moreover, in modelling how the environment, and other factors influencing infrastructure resilience, will change in the future, there are inherent uncertainties. Evaluations for sea level rise (SLR) project scenarios for 100 years , for example, while construction planning is carried out with a much shorter 10-15-year horizon in mind.

Inventory / Database System Lacks: In order to prepare for durable infrastructure, it is important that policymakers and planners have detailed information on the design specifics, age, maximum capacity, and location of the infrastructure. No Indian state, however, maintains up-to - date records of its existing infrastructure. In general, data on infrastructure and facilities in India is distributed through different departments. It will be impossible for decision-makers to use such data to formulate action plans and designs in the absence of a central repository where the information is either stored or preserved.

Lack of integration: environmental and sustainability issues have just started to be integrated into coastal cities' master and land use planning processes. National government programmes such as the Atal Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation Mission (AMRUT) have been channelling financial resources to the growth of urban infrastructure.

It does not, however, emphasise the need to make newly built infrastructure resilient to the environment in coastal cities.

Potential misalignments and non-compliance with policies: The bulk of coastal states' infrastructure planning, such as water, sanitation, telecommunications and highways, lies with different government agencies that do not have a multisectoral planning integration stage. Jurisdiction problems and contradictory government

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www.upscwithnikhil.com department policies and mandates also conflict with the efficient implementation of resilience-building initiatives in development plans.

Gaps in Resilience Financing: India's economy has experienced a huge US$ 79.5 billion loss over the past 20 years due to climate-related disasters. Climate change impacts are expected to increase the demand for investment needed for infrastructure growth, such as flood defences, water supply and sanitation. Building climate-resilient infrastructure is important for developing countries such as India to see it not as an unnecessary cost but as an opportunity to create mutual value for the economy and society. Developing coastal states' infrastructure plans based on their different needs for climate vulnerability will allow policymakers to gain a strategic perspective and help design investment pathways to address sustainable and resilient growth.

STEPS TO BUILD CLIMATE-RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR THE COAST:

The lack of enabling legislation or the absence of institutional mechanisms prevents coastal regions from adopting climate-resilient development initiatives. For the conservation of coastal habitats and the protection of their vital infrastructure from potential climate changes, legislatures, both at the Centre and in the States, must formulate effective zoning rules, building by-laws and land use restrictions.

Technical assessments by climate change impact modelling and risk mapping are an extremely valuable method to support policy decision-making on the design, planning and location of infrastructure. In a comprehensive assessment of potential threats, producing studies on cyclones and storm surges or flood modelling will help.

Given the enormous funding requirements, climate-resilient coastal infrastructure growth is a major challenge for India. As 'high-risk' areas, coastal regions are expected, rendering the flow of private sector investment extremely difficult. There is also a need for 'out of the box' solutions and for bundling risks and returns to institutional developments.

In order to preserve the durability and productivity of India's coastal infrastructure from damage caused by SLR and severe weather, creative steps need to be taken, including the elevation of road embankments, water treatment works and the enhancement of construction and maintenance standards. In order to track the building of resilience, the introduction of global standards on resilience and sustainability that could evaluate environmental, social and governance (ESG) efficiency and effect of infrastructure projects is essential. Although advances to encourage robust infrastructure are a priority, standards, codes and manuals for incorporating state-of-the-art engineering technologies need to be developed. Science and technology applications such as Geographical Information Systems (GIS), geological-geographical and hydrological research capabilities that can enhance risk and vulnerability assessments should also be promoted.

In terms of state and city-level decision-makers, society, and key stakeholders in the cities, capacity building at all levels must be taken up. Sensitisation and generation of knowledge among people is also integral to the planning of city-level resilience. At the level of decision-makers and planners, strong community engagement and community demand can also contribute to building consensus.

CONCLUSION

Given India's coastal regions importance to the country's economy and development, major investments would be needed to develop even the most basic infrastructure. This level of investment offers a window of opportunity to ensure that all new infrastructure, including those triggered by a changing environment, is made immune to future shocks.

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As climate variability and extreme weather events are becoming the new standard in an increasingly climate- restricted world, if it is to preserve the development gains it has achieved so far, it is necessary for a developing country like India to invest in making its infrastructure climate-resilient. To prepare coastal states to withstand the impacts of severe events such as hurricanes, cyclones, and storm surges, it is imperative to develop climate- resilient infrastructure and services. Building climate-resilient infrastructure would help to achieve the goals set by the Paris Agreement, as well as the Sendai Mechanism for Disaster Risk Reduction, given the various sustainable development challenges that have already cost India significant amounts of capital.

5.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ETHICS One of the most daunting problems facing the world today is climate change. As we move forward in finding ways to adapt and mitigate climate change, recognising the ethical problems associated with it is crucial.

NECESSITY TO CONSIDER THE ETHICAL DIMENSIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

 Climate change has significant implications for international equality, as both the causes and effects of climate change are unequally distributed around (and within) nations. In general , countries that are least responsible for climate change have the lowest socio-economic capacity to cope with the adverse consequences of climate change, which is a significant ethical problem for them.

 Climate change, mobilised by the search for scarce resources, has the ability to cause conflict.

 The need for an ethical solution is therefore convincing.

 Other ethical concerns include: how present and future generations, developed and developing countries, etc., can identify and distinguish obligations.

MAIN ETHICAL CHALLENGES EXACERBATED BY GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: • Uncertainties in the scientific knowledge base that limit our ability to predict when and where the different effects of climate change will occur, and with what severity. The origins of such uncertainties include the following:

Incomplete factual details on elements of climate change

Uncertainties induced by the existence, assumptions and reach of existing theoretical frameworks for understanding global climate change

• Justice issues: the very essence of future climate change vulnerabilities, the effect on constitutional rights and the essence of justice. In this respect, four categories can be distinguished:

o Distributive justice issues: The ethical challenge lies in deciding specifically what is unjust and unequal in the distribution of the detrimental effects of climate change, but also in the distribution of the benefits of climate change-causing acts.

o Compensatory justice issues: In this context, more ethical ambiguity has to do with the essence and scope of compensatory justice, who exactly should be the beneficiaries, and how specifically the benefits of compensatory justice should be distributed.

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o Procedural justice issues: Who should engage in decision-making processes on climate change reduction, mitigation or adaptation measures? Vulnerable communities need meaningful opportunities to engage in climate-change adaptation decision-making.

o Human rights issues: We need to investigate the degree to which global climate change has any effect on the fundamental right to liberty, which includes the right of a person to use his / her property to better his / her well-being, as well as the right to choose his / her own way of life freely.

• Ethical issues related to the key features of global climate change: There are a variety of other uncertainties that make it difficult to establish an ethical dialogue on some aspects of climate change. These requirements include:

The global dispersion of climate change's causes and effects;

Institutional insufficiency that makes it difficult to respond to climate change globally;

The persistence of climate change, non-linearity and time-delayed existence

CREATION OF KEY THEMES FOR CRITICAL ETHICAL DIALOGUE:

 Global climate change itself represents an ethical challenge and there is no clear framework for an ethical response to the problems of global climate change, not just its future impacts. This follows directly from the fact that, in different contexts, different actors are expected to respond adequately, humanely and ethically to the challenges of climate change.

 Addressing the ethical dilemma of climate change is an opportunity to build a constructive conversation between States and other relevant stakeholders from which a new consensus on the issues will emerge.

THE LINK BETWEEN FOREKNOWLEDGE AND THE DUTY TO ACT ON IT:

 The importance of behaviour and policies in ethics usually depends not only on the ideals and beliefs they understand, but also on their implications. The future consequences of his / her actions can therefore be foreseen by an agent.

 It is the duty of national governments and the international scientific community to prepare future generations of climate scientists who will be prepared to cope with ever-changing and contingent climate dynamics while at the same time becoming conscious of the interaction of global climate change 's environmental, social , cultural , political, economic and ethical dimensions.

APPLYING THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE AS A BASIS FOR ACTION IN THE FACE OF SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY

 Scientific uncertainty has vast consequences for both regional and national policy-making.

 The implementation of the precautionary principle in decision-making takes on significance in this context.

 It notes that action should not be delayed to avoid serious harm to humans or the environment until rigorous scientific evidence on the causes and effects of that harm is identified.

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 It asks governing bodies to aim to put systems and processes in place that are, on the one hand, durable and, on the other hand, responsive to human and environmental vulnerabilities.

CONCERNS ABOUT FUTURE GENERATIONS IN AN ETHICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

• With regard to every distant future generation, the alarming state of the present generation is that it still finds itself in a unilateral role: it is still in a role to behave with impunity, as there is no reason for reciprocity from those generations to come.

• As such, an important aspect of the ethical response to climate change is the concern of future generations.

REMOVING OBSTACLES TO SHARING AND DIFFERENTIATING RESPONSIBILITIES:

• The principal recognises that the real capacity to cope with climate change varies from country to country.

• Similar disparities exist within countries between sections of the population who can take action in the face of the threats of climate change and those who can not.

• It should be a well-established concept from an ethical point of view that those who have the potential to avoid or mitigate harm incurred by others and are in a position to do so without compromising a higher value than what is saved have a strong responsibility to act.

5.5 SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION • According to new research, the ongoing sixth mass extinction may be one of the most serious environmental threats to the persistence of civilization. • The Earth is currently experiencing an extinction crisis largely due to the exploitation of the planet by people. The research claims that this human-induced extinction is more immediate than climate destruction and described it as the “most serious environmental problem” since the loss of species will be permanent.

What Is The Mass Extinction Of Species? • Mass extinction refers to a substantial increase in the degree of extinction or when the Earth loses more than three-quarters of its species in a geologically short period of time. • So far, during the entire history of the Earth, there have been five mass extinctions. The sixth, which is ongoing, is referred to as the Anthropocene extinction. • The five mass extinctions that took place in the last 450 million years have led to the destruction of 70-95 per cent of the species of plants, animals and microorganisms that existed earlier. • These extinctions were caused by “catastrophic alterations” to the environment, such as massive volcanic eruptions, depletion of oceanic oxygen or collision with an asteroid. After each of these extinctions, it took millions of years to regain species comparable to those that existed before the event.

Earth’s Five Previous Mass Extinctions • End-Ordovician, (443 million years ago): A severe ice age led to sea level falling by 100m, wiping out 60-70% of all species which were prominently ocean dwellers at the time. Then soon after the ice melted leaving the oceans starved of oxygen.

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• Late Devonian, (c 360 million years ago): A messy prolonged climate change event, again hitting life in shallow seas very hard, killing 70% of species including almost all corals. • Permian-Triassic, (c 250 million years ago): The big one – more than 95% of species perished, including trilobites and giant insects – strongly linked to massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia that caused a savage episode of global warming. • Triassic-Jurassic, (c 200 million years ago): Three-quarters of species were lost, again most likely due to another huge outburst of volcanism. It left the Earth clear for dinosaurs to flourish. • Cretaceous-Tertiary, (65 million years ago): A giant asteroid impact on Mexico, just after large volcanic eruptions in what is now India, saw the end of the dinosaurs and ammonites. Mammals, and eventually humans, took advantage.

Impact Of Species Extinction? • According to the Center for Biological Diversity, when species go extinct, the impact can be tangible such as in the form of a loss in crop pollination and water purification. • Further, if a species has a specific function in an ecosystem, the loss can lead to consequences for other species by impacting the food chain. • When the number of individuals in a population or species drops too low, its contributions to ecosystem functions and services become unimportant, its genetic variability and resilience is reduced, and its contribution to human welfare may be lost. Way forward • Fight illegal wildlife trafficking: The study calls for a complete ban on wildlife trade as many of the species currently endangered or on the brink of extinction are being decimated by legal and illegal wildlife trade. • Slow human population growth: Humanity is an “unprecedented threat” to many living organisms is because of their growing numbers. The loss of species has been occurring since human ancestors developed agriculture over 11,000 years ago. Since then, the human population has increased from about 1 million to 7.7 billion. • Protect half the Earth's land and oceans: Currently, only 15% of land and 4% of the world's oceans are protected from encroachment by humans. • Stop burning fossil fuels: Adopt policies that promote cleaner energy such as carbon taxes, capand- trade pollution pricing systems and renewable energy tax credits. The Paris Agreement on climate change also creates a framework for a rapid shift away from fossil fuels.

5.6 OIL SPILL IN ARCTIC CIRCLE • An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. • Russia declared a state of emergency in Krasnoyarsk Region after a power plant fuel leak caused 20,000 tonnes of diesel oil to escape into Ambarnaya river within the Arctic Circle. • The thermoelectric power plant was built on permafrost, which has weakened over the years owing to climate change. This caused the pillars that supported the plant’s fuel tank to sink, leading to a loss of containment.

Consequences Of Oil Spills a) Effects on flora and fauna o Oil on ocean surfaces is harmful to many forms of aquatic life because it prevents sufficient amounts of sunlight from penetrating the surface, and it also reduces the level of dissolved oxygen. o Crude oil ruins the insulating and waterproofing properties of feathers and fur, and thus oilcoated birds and marine mammals may die from hypothermia. o Ingested oil can be toxic to affected animals, and damage to their habitat & reproductive rate. o Damage to plant life is also considerable as saltwater marshes and mangroves are two notable shore ecosystems that frequently suffer from oil spills. 74 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

www.upscwithnikhil.com b) Tourism: If beaches and populated shorelines are fouled, tourism and commerce may be severely affected. c) Commercial fishing: Major oil spills are frequently followed by the immediate suspension of commercial fishing, at the least to prevent damage to vessels and equipment but also to prevent the catch and sale of fish or shellfish that may be contaminated.

Cleanup And Recovery Methods • Oil Booms: Equipment called containment booms acts like a fence to prevent the oil from further spreading or floating away. • Skimmers: Once the oil has been confined by using oil booms, skimmers or oil scoops can be deployed onto boats to remove the contaminants from the water surface. Skimmers are machines specially designed to suck up the oil from the water surface like a vacuum cleaner. • Burning In-situ: In this method, the oil floating on the surface is ignited to burn it off. This in-situ burning of oil can effectively remove up to 98% of an oil spill, which is more than most of the other methods. • Dispersants: Dispersal agents are chemicals that are sprayed upon the spill with the help of aircraft and boats, which aid the natural breakdown of oil components. • Bioremediation: It is the use of specific microorganisms to remove any toxic or harmful substances. There are various classes of bacteria, fungi, archaea and algae that degrade petroleum products by metabolizing and breaking them into simpler and non-toxic molecules. • Sorbents: Sorbents are materials that soak up liquids by either absorption (pulling in through pores) or adsorption (forming a layer on the surface). Permafrost • Permafrost is ground that remains completely frozen at 0 degrees Celsius or below for at least two years. It is defined solely based on temperature and duration. • The permanently frozen ground, consisting of soil, sand, and rock held together by ice, is believed to have formed during glacial periods dating several millennia. • These grounds are known to be below 22 per cent of the land surface on Earth, mostly in polar zones and regions with high mountains. o They are spread across 55 per cent of the landmass in Russia and Canada, 85 per cent in the US state of Alaska, and possibly the entirety of Antarctica. o At lower latitudes, permafrost is found at high altitude locations such as Alps, Tibetan plateau etc. • While permafrost itself is always frozen, the surface layer that covers it (called the “active layer”) need not be. Its thickness reduces progressively towards the south, and is affected by a number of other factors, including the Earth’s interior heat, snow and vegetation cover, presence of water bodies, and topography.

6. SOCIAL ISSUES 6.1 INDIA'S RURAL EDUCATION: AN OUTLINE Context While India's literacy rate has shown solid growth in recent years, it has not been able to deliver the kind of education that modern times demand. If the rural education sector of a nation performs well, it represents the whole economic condition of the country.

Introducing Mahatma Gandhi once said, "India lives in her villages." And the remark made by the Father of the Nation many decades ago still seems to hold true even after fast-paced urbanisation in India. Rural populations as a percentage of the total population in India were registered at 66.46 percent in 2017, according to World Bank statistics collected from officially recognised sources.

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Speaking of literacy, the level of education is not only a reflection of a society's level of progress, but also an incentive for the growth and modernization of society. As a result, the government's primary objective of promoting rural education is to ensure an overall balance in growth.

Rural Education Status in India As per Census 2011, literacy rate in rural areas was around 68 per cent while it was 84 per cent in urban areas. Furthermore, only 59 per cent of rural women were estimated to be literate as compared to nearly 80 per cent urban women being literate in 2011. Some interesting findings have been thrown up by the survey on 'Social Consumption: Education' during the National Sample Survey (NSS) 71st Round, brought to light several ground level realities of education in rural India vis a vis urban India which are of relevance to a policy maker. ¡ The survey found that literacy rates in rural India were much lower in comparison to urban India across different age groups. ¡ While overall literacy rate among persons (aged 5 years and above) in India was 76 per cent, in rural areas it was 71 per cent compared to 86 per cent in urban areas. ¡ In both rural and urban areas, more than 90 per cent per cent households reported availability of primary school within 1 km from the house as per the survey. ¡ In rural areas, the major reason for 'never-enrolment' for persons of ages 5-29 years was 'not interested in education' (33 per cent male and 27 per cent female) while in urban areas, nearly 33 per cent males and 30 per cent females in the age group of 5-29 years never enrolled because of 'financial constraints'. ¡ The survey showed that nearly 6 per cent of rural households and 29 per cent of urban households possessed a computer. Among households with at least one member of age 14 years and above, nearly 16 per cent among rural households had internet access as compared to 49 per cent urban households. Among persons of age 14- 29 years, nearly 18 per cent in rural areas and 49 per cent in urban areas were able to operate a computer. ¡ As per Unified District Information System for Education (U-DISE) 2016-17, total number of schools in India were 15.3 lakhs out of which nearly 12.97 lakh schools were in rural areas. Total enrolment in schools was 25.13 crore out of which 18.02 crore was enrolment of students from rural areas. This data pertains to all the schools from Class I to Class XII across the country. Therefore, rural areas account for 84.46 per cent of total schools in India and 71.72 per cent of total student enrolment in India. In addition, 73.04 per cent teachers are placed in rural locations.

INDIAN RURAL EDUCATION CHALLENGES Small Number of Schools: Literacy in rural areas was 64.7 percent, as opposed to 79.5 percent in urban areas in 2018, according to the Ministry of Human Resource Development. The rural regions are struggling with the aim of providing education because there is a shortage of colleges. In addition, the problem is compounded further by inadequate transport and communication. Parents are now unable to send their kids to college. It serves as a major barrier to education.

Lack of financial resources: Poverty continues to be a significant social problem, and rural India is more affected by it. Owing to financial restrictions, children are unable to afford schooling. For most rural households, private schools are a costly and out-of-budget choice. With the little resources they have, they can either educate kids or lead a simple life.

Bad Infrastructure: Bad infrastructure bogs down rural schools. The teacher-student ratio is extremely imbalanced to begin with. The new teachers are not even well-trained. Of course, this impacts the standard of education being offered. Also basic services are not adequate, such as textbooks, drinking water, and libraries.

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Traditional Teaching Way: While pedagogy has increased many notches in urban areas with the advent of modern teaching techniques, these remain primitive and traditional in Indian villages. The urban schools have embraced the learning of principles, but the rural ones are still stuck to rote.

Lack of Technology: Rural schools are still deprived of technology and improved methods in the 21st century. For every child, basic computer literacy is a must. In rural India, however, schools often don't have computers or teachers to take up the subject. A digital divide in our nation is triggered by this alienation.

Rural-Urban Divide: Disparity in teaching methods, varying magnitude of subjects and topics taught means that rural and urban education are very different.

Parents' Ignorance: In rural schools, the dropout rate is high. Around 50 percent of learners drop out of school before the 12th grade is completed. All of this clearly shows that the situation of first generation learners is rather troubling and undoubtedly requires the government's attention.

STRATEGIES TO ENCOURAGE:

Equitable Education In rural India, there are many areas that are still bogged down by poverty , poor health, hunger, unemployment and inequality. While the government has worked to alleviate the conditions and some successes have been reported, we still need to travel a long path. And, in that direction, the state is taking the right steps. The different areas on which it is important to concentrate are:

Teacher availability: The teacher is key to successful education; education is the process between the teacher and the student at its heart. Teaching needs to improve if education is to improve. Any initiative to reform must understand the teacher's centrality.

Teaching is a discipline that is intellectually and ethically rigorous. With regard to their professional identity and expertise, teachers must be seen as autonomous, competent, and responsible professionals.

Trained Teachers: The first and foremost thing is to train each non-permanent teacher named recently. Student psychology should be understood by expert teachers, and they will be able to properly control and develop their pupils.

 Therefore, the first step should be to train teachers to ensure that the most basic requirements can be met.

Decentralization in school management: There is no question that the secret to repairing and reviving the dysfunctional rural education governance structure in India is decentralisation in school / college administration and governance. In this regard, in order to revive and improve the standard of education in rural areas of the country, the position of local bodies and self-help groups is most crucial.

Rural Connectivity: Due to the difficulties of getting there, most students and teachers opt out of classes. There are no simple railway links in rural areas , which makes travelling a strenuous operation. Of course, investments in the rail networks in rural areas would strengthen the education systems.

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Student Incentives: The mid-day meal is a perfect opportunity to go to school for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. More of these programmes should be built by the government to cater to students so that they have a reason to go to school every day.

Proper Toilets and Sanitation: The expression 'A sound mind in a sound body' is understood to all. In any school, proper toilets and sanitation are an absolute necessity. The availability of adequate toilets for girls and boys would only help to increase the number of school students.

Digitalization of education: Digital literacy is an important part of education, especially in a world where technological advancement is the flag bearer of change. The focus is not only on infrastructure, but also on quality and creative solutions through technology to enhance educational delivery systems. The student population has shown tremendous enthusiasm for studying e-Resources. This holds great promise for the future, as internet penetration grows and rural and far-flung areas will be the key beneficiaries of online courses and facilities.

Spread over an enormous landscape, affecting over 18 crore students (71 percent of the students of the nation), over 84 percent of the total schools in India account for the rural school education sector. Despite a rising trend in urbanisation, it is estimated that even in 2050, most of India will still reside in rural regions. Given the ripe demographic potential of the country, rural India 's growth is critical to forge the porgress of htentiaon.

GOVERNMENT RURAL AREAS INITIATIVES 'Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas' expansion,' Samagra Siksha' pan-India expansion and voluminous increase in budget allocations,' Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas' expansion,' Mid-Day Meal Scheme' quality improvements,' Unnat Bharat Abhiyan ',' Swachhta Abhiyan ',' Huge Online Courses ',' Eklavya Model Residential School Scheme' expansion, digital initiatives and extreme promotion Although some of the programs/schemes/projects are unique to rural areas, flagship programmes such as 'Samagra Shiksha' are also likely to have a huge effect on the expansion of infrastructure and quality enhancement of teachers in rural areas.

The ambitious programme 'Samagra Shiksha' was launched to encourage comprehensive education, integrating three major initiatives to provide integrated school education from pre-school to higher secondary level: 'Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)', 'Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)' and 'Teacher Education (TE)'. A big part of this umbrella scheme is the special arrangements for 'Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas',' Special Focus Districts (SFDs)',' Educationally Deprived Blocks (EEBs)',' Left Wing Extremism (LWE)' affected districts, etc. The plan also involves measures such as inservice preparation of teachers and school heads, library grants, recreation and physical activity.

CONCLUSION The government is working around the clock to make meaningful reforms to the country's education system so that learners can obtain world-class education. By equipping its students with the requisite skills and expertise, efforts are being made to make India an information superpower and to eradicate the shortage of staff in science , technology, academia and industry.

The centre and the states are also developing quality infrastructure , especially in the northeastern area, for better educational prospects. The government is especially focused on improving the education infrastructure in the country's rural and backward regions through a wide range of schemes, policies and programmes. The growth of every country depends on the education of its people. The various policies and systems aimed at

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EDUCATING TEACHER: PROBLEMS AND REFORMS The Government of India has set up many committees and commissions to improve the quality of teachers and for their professional development. Teacher education is a process for preparing professional teachers by inculcating necessary knowledge, competence, skills among them for teaching at various stages of school education. In our country, programmes are being conducted in the teacher training institutes and departments of education in the universities for preparing professional teachers The University Education Commission (1948) recommended that theory and practice of pre-service teacher education must support each other. The theory courses must be flexible and adaptable to local circumstances. The teachers should also be kept active and fresh through in-service education. The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) recommended the adoption of new techniques of evaluation and suggested that more capable and intelligent persons should be attracted to the teaching profession. There should be two types of training institutions (i) two years training for those who have taken the school leaving certificate and (ii) one year training for the graduates. Education Commission (1966) recommended that quality of training institutions and teacher education programme should be improved. A substantial allocation of funds should be made available to UGC for improvement of teacher education in the universities. Another important landmark was setting up of the State Institute of Education (SIE) in 1964 for providing greater coverage and regional specificity in the programmes of in-service education and training of teachers and other education-related personal concerned with primary education. The National Policy on Education (NPE) and Programme of Action (POA), 1986, 1992 (revised) calls for overhauling the teacher education system. NPE (1986) made three recommendations i.e. (i) teacher education as a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components inseparable (ii) the need for new programmes of teacher education to meet the thrusts envisaged in policy and (ii) the need for creating new structures and strengthening institutions to concretise the vision of NPE. In 1990, the Acharya Ramamurti Committee suggested that the training programme should be competency- based and there should be in tegration of theory and practice. The Yashpal Committee Report (1993) on Learning Without Burden noted "The content of the programme should be restructured to ensure its relevance to the changing needs of school education. The emphasis of these programmes should be on enabling the trainees to acquire the ability for self-learning and independent thinking." National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education of NCFTE (2009) suggested to improve the design and Impact greater rigour and professionalism to the teacher education programmes. Justice Verma Commission in 2012 also made many recommendations for improving the professionalism among teachers. The duration of teacher education programmes were increased. NCTE revised the norms and standards of fifteen programmes of teacher education during 2014 for improving quality and standard of teacher education programme in turn to improve the quality of teachers and professional development. In the end, it is concluded that many reforms have taken place in the area of teacher education from time to time in the light of recommendations made by different commissions and committees set up by Government of India for the professional development of teachers and teacher educators.

THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION EFFECTS

One of the most defining moments in the country has been the Right to Education (RTE) Act. The decision to bring about this law, like all momentous decisions, was also the culmination of deep thinking and earnest efforts over a number of decades to usher in universal education. We have come a long way from 1910 when Gopal

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Krishna Gokhale requested "Free and Compulsory Primary Education" in India to 2002 when Article 21-A was inserted in India's Constitution declaring that "the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of six and fourteen years in the manner that the State through decide by law."

The Ministry of Human Resources and Development (MHRD) report published in June 2014 shows that the central government has achieved a fair degree of progress in ensuring that the policies outlined in the RTE have been adopted in several countries. One of the RTE's most critical accomplishments has been a rise in enrollment. In 2016, only around 3% of children between the ages of 6-14 were out of school. The very first step towards addressing the malaise of illiteracy is school enrollment. A crucial factor that merits mention here is the 'Swachh Bharat-Swachh Vidyalaya' campaign which has been responsible for creation and maintenance of hygienic sanitation and drinking water facilities in schools. This has culminated in not only enrolling but also remaining in schools up to higher grades than ever for a significant number of female students. The 2015 Annual Report of the MHRD also shows that the curriculum provision under the RTE Act has been adopted by most states. Approximately 80 per cent of government teachers are technically trained according to the specified criteria, which is a good measure of teaching efficiency.

At the elementary level, the aim of 'entry to education' is more or less considered to be fulfilled and the emphasis is now moving to secondary and higher secondary levels. However, taking into account the difficulties in the actual realisation of the RTE targets, high dropouts and residual (disadvantaged) out-of-school students, continuous efforts at elementary level are also needed.

6.2 PRADHAN MANTRI SHRAM YOGI MAAN-DHAN (PM-SYM) The scheme was announced in the Interim Budget. As many as 42 crore workers are estimated to be engaged in the unorganized sector of the country. > ABOUT Who are eligible to this scheme? > The unorganised workers mostly engaged as home based workers, street vendors, midday meal workers, head loaders, brick kiln workers etc whose monthly income is Rs 15,000/ per month or less and belong to the entry age group of 18-40 years are eligible for the scheme. > They should not be covered under New Pension Scheme (NPS), Employees’ State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) scheme or Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO). > Further, he/she should not be an income tax payer. What are the benefits that a subscriber will receive? > Each subscriber under the PM-SYM, shall receive minimum assured pension of Rs 3000/- per month after attaining the age of 60 years. > During the receipt of pension, if the subscriber dies, the spouse of the beneficiary shall be entitled to receive 50% of the pension received by the beneficiary as family pension. Family pension is applicable only to spouse. > If a beneficiary has given regular contribution and died due to any cause (before age of 60 years), his/her spouse will be entitled to join and continue the scheme subsequently by payment of regular contribution or exit the scheme as per provisions of exit and withdrawal. How much a subscriber has to contribute? > The subscriber’s contributions to PM-SYM shall be made through ‘auto-debit’ facility from his/ her savings bank account/ Jan- Dhan account. > The subscriber is required to contribute the prescribed contribution amount from the age of joining PM-SYM till the age of 60 years. > PM-SYM is a voluntary and contributory pension scheme on a 50:50 basis where prescribed age-specific contribution shall be made by the beneficiary and the matching contribution by the Central Government as per the chart.

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> For example, if a person enters the scheme at an age of 29 years, he is required to contribute Rs 100/ - per month till the age of 60 years. An equal amount of Rs 100/- will be contributed by the Central Government. How will the beneficiaries get registered? > The enrolment will be carried out by all the Community Service Centers (CSCs). > The unorganised workers may visit their nearest CSCs along with their Aadhar Card and Savings Bank account passbook/Jandhan account and get registered themselves for the Scheme. Contribution amount for the first month shall be paid in cash for which they will be provided with a receipt. Who will manage the fund? > PM-SYM will be a Central Sector Scheme administered by the Ministry of Labour and Employment and implemented through Life Insurance Corporation of India and CSCs. LIC will be the Pension Fund Manager and responsible for Pension pay out. > The amount collected under PM-SYM pension scheme shall be invested as per the investment pattern specified by Government of India. What are the ways of early exits before the maturity? > In case subscriber exits the scheme within a period of less than 10 years, the beneficiary’s share of contribution only will be returned to him with savings bank interest rate. > If subscriber exits after a period of 10 years or more but before superannuation age i.e. 60 years of age, the beneficiary’s share of contribution along with accumulated interest as actually earned by fund or at the savings bank interest rate whichever is higher. > After the death of subscriber as well as his/her spouse, the entire corpus will be credited back to the fund.

6.3 MISSING AT BIRTH: ON SEX SELECTIVE ABORTION AND INFANTICIDE • Sex-selective abortion is the practice of ending a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the infant. • It is a problem in India where there is a cultural preference for sons, coupled with political and economic influences. • Instances of sex discrimination committed via abortion and infanticide have resulted in millions of “missing” girls in some societies.

CONTEXT: • There was a case of infanticide in Tamil Nadu’s Usilampatti, which is historically notorious for its crude methods of killing female babies. • In this region, there is an inhuman practice of feeding female infants with toxic milk.

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF SEX-SELECTIVE ABORTIONS IN INDIA? • Son Preference – Throughout much of India, sons are often valued to carry on the family name and receive the inheritance.

* According to traditional Hindu customs, important religious rituals, such as the lighting of the funeral pyre, must be performed by a son to assure that parents have a good afterlife. * Sons also provide parents with the assurance that they will be cared for—physically, emotionally, and financially—in sickness and old age. • Daughters, on the other hand, are often seen as a burden and a net financial loss. * Although illegal, the practice of dowry is still common in India, and couples will often spend a substantial amount of their savings on their daughter’s dowry. * Moreover, marriage in India is typically patrilocal. 81 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT • Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PC-PNDT) was enacted and amended to arm the state to wage a war against this practice. * It is an Act of the Parliament enacted to stop female feticides and arrest the declining sex ratio in India. * The main purpose of enacting the Act is to ban the use of sex-selection techniques after conception and prevent the misuse of prenatal diagnostic techniques for sex-selective abortions. • The Centre’s ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ is a joint initiative of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of Human Resource Development. * The campaign is aimed at preventing gender biased sex selection and ensuring the survival & protection of the girl child. Read more on the Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign at the linked article. • Tamil Nadu, under the leadership of former Chief Minister Jayalalithaa, effectively employed the Cradle Baby Scheme to counter infanticide, along with effective awareness campaigns.

Some possible solutions for ending India’s sex-selective abortion crisis • Effective Enforcement of Laws Banning Sex-Selective Abortion – In order to reduce the number of sex selective abortions in India, the central, state, and union territory governments must ensure full and effective implementation of the PC-PNDT Act, including promptly holding medical practitioners that violate the law accountable. * The government must ensure that all ultrasound clinics are registered, and that accurate, up-todate records are kept. • Promote the Equal Dignity and Status of Women – Studies have shown that men and women with gender- equitable attitudes and husbands who display low relationship control are significantly less likely to express a strong preference for sons. * Promoting the equal dignity and status of women will reduce son preference and thus reduce the motivation for couples to engage in sex selection practices. • Public and non-governmental stakeholders seeking to combat sex-selective abortions must promote the dignity of girls through public awareness messaging. * Such messaging should not only reinforce cultural-based reasons why Indian couples desire daughters, but should also seek to advocate for the equal status of girls and their equal potential to contribute to their families.

CONCLUSION • It is time for the government to ramp up awareness building exercises, and this time use technology to monitor every single pregnant woman right down to taluk levels until at least one year after birth. * While punitive aspects might offer a measure of deterrence, true change can only be brought about by a change in attitude. • The weapon that the government needs to use now is one that will be powerful enough to eliminate the perversion of son preference from people’s minds.

6.4 SCORING LOW CONTEXT • The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Human Resource Development’s (HRD) report on the 2020- 2021 budgetary grants for school education and literacy submitted to the Rajya Sabha.

DETAILS: • The Parliamentary panel has identified critical infrastructure gaps in government schools. It has used data available from the Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE) 2017-18 survey.

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• The survey reports that only 56.45% of government schools had access to electricity and 56.98%, a playground. • The survey also notes the neglect of toilet construction for children with special needs, failure to build toilets for girls in a third of secondary schools and laboratories for higher secondary science students.

CONCERNS: • Lack of basic facilities: * Though there are some high-performing States, however, even in politically well-represented Uttar Pradesh, almost 70% of schools lacked electricity. Manipur and Madhya Pradesh have reported less than 20% of government schools having access to power.

* India has not been able to electrify a significant number of government schools. • Lack of intent: Effect on learning outcomes: * The budgetary allocations have observed a 27% cut over the * Though India has a large private school budgetary proposals made by the School Education Department. system at the primary and secondary level, This, even though public expenditure on education has been rising complementing the government-run schools, yearly. the share of students in the 6 to 14 age group * Notably, the department had only spent 71% of revised in government schools still stands at around estimates by December 31, 2019. 70%.

* The tardy progress on important facilities, despite the projects * While quantitatively India is inching closer having been sanctioned, shows the low priority that school to universal education, the quality of its education is being accorded. It speaks poorly of policy priorities of education has been questioned particularly in the government. its government-run school system.

WAY FORWARD: * The lack of appropriate infrastructure at • Prioritizing public school system: government schools may further impact the * A public school system that guarantees universal access, good learning outcome of its students and may also alienate students from government learning and all facilities has to be among the highest national schools. priorities.

• Mission mode approach: * Given the comparatively higher fees * Similar to the launch of a ‘100-day programme’ for education structure in the private institutes, the poor launched by the present government, focusing on the training of have very few alternatives apart from schoolteachers and opening of central schools, there is the need government schools. for a mission-mode approach on school infrastructure. * Basic infrastructure should be focused on, like electricity and * This would severely affect India’s ability to toilets. harness its demographic dividend. • Co-operation and coordination: * The panel has recommended that the HRD Ministry collaborate with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to provide solar and other energy sources so that schools have access to power. * Government schemes like MGNREGA can be utilized to build basic infrastructure for the schools. • Community participation: * Community participation should be emphasized. Apart from contributing resources to the cause they can also help monitor the progress and ensure accountability. • Need for fund infusion: * The government-run school sector needs a fund infusion. Given the criticality of education, core schemes like the Samagra Shiksha Scheme should get additional funds. • Inclusive approach: * Given the stark differences in the statistics among the states and within the states, there is a need to ensure a balanced approach to ensure that no school is left behind. 83 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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* Keeping in line with the spirit of Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan, the work should also involve toilet construction for children with special needs. • Focusing on all-round development: * Given the increasing evidence of the importance of physical activities for a child’s development, infrastructure like playground facilities should also be considered as basic infrastructure for schools. * Though it may be challenging to find attached playgrounds, the problem can also be overcome by identifying suitable commons that can be upgraded to accommodate students, while permanent arrangements are made. * This will also provide impetus to government initiatives like Fit India Movement.

6.5 GLOBAL NUTRITION REPORT 2020 WHY IN NEWS The Global Nutrition Report 2020 stated that India is among 88 countries that are likely to miss global nutrition targets by 2025. > It also identified the country as one with the highest rates of domestic inequalities in malnutrition. Global Nutrition Targets > In 2012, the World Health Assembly (the decision making body of the World Health Organisation) identified six nutrition targets to be met by 2025. These are: - Reduce stunting by 40% in children under 5. - Reduce the prevalence of anaemia by 50% among women in the age group of 19-49 years. - Ensure 30% reduction in low-birth weight. - Ensure no increase in childhood overweight. - Increase the rate of exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months up to at least 50% - Reduce and maintain childhood wasting to less than 5%.

INDIA’S STATUS > India will miss targets for all four nutritional indicators for which there is data available, i.e. - Stunting among under-5 children, - Anaemia among women of reproductive age, - Childhood overweight and - Exclusive breastfeeding. > Stunting and wasting among children - Data: 37.9% of children under 5 years are stunted and 20.8% are wasted, compared to the Asia average of 22.7% and 9.4% respectively. - Inequity: India is identified as among the three worst countries, along with Nigeria and Indonesia, for steep within-country disparities in stunting, where the levels varied four-fold across communities. For example, Stunting level in Uttar Pradesh is over 40% and their rate among individuals in the lowest income group is more than double those in the highest income group at 22.0% and 50.7%, respectively. In addition, stunting prevalence is 10.1% higher in rural areas compared to urban areas. > Overweight and Obesity - Data: Rate of overweight and obesity continues to rise, affecting almost a fifth of the adults, at 21.6% of women and 17.8% of men. - Inequity: There are nearly double as many obese adult females than there are males (5.1% compared to 2.7%). > Anaemia - One in two women of reproductive age is anaemic. > Underweight children - Between 2000 and 2016, rates of underweight have decreased from 66.0% to 58.1% for boys and 54.2% to 50.1% in girls. - However, this is still high compared to the average of 35.6% for boys and 31.8% for girls in Asia.

Link Between Malnutrition and Inequity

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> The report emphasis on the link between malnutrition and different forms of inequity, such as those based on geographic location, age, gender, ethnicity, education and wealth in all its forms. > Inequities in food and health systems increase inequalities in nutrition outcomes that in turn can lead to more inequity, perpetuating a vicious cycle. > Coming at a time the world is battling Covid-19, which has exposed different forms of socio-economic inequities, the report calls for promoting equity to address malnutrition. Malnutrition > Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/ or nutrients. > The term malnutrition covers two broad groups of conditions. - One is ‘undernutrition’—which includes stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height), underweight (low weight for age) and micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals). - The other is overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and cancer). > In April 2016, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition from 2016 to 2025. > The Sustainable Development Goal (SD Goal 2: Zero hunger) aims to end all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030, making sure all people – especially children – have access to sufficient and nutritious food all year round. Global Nutrition Report > The Global Nutrition Report was conceived following the first Nutrition for Growth Initiative Summit (N4G) in 2013. - The first report was published in 2014. > It acts as a report card on the world’s nutrition— globally, regionally, and country by country—and on efforts to improve it. > It is a multi-stakeholder initiative, consisting of a Stakeholder Group, Independent Expert Group and Report Secretariat.

6.6 NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2020 The Union cabinet recently approved the National Education Policy, 2020, which is a seminal moment that sets out the path for education in the country for the next 20 years. In the three decades since the last National Education Policy 1986/1992 was formulated, the social, political and economic environment in India and the world has changed significantly. The economy has opened up, social structures have changed, there is increased participation in political, social and economic processes. New global challenges have emerged, while rapid advances in technology present both opportunities and challenges to human well-being. India has made progress — education is now recognised as a fundamental right, access to education at different stages has increased dramatically and important curricular reforms have been made. However, equity and quality of education still remain challenges. While, the country has some world class institutions, it still struggles to create similarly effective learning opportunities. NEP, 2020 is a response to these changes and challenges. It is also a response to the unfinished education agenda set by the two previous education policies of 1968 and1986/1992. In doing so, it changes the name of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to the Ministry of Education. Based on two committee reports (TSR Subramanian Committee in 2016 and the K Kasturirangan Committee) and extensive nationwide consultations, NEP 2020 seeks to address the entire gamut of education from preschool to doctoral studies, and from professional degrees to vocational training.

Various Provisions Of The Policy A. School Structure • In a significant shift from the 1986 policy, which pushed for a 10+2 structure of school education, the new NEP proposes a 5+3+3+4 design corresponding to the age groups 3-8 years (foundational stage), 8-11 (preparatory), 11-14 (middle), and 14-18 (secondary).

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• This brings early childhood education (also known as pre-school education for children of ages 3 to 5) under the ambit of formal schooling and proposes the extension of the Right to Education (RTE) to all children up to the age of 18.

B. New Learning Framework • A new curricular framework is to be introduced, including the pre-school and anganwadi years. The school curriculum overhaul will come in the shape of a new National Curricular Framework for School Education (or NCFSE 2020-21), which will be undertaken by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). • A National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy will ensure basic skills at the Class 3 level by 2025. • Students will begin classes on coding as well as vocational activities from Class 6 onwards. Indian knowledge systems, including tribal and indigenous knowledge, will be incorporated into the curriculum in an accurate and scientific manner. • Further, the policy advocates the introduction of contemporary subjects such as artificial intelligence, design thinking, holistic health and organic living.

C. Medium of Instruction • Wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, but preferably till Grade 8 and beyond, will be the home language/ mother tongue/ local language/ regional language. • Thereafter, the home/local language shall continue to be taught as a language wherever possible. This will be followed by both public and private schools. • Following widespread protests, the reference to Hindi and English in the draft NEP regarding the three- language formula has been dropped from the final policy document. The three languages learned by children will be the choices of States, regions, and of the students, so long as at least two of the three languages are native to India.

D. Reforms in Examination • The new policy talks about moving away from high-stakes examinations towards more continuous and comprehensive evaluation. • It aims to reform Board exams, through a reduction in the syllabus to retain core essentials” and a thrust on experiential learning and critical thinking. The focus will be on testing concepts and knowledge application. • All students will be allowed to take Board Exams on up to two occasions during any given school year, one main examination and one for improvement, if desired. • There will be an aptitude test on the lines of SAT in the US for entrance into colleges and Board results alone will no longer determine admission. • To be overseen by the National Testing Agency (NTA), these tests will serve as a common entrance exam across the country with universities free to add other criteria. However, universities can choose to disregard NTA assessments altogether and continue with their own entrance exams

E. Higher Education Institutions • The new policy marks a significant shift in the format of undergraduate education with the introduction of the four-year multidisciplinary Bachelor’s programme, with exit options. • While the traditional three-year BA, B.Sc, and B.Voc degrees will continue, under the four-year programme, students can exit after one year with a certificate, after two years with a diploma, and after three years with a Bachelor’s degree. • The 4-year multidisciplinary Bachelor’s programme, however, shall be the preferred option since it allows the opportunity to experience the full range of holistic and multidisciplinary education. 86 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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• The four-year programme may also lead to a degree with Research if the student completes a rigorous research project in their major area(s) of study. • To enroll for a Ph.D, a Master’s degree or a 4-year Bachelor’s degree with Research shall be required. The M.Phil programme shall be discontinued. • In a first of its kind proposal, an Academic Bank of Credit (ABC) shall be established which would digitally store the academic credits earned from various recognised HEIs and will also make it easier to transfer between institutions. • NEP calls for a transparent mechanism for fixing fees with an upper limit, for different types of institutions depending on their accreditation. This will empower private HEIs to set fees for their programmes independently, though within the laid out norms and the broad applicable regulatory mechanism.

F. Multidisciplinary Institutions • The policy proposes the phasing out of all institutions offering single streams (such as technical education) over time. • All universities and colleges must aim to become multidisciplinary by 2040. Even engineering institutions, such as IITs, will be expected to move towards more holistic and multidisciplinary education with more arts and humanities. • Students of arts and humanities will aim to learn more science and all will make an effort to incorporate more vocational subjects and soft skills.

G. Foreign Universities • Paving the way for foreign universities to set up campuses in India, the new policy states that the world’s top 100 universities will be facilitated to operate in the country through a new law. • Such universities will be given special dispensation regarding regulatory, governance, and content norms on par with other autonomous institutions of India.

H. Increase In Gross Enrolment Ratio • The NEP emphasises universal access to schools, and aims to bring two crore out-of-school children back into the educational mainstream. • It also aims to double the Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education, including vocational education, from 26.3% in 2018 to 50% by 2035, with an additional 3.5 crore new seats. • To achieve this, the National Scholarship Portal will be expanded to support, foster, and track the progress of students receiving scholarships.

I. Teacher Development The policy emphasises rigorous teacher preparation through four-year teacher education programmes, continuous teacher professional development, positive working environment and enabling service conditions for teachers.

J. Include Disadvantaged Groups • The policy brings focus on socially and economically disadvantaged groups, which include gender, socio- cultural, and geographical identities besides disabilities. • Regions with large chunk of educationally-disadvantaged groups will be declared Special Education Zones. • The Centre will also set up a ‘Gender-Inclusion Fund’ to build the country’s capacity to provide equitable quality education to all girls and transgender students.

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• The fund will be available to States to implement priorities determined by the Central government critical for assisting female and transgender children in gaining access to education (such as the provisions of sanitation and toilets, bicycles, conditional cash transfers, etc).

K. Governance • The NEP also paves the way for a single overarching regulator for higher education, which will replace the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). • The single regulator, called the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI), will have four independent verticals to carry out the functions of regulation, funding, accreditation, and setting standards for learning outcomes. • The college affiliation system is being phased out over the next 15 years, so that every college develops into either an autonomous degree-granting institution, or a constituent college of a university. In course of time, colleges will not need to seek affiliations but award degrees themselves.

Implementation Of The Policy • The government has set a target of 2040 to implement the entire policy. However, the policy only provides a broad direction and is not mandatory to follow. • Since education is a concurrent subject (both the Centre and the state governments can make laws on it), the reforms proposed can only be implemented collaboratively by the Centre and the states. • The government plans to set up subject-wise committees with members from relevant ministries at both the central and state levels to develop implementation plans for each aspect of the NEP. • The plans will list out actions to be taken by multiple bodies, including the HRD Ministry, state Education Departments, school Boards, NCERT, Central Advisory Board of Education and National Testing Agency, among others. Planning will be followed by a yearly joint review of progress against targets set.

Issues And Challenges • In a federal system, any educational reform can be implemented only with support from the States, and the Centre has a difficult task of building a consensus on many ambitious plans. • The implementation requires enormous resources and an ambitious target of public spending at 6% of GDP has been set. However, the allocation seems unlikely, due to the current tax-to-GDP ratio and competing claims on the national exchequer of healthcare, national security and other key sectors. • Placing the burden of pre-primary education on the overstretched, under-funded and underequipped anganwadis may also lead to disastrous results. • Further, the goal of 50% enrolment ratio in higher education and 100% in secondary school education, could be tough to achieve, since it is currently only 25.8% in higher education & 68% in Class 9. • Moreover, there are various proposals which require legal changes and may face legislative hurdles in implementation.

Analysis • The New Education Policy, for the most part, provides a forward-looking framework for transforming Indian education. It acknowledges the 21st century need for mobility, flexibility, alternate pathways to learning, and self-actualisation. • It recognizes education as a public good. This has important implications for public policy in planning, providing, and financing education. It also has important implications for the state’s approach towards private education. • By delivering on its promise of providing greater flexibility and skills to students and greater autonomy to educational institutions, it could prove a game changer.

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• It signals the new normal in education with its focus on critical thinking, experiential learning, interactive classrooms, integrated pedagogy and competency-based education. • Inclusive digital education features as a component throughout all reform areas, powering India’s journey towards the fourth industrial revolution. • Through a robust education system, leveraging the full potential of its demographic dividend, India can take a giant leap towards establishing itself as a knowledge superpower. As with every policy, the real test of NEP will be translating it to action. Backed by quick and effective implementation in sync with its spirit, NEP could shape the lives of the future generations. If the government does little else but implement most of the recommendations on school education and empower India’s school children, the future will belong to India.

6.7 DAUGHTERS HAVE EQUAL RIGHT TO INHERIT PROPERTY Supreme Court observations regarding the provisions of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005.

Background: Mitakshara law: Mitakshara is one of the schools belonging to Hindu law dealing with property rights, and succession. Mitakshara law is still in practice across most of India except for West Bengal and Assam where the Dayabhaga system is practiced. The Mitakshara is a legal treatise on inheritance, written by Vijnaneshwara, a scholar in the Western Chalukya court in the 12th century.

Mitakshara law provides the principle of division of ancestral property held by the Hindu joint family. Partition of such landholding among offsprings is possible even with the father still living unlike the Dayabhaga system. As per the law, the right to Hindu joint family property is by birth. So, a son immediately after birth gets a right to the property. The Mitakshara School of coparcenary recognizes the birth right of son, son's son, son's son's son. The system of devolution of property is by survivorship. The share of coparcener in the joint family property is not definite or ascertainable, as their shares are fluctuating with births and deaths of the co-parceners.

Hindu Succession Act, 1956: The Mitakshara School of Hindu Law was codified as the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 only recognised males as legal heirs. Traditionally, only male descendants of a common ancestor along with their mothers, wives and unmarried daughters are considered a joint Hindu family. The law applied to everyone who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion. Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and followers of the Arya Samaj, the Brahmo Samaj are also considered Hindus for the purposes of this law.

The law applies to ancestral property and to intestate succession in personal property — where succession happens as per law and not through a will.

Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005: The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 is an amendment to the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 aimed to remove gender discriminatory provisions regarding property rights in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 by balancing the property rights of male and female siblings. The amended Hindu Succession Act gives daughters equal rights to ancestral property. The 174th Law Commission Report had also recommended this reform in Hindu succession law.

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Even before the 2005 amendment, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu had made this change in the law, and Kerala had abolished the Hindu Joint Family System in 1975.

The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 had a retrospective effect with the provision that partitions or testamentary disposition that had taken place prior to December 20, 2004 would remain valid and unaffected by the change. This led to the interpretation that the daughters’ coparcenary rights, being prospective, would not come into effect unless both the coparcener father and his daughter were alive on September 9, 2005- the date the law came into effect. This interpretation was upheld by the Supreme Court in its 2015 judgment in the Prakash and Others vs. Phulavati case.

Details: The Supreme Court has recently held that a Hindu woman’s right to be a joint heir to the ancestral property is by birth and does not depend on whether her father was alive or not when the law was enacted in 2005.

The court has recognised that the 2005 amendment conferred equal status as a coparcener on daughters in Hindu families governed by Mitakshara law, and this right accrued by birth. The Supreme Court has held that daughters have an equal birthright with sons to inherit joint Hindu family property. Significance of the verdict: Upholding the spirit of the 2005 amendment: The decision of the Supreme Court corrects an anomaly in the interpretation of the 2005 amendment to the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. Though the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 took reformatory steps towards ending gender discrimination with respect to property inheritance, the wrong interpretations of its provisions had disabled many Hindu women to claim ancestral property. By locating the origin of the coparcenary right in one’s birth, the SC’s decision has allowed the application of this prospectve legislation to be retroactive. The SC judgment has sought to give full effect to the reformatory intent of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 by setting at rest doubts arising from varying interpretations.

Gender equality: SC decision on coparcenary rights of women is in line with the aim of ending gender discrimination. The judgment helps uphold the daughter’s rights as being equal to that of a son and endorses gender equality. This is in consonance with the right of equality as enshrined under Article 14, 15, & 21 of the constitution of India.

7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1 NIF BOOSTS NEW VARIETIES OF ANTHURIUM • National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF) has recently boosted new varieties of Anthurium. These flowers with high market value, help to purify air are cultivated by a lady innovator from Kerala.

ABOUT: • Anthurium (Anthurium spp.) is a vast group of beautiful blooming plants available in a wide range of colors. > Anthurium is one of the best domestic flowering plants in the world. They are beautiful but also purify the surrounding air and remove harmful airborne chemicals like formaldehyde, ammonia, toluene, xylene, and allergens.

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> Its importance of removing toxic substances from the air, NASA has placed it in the list of air purifier plants. > Anthurium has larger economic importance because of its eye-catching and beautiful inflorescence and fetches a good market price.

The new development: > D Vasini Bai, a women innovator from Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, has developed ten varieties of Anthurium by cross-pollination. > The uniqueness of these varieties are large and medium-size flowers with uncommon color combinations of spathe and spadix (viz. light and dark orange, magenta, green and rose color combination, dark red and white colors). > She has also developed a new method for raising the seedlings in limited space using corrugated asbestos sheets. > For transplanting grown-up seedlings, she uses concrete troughs instead of pots. > These methods have helped her in growing more plants in limited space, thus reducing the costs and maintenance and increasing the income at the same time. > She sells the Anthurium flowers and plants to local florists as well as in cities like Pune and Mumbai at an average price of rupees 60-75 per flower.

Significant achievements of Vasini Bai: > Vasini Bai has received a number of awards and recognition for developing the Anthurium varieties. > In 2017, she was awarded with state award at the Ninth National Biennial competition organized by National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF) by the then President of India Shri Pranab Mukherjee. > Her interest in developing new Anthurium variety instigated in the late 1970s. In 1980, she manually cross- pollinated for the first time. > After years of experiments in 1985, she developed the first variety of Anthurium- Dora (single plant with 8-10 leaves and multiple flowers with orange-colored spathe). > She continued her work, and during 1985–2000, she developed another five varieties viz. Dora- I, Dora –II, Dora –III, Dora –IV and Dora – V. > The other five varieties Akash, George, Giant Pink, JV Red, and JV Pink were developed later through manual cross-pollination.

NATIONAL INNOVATION FOUNDATION (NIF): > The National Innovation Foundation (NIF) is India’s national initiative to strengthen the grassroots technological innovations and outstanding traditional knowledge. > Its mission is to help India become a creative and knowledge-based society by expanding policy and institutional space for grassroots technological innovators. > It was set up with the support of Honey Bee Network. > NIF scouts, supports and spawns’ grassroots innovations developed by individuals and local communities in any technological field, helping in human survival without any help from formal sector.

7.2 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD IS WEAKENING The Earth’s magnetic field is weakening between Africa and South America, causing issues for satellites and space craft. Scientists studying the phenomenon observed that the South Atlantic Anomaly has grown considerably in recent years, though the reason for it is not entirely clear. WHAT IS THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH? - Earth’s magnetic field is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth’s interior out into space exerting a force on the charged particles emanating from the Sun.

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- It gets stretched out into a comet-like shape with a tail of magnetism that stretches millions of miles behind the Earth, opposite from the Sun. - The magnetic field of Earth protects the life of Earth from the harmful cosmic radiation and charged particles emitted from the Sun.

WHAT CAUSES IT? - The magnetic field of the Earth is due to the metallic and liquid outer core of the planet, around 3,000 km below our feet. - It creates electric currents that generate and change our electromagnetic field. The outer core of the planet is like a giant dynamo. - The rotation of the Earth creates movements inside the liquid outer core which gives rise to the geomagnetic field. - The Northern Lights in the Polar Regions are also caused by the magnetic field of Earth – the energy particles emitted by the Sun are channelled by the Earth’s magnetic field towards the poles, where they interact with the atmosphere to What scientists have found? create the aurora borealis. - Using data gathered by the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Swarm constellation of ABOUT SOUTH ATLANTIC ANOMALY: satellites, researchers noted that the area of the anomaly dropped in strength by more - The South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) is a stretch between Africa and than 8 per cent between 1970 and 2020. South America. - The magnetic field has lost nearly nine per - SAA is an occurrence that takes place due to something known as cent of its strength on a global average in the the Van Allen Radiation Belts. last 200 years. - These Van Allen radiation belts are responsible for trapping - This year, the “minimum field strength” in radioactive particles near the coast of Brazil, which creates the SAA the South Atlantic Anomaly has seen a drop phenomenon. of around 24,000 nanoteslas to 22,000 from VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELTS: its strength in 1970. - The area of anomaly has also grown in this - A radiation belt refers to a layer of charged and energetic period. The patch has also moved farther particles which is held by the planet’s magnetic field around the west at a rate of roughly 12 miles per hour planet. over the last 50 years. - The Van Allen belt specifically refers to the radiation belts around - The last time a “geomagnetic reversal” took the Earth. place was 780,000 years ago, with some - The main constituents of the belts are believed to come from scientists claiming that the next one is long solar wind and cosmic rays. The belt is divided into two belts - overdue. Typically, such events take place outer and inner. every 250,000 years. > The inner belt extends from roughly 600 miles to 3,700 miles, that is, from 1,000 km to 6,000 km above the earth's surface. > The outer belt extends from 9,200 miles (15,000 km) to 15,600 miles (25,000 km) above the surface.

HOW WILL IT IMPACT? - The weakening of magnetic field gives rise to speculations that Earth is heading for an eminent pole reversal, a phenomenon in which north and south poles switch places. - The repercussions of such an event could be significant, as the Earth’s magnetic field plays an important role in protecting the planet from solar winds and harmful cosmic radiation. - Telecommunication and satellite systems also rely on it to operate, suggesting that computers and mobile phones could experience difficulties. The South Atlantic Anomaly is already causing issues with satellites orbiting Earth, while spacecrafts flying in the area could also experience “technical malfunctions”.

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- Birds, turtles and other creatures also use the magnetic field of Earth to navigate. In effect, the navigation systems and mapping functions in smartphones may be affected.

CONCLUSION: The process is not an instantaneous one and could take tens of thousands of years to take place. The mystery of the origin of the South Atlantic Anomaly has yet to be solved. However, one thing is certain: magnetic field observations from Swarm are providing exciting new insights into the scarcely understood processes of Earth’s interior.

7.3 OXYTOCIN > The central government moved Supreme Court against the Delhi high court order which quashed the ban on sale of Oxytocin by private manufacturers and retail chemists. > ABOUT More on news > Last year government has banned oxytocin’s private manufacture and sale stating its indiscriminate use in milch cattle has affected the health of cattle and humans as well. > The Delhi high court recently had quashed the Centre’s December 14, 2018 notification, which had banned its sale by private manufacturers and retail chemists, saying the sale was allowed. > Oxytocin has been moved to the H1 category, which means retailers must maintain record of sales. > It also figures in the National List of Essential Medicines. Why was it banned? > The government’s ban order referred to a 2016 Himachal Pradesh High Court judgment, which said daily oxytocin injections made cattle barren and reduced their lifespans. > In addition, drinking milk from oxytocin-treated cattle led to male impotence, early puberty among women and cancers. What is Oxytocin and what are its uses? > Oxytocin is naturally secreted by the pituitary glands of mammals during sex, childbirth, lactation or social bonding, and is sometimes called “love hormone”. > It is used as a drug during childbirth because it can contract the uterus and induce delivery, control bleeding, and promote the release of breast milk. > Oxytocin can be administered to humans as an injection or a nasal solution. > It is chemically synthesised and sold by pharmaceutical companies across the world. Why is oxytocin important for India? > Around 45,000 women die due to causes related to childbirth each year. > Synthetic version of a human hormone is used to induce labour in pregnant women and to stem postpartum bleeding. > WHO recommends it as the drug of choice in postpartum haemorrhage. > Scheduled Drugs: Drugs and Cosmetics Act differentiates prescription drugs, narcotic and psychotropic substances, over the counter drugs and medical devices, with a view to promote safety in public health.This scheduling system helps law makers, law enforcers, and healthcare professionals identify the nature of existing as well as new drugs. > Schedule H Drugs: Only the required amount of medications mentioned in the prescription can be dispensed. These drugs can be supplied only to the licensed parties. The drug label must exhibit the text “Rx” and Schedule H drug warning. To be sold by retails on the prescription of a registered medical practioner only. > Schedule H1 Drugs: These include 3rd & 4th generation antibiotics, anti-tuberculosis drugs and certain habit- forming drugs like psychotropic drugs. > Schedule X drugs: That stipulates prescription in duplicate, separate license requirement and meticulous storage and dispensing records)

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www.upscwithnikhil.com 7.4 CONNECTING CHENNAI – ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS (CANI)

The Prime Minister inaugurated the first-ever undersea optical fibre cable project for Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Details: The submarine Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) connecting Andaman & Nicobar Islands to the mainland was launched. About 2,300 km of submarine optical fibre cable (OFC) has been laid at a cost of about Rs 1,224 crore to provide better connectivity in the UT. The project is funded by the government through the Universal Service Obligation Fund under the ministry of communications. The PM said that all the Islands of India would be playing an important role under India’s new trade strategy for the Indo-Pacific region. He also opined that under the Act-East policy, the role of Andaman and Nicobar in India’s strong relations with East Asian countries and other countries connected to the sea is very high and is going to increase.

Significance: The submarine cable is expected to help the islands in getting cheaper & better connectivity and all the benefits of Digital India, especially in improving online education, telemedicine, banking system, online trading and in boosting tourism. It will provide high-speed broadband connections in the union territory at par with services in the mainland. Business Process Outsourcing services and other medium and large enterprises too also benefit from better connectivity.

Submarine communications cable A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The optical fibre elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed.

Types of Submarine fibre cables: There are two types of Submarine fibre cables: unrepeatered and repeatered. Unrepeatered cables are preferred in short cable routes because it does not require repeaters, lowering costs; however, their maximum transmission distance is limited. How Fibre optic cables are placed under the ocean? Submarine cables are laid down by using specially-modified ships that carry the submarine cable on board and slowly lay it out on the seabed as per the plans given by the cable operator.

Importance of submarine cables Currently 99 per cent of the data traffic that is crossing oceans is carried by undersea cables. The reliability of submarine cables is high, especially when multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the terabits per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000 megabits per second and display higher latency. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct.

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As a result of these cables' cost and usefulness, they are highly valued not only by the corporations building and operating them for profit, but also by national governments.

Threats Accidental and natural damage: Fishing vessels, Dredging Anchor dragging Extreme seismic and weather events.

Malicious damage: Cyberattacks, State and non state actor sabotage Cable cutting Vandalism and theft

Recommendations To mitigate risk of accidental damage to undersea fiber-optic cable requires: To Burying cables at least 2–6 feet below surface; Monitoring for extreme weather events and seismic activity;

For malicious damage, risk mitigation requires: Improving the monitoring of data transmission to detect possible interference; Improving the physical security of cable landing sites and monitoring of cables in territorial waters; Additionally, there is a need to expand the mandate of regional and international cable protection associations to include aspects of malicious compromise

Cable Landing Stations in India A cable landing point is the location where a submarine or other underwater cable makes landfall. The term is most often used for the landfall points of submarine telecommunications cables and submarine power cables. Cable Landing Stations in India: Mumbai, Chennai, Cochin, Trivandrum and Tuticorin The National Critical Infrastructure Protection Centre, an agency under the control of National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO), has been created to monitor, intercept and assess threats to crucial infrastructure and other vital installations from intelligence gathered using sensors and platforms which include satellites, underwater buoys, drones, VSAT-terminal locators and fiber-optic cable nodal tap points.

7.5 FUEL FROM ALGAE INSPIRE faculty fellow developing low-cost biodiesel from microalgae.

Details: An INSPIRE faculty fellow from the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu has proposed techniques for enhancing the triacylglycerol content in marine microalgae towards economic biodiesel production.

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This submission by the scientist received the “Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research” (INSPIRE) faculty fellowship instituted by the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India. The scientist and his team have isolated predominant strains of marine microalgal species namely Picochlorum sp., Scenedesmus sp., Chlorella sp., from the coastal regions of Tamil Nadu for their potential in terms of total organic carbon content, and Triacylglycerides (TAG) content for biodiesel production.

Fuel potential of algae: While fossil fuels deplete, the fuel potential of algae residing in the vast marine environment surrounding India remains unexplored. Algae fuel, algal bio fuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy- rich oils. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases CO2 when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other bio fuels only release CO2 recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant grew.

Algae use photosynthesis to convert CO2 and sunlight into energy-rich chemicals. The lipid (oily) part of the algae biomass can be extracted and converted into biodiesel by a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil. The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other biofuels using land unsuitable for agriculture. Out of the over 30000 freshwater and saltwater species of algae, nearly 1000 species have exhibited the potential for producing bio fuel. Advantages of using algae for fuel: It can be grown more easily than traditional crops. It can also be cultivated on land not suitable for regularly grown crops. It also uses wastewater in its growth. This means arable land used for cultivating food crops need not be spared for algaculture. Other feedstocks for biodiesel such as corn and palm are a source of food for humans. So, using them for producing fuel reduces the amount of food available, increasing the cost of both food and fuel. Using algae can thus be a viable option for biodiesel. Growing algae as a source of bio fuel has huge environmental benefits. Apart from using contaminated water for growth, many species of algae are good bio-fixers as well. However, the technology is still fairly new and it is said to be years away from being commercially viable.

8. MISCELLANEOUS KHANGCHENDZONGA NATIONAL PARK, SIKKIM ¥ It has been declared has a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2016. ¥ It is the first Indian destination, which has been under the Mixed criteria of UNESCO's heritage sites list, thus recognising the outstanding universal values for its both natural and cultural significance. ¥ It comprises world’s third highest peak, Mt. Khangchendzonga, numerous lakes and glaciers, including the 26 km long Zemu Glacier, dot the barren high altitudes. ¥ A remarkable six cat species have been confirmed (Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Snow Leopard, Jungle Cat, Golden Cat, Leopard Cat) within the park.

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¥ Flagship species include Snow Leopard as the largest Himalayan predator, Jackal, Tibetan Wolf, large Indian Civet, Red Panda, Goral, Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahr, Mainland Serow, two species of Musk Deer, two primates, four species of pika and several rodent species, including the particoloured Flying Squirrel. ¥ The region surrounding the Mount Khangchendzonga being revered as Mayel Lyang by the indigenous peoples of Sikkim and as a beyul (sacred hidden land) in Tibetan Buddhism.

PADMANABHASWAMY TEMPLE CASE • Reversing the 2011 Kerala High Court decision, the Supreme Court upheld the right of the Travancore royal family to manage the property of deity at Sree Padmanabha Swamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram. • The court ruled that, as per customary law, the shebait rights (right to manage the financial affairs of the deity) survive with the members of the family even after the death of the last ruler. What Is The Case About? • The central legal question was whether Utradam Thirunal Marthanda Varma, the younger brother of the last Ruler of Travancore, could claim to be the “Ruler of Travancore” after the death of the ruler in 1991. • The court examined this claim within the limited meaning of that term according to the Travancore- Cochin Hindu Religious Institutions Act, 1950 to claim ownership, control and management of the ancient Sree Padmanabha Swamy Temple. • All the temples which were under the control and management of the erstwhile Princely States of Travancore and Cochin were under the control of the Travancore and Cochin Devaswom Boards before 1947. • However, as per the Instrument of Accession signed between the princely states and the Government of India, since 1949, the administration of the Padmanabhaswamy Temple was “vested in trust” in the Ruler of Travancore. The state of Kerala was carved out in 1956 but the temple continued to be managed by the erstwhile royals. • In 1971, privy purses to the former royals were abolished through a constitutional amendment stripping their entitlements and privileges. The move was upheld in court in 1993 and the last ruler of Travancore who died during the pendency of this case continued to manage the affairs of the temple till then. • In 1991, when the last ruler’s brother took over the temple management, it created a furore among devotees who moved the courts leading to a long-drawn legal battle. The government joined in; supporting the claims of the petitioner that Marthanda Varma had no legal right to claim the control or management of the temple. Ownership of Padmanabhaswamy Temple’s Property • The character of the temple was always recognised as a public institution governed by a statute. The argument of the royal family is that the temple management would vest with them for perpetuity, as per custom. • Even though the last ruler Balarama Varma executed a detailed will bequeathing his personal properties, he had not included the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple as his personal property or dealt with it in his will. • In 2007, Marthanda Varma claimed that the treasures of the temple were the family property of the royals. But the Kerala High Court in the 2011 ruling passed an order that a board be constituted to manage the affairs of the temple, ruling against the royal family. Despite being a secular country that separates religion from the affairs of the state, Hindu temples, its assets are governed through statutory laws and boards heavily controlled by state governments. This system came into being mainly through the development of a legal framework to outlaw untouchability by treating temples as public land; it has resulted in many legal battles.

CLEAN PLATES CAMPAIGN Note: We can use this as an international example or best practices in essay and GS Paper II to prevent hunger related death and management of food resources. Why in news?

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* China‘s launched a new initiative called the ‗Clean Plates Campaign‘ to encourage its citizens to drastically cut down on food waste.

About * Driving force: The Covid-19 pandemic, devastating floods and worsening relations with major international partners and also with the US and Australia — two major sources of food imports — have added to food security concerns for China. * Extent of Food wastage: United States, the global leader in food waste, throws away approximately 40 million tonnes of food a year. China produces around 17-18 million tonnes of food waste annually. * Measures to be taken: o State-run media will ―exposes” restaurants wasting food. o Naming and shaming of people wasting food on China‘s popular social media platforms with people. o The “N-1” system — the number of dishes served to a group of customers in a restaurant must be at least one less than the number of people in the group. o Introduction of “waste prevention supervisors” –staff members who would help customers order just enough food to ensure there‘s no wasting. o The military will introduce new high-tech, high-efficiency equipment and processes — including robot cooks — to streamline cooking and cut down on wastage of food and other resources.

ASEAN-INDIA NETWORK OF THINK TANKS (AINTT) * Ministry of External Affairs in partnership with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand organized the 6th Round Table of ASEAN-India Network of Think Tanks (AINTT)

About * Theme: The theme of the two day Round Table was 'ASEAN-India: Strengthening Partnership in the Post COVID Era'. * Focus areas: o Changing Landscape of Global Order and ASEAN-India relations in the post Covid-19 Era; o Emerging Value Chains: Opportunities for ASEAN and India in the post Covid-19 Era; o New Normal and Significance of 4IR on ASEAN-India Partnership and Future Collaborations; o ASEAN Outlook on Indo-Pacific (AOIP) and Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI): Complementarities and Cooperation; and Way Forward. * Highlights of the event: o In order to deal with the new global challenges, nation-states were rediscovering the merits of ideas like ―strategic autonomy‖. o ―The irony, however, is that just when multilateralism was most in demand, it did not rise to the occasion. o The current pandemic appeared as an unprecedented challenge and “individual behaviour of many states”should be blamed for the failure of the multilateral organisations to come to the rescue of the pandemic- hit world. o The impact of COVID-19 on the world economy still not clear and the contraction of the world economy would be the largest since the Great Depression of 1929. * Call to ASEAN

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www.upscwithnikhil.com o Greater cooperation is required among nations to counter challenges such as the pandemic and for “collective solutions‖. o The pandemic calls for a strong response and look beyond “orthodoxies” in trade, politics and security to find solution to the challenges. o Idea of “strategic autonomy‖should be adopted; which will create space for states to take the decision in their best interest.

FIFTH WORLD CONFERENCE OF SPEAKERS OF PARLIAMENT (5WCSP) * Lok Sabha Speaker attended the inaugural ceremony of the Fifth World Conference of Speakers of Parliament (5WCSP).

About * Organised by: The two day Conference is being organized jointly by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Geneva and the Parliament of Austria with the support of the United Nations (UN). * Theme of the Conference:―Parliamentary leadership for more effecve mullateralism that delivers peace and sustainable development for the people and planet‖. * About IPU: o The Inter-Parliamentary Union is an international organization of national parliaments. o Its primary purpose is to promote democratic governance, accountability, and cooperation among its members; o Other initiatives include advancing gender parity among legislatures, empowering youth participation in politics, and sustainable development. o The IPU has played a leading role in the development of international law and institutions, including the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the League of Nations, and the United Nations. o It has permanent observer status at the United Nations General Assembly.

LOYA JIRGA * Afghan 'loya jirga' approves prisoner release

About * The Afghan government and the Taliban are ―on the verge of peace talks‖ after thousands of prominent Afghans approved the release of about 400 contentious militant prisoners. * The prisoners‘ fate has been a crucial hurdle in launching peace talks between the two warring sides, which had committed to completing a prisoner exchange before negotiations can start.

LOYA JIRGA * It is a special type of legal assembly, the traditional code of laws of the Pashtun people. * It is mainly organized for choosing a new head of state in case of sudden death, adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war. * In Afghanistan, still maintained and favored, mostly by tribal leaders to solve internal or external disputes with other tribes. In some cases, it functions like a town hall meeting. * The members of the jirgas were mostly members of the Royal Family, religious leaders and tribal leaders of the Afghans.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com THE MONTREAL CONVENTION 1999 (MC99) * The crash of the Air India Express plane at Kozhikode on August 7 that killed 18 people including both pilots could make the airline liable to pay compensation of Rs 1.19 crores per passenger in case of death or bodily injury, according to the Montreal Convention protocols and its specific adoption by India i.e. charter of passenger rights notified by the Central government in February last year.

How does India‟s adoption of the Montreal Convention pan out? * For domestic carriage within India, the government applied a modified version of the Montreal Convention with regard to compensation. * As per a January 17, 2014 notification in the official gazette by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, for death or bodily injury during domestic flights, airlines are liable to pay up to Rs 20 lakh per passenger. In case of death inside an aircraft due to natural cases, airlines are not liable to pay any compensation on both international and domestic flights. MONTREAL CONVENTION The Montreal Convention or the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air is a multilateral treaty adopted by a diplomatic meeting of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) member states in 1999. It amended important provisions of the Warsaw Convention's regime concerning compensation for the victims of air disasters. The Convention attempts to re-establish uniformity and predictability of rules relating to the international carriage of passengers, baggage and cargo. India has signed and ratified it.

1947 TRIPARTITE AGREEMENT ON GURKHA SOLDIERS Context * The 1947 agreement among India, Nepal and the United Kingdom that deals with the military service of Gorkha soldiers has become ―redundant,‖-Nepal. Contentious issues in present times Kalapani dispute * India-Nepal ties are going through a rough phase as Nepal is urging India to convene formal diplomatic dialogue on this issue.India is not responding to Nepal‘s request for talks on the Kalapani dispute to prevent the issue from impacting people-to-people relations. * The objection from Nepal regarding the Gorkhas serving in the Indian military has been heard more prominently in the recent months in the backdrop of Nepal-India territorial dispute over the Kalapani region of Pithoragarh district that Nepal claims as its own. * Nepal‘s strongly protested against Indian road construction amid the pandemic in the Limpiyadhura-Kalapani- Lipulekh area was at the behest of a third party (China). Outlawed political group in Nepal seeks to ban Gorkhas for Indian Army * Redundant: Nepal government consider that ―Gorkha recruitment is a legacy of the past. It helped create a lot of jobs for the society in the past. In the changed context some of those provisions have become questionable and the tripartite agreement of 1947 has become redundant. * Need new arrangement: Nepal is seeing a possible ―bilateral‖ arrangement with India regarding the Gorkha soldiers. * Discrimination alleged: The 1947 agreement divided the Gorkha regiments of the British empire between India and the United Kingdom. It also assured that the Gorkha soldiers of Nepal while serving in the British military will draw perks and privileges equivalent to their counterparts. However, Gorkha veterans have been alleging that the U.K. has been discriminating against them. 100 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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* Nepal urged the United Kingdom to turn the employment of the soldiers into a bilateral understanding with the U.K., hinting at the termination of the agreement. Britain–India–Nepal Tripartite Agreement * The Tripartite Agreement between the United Kingdom, India and Nepal was a treaty signed in 1947 concerning the rights of Gurkhas in military service. Gurkhas regiment * Presently, a large number of Nepalese Gorkhas serve in the Indian military, They are pillar of India's security for decades. * The Gurkhas or Gorkhas are soldiers native to the Indian subcontinent of Nepalese nationality and ethnic Nepalis of Indian nationality recruited for the British Army, Nepalese Army, Indian Army, Gurkha Contingent Singapore, Gurkha Reserve Unit Brunei, UN peacekeeping force and war zones around the world. * Historically, the terms "Gurkha" and "Gorkhali" were synonymous with "Nepali", which originates from the hill principality Gorkha Kingdom. * The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath.

MONGOLIAN KANJUR * The Ministry of Culture has taken up the project of reprinting of 108 volumes of Mongolian Kanjur under the National Mission for Manuscript, NMM. * Mongolian Kanjur, is considered to be the most important Buddhist religious text in Mongolia. * In the Mongolian language, ‗Kanjur‘ means ‗Concise Orders‘- the words of Lord Buddha. * The National Mission for Manuscripts was launched in February 2003 by the Government of India with the mandate of documenting, conserving and disseminating the knowledge preserved in the manuscripts.

HUL DIVAS * India paid tribute to freedom fighters on the occasion of Hul Divas. * Hul Divas is observed annually on June 30 in memory of tribals — Sidho and Kanhu Murmu — who led the Santhal hul (rebellion) on June 30, 1855 at Bhognadih, Jharkhand.

SANTHAL REBELLION * It was a revolt against the oppression of the colonial rule to end despotic British revenue system and the zamindari system in India. * The rebellion was led by the four Murmu Brothers - Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav. * The Santhals took to arms. In many villages, the Zamindars, money lenders and their operatives were put to death. * The revolt was brutally crushed, the two celebrated leaders Sidhu and Kanhu were killed. * The legend of the Santhal Rebellion lives on as a turning point in Santhal pride and identity.

BHASCHAN CHAR ISLAND * Bangladesh will not move the Rohingyas settled on the Bhashan char island amid Corona pandemic. * Bhaschan Char also known as Char Piya/ Thengar Char Island, is an island in Sandwip Upazila, Bangladesh. * Location: mouth of river Meghna.

NAGORNO-KARABAKH REGION * The Nagorno-Karabakh is a disputed landlocked region between Armenia and Azerbaijan in South Caucasus.

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* It is de facto controlled by the self-declared Republic of Artsakh, but is internationally recognized as de jure part of Azerbaijan. * Republic of Artsakh is a breakaway state in the South Caucasus that is internationally recognized as a part of Armenia.

MONT BLANC * Mont Blanc is the second-highest mountain in Europe after Mount Elbrus. * It is the highest mountain in the Alps, rising 4,808 m (15,774 ft) above sea level. * It is the eleventh-most prominent peak in the world. * The mountain stands in a range called the Graian Alps, between Italy, and France.

AZAD PATTAN * Recently, Pakistan and China signed an agreement for the 700 MW Azad Pattan hydel power project on the Jhelum River in POK region. * The project is one of five hydropower schemes on the Jhelum. The other four are: o Mahl, o Kohala, o Chakothi Hattian and o Karot projects. * Azad Pattan, Kohala and Karot are being developed under the CPEC framework.

Note: Diamer-Bhasha Dam is also in the preliminary stages of construction, on the River Indus in Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan administered Kashmir. China is helping Pakistan in building it. * The China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a collection of infrastructure projects meant to deepen economic ties between China and Pakistan. The CPEC will connect China's largest province Xinjiang with Pakistan's Gwadar port in Balochistan. It was launched in 2015 and passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

INDIA BHUTAN TRADE ROUTE * India and Bhutan have opened a new land trade route between Jaigaon in West Bengal and Punakha in Bhutan. * This new route is meant for movement of industrial raw materials and goods to Punakha Industrial Estate. * It will boost bilateral trade and commerce and lead to decongestion of vehicular traffic along the Jaigaon- Phuentsholing route.

NAG RIVER * The Nag River has been reduced to a cursed lady, thanks to industrialisation and urbanisation and alienation of the river: Bombay High Court. * The river flows through the city of Nagpur in Maharashtra. * Forming a part of the Kanhan-Pench river system, the Nag River originates in Lava hills near wadi.

TUTING-TIDDING SUTURE ZONE * A study by Department of Science & Technology (DST), exploring the seismicity in easternmost part of India revealed that the area is generating moderate earthquakes. * Here, the Tuting-Tidding Suture Zone (TTSZ) is of importance. It is a major part of the Eastern Himalaya, where the Himalaya takes a sharp southward bend and connects with the Indo-Burma Range. 102 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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* This detailed assessment of seismicity in Arunachal Himalaya will be helpful for planning any large-scale construction in this region in the future.

NATURE INDEX 2020 * Three of the autonomous institutions of the Department of Science & Technology, Governmentof India have found their place among top 30 Indian Institutions including universities as perNature Index 2020 ratings based on the research published in the top journals, a measure ofresearch quality. * These are the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Kolkata at 7th position;Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bangalore at 14thposition; and S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Kolkata at 30th position. * Globally the top-rated Indian institutions in this list are Council of Scientific and IndustrialResearch (CSIR), a group of 39 institutions at the 160th position and Indian Institute of Science(IISc) Bangalore at the 184th position. * The overall ranking of India is 12th in the index. * The top five positions have gone to the United States of America, China, Germany, United Kingdomand Japan. Nature Index * The Nature Index is a database of author affiliation information collated from research articlespublished in an independently selected group of 82 high-quality science journals. * The database is compiled by Nature Research. The Nature research is a part of Springer Nature,which is an American German academic publishing company based in Germany. * The Nature Index provides a close to real-time proxy of high-quality research output and collaboration at the institutional, national and regional level.

AXONS * Scientists from Raman Research Institute (RRI) along with Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune and Paris Diderot University, have found out that spectrin, which are flexible rod-shaped molecules present in axons, act as ‘shock absorbers’ to protect axons from stretch-induced damage. * The study can help in understanding and treatment of concussion from head injuries as well as stretch- induced nerve injuries. * The brain undergoes significant shear deformations (up to 5% of strain) even under normal activities such as jumping (the human brain is as soft and wobbly as edible jelly). In contact sports, brain concussion occurs and is a leading cause of injuries. * Axons are long tubular extensions of nerve cells that transmit electrical signals across long distances and can be up to a meter long in the case of humans. At such lengths, they are subjected to large stretch deformations during limb or other bodily movements. Axons vs Dendrite: * An axon is one of two types of cytoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a dendrite. * Dendrites, also dendrons, are branched protoplasmic extensions of a nerve cell that propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. * Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including o Shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), o Length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and o Function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them)

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Raman Research Institute (RRI) * RRI is an institute of scientific research located in Bangalore, India. * It was founded by Nobel laureate C. V. Raman in 1948. * Although it began as an institute privately owned by Sir C. V. Raman, it is now an autonomous institute under the Department of Science &Technology government of India.

THAAD * Recently, China has reiterated its long-standing objections to the presence of US THAAD missile defence system in South Korea. China believes the US exerts influence over South Korea and Japan and may interfere with Beijing’s long-term military, diplomatic and economic interests in the region. * China’s opposition has little to do with the missiles itself and is more about the system’s inbuilt advanced radar systems that could track China’s actions. THAAD * Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) is a transportable, ground-based missile defense system that intercepts ballistic missiles during their final, or terminal, phase of flight. The system has a track record of 100% mission success in flight testing since 2005. * THAAD uses a one-stage hit-to-kill interceptor to destroy incoming ballistic missile targets. It is able to intercept incoming missiles both inside and just outside of the Earth’s atmosphere at a range of 200 kilometers, which mitigates the effects of weapons of mass destruction before they reach the ground. * THAAD is coupled with space-based and ground-based surveillance stations, which transfer data about the incoming missile and inform the THAAD interceptor missile of the threat. * This anti-ballistic missile defense system has been designed and manufactured by the US Company Lockheed Martin. South Korea is not the only country with the THAAD missile defense system. It has been previously deployed in the UAE, Guam, Israel and Romania.

DIGITAL EPIDEMIOLOGY * It is a nascent field where digital data is used to understand patterns of disease, and chart out interventions to prevent it. With the outbreak of the novel coronavirus, contact tracing apps have emerged as the best examples of digital epidemiology. * The traditional form of epidemiology, considered a basis of public health, consists of studying various factors (age, gender, location and other determinants) of the general population to study disease patterns, spread, incidence, and prevalence. Data is mostly collected by field staff through house-to-house surveys and from hospital records. * Digital epidemiology, as the term suggests, uses digital data to study the same factors. * Twitter data mining has been one of the best uses of digital epidemiology. Also, systems like Healthmap are good examples. In 2020, the digital contact tracing apps (like Aarogya Setu) will certainly become the best examples of digital epidemiology. * Digital epidemiology has an important role to play in preventing disease outbreaks and one of the big advantages of digital speed is it is fast and will be a key contributor in keeping outbreaks under control. But, data privacy is an element of huge concern.

KALA AZAR DISEASE * Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease affecting almost 100 countries including India. It is caused by a protozoan parasite called Leishmania, which is transmitted through the bite of sand flies. * There are three main forms of leishmaniasis – 104 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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○ Visceral, which affects multiple organs and is the most serious form of the disease, ○ Cutaneous, which causes skin sores and is the most common form; and ○ Mucocutaneous, which causes skin and mucosal lesions. * Visceral leishmaniasis, which is commonly known as Kala-azar in India, is fatal in over 95% of the cases, if left untreated. The only drug available against leishmaniasis, miltefosine, is rapidly losing its effectiveness because of emerging resistance to this drug due to a decrease in its accumulation inside the parasite, which is necessary for the drug to kill the parasite. * Specific types of protein molecules, called transporter proteins, play a major role in carrying miltefosine into and out of the parasite’s body, which comprises a single cell. ○ A protein called ‘P4ATPase-CDC50’, is responsible for intake of the drug by the parasite, and another protein, called ‘P-glycoprotein’, is responsible for throwing this drug out from within the parasite’s body. ○ A decrease in the activity of the former protein, and an increase in the activity of the latter results in less amounts of miltefosine being accumulated inside the parasite’s body, thus causing it to become resistant to the drug. * A team of researchers at the Department of Biotechnology’s National Centre for Cell Science (DBTNCCS) in Pune has found new biomolecules to fight drug resistance in Kala- azar. * The disease affects some of the poorest people on earth, and is associated with malnutrition, population displacement, poor housing, a weak immune system and lack of financial resources. * Leishmaniasis is linked to environmental changes such as deforestation, building of dams, irrigation schemes, and urbanization.

AZAD PATTAN HYDEL PROJECT * Pakistan and China signed an agreement for the 700 MW Azad Pattan hydel power project on the Jhelum river in Sudhnoti district of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK). * The $ 1.5-billion project is the second power project under the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The first agreement, for the 1,100 MW Kohala project, was signed on June 23.

Azad Pattan hydel project * The project is a run-of-the-river scheme with a reservoir located near Muslimabad village, 7 km upstream from the Azad Pattan bridge, in district Sudhnoti, one of the eight districts of PoK. * The Azad Pattan project is one of five hydropower schemes on the Jhelum. * Upstream from Azad Pattan are the Mahl, Kohala, and Chakothi Hattian projects; Karot is downstream. * Like Kohala and Azad Pattan, Karot too, is being developed under the CPEC framework.

KOHALA PROJECT * This is a 1,124 MW hydel project that will come up on the Jhelum at Muzaffarabad near the Siran and Barsala villages. * This project is one of the biggest investments by China in PoK. Construction is expected to be complete by 2026. * Residents of Muzaffarabad had protested against the dam in 2018 due to concerns that it would reduce the flow of the Jhelum.

Other projects

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* The Karot Hydropower station, the third project being executed by China on the Jhelum is on the boundaries of Kotli district in PoK and Rawalpindi district in Pakistan‘s Punjab province. * Two hydel projects are planned in Gilgit Baltistan – Phandar Hydropower and Gilgit KIU. On the CPEC site, both are listed as ―under review.

CPEC * China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a collection of infrastructure projects that are under construction throughout Pakistan since 2013. * CPEC is intended to rapidly upgrade Pakistan's required infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and special economic zones. * CPEC runs through the entire length of Pakistan – through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and the southern state of Balochistan.

ISTANBUL CONVENTION Poland is to withdraw from a European treaty aimed at preventing violence against women. About the convention: * The original name is the ―Council of Europe Convenon on prevenng and combang violence against women and domestic violence‖. * It was first opened for signatures on 11 May 2011. * In 2008, the Committee of Ministers of Justice of the Council of Europe set up an expert group mandated to draft up a convention that would set the standards to prevent and combat violence against women and domestic violence. * The final draft was ready two years later, in 2010. * Turkey was the first country to ratify the convention on 12 March 2012. Followed by 33 other countries. In 2017, the EU finally signed as well. * It also states that violence against women is a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination. * The Convention does outline which acts must be criminalised by the participating countries. * Such offences include psychological violence, stalking, physical violence, sexual violence (including rape), all non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a person, forced marriage, female genital mutilation, forced abortion, and forced sterilisation, honour crimes as well as sexual harassment. * India is not a signatory of this convention.

VALLARPADAM CONTAINER TERMINAL * Various issues cropped up at the DP World-run Vallarpadam Container Terminal. Government is keen to actualize the vision to make it the transshipment hub of India and a pioneer hub in South Asia will be chalked out soon.

Details * Transshipment facility is being built on the Indian port to ensure that the Indian cargo trans-ship through Indian port. * Transshipment hub is the terminal at the port, which handles containers, stores them temporarily and transfers them to other ships heading to onward destinations. * The Kochi International Container Transshipment Terminal (ICTT), locally known as the Vallarpadam Terminal, is located strategically on the Indian coastline. It successfully fulfills all the criteria, which are needed to develop it as a transshipment hub. * Some of the advantages the Vallarpadam Terminal have are

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www.upscwithnikhil.com o It is best positioned Indian port with regard to proximity to international sea routes, o It is located at the least average nautical distance from all feeder ports, o It entails connectivity, which has multiple weekly feeder connections to all ports on the West and East Coast of India from Mundra to Kolkata o It has proximity to key hinterland markets of India, and o It has the infrastructure to manage large ships and capacity to scale it up as per requirement.

ASEEM PORTAL The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) launched ‗Atma Nirbhar Skilled Employee Employer Mapping‘ (ASEEM) portal to help skilled people find sustainable livelihood opportunities. Details * The ASEEM portal has been envisioned to give a huge impetus to our persistent efforts to bridge the demand- supply gap for skilled workforce across sectors, bringing limitless and infinite opportunities for the nation‘s youth. * The initiative aims to accelerate India‘s journey towards recovery by mapping skilled workforce and connecting them with relevant livelihood opportunities in their local communities, especially in the post Covid era. * With the increasing use of technology and e-management systems, which assist in bringing in processes and intelligent tools for demand-driven and outcome-based skill development programmes, this platform, will ensure we bring in close convergence and coordination across various schemes and programmes operating in the skill ecosystem. * The Artificial Intelligence-based ASEEM will provide employers a platform to assess the availability of skilled workforce and formulate their hiring plans. * ASEEM refers to all the data, trends and analytics, which describe the workforce market and will map demand of skilled workforce to supply. * ASEEM also available as an APP, is developed and managed by National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) in collaboration with Bengaluru-based company Better place specialising in blue-collar employee management.

NATIONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (NSDC) * It is a not-for-profit public limited company incorporated under section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956. * NSDC was set up by the Ministry of Finance as a Public Private Partnership (PPP) model. * The Government of India through the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE) holds 49% of the share capital of NSDC, while the private sector has the balance 51% of the share capital. * NSDC aims to promote skill development by catalyzing creation of large, quality and for-profit vocational institutions. * Further, the organisation provides funding to build scalable and profitable vocational training initiatives. * Its mandate is also to enable a support system which focuses on quality assurance, information systems and train the trainer academies either directly or through partnerships. * NSDC acts as a catalyst in skill development by providing funding to enterprises, companies and organizations that provide skill training.

ASPIRE * International Centre for Automotive Technology (ICAT) is developing a technology platform for the automotive industry called ASPIRES - Automotive Solutions Portal for Industry, Research and Education.

Details

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* The key objective of this portal is to facilitate the Indian Automotive Industry to become self-reliant by assisting in innovation and adoption of global technological advancements by bringing together the stakeholders from various associated avenues. * The activities would include Research and Development, Product Technology Development, Technological Innovations, Technical and Quality Problem Resolution for the industry, Manufacturing and Process Technology Development, hosting Challenges for Technology Development and also conducting Market Research and Technology Surveys for identifying the trends in the Indian auto industry. * The e-portal will act as a one-stop solution providing a technology platform, which will help to bring together the various stakeholders from the Indian auto industry, providing the necessary impetus for ushering the industry into future with combined efforts. * The first phase will include connecting the users and experts on the portal for functionality assessment. * Phase II of the portal, which is expected by August 15, 2020, will include the posting of domain specific challenges, team formation and finalizing the milestones for the execution of projects for the said challenges and industry problems.

ITOLIZUMAB * The Drug Controller General of India has recently approved a repurposed drug, Itolizumab, as one of the newest treatments for Covid-19 in India. * Itolizumab is an existing drug used for psoriasis. It is a monoclonal antibody drug. o Monoclonal antibodies are laboratory-produced molecules engineered to serve as substitute antibodies. o Psoriasis is a chronic skin disease involving unregulated growth of some skin cells. * Clinical trials show that Itolizumab is effective in preventing complicationsin Covid-19 patients that result from Cytokine Storm. o Cytokine surge: In this the host immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus is hyperactive resulting in an excessive inflammatory reaction. This is leading to death of patients. * Drugs Controller General of India is a department of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization of the Government of India responsible for approval of licenses of specified categories of drugs such as blood and blood products, IV fluids, vaccines, and sera in India.

'SHUDDH' * Due to Covid-19 Pandemic, people are nowadays afraid of touching anything around, specifically in the areas where masses have to come. * To solve this issue IIT Kanpur has developed a UV sanitizing device 'SHUDDH' to make room COVID free. * SHUDDH stands for Smartphone operated Handy Ultraviolet Disinfection Helper. SHUDH has six UV lights of 15 Watts each that can be individually monitored from a distance. * Initial testing has proved that the device at its full operation can disinfect a 10x10 squared feet room in about 15 minutes. * The on/off, speed and location of the product can be controlled remotely using your available Smartphone while installing an android application. * SHUDH can assist in killing the spread of corona virus at the highly prone places such as hospitals, hotels, malls, offices and schools.

PNEUMOCOCCAL POLYSACCHARIDE CONJUGATE VACCINE * Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has given approval to the first fully indigenously developed Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine.

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* This vaccine is used for active immunization against invasive disease and pneumonia caused by ―Streptococcus pneumonia‖ in infants. * Pneumonia is an infection of lungs. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause it. * The infection causes inflammation in the air sacs in the lungs, which are called alveoli. * The alveoli fill with fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe. * Transmission: via air-borne droplets from a cough or sneeze, blood etc.

ASTHROS * NASAhas gearing up to send a 8.4-foot telescope into the stratosphere aboard a balloon of the size of a football stadium in 2023. * It is called The Astrophysics Stratospheric Telescope for High Spectral Resolution Observations at Submillimeter wavelengths (ASTHROS). * It will be placed in the outer atmosphere to observe light wavelengths that are "blocked" by Earth's atmosphere. * The mission will measure the motion and speed of gas around newly formed stars. * ASTHROS will observe two regions in the Milky Way where stars are born. * The telescope will also map the presence of two kinds of nitrogen ions that reveal o The places where "winds" from supernova explosions have reshaped the clouds of gas and o Dust in these active, energetic star-forming regions of the galaxy.

CORONAE IN VENUS * Scientists have identified 37 volcanic structures on Venus that appear to be recently active - and probably still are today. * The research focused on ring-like structures called coronae, caused by an upwelling of hot rock from deep within the planets interior. * It provided compelling evidence of widespread recent tectonic and magma activity on Venus‘s surface. * Coronae are fields of lava flows and major faults spanning a large circular area.

ASTEROID 2020 ND * NASA had issued a warning that a huge ―Asteroid 2020 ND‖ will move past Earth on July 24. * Its distance from Earth has placed in the ―potenally dangerous‖ category. * Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) are defined based on parameters that measure the asteroid‘s potential to make threatening close approaches to the Earth. * Specifically, all asteroids with a Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance (MOID)of 0.05 au or less are considered PHAs. o MOID : It is defined as the distance between the closest points of the osculating orbits of two bodies. Of greatest interest is the risk of a collision with Earth. * Near Earth OrbitObjects are comets and asteroids nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits, which allows them to enter the Earth‘s neighborhood.

COVID PROTECTION SYSTEM * Recently, CSIR has unveiled the COVID Protection System (COPS) for Workplace in the current Pandemic Scenario. * The COPS for workplace includes o Contactless Solar Based Intelligent Mask Automated Dispensing Unit cum Thermal Scanner (IntelliMAST), o Touchless Faucet (TouF) and 109 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

www.upscwithnikhil.com o 360° Car Flusher * IntelliMAST: The Solar Based IntelliMAST, is an intelligent surveillance kiosk, which identifies the body temperature and whether an individual is wearing Face Mask or not through-customised Software solutions. * It will also facilitate Facial Recognition based Identity and ID card based Attendance System at workplace. * Touchless Faucet: Dispenses Water 30 seconds after dispensing Soap in a Touch-free Mechanism. * It can be very easily mounted on top of household wash basins. This Dispensing system will help in arresting the contamination. * 360° Car Flusher- It is a Sodium Hypochlorite Water Screen, which uses specialised Nozzle Design to ensure that the Sanitizer Diffused Water is evenly spread over and under the Car Body/Wheels with adequate Water Force and coverage. Flusher have been optimised to ensure Water Efficiency and reduce Water Wastage.

AJO NEO * Recently scientists have developed a device named ―AJO-Neo‖ for ―No-touch‖ & ―Painless‖ non-invasive bilirubin level screening in new-borns. * AJO-Neo is reliable in measuring bilirubin levels in premature and natural birth babies irrespective of gestational or postnatal age, sex, risk factors, feeding behavior or skin color. * The device delivers a report in 10 seconds to a concerned doctor, who is sitting 10000 km away from the point of care. * This is a significant achievement compared to the convenonal ―blood test‖ method, which may take more than 4 hours to generate the report.

BILIRUBIN * Bilirubin is a yellowish substance in the blood. It forms after red blood cells break down, and it travels through the liver, gallbladder, and digestive tract before being excreted. * Typically, bilirubin levels fall somewhere between 0.3 and 1.2 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). Anything above 1.2 mg/dL is usually considered high. * The condition of having high bilirubin levels is called hyperbilirubinemia. * Many babies are also born with high bilirubin, causing a condition called newborn jaundice. This causes yellow- tinted skin and eyes. It happens because, at birth, the liver often isn‘t yet fully able to process bilirubin. RFID TAGS * The Indian Railways is fitting radio-frequency identification tags (RFID) in all the wagons. * These tags will be used for tracking the wagons. Railways is planning to complete tagging all wagons by December 2022. * Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. * An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter. When triggered by an electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag transmits digital data, back to the reader. * Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating radio waves. * Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater range from the RFID reader; up to hundreds of meters. * Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn't need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic identification and data capture (AIDC).

FIRST INDIGENOUS PNEUMONIA VACCINE

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* The Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has given its approval for India's first indigenously developed vaccine against pneumonia -- Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine (PPSV23). * The vaccine offers protection against 23 types of pneumonia-causing bacteria, which cause a range of infections including meningitis, bacteremia, pneumonia and blood infections. * The vaccine has been pre-qualified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in December 2019. * Pneumococcal bacteria can spread from person to person via direct contact with respiratory secretions like saliva and mucus.

WINTER DIESEL * India‘s armed forces may soon be using winter diesel for operations in high altitude areas such as Ladakh, where winter temperatures plummet to extremely low levels. * Winter diesel is a specialized fuel specifically for high altitude regions and low-temperature regions such as Ladakh, where ordinary diesel can become unusable. * The flow characteristics of regular diesel change at such low temperatures and using it may be detrimental to vehicles. * Winter diesel which contains additives to maintain lower viscosity can be used in temperatures as low as - 30°C. * Also, it has higher cetane rating — an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel and compression needed for ignition— and lower sulphur content, which would lead to lower deposits in engines and better performance.

LOW-COST SUPERCAPACITOR * Indian Scientists have developed a simple, low-cost, environmentally friendly, and sustainable supercapacitor electrode derived from industrial waste cotton. * Also, for the first time, natural seawater is explored as an environmentally friendly, cost-effective, scalable, and alternative aqueous electrolyte, which may replace the existing aqueous-based electrolytes for the economic fabrication of supercapacitor. * Supercapacitor is a next-generation energy storage device that has advantages such as high power density, long durability, and ultrafast charging characteristic as compared to conventional capacitors and lithium-ion batteries (LIB). ASSAM KEELBACK SNAKE * Assam keelback — a snake species endemic to the region — was rediscovered in 2018 by a team from Wildlife Institute of India (WII) near a reserve forest on the Assam-Arunachal Pradesh border.

About the species * The Assam keelback (Herpetoreas pealii), commonly known as Peal's keelback, is a species of snake in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. * The species is endemic to Northeast India. It has recently been rediscovered after 129 years in Arunachal Pradesh. * It has been recorded from the Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. * It was discovered 129 years ago by Samuel Edward Peal, a British tea planter based in Upper Assam. * The planter collected two specimens of the small brown non-venomous snake from the evergreen forests that made up what is now Assam‘s Sivasagar district, and deposited them in the museum.

STRIPED HAIRSTREAK AND ELUSIVE PRINCE

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* Two more species added to India‘s list of butterflies.

About the species * Striped Hairstreak, was first recorded by Japanese entomologists in Hainan province of China. Elusive Prince, has a Vietnamese connection and was thought to be the more familiar Black Prince found in the Eastern Himalayas. * The Striped Hairstreak (Yamamotozephyrus kwangtugenesis) was located in Vijaynagar bordering Myanmar while the Elusive Prince was found in Miao on the periphery of the Namdapha National Park. * The scientific name of the Elusive Prince is Rohana tonkiniana, named after Tonkin in north Vietnam, where it was first recorded. * It was believed to exist in Bhutan, but studies of the specimen found there have not been conclusive. * The discovery of the Striped Hairstreak, whose genus was broken into several genera by Japanese researchers, was more intriguing for the lepidopterists.

GOLDEN BIRDWING * A Himalayan butterfly named Golden Birdwing is India‘s largest, a record an unknown specimen had held for 88 years. * While the female Golden Birdwing was recorded from Didihat in Uttarakhand, the largest male was from the Wankhar Butterfly Museum in Meghalaya capital Shillong.

About the species * With a wingspan of 194 mm, the female of the species is marginally larger than the Southern Birdwing (190 mm). * The hitherto largest Indian butterfly that Brigadier Evans recorded in 1932 was an individual of the Southern Birdwing (Troides minos). * According to the authors, the only measurement used in the study of Lepidoptera is wingspan — a simple concept with various interpretations of the term.

CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF INDIA * The Botanical Survey of India has come up with the first comprehensive census of orchids of India putting the total number of orchid species or taxa to 1,256.

Details of the census * The 1,256 species or taxa of orchids belong to 155 genera and 388 species are endemic to India. * The highest number of orchid species is recorded from Arunachal Pradesh with 612 species, followed by Sikkim 560 species and West Bengal; Darjeeling Himalayas have also high species concentration, with 479 species. * There are 388 species of orchids, which are endemic to India of which about one-third (128) endemic species are found in Western Ghats. * The publication points out that Kerala has 111 of these endemic species while Tamil Nadu has 92 of them. Among the 10 biogeographic zones of India, the Himalayan zone is the richest in terms of orchid species followed by Northeast, Western Ghats, Deccan plateau and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

About the species * Orchids can be broadly categorised into three life forms: o Epiphytic (plants growing on another plants including those growing on rock boulders and often termed lithophyte),

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www.upscwithnikhil.com o Terrestrial (plants growing on land and climbers) and o Mycoheterotrophic (plants that derive nutrients from mycorrhizal fungi that are attached to the roots of a vascular plant). * About 60% of all orchids found in the country, which is 757 species, are epiphytic, 447 are terrestrial and 43 are mycoheterotrophic. * The epiphytic orchids are abundant up to 1800 m above the sea level and their occurrence decreases with the increase in altitude. * Terrestrial orchids, which grow directly on soil, are found in large numbers in temperate and alpine regions. * Mycoheterotrophic orchids, mostly associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi, are found in temperate regions, or are found growing with parasites in tropical regions.

DOLPHIN NUMBER DIPS IN CHAMBAL RIVER * The latest census report prepared by the Madhya Pradesh forest department says that dolphins‘ number in Chambal river has been reduced by 13 per cent in four years.

Details of the census * There are just 68 dolphins left in the 435-kilometre-long Chambal river sanctuary, which passes through three states (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan). * Dolphins‘ number in Chambal river has been reduced by 13 per cent in four years. The decreasing trend is continuing from 2016 when there were 78 dolphins.

* The decrease in the number of dolphins is a matter of concern but Chambal is a lifeline for three states and the locals of MP, UP and Rajasthan are withdrawing water daily. * It has rudimentary eyes. From praying to surfing, dolphins do it through ultrasonic sound. About South Asian river Dolphin * The South Asian river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is an endangered freshwater dolphin. * It is split into two subspecies, the Ganges river dolphin and the Indus river dolphin . * The Ganges river dolphin is primarily found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers * From the 1970s until 1998, they were regarded as separate species; however, in 1998, their classification was changed from two separate species to subspecies of a single species. * The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the government of India as its National Aquatic Animal. * The Indus river dolphin has been named as the National Mammal of Pakistan. * IUCN Status: Endangered * Ganges River Dolphin is listed on the Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and Schedule I of India‘s Wildlife (Protection), Act, 1972. * It is also called Susu because of the sound it makes during breathing.

PIED CUCKOO * The Wildlife Institute of India (WII), along with the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) and the Government of India‘s Department of Biotechnology, has begun a study of the migration of the pied cuckoo from Africa to India and back, by tagging two of the birds with satellite transmitters.

Details * This is the first study in the country that seeks to trace and observe the migratory routes of the pied cuckoo. * The arrival of the pied cuckoos in the Himalayan foothills has traditionally been seen as heralding the onset of the monsoon.

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* These birds have high site fidelity, that is, they come back to the same location year after year. We believe that the pied cuckoos that come to the Himalayan foothills are from Africa. * Gathering information about the migratory route of the pied cuckoo can be invaluable for research on climatic variations taking place in the world. * The pied cuckoo migration study is part of a larger project called the Indian Bioresource Information Network (IBIN) funded by the Government of India‘s Department of Biotechnology (DBT).

About the species * The Jacobin cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus), pied cuckoo or the pied crested cuckoo, is a member of the cuckoo order of birds that is found in Africa and Asia. * It is partially migratory and in India, it has been considered a harbinger of the monsoon rains due to the timing of its arrival. * It has been associated with a bird in Indian mythology and poetry, known as the chataka represented as a bird with a beak on its head that waits for rains to quench its thirst. * IUCN Category: Least Concern

RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK * The Saharanpur Divisional Commissioner has sent a proposal to the State government to declare the Shivalik forest in the Saharanpur circle into a tiger reserve.

Details * If accepted, it would be the fourth tiger reserve in Uttar Pradesh after Amangarh in Bijnor, Pilibhit and Dudhwa in Lakhimpur-Kheri. * The move would not only reduce the increasing man-animal conflict but also help nurture the rich biodiversity of the region. * The forest constitutes the northern tip of the State and the 33,220-hectare-long corridor, located at the foothills of the Shivalik range, connects four States — Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. It will facilitate the safe movement of tigers.

RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK * It is an Indian national park and tiger reserve that encompasses the Shivaliks, near the foothills of the Himalayas. * The park is spread over 820 km2., and three districts of Uttarakhand: Haridwar, Dehradun and Pauri Garhwal. * The Ganga and Song rivers flow through the park. * Rajaji National Park has been named after C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji), a prominent leader of the Freedom Struggle, the second and last Governor-General of independent India and one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award Bharat Ratna (in 1954). * Rajaji became the second tiger reserve in Uttarakhand.

NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK * There are reports of a forest range officer (FRO) spotting a black panther in Karnataka's Nagarhole Tiger Reserve (NTR).

About the National Park * Nagarhole National Park is a national park located in Kodagu district and Mysore district in Karnataka, India.

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* It is one of India's premier Tiger Reserves along with the adjoining Bandipur Tiger Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. * It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. * The Western Ghats Nilgiri Sub-Cluster of 6,000 km2 (2,300 sq mi), including all of Nagarhole National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.

* The park has a healthy predator-prey ratio, with many tigers, Gaur, elephants, Indian leopards, and deer (Chital, Sambar, etc.). * Its water sources include the Lakshmmantirtha river, Sarati Hole, Nagar Hole, Balle Halla, and Kabini River. * The vegetation here consists mainly of North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests with teak and rosewood predominating in the southern parts. DEHING PATKAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY * The Assam government decided to upgrade Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary into a national park.

About the sanctuary * Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts of Assam and covers an area of 111.19 km2 (42.93 sq mi) rainforest. * It was declared a sanctuary on 13 June 2004. * It is located in the Dehing patkai landscape, which is a dipterocarp-dominated lowland rainforest. * The rainforest stretches for more than 575 km2 (222 sq mi) in the districts of Dibrugarh, Tinsukia and Charaideo. * The forest further spreads over in the Tirap and Changlang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. * The Dehing Patkai forms the largest stretch of lowland rainforests in India. * The Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary and a part of Dehing Patkai Rainforest, due to their importance for elephant habitat, were declared as Dehing-Patkai Elephant Reserve under Project Elephant.

MELGHAT TIGER RESERVE * The Maharashtra forest department has decided to reopen the Melghat Tiger Reserve (MTR). The buffer area of Pench and Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserves (TATR) will also be reopened.

About the reserve * Melghat was declared a tiger reserve and was among the first nine tiger reserves notified in 1973-74 under the Project Tiger. * It is located in the northern part of Amravati District of Maharashtra State in India. * The Tapti River and the Gawilgadh ridge of the Satpura Range form the boundaries of the reserve. In 1985, Melghat Wildlife Sanctuary was created. * The Tapi river flows through the northern end of the Melghat Tiger Reserve, through a forest, which lies within the catchment area of the river system. * There are different kinds of wildlife species; both flora and fauna are found here.

ARCTIC SPILL * 21,000 tonnes of diesel fuel had spilled from a reservoir that collapsed in May outside the Arctic city of Norilsk, polluting huge stretches of river in remote tundra with bright red patches visible from space. This led to the imposition of a national level state of emergency. * Russia‘s state environmental watchdog held that metals giant Norilsk Nickel should pay an unprecedented $2 billion in damages over a huge Arctic fuel spill.

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Cause of Oil Spill * Diesel oil is used as a backup fuel for the Norilsk-Taimyr Energy (NTEK), which is a coal-fired combined heat and power plant. * Fuel storage Tank 5 failed due to holes at the tank bottom, caused by the formation of ulcerative corrosion. * Nornickel claimed that Tank 5 failed when the permafrost it was built on began to soften. The company stated: Due to sudden subsidence of supports, which served for more than 30 years without problems, the diesel fuel storage tank was damaged, resulting in a fuel leak.

Impact of oil spill on marine the ecosystem * Spilled oil can affect animals and plants in two ways: dirесt from the oil and from the response or cleanup process. * There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact on biodiversity. * Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. * Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot do this, due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. * Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liver function, and causing kidney damage. * Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolic imbalance. * Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning, although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the MV Treasure oil spill. * Oil spills and oil dumping events have been impacting sea birds since at least the 1920s and was understood to be a global problem in the 1930s. * Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in body temperature and hypothermia. * Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver.

GREEN GROWTH EQUITY FUND * British Petroleum Company plc (BP) has announced its intention to invest into the Green Growth Equity Fund (GGEF).

About the fund

* The fund, established in 2018, is focussed on identifying, investing, and supporting growth in zero carbon and low carbon energy solutions in India, according to a company statement. * GGEF has a goal to close about $700 million in commitments from its members. * The investment will help bp to reach its goal of becoming net-zero in its operations by 2050 and will expand its portfolio of renewable energy projects. * The GGEF is managed by EverSource Capital, a joint venture between Lightsource bp and Everstone Capital.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com INDIAN-BULLFROG * Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, the Indus Valley bullfrog or Indian bullfrog, popular name Asian bullfrog, Asean bullfrog or Asia bullfrog, is a large species of frog found in mainland Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal. * It has been introduced in Madagascar and India's Andaman Islands, where it is now a widespread invasive species. * They are found in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka. They are also found in the Maldives and Madagascar. * They prefer freshwater wetlands and aquatic habitats. Generally they avoid coastal and forest areas. * IUCN Status: Least Concern

INDIA ENERGY MODELING FORUM * In the joint working group meeting of the Sustainable Growth Pillar, an India Energy Modeling Forum was launched. * Sustainable Growth Pillar is an important pillar of India–US Strategic Energy Partnership co-chaired by NITI Aayog and USAID. The SG pillar entails energy data management, energy modelling and collaboration on low carbon technologies as three key activities.

About the forum * The Energy Modelling Forum (EMF) in the USA was established in 1976 at Stanford University to connect leading modelling experts and decision makers from government, industry, universities, and other research organizations. * The forum provides an unbiased platform to discuss the contemporary issues revolving around energy and environment. * The India Energy Modelling Forum will accelerate this effort and aim to: o Provide a platform to examine important energy and environmental related issues; o Inform decision-making process to the Indian government; o Improve cooperation between modelling teams, government, and knowledge partners, funders; o Facilitate exchange of ideas, ensure production of high-quality studies; o Identify knowledge gaps at different levels and across different areas; o Build capacity of Indian institutions. * NITI Aayog will initially coordinate the activities of the forum and finalize its governing structure. The forum would include knowledge partners, data agencies and concerned government ministries.

PARTNERSHIP TO ADVANCE CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH (PACE-R) * The US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability has announced a new Funding Opportunity Announcement for joint research on smart grid and energy storage under the US–India Partnership to Advance Clean Energy Research (PACE-R).

Details * The DOE and the Indian Ministry of Science and Technology (MST) are each committing $1.5 million per year for five years to the expanded research effort. * The US and Indian private sectors will match the respective government commitments, resulting in a combined $30 million public–private research investment over the next five years. * Smart grid and storage technology will transform how we produce and consume electricity, which has the potential to decrease carbon pollution by scaling up renewable energy deployment.

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* Working collaboratively with India will accelerate solutions to drive down technology costs and improve grid resilience and reliability in both countries. * The United States and India launched PACE in 2009 to support research and deployment of clean energy technologies. * The current expansion provides resources for a fourth consortium under PACE-R that will focus on smart grid and energy storage for grid applications. * The new consortium will enable counterparts in the United States and India to leverage the technological research capabilities of both countries.

EXTREME HELIUM STARS * A study by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), an autonomous institute of Department of Science and Technology, which detected the presence of singly ionised fluorine for the first time in the atmospheres of hot Extreme Helium Stars makes a strong case that the main formation of these objects involves a merger of a carbon-oxygen (CO) and a Helium (He) white dwarf. * An extreme helium star or EHe is a low-mass supergiant that is almost devoid of hydrogen, the most common chemical element of the universe. There are 21 of them detected so far in our galaxy. * The origin and evolution of these Hydrogen deficient objects have been shrouded in mystery. Their severe chemical peculiarities challenge the theory of well-accepted stellar evolution as the observed chemical composition of these stars do not match with that predicted for low mass evolved stars. * Clues to evolution of extreme helium stars require accurate determinations of their chemical composition, and the peculiarities, if any, become very important. * Fluorine plays a very crucial role in this regard to determine the actual evolutionary sequence of these hydrogen deficient objects. * By comparing the observed fluorine abundances with other abundances of the key elements, the scientists could determine the formation channels responsible for fluorine enrichment. * The varied range of observed fluorine abundance across stars having similar atmospheric parameters points out the difference in the individual star’s evolution and the ensuing nucleosynthesis. * Particularly, the enrichment of fluorine in the atmospheres of carbon-rich EHes and absence of the same in carbon-poor EHes suggest that fluorine is profusely produced during the merger of a He- CO WD resulting in a carbon-rich EHe, whereas He-He WD merger that results in carbon-poor EHes does not account for fluorine overabundance. * The detection of enhanced fluorine abundances in the atmospheres of hot EHes solves a decadeold mystery about their formation.

SCORPIONFISH • Researchers at the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) have found a rare scorpionfish (Scorpaenospsis neglecta) from Sethukarai coast in the Gulf of Mannar. • The fish is called ‘scorpionfish’ because its spines contain neurotoxic venom. • This was the first time that the particular species was found alive in Indian waters. • The fish has the ability to change colour and blend with its surrounding environment to escape from predators and while preying. • The specimen has been deposited in the National Marine Biodiversity Museum of the CMFRI.

MONKEY PARK • The Karnataka government is planning to establish a monkey park, on the uninhabited islands in the Sharavathi backwaters region.

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• Following a spike in the cases of monkeys raiding agricultural and plantation crops in Malnad region in recent times, the farmers had staged several protests demanding that the State government address the problem. • As a solution to the menace, the State government took a decision to establish the park and in the 2020-21 budget, ₹6.25 crore was allocated for the purpose. • Fearing that the project may trigger an outbreak of diseases like the Kyasanur Forest Disease (monkey fever), the residents there had opposed the project. Following this, the State government has now planned to shift the project to the uninhabited islands in Sharavathi river backwaters region.

BIODIVERSITY PARK • Uttarakhand forest department opened the first biodiversity park in Haldwani, which is the state’s biggest on World Environment Day. • The park includes wild edible plant species, fruits as well as plants of medicinal and commercial importance with cultural, religious and historical significance. • The main objective of Biodiversity Park is to conserve the biodiversity of the specific area and to maintain the genetic stock available therein. • In biodiversity Park, special thrust is also to be given for the conservation of rare, threatened and endangered species.

ANCIENT MARINE ALGAE - COCCOLITHOPHORES • A study of a microscopic ancient marine algae (Coccolithophores) led by the National Centre /for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) has found that there is a decrease in the concentration of oceanic calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the Southern Indian Ocean. • This decrease in CaCO3 is attributed to the increase in the concentration of another single-celled algae known as diatoms. This, in turn, will affect the growth and skeleton structure of coccolithophores, with potential significance for the world ocean ecosystem. What Is Coccolithophores? • Coccolithophores are single-celled algae living in the upper layers of the world's oceans. They have been playing a key role in marine ecosystems and the global carbon cycle for millions of years. • Coccolithophores calcify marine phytoplankton that produces up to 40% of open ocean calcium carbonate and responsible for 20% of the global net marine primary productivity. • Coccolithophores build exoskeletons from individual CaCO3 plates consisting of chalk and seashells building the tiny plates on their exterior. Though carbon dioxide is produced during the formation of these plates, coccolithophores help in removing it from the atmosphere and ocean by consuming it during photosynthesis. At equilibrium, coccolithophores absorb more carbon dioxide than they produce, which is beneficial for the ocean ecosystem. • Abundance and diversity enrichment of coccolithophores in the southern Indian Ocean is highly dependent on time and influenced by various environmental factors such as silicate concentrations, calcium carbonate concentration, diatom abundance, light intensity and availability of macro and possibly micronutrient concentrations.

NATIONAL CENTRE FOR POLAR AND OCEAN RESEARCH (NCPOR) • It was established as an autonomous Research and Development Institution of the Ministry of Earth Sciences in 1998. • It is designated as the nodal organization for the co-ordination and implementation of the Indian Antarctic Programme.

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www.upscwithnikhil.com o Year-round maintenance of the two Indian stations (Maitri & Bharati) in Antarctica is the primary responsibility of the Centre. Maitri (1989) and Bharati (2011) were established, for carrying out research by the Indian scientists in all disciplines of polar research. • NCPOR is located in the state of Goa.

MACAWS • The Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) has busted a wildlife smuggling syndicate involved in smuggling 22 macaws from Bangladesh. • Illegally imported birds are confiscated under Section 111 of the Customs Act and Sections 48 and 49 of the Wildlife Protection Act which prohibit trade or commerce in wild animals, animal articles or trophies. • Macaws are beautiful, brilliantly colored members of the parrot family. The cobalt-blue hyacinth macaw of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay is the largest of all parrots. • Distribution: It is native to tropical North and South America. • Protection: The macaws are protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with hyacinth macaw being accorded the highest protection. • There are at least 17 species of macaws, and several are endangered. The glaucous macaw and Spix's macaw may already be extinct in the wild.

RED-KUKRI-SNAKE * A "very rare" discovery, a red coral Kukri snake was spotted at the Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh. * Oligodon kheriensis or the Coral Kukri snake or Red Coral Kukri snake is a kukri snake that was first described in 1936 from the North Kheri Division. * Red Coral Kukri is a nocturnal non-venomous reptile feeding on insects and worms. It is known as red coral kukri owing to its red orange colour and its teeth shaped as Nepali 'khukri' to break eggs.

SPECIAL-WINTER-GRADE-DIESEL * A special winter-grade diesel Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) has launched for the Ladakh region. It will prove to be a lifeline for the Indian armed forces, keeping in view the prospect that the coming winter will be very tense for them because of the India-China conflict. * This fuel can withstand extremely low temperatures of around minus 33 degree Celsius. About Winter-grade diesel * The fuel was specially designed for motorists in high-altitude sectors like Ladakh, Kargil, Kaza, and Keylong. In these regions, motorists face the problem of freezing diesel during the winter season. * Normally, a major component of diesel is paraffin wax, which improves viscosity and lubrication in the fuel. * However, with temperature, it melts or thickens, affecting the normal performance of vehicles. IOC had launched this special fuel to address the problem, including additives to diesel, helping it to remain in a fluid situation. * This fuel has a low pour-point of minus 33 degree Celsius, which allows it to retain its fluidity even in extremely cold weather. * To ensure cooking gas supply to the region, IOC runs an LPG-bottling plant in Phey Village of Ladakh, which is 11,800 feet above the sea level. * The plant ensures cooking gas supply to far-flung areas of Ladakh and Kargil, serving the Indian security forces.

YADADRI TECHNIQUE * Telangana State government would be focusing its efforts on improving green cover in the State through what is being termed the ‗Yadadri Model‘. 120 | June 2020 © UPSC with Nikhil Nagpur

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* The model utilises the Miyawaki method of greening an area but also involving some localised techniques like usage of cow dung and urine for improving the fertility of soil. * The basic principle behind the model is high-density plantation in small areas. * There is no defined spacing between the plants and required number of plants per hectare may go up to 10000. * Success of the model depends on various sequences of events, like site selection, site development, soil nutrient enrichment, species selection, pit dimension, planting pattern, usage of organic bio-fertilisers and post- planting management including irrigation schedule. * The Yadadri Model has proven successful in not just making an area green but also creating rich biodiversity in the place. It is also cost-effective.

SEAWEED * Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. * The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. * Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon, producing up to 90% of Earth's oxygen.

USES OF SEAWEED * Food: Seaweed is consumed across the world, particularly in East Asia, e.g. Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia. Alginate, agar and carrageenan are gelatinous seaweed products collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. * Medicine and herbs: Alginates are used in wound dressings, and dental moulds. In microbiology, agar is used as a culture medium. Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses, with other macroalgal polysaccharides, have biomedicine applications. Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. * Bioremediation: Algae's strong photosynthesis creates a large affinity for nutrients; this allows the seaweed to be used to remove undesired nutrients from water. Seaweed also generates oxygen, which benefits hypoxic dead zones. Nutrients such as ammonia, ammonium nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, iron, copper, as well as CO2 are rapidly consumed by growing seaweed. Reefs and lakes are naturally filtered this way, and this filtering process is duplicated in artificial seaweed filters such as algae scrubbers. * Climate change: "Ocean afforestation‖ is a proposal for farming seaweed for carbon removal. After harvesting the seaweed decomposes into biogas, in an anaerobic digester. The methane can be used as a biofuel, while the carbon dioxide can be stored to keep it from the atmosphere. Seaweed grows quickly and takes no space on land. SEAGRASS VERSUS SEAWEED * Seagrass can easily be confused with marine macroalgae, or seaweed. * While seagrasses are considered vascular plants and have roots, stems and leaves, seaweed are multicellular algae and have little or no vascular tissues. * The two differ in reproduction, structure, and how they transport nutrients and dissolved gases. The table and diagram below illustrate some of these distinctions.

SCHIZOTHORAX SIKUSIRUMENSIS • A new species of fish has been discovered in Arunachal Pradesh. The fish species is named as Schizothorax sikusirumensis. • The fish species belongs to genus Schizothorax.

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• The name of this fish species has been derived from the name of the rivers where it was found. This fish was collected from the junction of River Siku and Sirum in East Siang District. • The fish inhabits the water logged area of torrential river drainage.

INTERNATIONAL HORSESHOE CRAB DAY The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’s Horseshoe Crab Specialist Group had decided to celebrate first-ever ‘International Horseshoe Crab Day’ on 20th June, 2020. About Horseshoe Crabs • It belongs to the family of spiders and scorpions, and they are not really crabs. They are hard-shelled bottom- dwelling arthropods that live both in estuarine and continental shelf of the sea floor. • Regarded as a marine ‘living fossil, these animals have existed virtually unchanged since the time of the dinosaurs and are important ecosystem engineers and predators of small organisms. • There are four extant horseshoe crab species: o American horseshoe crab along the eastern coast of USA and in the Gulf of Mexico. o Three Indo-Pacific species- the tri-spine horseshoe crab, the coastal horseshoe crab and the mangrove horseshoe crab in coastal waters of India, Southeast Asia, China and Japan. • In India, much of the horseshoe crab population is in Sundarbans in West Bengal and Bhitakanika in Orissa. Odisha is their largest habitat in India. • Medicinal value: The medical profession uses an extract from the horseshoe crab’s blue, copperbased blood, known as lysate to test the purity of medicines. Certain properties of this crab’s shell are also being used to speed blood clotting and to make absorbable suspensions. • Conservation status: o American horseshoe crab is listed as Vulnerable and the tri-spine horseshoe crab is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Other two species will soon be listed on the IUCN Red List. o The Central government has included the horseshoe crab under the Schedule IV of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.

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