From the Heart of the Church Volume 3 • 2016

School of Christian Studies Howard Payne University Brownwood, Texas

From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

From the Heart of the Church

Howard Payne University School of Christian Studies

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Thomas Kyle

ASSISTANT EDITOR Elizabeth Allen

EDITORIAL STAFF Joseph Flanigan Bobby Martinez Ivy Nichols

FACULTY ADVISORS Dr. Donnie Auvenshine Dr. Derek Hatch

From the Heart of the Church is published annually by the School of Christian Studies of Howard Payne University (Brownwood, Texas). The views expressed

Journal’s Editorial Staff. All contents of this Journal are fully protected under copyrightin its pages laws. do not Permission necessarily is reflectgranted those to ofreproduce the University, articles the for School, church or theor classroom use, provided both that clear attribution is given to the author and From the Heart of the Church and that the reproductions are not sold for commercial purposes. For other uses, please contact the Faculty Advisors of the Journal.

© 2016 From the Heart of the Church All rights reserved. http://www.hputx.edu/FHC-journal

3 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) From the Heart of the Church Volume 3• 2016 Table of Contents

A Note about this Journal 5

Exegesis of Ezekiel 2:1–10 6 Jessi Jordan

Evidence for the Writing of Philippians from Ephesus 22 Thomas Kyle

He Descended into Hell 28 Samuel Marich

The Communion of Saints 38 Bobby Martinez

4 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

Why a student journal? The answer to this question is two-fold. First, as any student Acan Noteattest, writing About makes up Thisa great deal Journal of their time. Indeed, it is a crucial competency for consult the relevant sources on the subject, and to present a cogent written argument about the cultivating critical thinking. Many courses ask students to carefully consider a specific topic, to matter. Professors ask students to practice these tasks and to hone these crafts, not only so they can become better writers, but also better thinkers. This journal aims to embrace the importance of this practice. Second, what has become clear in learning about the life of the church is that word care ministry partly involve naming things rightly and speaking carefully and in a nuanced manner is a significant part of Christian ministry. In other words, good pastoral care and good Christian (whether how to read a passage of scripture or how to understand a pressing ethical challenge). This publication takes seriously that, as we aim to follow the one known as “The Word,” the words we read, speak, and write are immensely important. This journal, From the Heart of the Church, is directed by Howard Payne University students in the School of Christian Studies. They have written the essays printed in its pages in a wide variety of courses in the areas of Bible, Biblical Languages, Christian Education, Cross- Cultural Studies, Practical Theology, and Youth Ministry. HPU students constitute the editorial board that selects the printed essays through a blind review process, and they have labored to displayed in these essays, but their authors embody a similarly wide range of vocations (which present the essays in their current form. Additionally, not only is there a wide range of fields will be indicated by the biographical information at the end of each essay). As the title states, this journal proceeds from the heart of the church, with its concern to utilize a distinctly biblical and theological lens to understand people, the contemporary world we inhabit, and the shape of Christian witness. Likewise, these essays are also practical in that they return to the church to inspire readers in further thinking about scripture, theology, and ministry in light of Christ’s love for the world.

5 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) –10 Jessi Jordan

Exegesis of EzekielINTRODUCTION 2:1 Many scholars have debated the meaning behind the text of Ezekiel and the many visions described throughout the book. One particular passage that faces much dispute is Ezekiel 2:1–10. This chapter is often described as Ezekiel’s call to prophesy. The text includes God commanding Ezekiel to prophesy against the Jews before dispelling Ezekiel’s fears and concludes with Ezekiel being commanded to eat the scroll handed to him by God. The New Revised Standard Version translates the passage as follows: He said to me: O mortal, stand up on your feet, and I will speak with you. And when he spoke to me, a spirit entered into me and set me on my feet; and I heard him speaking to me. He said to me, Mortal, I am sending you to the people of Israel, to a nation of rebels who have rebelled against me; they and their ancestors have transgressed against me to this very day. The descendants are impudent and stubborn. I am sending you to them, and you shall say to them, “Thus says the Lord God.” Whether they hear or refuse to hear (for they are a rebellious house), they shall know that there has been a prophet among them. And you, O mortal, do not be afraid of them, and do not be afraid of their words, though briars and thorns surround you and you live among scorpions; do not be afraid of their words, and do not be dismayed at their looks, for they are a rebellious house. You shall speak my words to them, whether they hear or refuse to hear; for they are a rebellious house. But you, mortal, hear what I say to you; do not be rebellious like that rebellious house; open your mouth and eat what I give you. I looked, and a hand was stretched out to me, and a written scroll was in it. He spread it before me; it had writing on the front and on the back, and written on it were words of lamentation and mourning and woe (Ezekiel 2:1–10). The background of the book, the context of the chapter, and the language used in this chapter

influence the interpretation one assumes concerning the chapter. Each of these aspects should be examined before forming conclusions as to the meaning of the chapter. The first aspect of 6 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) Ezekiel 2:1–10 that one should consider is the authorship, followed by the situation, purpose, and context.

AUTHORSHIP The authorship of the book of Ezekiel was not disputed until 1924.1 Before this time the widely accepted opinion was that the prophet Ezekiel wrote the entire book. However, since that time many scholars have debated the Ezekielian authorship, or at least the extent of Ezekielian authorship in the current form. Gustav Hölscher believed that “Ezekiel himself only delivered the poetic messages of doom, sixteen in all. . . , covering only 170 verses.”2 3

OtherJ. M. Powis scholars, Smith such wrote as C. that C. Torrey,Ezekiel argued was written that the by bookJewish is leadersa pseudepigraph to teach the and Jews is fictitious. after 4 He theemphasizes, exile and “Thewas writtenBook of overEzekiel a period is not ofthe five father, centuries but the after child, the of Babylonian Judaism.”5 exile.However, the unity of the book causes many scholars to disagree with Hölscher, Torrey, and Smith. The

bookchronological is written timeline. completely Because in first of person,these reasons, includes scholars many repeated such as Paul words, P. Enns and followsreject the a strict theory of pseudepigraphical authorship.6 In recent years many biblical scholars have come to believe Ezekiel was written with a similar method to that of Isaiah, having two authors, one being Ezekiel and another following Ezekiel’s methods and continuing the story.7 While this is the popular belief now, in the future more information may be discovered to shift this view yet again. If one accepts Ezekiel as the author of the book, there is much to be said about his person. Ezekiel in Hebrew means “God Strengthens.” He was trained in the priestly order, following the steps of his father. Popular belief says Ezekiel had been well trained in his priestly

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Books of the Bible, Michael D. Coogan, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 283. 1 2 NancyLamar R.Eugene Bowen, Cooper, “Ezekiel,” Ezekiel in , New American Commentary 17 (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman and Holman, 1994), 32. 3 Ibid., 32–33. The Prophets and Their Times (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941), 215.

4 J. M. Powis Smith, Ezekiel (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1986), 9–10. 5 Ibid., 216. 6 Paul P. Enns, 7 Bowen, “Ezekiel,” 283–284. 7 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) duties and would have quickly assumed the role as a priest had he not been deported to Babylon. Many psychologists have attempted to analyze Ezekiel based on his book, diagnosing him with extreme paranoia, schizophrenia, narcissism, and masochism. However, attributing such characteristics to him implies that his visions and actions were based on his own attitude and not the dictation of God. According to Daniel Block, such diagnoses are invalid because God was the one telling Ezekiel to act in this manner, not Ezekiel acting out of his own desires.8 Beyond speculation about his personality and mental disorders, Ezekiel was known to be married, based on the story about the death of his wife in Ezekiel 24. Beyond being taken captive from Judah to Babylon in 597 BCE at the same time as King Jehoiachin and settling at Tel Abib, not much is known about the prophet.9

SITZ IM LEBEN

setting Theis the Book Babylonian of Ezekiel exile can during be pinpointed the reign to of a Kingvery Nebuchadnezzarspecific time in Jewish of the history.Babylonians. The Ezekiel, King Jehoiachin, and many other Jews were taken into exile around 597 BCE, an event Ezekiel mentions at the beginning of his book. For eight years prior to this exile, Judah had been under the supervision of Babylon. Jehoiachin’s father, Jehoiakim, had ruled during these years, plotting to overthrow the Babylonian power. However, Nebuchadnezzar learned of this plan, deposed Jehoiakim, and placed Jehoiachin on the throne instead. After reigning for only three months, Jehoiachin was deported to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar then appointed Zedekiah as king over Judah and in 587 BCE destroyed the city of Jerusalem.10 The Book of Ezekiel covers a period from 594 BCE to 574 BCE. Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jeremiah and Daniel, which is evidenced by the similarities in some of their

prophecies.unknown location Ezekiel’s in Babylonspecific propheciesthat was home are believedto many exiles.to have11 beenEzekiel’s delivered call in at Ezekiel Tel Abib, 2 is an dated

The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1–24, New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1997), 9–11. 8 Daniel I. Block, Ezekiel: The Prophet and His Message (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 5–6. 9 Ralph W. Klein,Ezekiel , 21–22. 11 Klein, Ezekiel, 5. 10 Cooper, 8 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) at the beginning of his ministry around 592 BCE.12 This is after the exile of many Jews from Jerusalem but before the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Because his call came before the destruction of Jerusalem, Ezekiel was able to prophesy to the people concerning the coming doom of Jerusalem and the implications it had for the Jewish community. He also prophesied during the time of the destruction and its aftermath, allowing him to see his proclamations

reach fulfillment. AUDIENCE

Israelites.In Ezekiel Thus it 2:3becomes God specifically apparent from tells Ezekielthe text thatthat heEzekiel’s is being immediate sent to prophesy audience to was the that of the people of Israel. Ralph Klein notes that this idea of “Israel” does not simply mean the Israelites in captivity around him. Rather, “Israel” refers to all of the Israelites, even those who remained behind in Jerusalem.13 While the Israelites in captivity may have been the immediate audience, scholars such as Stephen Cook believe that the book was written after Ezekiel proclaimed the message to the people in order to provide instruction for future audiences who may also need such reminders as those found in Ezekiel’s message.14 Whether or not those who transcribed the book had a future audience in mind, Ezekiel’s original message was intended for those Jews experiencing Babylonian rule and the destruction of Jerusalem.

GENRE Ezekiel falls under the genre of prophetic writings, similar to such books as Jeremiah, Amos, Micah, and many more. A common theme throughout the prophetic books of the Bible is coming destruction followed by restoration. In Ezekiel the fall of Jerusalem is prophesied, but such stories as the valley of dry bones display hope for the future of Israel. One major characteristic in the prophetic writings is poetic form. However, unlike most prophetic books, Ezekiel only has a small amount of poetry in the book. Another characteristic common in prophetic books is the random order of the oracles. In this way, Ezekiel is again different from

12 John T. Bunn, “Ezekiel,” in Jeremiah – Daniel, Clifton J. Allen, ed., Broadman Bible Commentary 6 (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman, 1971), 228. Ezekiel, 16. The New Oxford Annotated Bible, Michael D. Coogan, ed. (New York: 13 Klein,Oxford University Press, 2007), 1181 HB. 14 Stephen L. Cook, “Introduction to Ezekiel,” in 9 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) most prophetic books because the prophecies are arranged chronologically, starting around 594/593 BCE and ending around 574 BCE. Despite its differences from other prophetic books, Ezekiel clearly remains under the prophetic genre because of the prophecies told concerning Jerusalem and the manner in which Ezekiel delivers his message to the people.15

vision reportEzekiel and 2 specifically a prophetic can narrative. be classified In this under chapter prophetic God speaks literature to Ezekiel as both in a vision,prophetic telling him of the task God had set before him. This closely resembles a prophetic vision report. However, more than a prophetic vision report, Ezekiel 2 is a prophetic narrative. A vocation report narrative is a type of prophetic narrative in which the prophet is commissioned to proclaim a message that God wishes to convey to the people.16 William Klein lists vocation report narratives as commonly sharing “a confrontation with God, a commissioning, an objection by the prophet, God’s reassurance, and a sign.”17 In Ezekiel 1:28, Ezekiel sees the glory of God, and God begins to speak to Ezekiel in Ezekiel 2:1. These two verses display his confrontation with God. In verse 3 Ezekiel is told to go to the nation of Israel, or, in other words, is commissioned to proclaim God’s message to the people of Israel. While there is no exact point at which Ezekiel objects, God does tell him not to rebel like Israel has done, possibly pointing to a little hesitation on Ezekiel’s part. God then reassures Ezekiel by repeatedly telling him not to fear. The sign at the end of the chapter is recognizable as the scroll that Ezekiel is commanded to eat in verse 8. Thus, Ezekiel 2 portrays a clear example of a vocation report narrative. Many scholars have questioned Ezekiel’s place as apocalyptic literature. The connections that can be made between visions in Ezekiel and some found in other books has caused great distress in deciding if Ezekiel is in fact apocalyptic. Most of the apocalyptic aspects of Ezekiel are found at the end of the book. However, his eating of the scroll in Ezekiel 2:8—3:3 is often compared to the scroll found in Revelation 10:9–11.18 Some scholars, such as Brian Peterson, believe Ezekiel is important in the apocalyptic genre, not because it is necessarily an apocalyptic book in itself, but rather because it was a transition from the previous prophetic books to the

The Bible as Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 121–33. 16 William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas15 John Nelson, B. Gabel, 2004), et al., 369–370. 17 Ibid., 370.

18 Ibid,, 446. 10 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) prophetic books that are apocalyptic such as Daniel and Zechariah.19 The debate regarding the apocalyptic nature of Ezekiel has yet to be settled.

IMMEDIATE CONTEXT Immediately surrounding Ezekiel 2 is the rest of the story of Ezekiel’s call. Chapter 1 focuses on his vision of four creatures and four wheels covered in eyes. The beginning of

chapterin studying 3 completes the context his of call the and passage describes is to hislook experience at the theme. of eating20 Ezekiel the 1:1—3:27scroll. The containsfirst step aseen theme in Ezekiel of calling 1:28 and when God’s Ezekiel glory whenfalls before speaking God to after Ezekiel. having The seen glory God of seated God is onspecifically a throne in the heavens. Ezekiel 3:12 contains an exclamation of God’s glory, and 3:15 describes how overwhelmed Ezekiel was by both his call and from seeing such a display of God’s power. While the concept of God’s glory is seen throughout this passage, it is not displayed for Ezekiel to see the glory of God with no other intended purpose. God’s glory is shown to Ezekiel so that Ezekiel would understand the seriousness of the call that was occurring at the same time throughout this section of the book. After discovering the theme of a passage, one should examine the structure of the section for contextual clues about the passage.21 Ezekiel 1:1—3:27 is structured in a chronological manner. One indication of this ordering is the continual use of the word “then.” This word signals the progression of time in his encounter with God. The section begins with Ezekiel seeing the vision of the four creatures and wheels followed by seeing God seated in glory. God then proceeds to speak to Ezekiel of his calling and comfort him concerning the hardness of the people. After this, Ezekiel speaks of eating the scroll, being spoken to by God again, recovering from the vision, and being declared a watchman for God. Each of these events happens in a

specificcalled as chronological a prophet. order so that one can see the process Ezekiel went through when he was

Ezekiel in Context (Eugene, Ore.: Pickwick, 2012), 341–55. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 220. 19 Brian Neil Peterson, 20 Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, 21 Ibid., 220. 11 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) CONTEXT IN EZEKIEL Once the context of the passage is settled in regard to the surrounding text, it is important to study the context of the section (in this case Ezekiel 1:1—3:27) in relation to the entire book (Ezekiel). There are three aspects to examine when studying the context of a passage in a book. William Klein outlines these as: “1) The book’s purpose(s) or controlling theme(s), 2) The basic outline of the book, 3) Parallel passages within the book that deal with the same subject.”22 One can argue that the purpose of Ezekiel is the idea that God is always with us no matter where we are, whether this is good because of our obedience or bad because of our disobedience.23 The people were struggling with God “abandoning” them during the exile in Babylon at the beginning of Ezekiel’s ministry. In the middle of his prophetic activity, the Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed, causing more distress to the people since the House of God had been demolished. However, Ezekiel assures the people that God is still there. The call of Ezekiel is important in understanding the surrounding text (and vice versa) because it shows the validity of Ezekiel’s message in addition to the reason Ezekiel began to prophesy. Without understanding that God commissioned Ezekiel to speak to the people of Israel, the validity of his prophecies could be questioned because the source of such proclamations would be unknown. Examining the rest of the book allows one to understand why God commissioned Ezekiel as a prophet because one can see the messages he spoke to the people. The next aspect to examine in relation to context is the outline of the book. Lamar Cooper provides a brief outline of Ezekiel, including four broad categories: Ezekiel’s call (1:1—3:27), prophecies against Judah and Jerusalem (4:1—24:27), prophecies against other surrounding nations (25:1—32:32), and prophecies about the restoration of the Jews (33:1— 48:35).24 The call of Ezekiel is placed at the beginning of the book for two reasons. First, the book is arranged chronologically. Ezekiel consistently provides dates for his prophecies, so it becomes obvious that Ezekiel’s call came before any of the following messages in the book. The second important reason that Ezekiel’s call is placed at the beginning of the book has already been mentioned when discussing the purpose of the book. Ezekiel’s call provides validity to his prophecies, so it is only logical to establish this validity before beginning to delve into the

22 Ibid., 223. 23 Steven Tuell, Ezekiel, New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson., 2009), 6. Ezekiel, 53.

12 24 Cooper, From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) prophecies. Otherwise, the prophecies would be subject to discussion as to their genuineness. After discovering the message of the book and the outline of the book, one should observe parallel passages within the book. However, in the instance of Ezekiel’s call, the passage is rather unique in the book because this is the only place God calls Ezekiel to be a prophet to the nation of Israel. After this initial call, all other instances of God dictating what Ezekiel should tell

the people is done with the understanding that Ezekiel is a firmly established prophet of God. CONTEXT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT While the next step in understanding context is often examining books by the same author, the book of Ezekiel is the only book with Ezekielian authorship in the Bible. Therefore, it is necessary to proceed by examining the context of the book of Ezekiel in relation to the entire Old Testament. Several aspects of Ezekiel can be observed in placing it in the context of the Old Testament. First, one can observe the message of Ezekiel in relation to that of other books written during the same period. Ezekiel’s contemporaries include Jeremiah, the writer(s) of

Isaiah 40–66, and possibly Daniel. In observing the times of Ezekiel and Jeremiah, one discovers that the end of Jeremiah’s ministry coincides with the ministry of Ezekiel. While the message of Ezekiel was to all the house of Israel, both the Northern and Southern kingdoms, Jeremiah’s message was solely intended for Judah. Both prophets discuss the destruction of Jerusalem as well as coming restoration. The events in Daniel also occurred around this time, whether or not it was actually written during this period. The reader of the Old Testament discovers he is another captive taken to Babylon, just like Ezekiel. In addition to observing the time at which certain books were written in relation to

understandingthe Old Testament the similarcontext to of Ezekiel Ezekiel, 2. it The is also call beneficial of Jeremiah to noticeis found specific in Jeremiah passages 1:1–19, throughout also coming at the beginning of the book just as Ezekiel’s call did. Both of these calls indicate an exact date at which the call came. Both include a direct call from God and a clear message to proclaim. However, there are many differences between the two calls. Ezekiel has a very moving experience, seeing a vision of the heavens and beholding God’s glory. Jeremiah, on the other hand, has a very personal and subdued conversation with the Almighty. There are no extraordinary visions accompanying his call. Also, Jeremiah’s response is to question God’s

13 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) intention for his life as a prophet. In contrast Ezekiel sits for seven days, overwhelmed by the vision he had seen. He does not appear to respond to God’s call in any manner other than stunned silence.25

CONTEXT IN RELATION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT Some parallels can also be drawn between Ezekiel and the New Testament. One connection often made is between God’s continuous use of “son of man” as a title for Ezekiel and Jesus’ use of the same title for himself. Andrew Blackwood, Jr. wrote an entire book drawing upon the parallels between the book of Ezekiel and the life and message of Jesus. He argued that when Jesus used the title “Son of Man,” he was referring to its usage in Ezekiel. Blackwood believed that since the Jews would have been familiar with the text of Ezekiel since it was part of the Jewish Scriptures, Ezekiel would have come to mind when the Jews of Jesus’ day heard such a title. He goes so far to comment, “Jesus looked to Ezekiel as the architect who rebuilt a nation in ruins, and the Carpenter, with Ezekiel’s guidance, set out to rebuild a shattered world.”26 In his opinion, Ezekiel was the son of man of the Old Testament, and Jesus mirrored this image in his own life upon earth.27 However, many scholars still believe Jesus’ title is derived from the mention of a “son of man” in Daniel 7:13. Many other examples of Ezekielian connections in the New Testament can be found when examining the Bible. One example mentioned previously is that of the scroll God commands Ezekiel to eat. Revelation 10:9–11 includes a story of John being told to eat a scroll that tasted sweet as honey. After eating the scroll, he is told to prophesy. Ezekiel 2:8—3:4 contains a similar story. It begins with God commanding Ezekiel to eat a scroll which is described as also being sweet as honey. Ezekiel 3:4 displays that God immediately told Ezekiel to prophesy to the people after he had eaten the scroll. Many other visions of Ezekiel are often seen as precursors for the book of Revelation and symbols of apocalyptic literature, but intentional correlation between the two books is questionable.

25 Kathleen Rochester, Prophetic Ministry in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Leuven: Peeters, 2012), 62–68. The Other Son of Man: Ezekiel/Jesus (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1966), 25. 27 Ibid., 11–25. 26 Andrew W. Blackwood, Jr., 14 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) PURPOSE OF EZEKIEL 2 Ezekiel 2 serves many purposes within the framework around it, several of which were discussed previously. A major function of Ezekiel 2 is to validate Ezekiel’s prophecies. Without a call from God Ezekiel would be acting for himself, proclaiming what he believed to be true rather than what God commanded. It is possible that the book would still be regarded as legitimate without a written account of Ezekiel’s call, especially considering many Old Testament prophets do not have an account of their call in their writings. Although some

generalone’s belief questions in Ezekiel such as as an authorship, accurate historical place of writing,writing, orthe other record similar of his concepts calling does may assist influence in settling the role of God in Ezekiel’s message. The passage also completes the story of Ezekiel’s call. Without Ezekiel 2 the story would

not possess satisfying details of God’s appearance to Ezekiel. The passage provides a specific audience,about the theneed rebellious for a prophet. house It of displays Israel, andthe extentestablishes of Israel’s some disobedience, of the difficulties repeatedly that brought calling the Israelites rebellious, obstinate, and stubborn. The stage is set for the eating of the scroll as well, providing a background as to what the scroll was. The power of the Spirit is also displayed in this section as it is the Spirit moving Ezekiel and directing him. This provides a brief preview into the role of the Spirit throughout the rest of the book.

KEY WORDS When reading an English translation of Ezekiel 2, several phrases stand out because of repetition or simply for their descriptive nature. For example, four times in this chapter God calls Ezekiel “son of man” (or “mortal”). Seven times a form of the word “rebel” is used, always referring to Israel. In verse 6 God tells Ezekiel “do not be afraid” three times. Each of these words is repeated many times for emphasis. “Son of man” shows the mortality of Ezekiel; he is simply a man commissioned by God to speak to Israel.28 The word “rebel” is always used in connection with Israel in this passage, showing the great disobedience they have had toward God. The three times “do not be afraid” is used in verse 6 displays God’s comfort that

28 Bunn, “Ezekiel,” 241. 15 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) he is providing for Ezekiel after calling him to go to the disobedient house of Israel. Some of the words that are not repeated but still stand out when reading the text are “obstinate” (or “impudent”) and “stubborn.” These are descriptive words used in connection with Israel. Not only is Israel considered rebellious, but the people are also simply refusing to listen to God and obey his commands. Verse 6 has an odd text as it speaks of “briars,” “thorns,” and “scorpions.” These terms are also used in reference to the house of Israel, displaying how callous their hearts had become.

HEBREW TEXT

mārad. This word can be

used toThe indicate first wordrebellion to consider against whena human examining king or againstthe Hebrew God. textIn this is passage mārad refers to rebellion against God.29 The root of the word is mrd, and the noun form differs only from its verbal counterpart by the vowel pointings (mered). Mārad was originally a political term, indicating the breaking of a treaty by one party, or in other words a rebellion against the treaty, and the establishment of complete independence. It indicates incomplete, or failed, rebellion.30 This holds importance when examining Ezekiel 2 because the concept of an incomplete

rebellion displays the Israelites’ failure to separate themselves from God. In addition to mārad this passage uses peša once. Often peša carries a sense of rebellion or transgression against

God. Peša deals with theʿ rejection of God’sʿ authority over one’s life, obvious in the story of Ezekiel.31 ʿ M ͤrî (rebellion) is used several times in this passage. M ͤrî carries the idea of obstinacy and stubbornness. It is used often in this passage in the phrase “house of rebellion/

stubbornness.” R. Knierim comments in relation to m ͤrî: “For Ezekiel obstinacy regarding the prophetic word became the stigma of God’s people as expressed in the stereotypical declaratory

formula ‘house of stubbornness.’”32 Together these words (m ͤrî, mārad, and peša ) paint a

ʿ 29 F. Brown, S. Driver, and C. Briggs, Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2012), 597. Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, ed. (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1997), 684–686. 30 R. Knierim, “Mrd,” in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke, ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980), 2:1846–1847. 31 G. Herbert Livingston,Theological “Pešaʿ,” inLexicon of the Old Testament, 688.

16 32 Knierim, “Mrh,” in From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) picture of Israel’s rebellious nature toward God and their stubbornness regarding his word that is not fully depicted in the English language.

SEPTUAGINT After observing the Hebrew words for “rebel” and “rebellion,” it is worth noting the words chosen to use in place of the Hebrew in the Septuagint. The chosen Greek word to replace mārad, peša , and m ͤrî comes from parapikraino. When used with a noun in the accusative, this verb oftenʿ takes the idea of “embitter” or “provoke,” usually referring to God. However, in Ezekiel 2 it is not used with an accusative. Instead, it possesses the concept of being disobedient or rebellious, again in reference to God. The noun form (parapikrasmos) carries the idea of rebellion against God.33 Often in this passage the verbal form is used as a participle, or a verbal adjective. This means the phrase in Ezekiel 2:8 (rebellious house) literally is “the house which is rebellious.”

PERSONAL INTERPRETATION Understanding the historical background, context, and key words of the passage allows

onetruths to thatachieve the aIsraelites firmer grasp of the upon exile the should intended have meaninggrasped fromof Ezekiel Ezekiel’s 2. There call in are relation several to their circumstances and the rest of Ezekiel’s message. By looking at the key words one observes the phrase “son of man” as having importance to the message. By continuously calling Ezekiel by this title, God is emphasizing the humanness of Ezekiel. This prophet was not divine, not perfect or holy. He was simply a follower of God elected to carry God’s message to the Israelites. It was only through God’s power that Ezekiel was able to prophesy to the Israelites. The message was not his own; the proclamations about the destruction and restoration of Jerusalem were not of him but of God. “Son of man” emphasizes this reality and brings one back to Ezekiel’s name. His name means “God strengthens,” and only through the strength of God was he able to proclaim all that God had commanded. As a son of man he was nothing, a weakling, but as a follower of God he had strength to speak to an entire nation of rebels. His power came solely from God and

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), 626. 33 William F. Arndt and F. Wilbur Gingrich, 17 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) not his own will, for by his will he could not have acted as he did in many of his prophecies. God alone controlled his actions and was able to give him the strength needed not to mourn over his wife’s death or to lie on his side for many days. Another major point of the passage that the book of Ezekiel was trying to convey to the people was the nature of their rebellion. They had tried to disconnect from God and failed. However, the appearance of the text makes one believe that the Israelites were not recognizing the failure of their rebellion. They were acting “impudent and stubborn,” refusing to acknowledge that God was stronger than they were. By the repetition of “rebellious house” and other similar phrases, Ezekiel was conveying to the people that they were indeed rebellious and God was not happy about their actions and attitude. It was because of their rebellion that they were in exile and that the temple would be destroyed. The people needed to recognize that alone they were nothing. Without God they were a weak nation, passed among the powers of the world as a miniscule people. Only when they followed and trusted God had they been powerful. By rebelling, they lost their might and strength. Again, Ezekiel’s name plays an important role in not only portraying that God strengthened Ezekiel so that he could prophesy,

but also that by God’s strength alone is Israel powerful. Mārad, as explained earlier, is the breaking of a treaty to establish independence. Israel attempted this, and they ended in exile. They refused to recognize their own hand in their current circumstances, but God did not want them to forget about it. God desired them to recognize the folly of their ways and not blind themselves to the cause of their situation. Verse 6 delivers an important message for Ezekiel since he was about to speak to a nation that rejected the God whom he was proclaiming. Three times in the verse the command “do not be afraid” is repeated. Although this particular message was not so much for the people, Ezekiel needed to recognize that while the nation was a rebellious people, God was stronger. God would guide Ezekiel and give him the strength to speak to a people who did not wish to listen. The people could also gather from this reassurance to Ezekiel that the man prophesying to them was protected by the Almighty God, and until the message had been completed in full, God would not allow any hindrance to prevent this message from spreading. After God tells Ezekiel to speak to the rebellious house of Israel, God commands Ezekiel to eat a scroll with laments written on both sides of it. The message Ezekiel was to proclaim 18 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) would not be happy. This passage ends with an idea of warning to the Israelites. Not only were they rebelling against God, but the prophecy Ezekiel was about to make would not be comforting. The Israelites could expect the rest of the message to contain news of distress, indicated by the words written upon the scroll. Their disobedience had brought punishment upon them, and they could expect more as Ezekiel continued his prophecy. This distress had already been written on the scroll and could not be changed. Therefore, they should prepare for the declarations God was about to make regarding Israel and the coming punishment. Finally, by looking at Ezekiel 2 in the immediate context, one discovers the glory of God shining throughout Ezekiel’s call. The glory of God is displayed previously as Ezekiel falls before the LORD. After the passage this glory continues to be seen as Ezekiel is overwhelmed by God’s

wordsin chapter and 2,the is visionobviously of surrounding seen by Ezekiel creatures. throughout This glory, this entire while speechnot specifically given by mentionedGod and throughout the process of eating the scroll. The people were disregarding the power and might of God, so the glory of God held no importance to them at the time of the exile. However, God did not want them to forget who was King. No earthly creature, whether it be Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah, or a false idol, could ever replace God as King over all the earth. God’s glory was beyond compare and God’s authority was above all. The people had forgotten this, or at least neglected it, and sought after earthly power and glory for themselves above the glory and leadership of God. This, however, caused the nation to be ridiculed and actually lose glory rather than gain it as they sought to do.

CONCLUSION After examining the background, context, purpose, and key words of Ezekiel 2 some conclusions can be drawn in regards to the passage. Some points are relatively easy to discover, but considering the book of Ezekiel was written over 2,500 years ago, much is likely overlooked or misconstrued. The only possible way to prevent the misrepresentation of the message of Ezekiel 2 is through an in-depth study of everything surrounding the passage. That was attempted here, but much remains unknown about this passage. For example, while conclusions can be drawn regarding the author of the passage, no one can say with absolutely certainty who wrote every verse in Ezekiel 2 or even in the entire book of Ezekiel. Fortunately, while it 19 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) is important to know who wrote the passage, this would be unnecessary if the passage itself had been lost. In other words, the passage would be made clearer if the exact identity of the author were known and if his intentions of writing the book were made clear, but the passage still carries meaning without all the questions being answered. The same can be said about the culture in which this was written. No one will ever fully understand the culture and setting this text was written in beyond what can be discovered through archeology and other contributing texts. The time of the Jewish exile in Babylon has passed, and no one can relive that era to comprehend the full meaning of the text. The important fact that one should remember after researching all of this is that questions are acceptable. Without questions, new discoveries would never be made. Because people ask questions, new facts arise, and the message can be more understandable to the modern reader. Otherwise, the text would be dead, but the Word of God is living and should never be allowed to reach such a point when Christians fail to form a greater understanding of the words God has given to the world.

Jessi Jordan graduated from HPU in December 2015 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Biblical Languages and the Guy D. Newman Honors Academy. Since then, she has begun working on a Master of Divinity degree at Yale Divinity School with a focus on political theology. She is interested in examining the relationship between politics and religion,

Heidelberg soon before eventually pursuing a PhD in theology. and how they influence one another. She plans to begin studying at

20 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

21 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

EvidenceThomas Kyle for the Writing of Philippians from Ephesus

INTRODUCTION Many details of the life of the Apostle Paul are well known and are widely held to be true by many biblical scholars. It is easy for researchers to agree upon what early sources tell directly about Paul’s life. However, it is less easy to get a unanimous consensus on topics that

arecome not up, directly much isspecified left to speculation in early literature and assumption. about Paul. In When this case, these the unspecified theory supported areas of byconcern the most evidence should be considered the most likely to be true.1 It is often assumed that the letter known as “Philippians” was written while Paul was imprisoned in Rome.2 While this position has been held by the majority of scholars for a number of years, it does not hold on to its title of “most likely” once it is questioned. While deciding which position to take, it is important to make sense of the Bible. The use of logic and reason applied to what is already known can help to shed new light on subjects once considered either hopeless or settled. Once the texts are analyzed from a logical point of view, it becomes much more likely that the book of Philippians was written by Paul while he was imprisoned in Ephesus.

TRADITION

the writingOne of thePhilippians first topics is the that idea needs of tradition. to be addressed There are when two considering different kinds the trueof evidence, location and for most of the evidence is internal textual evidence. Internal textual evidence is evidence which comes from within the literary sources themselves. Ideas and theories can be constructed from inside the text. The other kind of evidence is external, and this goes along with the idea of tradition. The tradition, or external source, is what has been passed down from people who lived during Paul’s time. It is logical that if one cannot arrive at a sure conclusion based on the

Philippians (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1992), 6.

1 Moisés Silva, 22 2 Ibid., 8. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) internal evidence, then the external evidence should be given more weight.3 The idea is that the external evidence comes from people who really knew what they were talking about. Tradition places Paul in Rome while he wrote the letter to the Philippians. The only problem with the

logictradition. placing It is Paul just inan Rome assumption is that thebased external on the evidence same internal we have evidence is not basedpresent on today, first-century but it was made many decades, or even centuries, after Paul wrote his letters.4 Therefore, the Roman

theoryevidence should just like not the be giventheories the supporting benefit of the other doubt locations. based on tradition. It is based on internal

A PRISON IN EPHESUS To help make a case for an Ephesian imprisonment, it is necessary to discover whether Ephesus even had a prison in Paul’s day. There is a local tradition in present-day Ephesus that infers that Paul was imprisoned in the fort on the hill of Astyages, which is home to what is known as the Prison of Saint Paul.5 Unfortunately, the fort was built at a later date. This does not, however, dismiss the fact that there is a local tradition that Paul was imprisoned in the city. The fort could have been built at a later date on top of where Paul was imprisoned. It is also very likely that Paul’s prison could just be somewhere in the general city among its many buildings. Even if it is not possible to pinpoint the exact location of Paul’s prison in Ephesus, there is no doubt that there was a prison there at the time. The population and wealth of the city would have required a prison.6 The theater alone could hold nearly 25,000 people.7 The capital of Asia Minor, and a city of that size in general, would surely have had a prison. Even some critics of the Ephesian theory say that the possibility that Paul could have been imprisoned here is hard to dismiss.8

3 Ibid., 6. The Biblical Archaeologist Reader, Volume II, David Noel4 Ibid.. Freedman and Edward F. Campbell, Jr., eds. (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1964), 339. 5 Merrill M. Parvis, “Ephesus in the Early Christian Era,”The in Biblical Archaeologist Reader, 344.

6 Floyd V. Filson, “Ephesus and the New Testament,” in Philippians, 8. 7 Parvis, “Ephesus in the Early Christian Era,” 338. 8 Silva, 23 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) THE PRAETORIUM AND CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD It is often thought that because the Praetorian guard is mentioned in Philippians 1:13, and those of Caesar’s household are mentioned in Philippians 4:22, that Paul must have been in

Rome.with the This Ephesian is not the theory. case. The Praetorium and those of Caesar’s household are both easy to fit A Praetorium is simply the headquarters of a praetor, or provincial governor. These Praetoria would be guarded well in case there was trouble and the governor needed protection. This kind of Praetorium would not have been found in Rome, but rather a Roman province.9

Thereeven an is imperialevidence cult in Ephesus in the city. of 10specific It is very areas likely dedicated that a Praetorium to emperor guard worship, would and have there been was found in Ephesus.11 The text in Philippians 1:13, “it has become known throughout the whole imperial guard” (NRSV), makes more sense for Ephesus. In Ephesus, there would have likely been around two hundred Praetorian guards, while in Rome, there would have been nine or ten thousand.12 Ephesus is simply more realistic. There are a couple of explanations concerning those of Caesar’s household. Philippians 4:22 says, “All the saints greet you, especially those of the emperor’s household” (NRSV). Many assume that this is a reference to Rome as the location of the writing of Philippians, but it is not. If this is truly a reference to members of Caesar’s family, Ephesus is still valid. There was a summer home that was used by imperial family members in Ephesus. If Paul was imprisoned in the summer, as many people believe he was, this would put him in prison at exactly the time that members of Caesar’s household would be expected to be there. Even still, another option is found. Some believe that this verse refer to service people from Rome who were working for the emperor.13 These service people who were united in trade would have likely formed groups in every major city throughout the empire.14

American Journal of Theology 24, no. 1 (1920): 113. 9 Clayton R. Bowen, “Are Paul’s Prison Letters From Ephesus?,” Philippians, 8; J. Peter Bercovitz, “Paul at Ephesus and the Composition of Philippians,” Proceedings10 Filson, 8 (1988): “Ephesus 67. and the New Testament,” 348. 11 Silva, , 113. 12 Bowen, “Are Paul’s Prison Letters from Ephesus?,” 113. 67. 13 Bowen, “Are Paul’s Prison Letters From Ephesus?” 24 14 Bercovitz, “Paul at Ephesus and the Composition of Philippians.” From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) LOGISTICS One of the most common arguments against the Roman theory made by many commentators is that Rome is just too far away.15 Ephesus provides a much closer and more logical location when the numerous communication transactions are taken into account. Depending on the conditions and route taken, it would have taken someone between one and three months to make the trip from Rome to Philippi.16 On the other hand, it would have taken someone only one or two weeks to travel from Ephesus to Philippi.17 If the unity of the letter of Philippians is assumed, and at least four informational transactions were made, it would have taken at least four months, or up to a whole year, for these events to unfold from Rome.18 In contrast, it would have taken one month at best, or two to three months at worst for the events to unfold from Ephesus. Of course, these numbers are assuming the unity of Philippians. There are many scholars who would argue that Philippians is, in fact, two different letters. Some of the major evidence that supports this point of view is that there is a benediction in Philippians 2:30 suggesting a break in the letter, the chronology of sending Epaphroditus back and forth from Ephesus to Philippians makes sense, and one can see Paul’s progression in teaching about 19 That said, if Philippians is thereally fruit two of letters, the spirit then from it would the first have half, taken to the even last longer half of for the the book. whole correspondence to play out. Additionally, it would have required more trips to be made back and forth, making the far away Rome seem even less likely.

ONESIMUS Another piece of evidence linking the writing of Philippians with Paul’s Ephesian imprisonment is the person of Onesimus. Some scholars believe that Paul and Onesimus were in prison together during the same stay in which Paul wrote Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, and Philippians. If this is true, then Ignatius of Antioch could give a unique insight on just where they were being held. In Ignatius’ letter to the church in Ephesus soon after the turn of the

Philippians, 6. http://matthewsharmon.com/2012/10/05/fridays-in-philippians-pauls-circumstances.15 Silva, 16 Matthew S. Harmon, “Fridays in Philippians - Paul’s Circumstances,” weblog, accessed April 17, 2015, Philippians, 7. 17 Ibid. 18 Silva, 19 Dr. Art Allen, interview with author, April 16, 2015. 25 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) 20 This was written early enough for

firstthe Onesimus century, he who mentioned was imprisoned the church with leader Paul toOnesimus. still be alive if he was relatively young when imprisoned. If the same Onesimus later became a pastor, it would only make sense that he would go to a city in which he already had connections. Ignatius connects Onesimus to Ephesus, and therefore connects the writing of both Philemon and Philippians to Ephesus (assuming that these letters were written during the same imprisonment).

CONCLUSION Even when all of the evidence is added up, it is impossible to reach an indisputable conclusion. Without actually being present in Paul’s day, the solution that claims the most supporting evidence should be given the most credibility. At the very least, the logic that has

beenfor the shown location should of the serve writing to level of Philippians. the playing All field things between considered, the Roman it could and beEphesian said that options Ephesus makes a compelling case when it is examined in depth.

Tom Kyle graduated from Howard Payne in May 2017 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in Cross-Cultural Studies and a minor

Linguistics from the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics. He in Biblical Languages. He plans on getting a Certificate in Applied then hopes to become a member of Wycliffe Bible Translators to do translation work in South Asia.

To the Ephesians, 1. See “The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians,” in The Ante- Nicene Fathers: Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down to A.D. 325, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson,20 eds.Ignatius (Buffalo, of Antioch, N.Y.: Christian Literature Publishing Company, 1885), 1:49–65 26 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

27 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

Samuel Marich He Descended into Hell

INTRODUCTION

the Creed.Discussions “No other of clause Jesus doof thenot Apostles’ often find Creed their elicitsway into more the unease subject among matter Christians of this section today of

1

thanstatement the affirmation of the creed that and Jesus to allow Christ it ‘descendedto add as much into shapehell.’’’ to It theis important, lives of Christians then, to affirmas have this the other phrases of the Creed. Jesus Christ himself descended into hell after his death on the cross, and this is proven by the claims of the church in the Apostles’ Creed, the Bible, tradition, and the shape this truth has given to the liturgical practices of the church. The phrase “he descended into Hell” is placed between two clauses which state that

“He“On [Christ]the third suffered day he rose under again Pontius from Pilate, the dead.” was crucified,All of these died, clauses and wasare clearly buried;” in andthe sectionalso that

ofChrist. the Apostles’ These three Creed clauses that detailsserve to the explain truths some about key the concepts nature, life, of the and Christian salvific work faith. of First, Jesus by explaining that Jesus suffered under Pontius Pilate, it is clear that this happened at a real point in history. Second, these clauses aim to show what Christ literally did at this point in his

ministry.a grave. So According then, when to the Creed,Creed statesJesus literally“he descended died by into crucifixion Hell,” it andis saying was physically that this is laid the in next thing that Jesus did. This statement makes the claim that after his death, Jesus descended into Hell, whatever that phrase may mean. This clause is then followed by the statement of his resurrection. Therefore, when the question arises over what Jesus was doing between his death and resurrection, this clause serves to witness to that conundrum. What did Jesus do from the time of his death, through Holy Saturday, until his resurrection? The Creed says “he descended into Hell.”

Exploring and Proclaiming the Apostles’ Creed, Roger E. Van Harn, ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004), 117. 1 James F. Kay, “He Descended into Hell,” in 28 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) OTHER CREEDS While the main creed that is up for discussion is the Apostles’ Creed, looking at other creeds to see what they contain concerning the “descent into hell” can deepen the role of this statement in this creed, and what that means for Christians who recite the creed. There is not a consensus between the creeds concerning the inclusion of this clause about Christ. For example, the Athanasian Creed maintains the presence of this creedal clause. Conversely, the Nicene Creed does not contain a reference to Christ’s descent. This creed moves quickly from the death

of Christthese two to the events. resurrection This is not by helpfulonly briefly in discussing mentioning the that actions there of wereChrist three during days that in time.the middle

Therefore,one hand, it it could could encourage potentially the have reader two effectsto not beon concernedthe person with reciting the workthis specific of Christ creed.On in those the three days. In the excitement to move to the recognition of Jesus Christ’s resurrection, one might gloss over those three days. In doing so, the importance of the work that was accomplished

duringanyone those curious days about might the be work neglected accomplished as well. Onduring the otherthose hand,three thisdays action to begin may seeking influence more knowledge concerning these events. In doing so, a greater theological understanding may be attained. The Masai Creed also does not contain a clause concerning this topic. This creed was developed in the 1960s, a much more recent time of development than that of the Apostles’ Creed.2 The lack of a clause concerning Christ’s descent into hell in this more recently formed creed may be a representation of the unease of Christians concerning the clause “He descended into Hell.” It has been disputed by many as to whether this phrase of the creed truly has any biblical context on which to stand. The statement made by James F. Kay is that “its allegedly weak scriptural support,” along with other factors, has caused many to ask if the clause should be in the Creed at all. However, the truth is, “what the scriptures say at length, the creed says 3 When the church was forming the Apostles’ Creed, it would not have placed this clause briefly.” creed). 2 “The Masai Creed,”Believing accessed Three May Ways 7, 2015, in One http://churchthenandnow.com/2009/10/29/the-masai- God: A Reading of the Apostles’ Creed (Notre Dame, Ind., University of Notre Dame Press, 1994), 8. 3 Nicholas Lash, 29 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) in the creed if it did not have scriptural support. But before the support from scripture for this

clause can be identified, the issue of the translation of the word “hell” must first be addressed. Kaysemantic explains range that of “one this termof the (from difficulties the Old interpreters English, helan face, ‘to in conceal’).”grappling with4 The ‘hell’ word is “hell” the wide used in the Creed is there to translate the “descendit ad inferna (from infernus, ‘that which is below’)” or the “ad inferos (from inferus, ‘of the lower world’).”5 Kay goes on to explain that these two terms have actually been used “interchangeably . . . thereby indicating they are simply Latin synonyms for the ‘inferior’ or lower world.”6 However, “hell” has not only been the translation for these two terms, but has also been used in translations of the Bible for “Hebrew and Greek

terms (Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, and in one instance, Tartarus).” 7 Therefore, it is a challenge to know exactly what the term “hell” stands for apart from its “use in particular contexts.”8 If the

term “hell” represents the word Sheol, then it could just mean “grave.”9 Kay explains that if the understanding of “hell” is simply “buried,” then “at the most literal level . . . the descent ad inferna means that Jesus Christ went to his grave like any other child of Israel.”10 Consequently, “the descent into hell, in reinforcing the creedal ‘was buried,’ underscores that Jesus Christ was truly dead.”11 But there is more to this creedal statement than just reiterating the idea that Jesus was really buried. The term “hell” actually moves into a “scene of its own drama in

the salvation” due to the rich imagery present in the term Sheol since it “represents in Hebrew and Jewish traditions ‘the place of the dead’ . . . a dark, lower world where the dead linger as shadows of their former selves. . . .”12

BIBLICAL WITNESS First Peter 3:18–20 says, “For Christ also suffered for sins once for all, the righteous for

the unrighteous, in order to bring you to God. He was put to death in the flesh, but made alive in

4 Kay, “He Descended into Hell,” 118. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid., 119. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., 120. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 30 12 Ibid. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) the spirit, in which also he went and made a proclamation to the spirits in prison, who in former times did not obey, when God waited patiently in the days of Noah” (NRSV). Holding to the idea that Hell is the prison of spirits, or Sheol, this verse recounts what is likely the descent of Christ into that hell, in order to preach to the souls there. Another verse that supports the claim of this clause states, “When it says, ‘He ascended,’ what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower parts of the earth? He who descended is the same one who ascended far above all

thepassage heavens, that soalso that attests he might to this fill truth all things” of Christ’s (Eph. descent 4:9–10, into NRSV). hell Andcan bein Actsfound 2:23–24, with Peter another having said, “this man [Jesus], handed over to you according to the definite plan and foreknowledge of God,him up, you having [Israelites] freed crucifiedhim from and death, killed because by the it hands was impossible of those outside for him the to law.be held But inGod its raised power” (NRSV). The New Revised Standard Version makes a note next to the word “death,” and states that this term literally means the “pains of death.” All of that said, these verses have been dealt with differently by various theologians in the history of the church. This will be shown in the forthcoming discussion of the works on this subject by Thomas Aquinas, John Calvin, and Hans Urs von Balthasar.

AQUINAS, CALVIN, AND VON BALTHASAR ON CHRIST’S DESCENT

In his Summa Theologiae, Thomas Aquinas addresses the validity of this clause in the

Apostles’ Creed and the meaning behind it. In doing so, Aquinas first approached the eight articlewith his subject disputational by asking, style, “Whether Aquinas it namedwas fitting three for different Christ to objections descend intoto the hell?” idea Beginning that Christ descended into hell to which he begins his response by saying “It is said in the Creed: ‘He descended into hell’: and the Apostle says (Ephesians 4:9): ‘Now that He ascended, what is it, 13 Expounding upon that but because He also descended first into the lower parts of the earth?’” idea,“came he to then bear goes our penaltyon to say in that order it was to free indeed us from “fitting penalty. for Christ . . . But to through descend sin, into man hell” had since incurred he not only the death of the body, but also descent into hell.”14 Therefore, taking this to its logical

Summa Theologiae (ST) III, q. 52, art. 1

13 Thomas Aquinas, 14 Ibid. 31 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) conclusion, Christ not only died to save broken humans from death, but also from the descent

into hell. He affirms this with Isaiah 53:4,which reads, “Surely he has borne our infirmities and carriedby the Passion our diseases” that Christ (NRSV). should Aquinas deliver also the stated, captives “it wasdetained fitting in when hell.” 15the He devil supported was overthrown this using Zechariah 9:11, which says, “As for you also, because of the blood of my covenant with you, I will set your prisoners free from the waterless pit” (NRSV). Aquinas shows that Jesus came demonstrating “[his] power on earth by living and dying, so also He might manifest it in hell, by visiting it and enlightening it.”16 He also makes sure to make note of the fact that the “name of hell stands for an evil of penalty, and not for an evil of guilt.” Therefore, “it was becoming that Christ should descend into hell, not as liable to punishment Himself, but to deliver them who were.”17 Aquinas determines that the hell to which Christ descended is not the “hell of the lost . . . where men are tormented with sensible pain on account of actual sins.”18 Aquinas believed that Jesus could not have gone here because Jesus had no “actual sins.” Instead, he taught that Christ’s descent did not happen the same way for each level of hell. Here it is important to clarify that there is a historical understanding that there are different levels of hell into which people have been sent.

Sheol, or “‘the hell of the Fathers,’ ‘the hell of the just,’

or ‘Abraham’sThe first bosom.’” level is Kaythe ideaexplains of this idea as “[a] ‘limbo’ where the souls of the faithful

departed, who died prior to Christ, were confined19 Aquinas and claims ‘punished,’ that the but descent only in of the Christ sense into of exclusionthe “hell of from the lost”the beatific was in visionfact to of“put God.” them to shame for their unbelief and wickedness.”20 Additionally, Aquinas wrote that Christ, “who is the Wisdom of God, penetrated to all the lower parts of the earth, not passing through them locally with His soul, but by spreading the effects of His power in a measure to them all.”21 The question that then presents itself, and that Aquinas deals with, is “Whether the

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid., III, q. 52, art. 2. ST III, q. 52, art. 2. 19 Kay, “He Descended into Hell,” 122. 20 Aquinas, 32 21 Ibid. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) whole Christ was in hell?”22 There arises the issue of whether Christ was fully present in hell because his body was in the grave. If part of him was in the grave and not in hell, then he wasn’t completely there in hell. However, Aquinas quickly dismissed this issue by stating, “in the death of Christ, although the soul was separated from the body . . . neither was separated from the Person of the Son of God.”23 Continuing on, Aquinas then wrote, “Christ’s Person is whole in each single place, but not wholly, because it is not circumscribed by any place: indeed, all places put together could not comprise His immensity; rather is it His immensity that embraces all things.”24 Not only was Christ fully in hell, but according to Aquinas he also spent some length of time there. He explains that Christ was in hell for the same amount of time that his body spent in the grave.25 John Calvin is also a strong supporter of the presence of this clause in the Apostles’ Creed. However, he supports it in a way that is starkly different than Thomas Aquinas. In

reflectingomit the descent upon the to importancehell, which was of this of noclause little of importance the Creed, Calvinto the accomplishmentsaid, “[believers] of must redemption not . . . which ought not by any means be disregarded . . . the omission of it greatly detracts from the

26 benefit First,of Christ’s Calvin death.” wished to address the accusation that this clause only reiterated the truth that Christ died and went into the grave (which was present in the previous clauses). Here he referenced the argument that the common use of the Latin “infernis for sepulcher,” which means “grave,” is the correct way to use this clause.27 Calvin argued against using the idea that there is 28 no question about the “matter attended with no difficulty in clear and unambiguous terms.” Hegeneral went because on to say the that goal if thisof any was creed the case is to itmake would simple not fit declarations with the principle of Christian of the truths. creed Ifin this statement only serves to add additional imagery for what has already been explained, then it

22 Ibid., III, q. 52, art. 3. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. Institutes of the Christian Religion, Henry Beveridge, trans. (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2008), 330.25 Ibid., III, q. 52, art. 4. 26 John Calvin,

27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 33 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) violates this goal.29 As mentioned before, Calvin’s defense of this clause in the Apostles’ Creed was quite different than that of Aquinas. In addition, Calvin disagreed with much that has been said by Aquinas concerning Christ’s descent into hell. Calvin stated that he differed with those, including Aquinas, who used Psalm 107:16, which states, “For he shatters the doors of bronze, and cuts in two the bars of iron” (NRSV). And the same went for those that used Zechariah 9:11. In doing so, he said that the idea that these verses were used to support the teaching that “Christ descended to the souls of the patriarchs who died under the law, to announce his

accomplished“nothing but a redemption,fable.”30 and bring them out of the prison in which they were confined” is Hans Urs von Balthasar is another theologian that has contributed much to the discussion of this clause of the Apostles’ Creed. Historically coming after Aquinas and Calvin, Hans Urs von Balthasar had the luxury of being able to view both of the stances held by these

two theologians. In his work, Mysterium Paschale, von Balthasar wrote an incredible amount of material concerning the events of Easter. And as any good writer does, von Balthasar brought a considerably unique understanding of these events. Von Balthasar explained, “without the Son no one can see the Father (John 1:18), nor anyone come to the Father (John 14:6), and if, without him, the Father is revealed to nobody (Matthew 11:27), then when the Son, the Word of the Father, is dead, then no one can see God, hear of him or attain him.”31 This is the situation behind the word “hiatus” in reference to Christ. He maintained that the teaching of the descent

ofour Christ sights is the difficult ‘absolute by saying, paradox’ “it nowwhich becomes lies in the extraordinarily hiatus, and the difficult continuity to keep of thetogether Risen inOne with the One who died, having previously lived.”32 He goes on to say that death for any human renders them mute. Therefore, since Jesus was fully human, he joins in this muteness, which means that the “Speech, the Communication and the Mediation of God” becomes mute.33 These

teachings just begin to break the surface of what von Balthasar brought forth in Mysterium

29 Ibid. Mysterium Paschale: The Mystery of Easter, Aidan Nichols, trans. (San Francisco: Ignatius 30 Ibid.,Press, 2000), 331. 49. 31 Hans Urs von Balthasar,

32 Ibid., 52. 34 33 Ibid., 50. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) Paschale, but he warned his reader, “The danger is very real that we, as spectators of a drama beyond our powers of comprehension, will simply wait until the scene changes. For in this non-time, there appears to be no possibility of following him who has become non-Word.”34 We cannot just brush aside the doctrine of the descent into hell of Christ simply because we cannot understand. Instead of just seeking that change of scene, von Balthasar discusses what it means for God to die. He wrote, “it is really God who assumes what is radically contrary to the divine, what is eternally reprobated by God, in the form of the supreme obedience of the Son towards the Father, and, thereby . . . discloses himself in the very act of his self-concealment.”35 The descent into hell necessarily has a Trinitarian nature. This Trinitarian understanding helps us understand why the descent into hell was necessary. Von Balthasar claimed, “if the Father must be considered as the Creator of human freedom . . . then judgment belongs primordially to him, and thereby Hell also; and when he sends the Son into the world to save it instead of judging it, and, to equip him for this function. . . . Then he must also introduce the Son made man into ‘Hell’” to which he says “the Son cannot really be introduced into Hell save as a dead man, on Holy Saturday.”36

This clause of the Apostles’ Creed serves not only to briefly say “what the scriptures sayThis at statement length,” but of theit also Creed serves makes to establish it clear that the Christ“field offully play” suffered for Christian what any life human and thought. suffered, not just the physical death and rising, but also his soul suffered all that a human soul would suffer in death. This statement serves to solidify the incarnation of Jesus. If Christ was indeed truly human, and if he truly died, then he fully experienced the death that humans experience. This completes his incarnation. If this clause is left out there is much that has to be answered concerning the events of Jesus’ life between his death and resurrection.

LITURGICAL CONSIDERATIONS This clause has action in the life and liturgy of the church. It is not merely a statement of belief but it brings shape into the life of the church. This comes to the forefront mostly in the practices of Holy Saturday. One practice in the liturgy of the church is that of tenebrae. This

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid., 52. 36 Ibid., 175. 35 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) worship service of tenebrae is characterized by the gradual extinguishing of candles to signify the gradual extinguishing of the life of Christ in the events of Good Friday.37 These serve to

set up the church to remember Holy Saturday. Another distinguishing aspect of the tenebrae service is silence. There is a great deal of deliberate silence present in this service. The power of this silence culminates at the end of the service when the worshipers that are gathered leave in complete silence.38 Maintaining this silence is crucial to help the church keep in mind the importance of Holy Saturday. If the church does not leave in silence, then the whole point of the Good Friday service, to remember the death that Jesus died on the cross, risks being lost as soon as people begin to have normal conversations that do not remember this occasion. The silence that the followers of Jesus felt must be felt by the church today, if there is to be a chance at a deeper perception of the joy of the resurrection that comes on Easter Sunday. This silence makes people uncomfortable to say the least, especially in today’s culture where there is constantly something trying to tear away the attention of the believer from the work of Christ that the church witnesses to in these services. This uncomfortable feeling helps the church remember the depths of the emotions felt by the followers of Jesus in scripture. They did not immediately move to the excitement of the celebration of Easter; they did not even know that it was to come. They felt immense pain and searing loss as their Messiah was dead, so we try to feel that pain as well. It is during this time that it is remembered that Christ descended into hell. This is important to remember here because it was during this time of pain that Christ was still working. While his followers believed his ministry to be over, he was completing his work in hell. Then comes the celebration of Easter. The hope that comes at the resurrection then is not just for those who were alive but also for those who were dead.

CONCLUSION The truth that Christ “descended into hell” must be maintained in the life of the church. Though some would doubt so, this statement of the Apostles’ Creed brings a great deal of depth to the Christian understanding of the work of Christ in the events involved in Easter, especially the events of Holy Saturday. This clause is present in the Apostles’ Creed for a reason. The

Services of the Christian Year, vol. 5 of The Complete Library of Christian Worship, Robert E. Webber, ed. (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1993), 349. 37 John D. Witvliet, “An Introduction to Tenebrae Worship,” in

36 38 Ibid. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) church throughout time has given witness to the necessity of maintaining this truth through many different practices. Although it is a tough subject that has been addressed in different ways, there is an implicit necessity for each believer to wrestle with this claim. It may be easier to align with other creedal statements than with this one, but to neglect it would be to neglect a part of the incredible work of Jesus Christ.

Divinity studies at George W. Truett Theological Seminary at Baylor In May 2017, Samuel Marich finished his first year of Master of University. He graduated from HPU in May 2015 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in Practical Theology and minors in Music and Biblical Languages. He is continually trying to follow God and discern where he is being called to serve. He currently serves in the praise band at Calvary Baptist Church in Waco, Texas.

37 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016)

Bobby Martinez

The Communion of INTRODUCTIONSaints Throughout the span of Christian history, a clause in the Apostles’ Creed known as “the communion of saints” has been a point of contention for many theologians, pastors, and lay people within the church catholic. Consequently, the contention surrounding the communion of saints has caused many people within the church to develop a disembodied understanding of the relationship between the historical body of Christ, the sacramental body of Christ in the eucharist, and the ecclesial body of Christ that makes up the church catholic. That being said, in the hopes of recapturing an important emphasis on the interconnected nature of the historic body of Christ, the eucharistic body of Christ, and the ecclesial body of Christ, the overall goal of this essay is to address the historical implications of the communion of saints, discuss the clause’s creedal and biblical context, explain the clause’s theological implications in light of John Calvin and Thomas Aquinas’ interpretations of the clause, describe the grammatical function and unique language surrounding the clause, and lastly, discuss the clause’s liturgical shape that it embodies in the various practices of the church. In sum, the overall goal of this essay is to express the indispensable relationship between the eucharistic body of Christ, the historical body of Christ, and the ecclesial body of Christ in light of the communion of saints.

CREEDAL CONTEXT Separated into three main sections, each of the three sections of the Apostles’ Creed

brieflythree persons discusses of thethe Holydoctrines Trinity. of theFunctionally church with speaking regard this to their was uniquelargely duerelationship to the fact with that the

thescholars Apostles’ to believe Creed that was the influenced Apostles’ by Creed the baptismal primarily creeds drew itsof inspirationthe early church; from oneleading of the many most renown early baptismal creeds, “The Old Roman Creed.”1 Along with two other clauses from the Apostles’ Creed, the communion of saints is one of three clauses that was absent from the

Documents of the Christian Church, 3rd edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 25–26. 1 See Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder, eds., 38 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) Old Roman Creed. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the Old Roman Creed did not mention the communion of saints, perhaps an explanation for its inclusion in later creeds could be discovered by carefully considering the evolution of the communion of saints. As it was stated in the previous paragraph, the Apostles’ Creed is essentially separated into three different sections that directly correlate with the three persons of the Holy Trinity. Keeping that in mind, it should be noted that the communion of saints is preceded by two clauses that read, “I believe in the Holy Spirit/the holy catholic church . . .” But because of the fact that the clause, “I believe in the Holy Spirit,” is the beginning of the third section of the Apostles’ Creed, it would be right to assume that “the communion of saints/the holy catholic church” are to be understood in light of the Holy Spirit. But before one is to interpret the

communionchurch relates of tosaints the Holyin light Spirit. of the Holy Spirit, one must first consider how the holy catholic In the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church the Greek word , and meaning ‘general’ or ‘universal.’”, “catholic”2 isAdditionally, defined as “deriv[ing] another way from it was described was,καθολικός “Of the universal Church as distinct from the local Christian communities . . . applied thus to the faith of the whole Church, i.e. the doctrine believed ‘everywhere, always, and by all.”3 In turn, if the catholicity of the church deals primarily with the faith of the whole church, the communion of saints inherits a contextual basis in which it can be explained and expressed in three different ways: “(1) The spiritual union existing between each Christian and Christ, and so between each and every Christian. . . . (2) The fellowship of Christians upon earth only. (3) The sharing of holy things . . . which all Christians have in the sacraments.”4 Directly following the communion of saints are the clauses “the forgiveness of sins/ the resurrection of the body/and the life everlasting.” Focusing on “the forgiveness of sins/the

resurrectionwhen Peter said, of the body,” Acts 10 testifies to that which was briefly mentioned in the Creed We are witnesses to all that he did both in Judea and in Jerusalem. They put him to death by hanging him on a tree; but God raised him on the third day and allowed him to appear,

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd revised edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 308. 2 F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, eds.,

3 Ibid.. 4 Ibid., 390. 39 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) not to all the people but to us who were chosen by God as witnesses, and who ate and drank with him after he rose from the dead. He commanded us to preach to the people and to testify that he is the one ordained by God as judge of the living and the dead. All the prophets testify about him that everyone who believes in him receives forgiveness of sins through his name (Acts 10:39–43, NRSV).

Andthe promise regarding of theeverlasting closing clauselife that of comes the Creed, with “and Christians the life placing everlasting,” their hope it briefly and trustexplains in the incarnate and resurrected Christ. On another note, as it was mentioned earlier, the communion of saints was not present at all in the Old Roman Creed. However, during the life of Caesarius, bishop of Arles, a

Gallicancommunion Creed of ofsaints. the Sixth5 But Centuryit would wasnot besaid until to have 750 CEbeen in oneDicta of Abbatis the first Pirminii creeds tode includesingulis thelibris canonicis scarapus that the church would discover a creed that mirrors that of the Apostles’ Creed read in churches today.6 However, it is important to note that the composition of various creeds did not stop with the Apostles’ Creed. In all actuality, as time progressed, the language of the Apostles’ Creed and the doctrines which it communicated would be nuanced in a variety of ways as the church grew in age.

Apostles’In referenceCreed in the to theeast Eastern saying, church,“although Jaroslav the creed Pelikan has nodiscussed original the place influence in the tradition of the of the Eastern Orthodox Church, it does appear in some Eastern collections of creeds.”7 Considering the fact that the Apostles’ Creed does appear in some Eastern collections, perhaps it would not be wrong to assume that the Apostles’ Creed may have played a minor role in further developing the doctrine of the communion of saints. For example, though not expressed

explicitly as “the communion of saints,” in Cyril Lucar’s 1629 Eastern Confession of the Christian Faith, the language that is used in chapters 10 and 17 of the text is similar to that of the eucharistic, catholic, and the ecclesial language that the majority of the Christian tradition has generally ascribed to the communion of saints.

Documents of the Christian Church, 26.

5 Bettenson and Maunder, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian6 Tradition Ibid. , Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, eds. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003), 1:668. 7 Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, “The Apostles’ Creed,” in 40 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) In Chapter 10 of Lucar’s confession, he is quoted saying, “We believe that what is called the catholic church contains the faithful of Christ everywhere, those who, having departed, are in their home in the fatherland, as well as those who are yet pilgrims on their way.”8 In this

specificbeen understood portion of in Lucar’s light of confession, the universal similar church, to the Lucar’s way inunderstanding which the communion of the “catholic of saints church” has directly refers to the “faithful of Christ everywhere” as “[those who] are in their home in the fatherland . . . as well as those who are yet pilgrims on their way.”9 Thus, it is clear that Lucar’s language does indeed paint an eschatological image of church catholicity that includes believers of the past, present, and future. And with regard to Chapter 17, Lucar then went on to focus on the sacramental

significance[W]e ofacknowledge the eucharist and saying, believe in the true and real presence of our Lord Jesus Christ. . . . For we believe that the faithful do eat the body of our Lord Jesus Christ. . . . When, therefore, we partake worthily of the body and blood of Christ and have completely communicated, we acknowledge ourselves to be reconciled to our Head and united with him, and one body with him, with certain hopes of being fellow heirs with him in the kingdom.10 In turn, when Lucar’s statements mentioned above are directly compared to the traditional interpretation of the communion of saints, it is clear that the language of real presence, unity, catholicity, and ecclesial wholeness is nuanced in a very similar manner.

in Latin, As the a finaldoctrine note, of considering the communion all that of hassaints been referred said in to this as “section,communo it should sanctorum be noted” expresses that “a fellowship of, or with, the saints.”11 In other words, this doctrine communicates the idea of a unifying presence that binds saints together across space and time by means of their shared faith in the Triune God, worship, prayer, and by receiving the eucharistic body of Christ along

Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition, 1:553. 8 Cyril Lucar, “The Eastern Confession of the Christian Faith,” in

9 Ibid. The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4 (New York: Robert Appleton10 Ibid., Company, 1:555. 1908), accessed 21 March 2016, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04171a.htm. 11 Joseph Sollier, “The Communion of Saints,”

41 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) with other sacraments of the church. In the pages following this section, such ideas will be addressed in greater detail.

BIBLICAL CONTEXT Theologian Nicholas Lash has said, “what the Scriptures say at length, the Creed says 12 With that in mind, just as other clauses within the Creed were required to have

briefly.”a scriptural basis, the communion of saints was no different from the rest with regard to its inclusion within the Apostles’ Creed. For this reason, passages like Philippians 1:3–5, Romans 15:26, 2 Corinthians 9:13, 1 Corinthians 10:16, Philippians 3:10, 2 Corinthians 13:13,

Philemon 6, and Acts 2:42–47 are some of the many credible sources that accurately reflect the significance of the communion of saints in the life of the church. That said, in order to see how exactlybe considered: the significance (1) The relationshipof the communion of the biblicalof saints context is expressed of the communionin scripture, oftwo saints things in mustlight koinonia. (2) The

of specific linguistic implications expressedhagios” in the Bible’sin the New usage Testament. of the word With that in mind, the definition, usage, and context of the word “ firstwith halfregard of this to the section word will koinonia be spent. In aconsidering similar manner, the biblical the second context half of of the this communion section will of consist saints of in depth analysis of the word hagios in light of the New Testament. The dictionary of the Fourth Revised Edition of the Greek New Testament

koinonia using the following terms: “Fellowship, a close mutual relationship, participation, defines the word sharing in, partnership, contribution, and gift.”13 Keeping those terms in mind, Susan K. Wood,

in her contribution to Exploring and Explaining the Apostles’ Creed, made a suggestion that koinonia when she said,

directly“The noun lined koinonia up with has that a considerable of the Greek rangeNew Testament’s of meanings definition in the New of Testament.”14 This would effectively be expressed when Wood went on to suggest that each of the passages in their unique context had the potential to communicate the following ideas:

Believing Three Ways in One God: A Reading of the Apostles’ Creed (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993), 8. 12 Nicholas Lash, The Greek New Testament. 4th edition (Nordlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012), Dictionary 103. 13 Kurt Aland et al., eds., Exploring and Proclaiming the Apostles’ Creed, Roger E. Van Harn, ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004), 221. 14 Susan K. Wood, “The Holy Catholic Church, The Communion of Saints,” in 42 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) (1) a sense of “close association”, (2) “an attitude of good will that manifests an interest in a close relationship translated as generosity,” (3) “an abstract term for the concrete ‘sign of fellowship, proof of brotherly [or sisterly] unity, or the gift of contribution,” or (4) “participation or sharing in something.”15

koinonia’s

In light of Woods’ fourfold system, the significance of definitive nature is able to be classifieddetail. For by this carefully reason, considering two scripture the passages biblical contextthat make of theuse communion of koinonia willof saints be explored. in greater To begin the discussion on the biblical context of themes surrounding the communion of

saints, theAt present, first example however, to consider I am going is Romans to Jerusalem 15:25–27 in a ministry where Paul to the says, saints; for Macedonia and Achaia have been pleased to share their resources with the poor among the saints at Jerusalem. They were pleased to do this, and indeed they owe it to them; for if the Gentiles have come to share in their spiritual blessings, they ought also to be of service to them in material things (NRSV). In this passage, one can see a close sense of association, generosity, signs of fellowship, and the

idea of “sharing in” something. In accordance withkoinonia. Susan Wood’s And in model,light of thisthe originalevidently language, reflects all four of her classifications regardingkoinonia the ( word ) is translated, the word originally rendered whenas “share” the first literally form communicates of the word an idea ofκοινωνίαν “contribution” in verse 26.16 In a similar manner, in verse 27, another form of koinonia, ( ) which is rendered “have come to share” literally means “have shared in.”17 ἐκοινώνησαν Thus, in this passage, the significance of the participatory aspectinvolving of sharingthemselves reflects with a the christocentric concerns of community one another. in In which addition, people this are passage collectively highlights the significance of maintaining an understanding of the universal body of Christ that reflects the ecclesiologicalthe importance implications of participating of the and communion involving ourselves of saints. withIn other our wbrothersords, this and passage sisters reflects within

theincarnation church catholic (the historical in light bodyof Christ’s of Christ). character that was embodied and personified in the

The Greek New Testament, 562. 15 Ibid. 16 Aland et al., 17 Ibid. 43 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) In Acts 2:42–47, all four elements of Susan Wood’s fourfold koinonia system can also be seen when the author of the book of Acts wrote: They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers. Awe came upon everyone, because many wonders and signs were being done by the apostles. All who believed were together and had all things in common; they would sell their possessions and goods and distribute the proceeds to all, as any had need. Day by day, as they spent much time together in the temple, they broke bread at home and ate their food with glad and generous hearts, praising God and having the goodwill of all the people. And day by day the Lord added to their number those who were being saved (NRSV).

In this passage the usage of the word koinonia differs from that of the Romans passage

becauseof the book it is of focused Acts, B.H. on aCarroll more describedrefined form the of substance fellowship. of Inthis regards passage to bythis saying, specific “They portion were constant in attending upon the following things: The teaching of the apostles, the breaking of bread, fellowship, and prayers.”18 Carroll would later describe the emphasis on these four practices in the early church as “habit[s] of continual attention to the following things: (1) Public worship; (2) the contribution worship; (3) the Lord’s Supper worship; (4) the prayer meeting in worship.”19 In turn, one is able to conclude that in this portion of the book of Acts,

there is not only ecclesial expressions of koinonia and unity that were inspired by the character of the incarnate God, but there is also biblical evidence of early forms of liturgy in which the sacramental body of Christ may have been distributed amongst the masses as a form of worship, and an expression of their solidarity with one another. But who were these people living in strange communities that shared with one another?

In Greek, they draw their identity from the Greek word hagios ( ). However, in English,

these people are most commonly known as “saints.” ἅγιος The word hagios

sacred consecrated; holy,can morally be briefly pure, defined upright; in ( the following) God’s manner: people. “Set. . .”20 apart In light to orof theby God,

οἱ ἅγιοι The Acts, An Interpretation of the English Bible 12 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1947), 104. 18 B.H. Carroll, The Greek New Testament, Dictionary 2. 19 Ibid. 44 20 Aland et al., From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) Greek translation of saint, generally speaking, the term [hagios] is used in the New Testament only in its plural form to refer to all members of churches who are Christians consecrated to God through Jesus Christ.21 For this reason, the plural form of hagios is often seen in introductory and closing portions of letters like 2 Corinthians and Philippians. However, though the appearance of the plural form of hagios is commonly found in the beginning or end of many New Testament letters, there are other places in scripture where the plural form of hagios appears. Although it has already been referenced once before in this section, consider once more the language of Paul in Romans 15:25–27 in which he wrote,

At present, however, I am going to Jerusalem in a ministry to the saints; for Macedonia

and Achaia have been pleased to share their resources with the poor among the saints at Jerusalem. They were pleased to do this, and indeed they owe it to them; for if the Gentiles have come to share in their spiritual blessings, they ought also to be of service to them in material things (NRSV).

With regard to the bolded words, the plural form of hagios in Romans 15:25–27 can be seen making an appearance twice within this passage as a reference to the gathered group of people in Jerusalem. However, it is important to remember that these two plural appearances of hagios ( and ) are not just descriptors of a regular group of people, but rather descriptors

ἁγίοις ἁγίων of a holy group of people defined by their closeness, generosity, fellowship, and willingness to sharehagios, in holy things. For this reason, this passage is notkoinonia. only a testament of the true definition of Thus,but also Romans a testament 15:25–27 of the is onetrue of definition many passages of that provides a scriptural basis for the communion of saints because of its emphasis on living in communion (koinonia) with one another as God’s holy people (hagios). That said, in light of the biblical context of the

communionwithin the creed of saints, because the ofcommunion scriptural oflanguage saints is that able points to find to a the scriptural importance basis of for living its existence in communion with one another as God’s holy people.

The Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 246.. 21 Donald K. McKim, 45 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) THEOLOGICAL EXPOSITION: THOMAS AQUINAS AND JOHN CALVIN

In Thomas Aquinas’ work, On the Apostles’ Creed, Aquinas approached the communion of saints by establishing a relationship between the communion of saints and the forgiveness of sins. In doing so, Aquinas opened article 10 of his treatise on the communion of saints by saying, “As in our natural body the operation of one member works for the good of the entire body, so also is it with a spiritual body, such as is the Church. . . . So, among the points of faith in which the Apostles have handed down is that there is a common sharing of good in the Church. This is expressed in the words, the communion of saints.”22 In other words, Aquinas sought to communicate an idea in which members of the church worked for the good of each other by working for the good of the church. Thus, when the sharing of good in the church takes place, it is expressed in terms of the communion of saints.

AquinasAfter went briefly on to establishingsay, “Christ communicates his ideas of “sharing His good, of good” just as in the relation power to of bodily the head language, is communicated to all the members. This communication takes place through the sacraments of the Church in which operate the merits of the passion of Christ, which in turn operates for the conferring of grace unto the remission of sins.”23 And thus began Aquinas’ explanation of

theMarriage) seven sacraments in light of “conferring (Baptism, Eucharist,grace unto Confirmation, the remission Penance, of sins.” Unction, Holy Orders, and

baptismAquinas as a means began of his“conferring discussion grace on the unto sacraments the remission by explaining of sins”: “The the significancepower of baptism of consists in this, that it cleanses from all sins as regards both their guilt and their punishment.”24

Inbecause relation of tothe the fact sacrament that she (the of confirmation, spirit) was able Aquinas to impart stressed strength the importance upon believers. of the In Holy turn, Spirit through the strength of the Holy Spirit, Aquinas felt that the Holy Spirit provided a means for

parents to see it through that their children were confirmed in the church. After discussing the sacrament of confirmation, Aquinas then moved on to discuss the Eucharist by writing, The Catechetical Instructions of Thomas Aquinas, Joseph B. Collins, trans. (New York: Wagner, 1939), 60–61. 22 Thomas Aquinas, “The Apostles’ Creed,” in

23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 46 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) In the physical life, after man is born and acquires powers, he needs food to sustain

and strengthen him. Likewise, in the spiritual life, after being fortified, he has need of spiritualdrink His food; blood, this you is shallthe body not haveof Christ: life in ‘Unless you’ [Jn you 6:54]. eat 25the flesh of the Son of man and Moving on further down the list, Aquinas then touched on penance saying, “In the physical life one who is sick and does not have recourse to medicine dies; so in the spiritual order, one becomes ill because of sin.”26 But directly following that grim statement, Aquinas wrote, “Thus, medicine is necessary for the recovery of health; and this is the grace which is conferred in the sacrament of penance.”27 role saying, “[S]ince no one can Arriving enter intoat the eternal fifth sacrament, life until he Aquinas is well cleansed,explained there its essential is need for another sacrament which will purify man of his sickness and prepare him for entry into the heavenly kingdom.”28 important role that the sacrament After discussing of holy ordersthe fifth played sacrament, in the Aquinas life of the then church made by note saying, of the “[T]he sacrament of orders is necessary, by whose powers these sacraments are dispensed.”29

Lastly,women] Aquinas if they touchedlive uprightly, on the are sacrament saved; and of matrimonythereby enabled briefly to by live saying, without “in mortal it, men sin.” [and30

close hisUpon discussion finishing on his the extensive remission discussion of sins by on referring the seven back sacraments, to the communion Aquinas ofthen saints. began In to doing so, Aquinas said, “Through this communion [that seeks the good of others,] we receive

twogood benefits. of one is One communicated is that the merits to another.” of Christ In theare end,communicated Aquinas’ discussion to all; the onother the iscommunion that the of saints was unique in the fact that it called attention to the importance of considering the grace, goodness, and love extended to us by God in the sacraments. In doing so, by becoming more aware of the goodness of God that the people of the church are recipients of, they train themselves to learn how to extend the goodness of God to others.

25 Ibid., 62–63. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid,. 64. 30 Ibid. 47 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) On a very different note, John Calvin’s discussion on the communion of saints in

Institutes of the Christian Religion was drastically shorter than that of Aquinas’. Interestingly

enough,to interpret rather the than communion reserving of asaints specific in lightsection of thefor clausethe communion in the Apostles’ of saints, Creed Calvin that decided dealt with the catholic church. That said, in light of Calvin’s discussion on the creedal context of the

holyof the catholic Creed concerning church, it is the important church isto to note be understood”that he first dealtbefore with discussing “what sense his opinion of the article on the communion of saints.31

noted thatBut hebefore had discussinga unique take the on remainder the clause of in Calvin’s the Apostles’ ideas in Creed great that detail, reads it must “I believe first be in the holy catholic church.” This can be seen when he expressed his belief that the word “in” was inserted in the clause when he wrote,

The particle in is often interpolated, but without any probable ground. I confess, indeed, that it is the more unusual form, and is not unsupported by antiquity, since the Nicene Creed, as quoted in Ecclesiastical History, adds the preposition. At the same time, we may perceive from early writers, that the expression received without controversy in ancient times was to believe ‘the Church,’ and not ‘in the Church.’32 This line of thinking was nuanced in a different manner when he later wrote

When in the Creed we profess to believe the Church [not in the Church], reference is made not only to the visible Church of which we are now treating, but to all the elect of God, including the number of those who have departed this life. And, accordingly, the word used is ‘believe,’ because oftentimes no difference can be observed between the

33

With regardchildren to the of Godpreceding and the quote, profane, when between Calvin hiswrote proper about flock Christians and the professing untamed herd. to believe the church (not “in” the church) in the recitation of the Creed, Calvin’s view of the communion of saints in light of church catholicity were made evident when he wrote that “reference is made not only to the visible Church of which we are now treating, but to all the elect of God, including

Institutes of the Christian Religion, Henry Beveridge, trans. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1989), 279. 31 John, Calvin,281.

32 Ibid. 48 33 Ibid,. 282. From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) those who have departed this life.”34 In turn, Calvin was essentially expressing his belief that the catholic church comprised of God’s elect (past and present). As Calvin’s thoughts continued to develop, Calvin eventually went on to say, All the elect of God are so joined together in Christ, that as they depend on one head, so they are as it were compacted into one body being knit together like its different members; made truly of one faith, hope, and charity, called not only to the same inheritance of eternal life, but to participation in one God and Christ.35 In doing so, Calvin put great emphasis on the fact that the catholic church is made up of the ecclesiological communion of saints (past, present, and future) as a people that are not only sharing in the “same inheritance of eternal life,” but also in “participation in one God and Christ.” That said, though language pointing to the ecclesial understanding of the communion

ofnot saints explicitly in light make of the reference church to catholic the communion was definitely of saints. present In addition, in Calvin’s Calvin discussion, did not Calvin discuss did the communion of saints in sacramental terms. However, one of the last things that Calvin said along the lines of the ecclesial understanding of communion of saints reads as such: “in order to embrace the unity of the Church . . . it is not necessary, as I have observed, to see it with our eyes, or feel it with our hands. Nay, rather from its being placed in faith, we are reminded that our thoughts are to dwell. . . .”36 In light of two very different perspectives on the communion of saints, perhaps there are things that can be learned from both theologians. On one hand, it could be said that Aquinas’ ability to coherently establish a connection between the remission of sins, the sacraments, and the communion of the saints provides a unique approach that also allows one to look beyond

oneselfimportant and to reflect remember upon thethe factcatholicity that there of the is always Church. a possibilityOn the other of hand,one becoming perhaps itso is enamored also with tangible expressions of catholicity that they fail to remember the nature of God who is able to work through things that are both seen and unseen.

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid., 283. 49 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION What can we say about the communion of saints? Though the communion of saints is generally interpreted in light of the sacraments, the church catholic, and the relationship that

theis limited church to embodies encouraging through believers sharing to consider and participating the importance in holy of things, embodying its general and cultivatingfield of play a spirit of unity within their local churches and the ecclesial body of Christ. In this sense, it is an identity that one takes on when they commit their allegiance and lives to furthering the kingdom of God through the work of the church. Whether it is in light of the sacramental presence of Christ in the eucharist, fostering relationships within the local church, extending the grace and peace of Christ to those inside and outside of our communities, or even breaking bread with one another in the form of a church potluck, the greatest priority when dealing with the communion of saints is the building of bridges in a spirit of unity. Thus, what can be said about the communion of saints is that it should move those within the church to see outside of themselves as they consider the transcendence of the Gospel. However, though it is great for one to consider to communal implications of the communion of saints, it is equally important to make note of what cannot be said about the communion of saints. In other words, if the church seeks to embody a greater sense of

community,sense of unity the within people the of ecclesial the church body must of Christ.first know With what regard hinders to scripture, it from cultivatingsuch an idea a greatercan clearly be seen when Paul spoke out against such dangers in 1 Corinthians saying, Now in the following instructions I do not commend you, because when you come together it is not for the better but for the worse. For, to begin with, when you come together as a church, I hear that there are divisions among you; and to some extent I believe it. Indeed, there have to be factions among you, for only so will it become clear who among you are genuine. When you come together, it is not really to eat the Lord’s supper. For when the time comes to eat, each of you goes ahead with your own supper, and one goes hungry and another becomes drunk. What! Do you not have homes to eat and drink in? Or do you show contempt for the church of God and humiliate those who have nothing? What should I say to you? Should I commend you? In this matter I do not commend you! (1 Cor. 11:17–22, NRSV). 50 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) Directly after speaking out against the divisive behavior of his audience, Paul then went on to explain the importance of unity with regard to the Eucharist in greater detail when he said, For I received from the Lord what I also handed on to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, “This is my body that is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” In the same way he took the cup also, after supper, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me (1 Cor. 11:23–25, NRSV). But perhaps one of the greatest testaments of the grammatical implications of the communion

ofwas saints built is when when he Paul said, spoke “For ofas theoften unified as you and eat communal this bread foundationand drink the upon cup, which you proclaim the church the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:26, NRSV). With all of that in mind, it seems as if the grammatical function of the communion of saints is one that only makes sense in light of the language of Christ who sought to emphasize the importance of reconciliation and unity of which the church makes sense in light of the death of Christ. Assuming the previous suggestion is correct, perhaps the grammatical function of the communion of saints is best represented in a statement that reads, “by this sacrament [consisting of bread and wine] we unite ourselves to Christ, who makes us sharers in his Body and Blood to form a single body.”37 In short, what can be said about the communion of saints is that it is centered around unity in which the church grows together by means of the sacraments, formation within local churches, and cultivating a greater sense of ecclesial unity on a global scale. Thus, if it is the desire of the church to cultivate a sense of “communion” within the church catholic, the church is tasked to reject hyper-individualistic ideas that directly contradict everything that can be said about the communion of saints.

LITURGICAL SHAPE

church,When it is important discussing to the note influence that not of all the churches communion within of the saints universal in the churchliturgy ofinterpret a local this clause in the same manner. In fact, most churches within the universal church have different

Catechism of the Catholic Church (Mahwah, NJ, Paulist Press, 1994), §1331.

37 51 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) interpretations of the communion of saints that ultimately determine how it is expressed in their liturgy. To give one example, though most Southern Baptists pride themselves in their non-creedal identity, the language of an ecclesial interpretation of the communion of saints is expressed in article VI of the 2000 Baptist Faith and Message when the document states, “The New Testament speaks also of the church as the body of Christ which includes all of the redeemed of all the ages, believers from every tribe, and tongue, and people, and nation.”38

However,its way into even Southern though Baptist an ecclesial life, a expression sacramental of expressionthe communion of the of clause’s the saints language managed that to points find to the real presence of Christ seems to be absent from the 2000 Baptist Faith and Message’s section on the Lord’s Supper: “The Lord’s Supper is a symbolic act of obedience whereby members of the church, through partaking of the bread and the fruit of the vine, memorialize the death of the Redeemer and anticipate His second coming.”39 On the other hand, Episcopalians believe that the communion of saints is not just a reference to the ecclesial body of Christ, but also a reference to the sacramental body of Christ in the eucharist. This can be seen in a eucharistic description found in the Episcopal church’s website that reads, “Christ’s body and blood are really present in the sacrament of the eucharist and received by faith. [Additionally] Christ’s presence is also known in the gathered eucharistic community.”40 All of that said, where one church may celebrate catholicity and eucharistic worship, another church may completely leave out any reference to the sacramental body of Christ. However, it is not without good reason. It should be known that the ambiguous language in reference to the clause allows churches to interpret and express it differently. Once again bringing Susan Wood into the

conversation,In the Latin She explains phrase sanctorumthe primary communion, reason for ‘sanctorum’a sense of fluidity can either in reference be interpreted to the clause:as a neuter plural or masculine plural. If it is neuter plural, the translation is ‘a sharing or partaking in holy things,’ the traditional term for the elements of the Eucharist. If it is a

bfm2000/bfm2000.asp. 38 “The Baptist Faith and Message” (2000), article VI, accessed April 20, 2016, http://www.sbc.net/

episcopalchurch.org/library/glossary/eucharist.39 Ibid., article VII. 40 “Eucharist,” Glossary, The Episcopal Church online, accessed April 21, 2016, http://www. 52 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) masculine plural, the translation is ‘communion of saints,’ referring to the martyrs and confessors, living and dead, and all who make up the body of Christ.41 In other words, the ambiguity of the language in which the communion of saints is expressed allows churches to have different interpretations and means of expressing their appreciation for doctrine of the communion of saints. Thus, the way in which the communion of saints is expressed liturgically varies from church to church.

In light of churches in which the sacrament of the eucharist has a significant place in the liturgy,in the singing one of ofthe eucharistic simplest forms songs. of For worship example, in which the Episcopal the communion Church’s of Hymnal the saints 1982 is reflectedcontains ais hymn with the following lines: Come, risen Lord, and deign to be our guest; We meet, as in that upper room they met; One body we, one Body who partake One with each other, Lord, for one in thee.42

Likecommunity, many other being eucharistic one collective songs, body the of words Christ, of and this receiving specific song of the speak body of of gathering Christ by asmeans a of the eucharist. In short, the primary purpose of similar songs is to communicate the idea that the communion of saints consists of God’s people gathering together as representatives of the body of Christ and God’s people who partake in the consumption of the eucharistic body of Christ. Aside from eucharistic songs, another practice that successfully communicates the

significancecongregants ofto theparticipate communion in the of liturgy. saints isWith the theinclusion inclusion of litur of suchgical readings, responses such that responses encourage allow the congregants to experience a sense of connectedness that directly correlates to that which is expressed in the communion of saints. For this reason, listed below is an example of what a typical responsorial reading may look like (with bold lines being said by the assembly, and untreated lines reserved for the lector): The kingdom of God is justice and peace. Let us then pursue

Hymnal 1982 (New York: Church Hymnal Corporation, 1985), #306.41 Wood, “The Holy Catholic Church, The Communion of Saints,” 227. 42 “Come, Risen Lord, and Deign to Be Our Guest,” 53 From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) The things that make for peace. Where lies abound, You call us to speak truth

We will speak your truth

Where greed takes all, You call us to act justly:

We will act justly

Where violence consumes, You call us to live peacefully

We will live peacefully. . .”43

To give one last example of the liturgical presence of the communion of saints in the church, perhaps one of the most famous outward expressions of unity that carries the weight of the communion of saints is the collective recitation of the Our Father (Lord’s Prayer). In this act, a church verbally expresses their connectedness with one another through their shared faith.

Forthis thistext reason,is the Our as aFather final example in the New of the Revised communion Standard of Version.saints’ presence in the liturgy, below Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not bring us to the time of trial, but rescue us from the evil one (Matthew 6:9–13)

Gathering for Worship: Patterns and Prayers for the Community of Disciples (Norwich, England: Canterbury Press, 2005), 18. 54 43 Christopher J. Ellis and Myra Blyth, eds., From the Heart of the Church Vol. 3 (2016) CONCLUSION What is the communion of saints? The communion of saints is God’s people that gather in local church bodies in a spirit of unity, God’s people collectively united by faith in the Triune God as the ecclesial body of Christ (past, present and future), and God’s people who partake in the consumption of the eucharistic body of Christ where Christ’s presence is transcendent beyond human comprehension. In that regard, understanding the communion of saints in light of the sacraments, the church, the church’s relationships with others, and the incarnation is essential if one desires to see a glimpse of God’s transcendent movement within the world as we know it. Thus, perhaps the key to understanding what is at the heart of the communion of

saintshe said, is “For for the where people two of or the three church are gatheredto first ask in themselvesmy name, I whatam there Christ among may havethem” meant (Matthew when 18:20, NRSV).

Set to attend George W. Truett Theological Seminary at Baylor University in Fall 2017, Bobby Martinez will continue studying theology as he pursues his Master of Divinity degree after completing his Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in Practical Theology at HPU in May 2017.

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