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Ecological and Socio-Economical Aspects of Artificial Reefs

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Ecological and Socio-Economical Aspects of Artificial Reefs Ecological and Socio-economic Aspects of Artificial Reefs Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY” by Omer Polak Submitted to the Senate of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev 23.11.2022 Beer-Sheva Eilat Campus, Eilat Ecological and Socio-economic Aspects of Artificial Reefs Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY” by Omer Polak Submitted to the Senate of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Approved by the advisor, Dr Nadav Shashar Approved by the Dean of the Kreitman School of Advanced Graduate Studies 23.11.2022 Beer-Sheva Eilat Campus, Eilat This work was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Nadav Shashar In the Department of Life Sciences. The program in Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Eilat Campus Faculty of Natural Sciences I Research-Student's Affidavit when Submitting the Doctoral Thesis for Judgment I, Omer Polak, whose signature appears below, hereby declare that: I have written this Thesis by myself, except for the help and guidance offered by my Thesis Advisors. The scientific materials included in this Thesis are products of my own research, culled from the period during which I was a research student. This Thesis incorporates research materials produced in cooperation with others, excluding the technical help commonly received during experimental work. Therefore, I am attaching another affidavit stating the contributions made by myself and the other participants in this research, which has been approved by them and submitted with their approval. Date: 23.11.2012 Student's name: Omer Polak Signature: II Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ V List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... VII 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Man and the marine environment ........................................................................................ 12 1.2 Marine restoration................................................................................................................ 12 1.3 Socio-economics of artificial reefs ...................................................................................... 16 1.4 Rationale and hypotheses .................................................................................................... 18 2. Fish community structure following habitat relocation ............................................................ 22 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 24 2.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 27 2.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 32 3. Habitat-dependent movements of a coral-dwelling fish ........................................................... 36 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 36 3.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 38 3.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 44 3.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 47 3.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 49 4. AR with coral transplants: a conservation tool for fish enhancement? A cases study from Eilat Red Sea. .................................................................................................................................... 50 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 50 4.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 52 4.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 55 4.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 61 5. Can transplantation of corals on ARs in high pressure dive sites succeed? A case study from Eilat, Red Sea. ........................................................................................................................... 65 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 65 5.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 68 5.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 72 5.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 80 5.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 82 6. Economic value of biological attributes of artificial coral reefs ............................................... 84 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 84 III 6.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................... 86 6.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 92 6.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 96 7. Can a small artificial reef reduce diving pressure from a natural coral reef? ........................... 99 7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 99 7.2 Methods ............................................................................................................................. 102 7.3 Results ............................................................................................................................... 106 7.4 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 110 7.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 112 8. Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 114 Appendix ..................................................................................................................................... 121 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 132 162 ............................................................................................................................................ תקציר 164 ............................................................................................................................................. תודות IV List of Figures Figure 2.1 The study site ............................................................................................................... 25 Figure 2.2 Rarefaction comparison of fish diversity on the amphibian ARs in the old and new locations. ....................................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 2.3 Fish abundance (a) species richness (b) and (c) Fisher’s α biodiversity index of nocturnal and diurnal fish assemblages ........................................................................................ 29 Figure 2.4 Multivariate analysis of fish assemblages (made with unstandardized and fourth root transformed data) showing similarity differences of fish community composition in the different ARs and NR environments ........................................................................................................... 31 Figure 3.1 The study area (a). The experiment was conducted in areas (1) and (2). .................... 39 Figure 3.2 An outline of the experimental design and the measurement of current vs. fish movement. ..................................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 3.3 Distribution of number of passes as a function of distance between two random corals in
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