HEALLTHDESIGN MEDIAM D EDUCA M

GN management GEOGRAPHY E

C USI PHYSICS law O L a

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IOTECHNOLOGY LAN A G i cu

w Y TION l ture CHEMISTRRY history GU AGE

E C H A N I C S N psychology

Video Production and Editing Subject: PRODUCTION AND EDITING Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

Modes of Production Understanding the Different Modes of and ; Studio Process; Individual and Collective.

Pre-Production Understanding the Whole Process of Planning a Production from Developing a Concept and Establishing the Program’s Objectives to Approach (Treatment); Writing a Script; Hiring and Meeting the Crew Members.

Production Understanding the Production Process; Production Roles of the Key Players in a Production; Hierarchy of the Crew; Production Sound: The Importance of Good Production Sound, Role of the Sound Crew and their Responsibilities.

Post Production (Editing) Beginning of Editing: , , Scene and Sequence; the Basics of Grammar of Editing; Transitions; Flash-Forward and Flashbacks; Time, Subjective and Objective Treatments; the Classical Editing Style; Techniques of ; the Early Russian Cinema and the ; the Role Played by Kuleshov; Pudovkin and Eisenstein in the Russian Style of Editing; Eisenstein’s Montage Theories; Alternatives to Continuity Editing; Discontinuity Editing; Jump Cuts; Dynamic Cutting; Elliptical Editing; Editing Processes: Logging, EDL, , Final Cuts; Introduction to Nonlinear Editing: Starting with FCP, Learning how to Capture Video and Start Performing Simple Cuts.

Suggested Readings:

1. and Post-Production: A Professional Guide, Gary H. Anderson, White Plains, NY. 2. Video Production Handbook, Gerald Millerson and Jim Owens, Elsevier Science & Technology Books. 3. Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching, M. D. Roblyer, Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall, 2006. 4. Single-Camera Video Production, Robert B. Musburger, Focal Press. VIDEO PRODUCTION & EDITING

COURSE OVERVIEW

The aim of this course is to introduce the student to the basics Basics of Video Production aims to provide the student with a of a video production stages-Pre-production, production and rapid understanding of what is actually a complex process, Post-production. The student will examine the production making a foundation for the later semester where they actually process from conceptualization to the final screening. start working on their own projects. It is equipment non- Before they consider as aesthetic objects, it is important to specific (except the editing on FCP in the last few weeks of the realize the technical and industrial mechanisms behind filmmak- semester) and references to technical matters are only included ing in order to fully understand the many options that where necessary to understanding. Much of what is contained in filmmakers have. Machines don’t make movies by themselves. this course will be directly transferable to camera, sound and Film and video production transforms raw materials into a editing courses in the coming semesters. product through the application of machinery and human labor. But human labor may be utilized in different ways, and the options are affected by economic and social factors. In this course you would learn about the three phases of film production: preparation, shooting, and assembly. You would be familiarized with such factors as the tasks of the producer, , director, and editor, what all is worked upon during the planning stage of production and what constitutes a , the division of labor during production, the responsibilities of different crew members, postproduction efforts, including visual and sound editing. Like any other language, the language of film also has a Grammar. You would learn about the grammar of editing. Also you would get an idea of the way different films around the world have been edited in the past.

i VIDEO PRODUCTION & EDITING

CONTENT

Lesson No. Topic Page No.

Lesson Plan v

Course Overview vi

Modes of Production

Lesson 1 Modes of Production 1

Lesson 2 Video Field Production 9

Pre - Production

Lesson 3 Pre - Production 16

Lesson 4 The Cut 27

Production

Lesson 5 Production 36

Lesson 6 Production Sound 43

Lesson 7 Animation Production 52

Post Production (Editing)

Lesson 8 Grammer of Editing 57

Lesson 9 Classical Hollywood 65

Lesson 10 Continuity Editing 73

Lesson 11 The Early Russian Cinema & Montage 81

Lesson 12 Alternatives to Continuity Editing 92

Lesson 13 Editing Stages & Process 104

iii VIDEO PRODUCTION & EDITING

CONTENT

Lesson No. Topic Page No.

Lesson 14 Getting Started with FCP 109

Lesson 15 Three Point Editing on FCP 115

Chapter 1 Editing Devices 120

Chapter 2 Battleship Potemkin 127

Chapter 3 Citizen Kane 141

iv UNIT I LESSON 1: MODES OF PRODUCTION MODES OF PRODUCTION

Introduction Modes of Production The Studio Process In this chapter we will talk about the classical studio mode of We can conveniently start by looking at the most detailed and film production. This will help us understand how a large scale specialized division of labor-that present in the studio mode of set up, with well-defined roles for the individuals in the crew, production. This will allow us to trace the amazing variety of works. Then in the subsequent chapters we can go into the tasks that a film can require. We will then be in a better position details of the other modes of production in both film and to understand how those tasks can be accomplished in other video. modes of production in both film and video. Machines don’t make movies by themselves. Film and video A studio is a company in the business of manufacturing films. production transforms raw materials into a product through The most famous examples are the studios that flourished in the application of machinery and human labor. But human Hollywood between the 1920s and the 1960s-Paramount, labor may be utilized in different ways, and the options are Warner Bros., Columbia, and so on. Under the classic studio affected by economic and social factors. system, the company owned its own filmmaking equipment Most films go through three general phases of production. and an extensive physical plant, and it retained most of its workers on long-term contract. The studio central management 1 Preparation. The idea for the film is developed and usually planned the pro-jects, and then delegated authority to indi- com-mitted to paper in some form. At this phase, the vidual supervisors, who in turn assem-bled casts and crews filmmaker or filmmakers begin to acquire funds to make, from the studio’s pool of workers. publicize, and distribute the film. The classic studio system has frequently been compared to 2 Shooting. At this stage, images and sounds are created on industrial assembly line manufacture, in which a manager the filmstrip or on video tapes(analogue or digital). More supervises a number of workers, each repeating a particular task specifically, the filmmaker produces shots and discrete at a rigid rate and in fixed order. The analogy suggests that the sounds (dialogue, noises, or whatever). A shot is a series of Hollywood studios of the 1930s cranked out films the way that frames produced by the camera in an uninterrupted General Motors turned out cars. But the analogy is not exact, operation. We would go into the details later. In shooting, since each film is different, not a replica of a prototype. A better the separate shots are often filmed “out of continuity”-that term for studio mass-production filmmaking is probably serial is, in the most convenient order for production. They will be manufacture. Here skilled specialists collaborate to create a assembled in proper order later. unique product while still adhering to a blueprint prepared by 3 Assembly. At this stage, which may overlap with the management. shooting phase, the images and sounds are put together in Indian cinema received a new impetus with the emergence of their final form. film studios. The introduction of sound, Indian film makers Not every film goes through every step. A home movie might zeal to emulate Hollywood in their production methods and involve very little preparation and might never undergo any final establish production, distribution and exhibition of cinema assembly. A compilation documentary might not require the under one roof, resulted in B.N. Sircar’s New Theatres Ltd in shooting of any new , only the assembly of existing Calcutta (established in 1930), Himansu Rai’s Bombay Talkies clips from libraries and archives. On the whole, though, most (1934) in Bombay, and Prabhat (1929) in Poona. While most films go through these production phases. studio in the 1930s were driven by chaos and disorder, Bombay The organization of production tasks at each phase can vary Talkies was all order and efficiency. Perhaps, Rai’s long associa- signifi-cantly. It is possible for one person to do everything: tion with the German had something to do with plan the film, finance it, perform in it, run the camera, record the this. The board of directors comprised half a dozen baronets, sound, and put it all together. With the coming of digital in to lending it an elitist aura. Its films, though supervised by foreign the field this has become much easier now. More commonly, technicians, were rooted in the real India. though, different tasks are assigned to different people, making The centralized studio production system remains viable in each job more or less specialized. This is the phenomenon of some parts of the world (such as China and Hong Kong) and division of labor, a process that occurs in most of the tasks any for some types of film (especially animated films). But the society undertakes. Various jobs are assigned to different American production companies of today do not manufacture individuals. Even a single job may be broken down into smaller films so much as acquire them. Each film is planned as a unique tasks, which then may be assigned to spe-cialists. In the “package,” with director, , staff, and technicians gathered framework of filmmaking, the principle of division of labor specifically for this project. The studio may have contractual yields different modes, or social organizations, of film produc- relations with a prized director, star, or producer, but any tion and dif-ferent roles for individuals within those modes. particular film starts with the creating of a particular package The overall preparation, shooting, and assembly stages remain, around free-lance workers. The may own a but they take place within different social contexts. physical plant, which can be used for the project, as some of the

1 surviving studios do, but in most cases the producer rents or ‘problem. Writers will also be expected to include plot points, acquires facilities for the project. The producer will also subcon- twists that intensify the action. tract par-ticular tasks to other firms, such as special-effects The script will go through several stages. These stages include a companies. treatment, a synopsis of the action; one or more full-length Despite the growth of the package system, however, the specific scripts; and a final version, the . Extensive pro-duction stages and the assignment of roles remain similar rewriting is common. Often the director will want to reshape to what they were in the heyday of more centralized studio the script. For example, the protagonist of script of production. Witness was Rachel, the Amish widow with whom John Book The Preproduction Phase falls in love. The romance, and Rachel’s confused feelings about Book, formed the central plot line. But the director, Peter Weir, In studio filmmaking, the preparation phase is known as wanted to emphasize the clash between pacifism and violence. preproduction. At this point, two roles emerge as most critical: So William Kelley and Earl Wallace revised their script to that of producer and that of writer. emphasize the mystery plot line and to center the action on The role of the producer is chiefly financial and organizational. Book, who brings urban crime into the peaceful Amish She or he may be an “independent” producer, unearthing film community. projects and trying to convince production companies or Even the shooting script is not sacrosanct. It is often altered distributors to finance the film. Or the producer may work for a during the shooting phase. During the filming of the 1954 A studio and generate ideas for films. A studio may also hire a Star Is Born, the scene in which Judy Garland sings “The Man producer to put together a particular package. That Got Away” was reshot at several points in the production, The producer’s job is to develop the project through the script each time with different dialogue supplied by the script writer, process, to obtain financial support, and to arrange for the Moss Hart. Script scenes that have been shot may also be personnel who will work on the film. During shooting and condensed, rearranged, or dropped entirely in the assembly assembly, the producer usually acts as the liaison between the stage. writer or director and the production company that is financing If the producer or director finds one writer’s script unsatisfac- the film. After the film is completed, the producer will often tory, other writers may be hired to revise it. As you may have the task of arranging the distribution, promotion, and imagine, this often leads to conflicts about which writer or marketing of the film and of monitoring the paying back of writers deserve screen credit for the film. In the American film the funds that underwrite the produc-tion. industry, these disputes are adjudicated by the Screen Writers’ Outside Hollywood, a single producer may take on all these Guild. tasks, but in the contemporary American film industry the When the script reaches its final state, the producer starts producer’s work is further subdivided. The is planning the film’s finances. He or she has sought out a director usually remote from the day-to-day process, being the indi- and perhaps also stars to make the package a promising vidual who arranged the financing for the project or obtained investment. The producer must now prepare a budget spelling the literary property. Subordinate to the executive producer is out above-the-line costs (the costs of literary property, script the . She or he is the actual organizer of the film, writer, director, and cast) and below-the-line costs (the expenses monitoring phases of production. The line producer is assisted allocated for the crew, the shooting and assembly phases, by an associate producer, who acts as a liaison with laboratories insur-ance, and publicity). The sum of above- and below-the- or technical personnel. line costs is called the (that is, the total cost of The chief task of the writer is to prepare the script. Sometimes producing the film’s master negative). In 1991, the average the writer will set the process in motion by sending a script to Hollywood negative cost ran to about $20 million, with his or her agent, who submits it to an independent producer or advertising and print costs adding $7 to $10 million more per a production company for consideration. Alternatively, an picture. experienced screenwriter meets with a pro-ducer in a “ The producer must also prepare a daily schedule for shooting session,” where the writer can propose several ideas that might and assembling the film. This will be done with an eye on the become scripts. And sometimes the producer has an idea for a budget. For example, since the film will be shot out of film and hires a script writer to work it up. The latter course of continuity, all shots using a certain setting or certain personnel action is particularly common if the producer, ever on the can be filmed during one stretch of time. If a star is forced to lookout for ideas, has bought the rights to a novel or play and join the production late or leave it at intervals, the producer wants it adapted into a film. must plan to “shoot around” the performer. Keeping all such In mass-production filmmaking, the script writer is expected to contingencies in mind, the producer and his or her staff are follow traditional storytelling patterns. For several decades, expected to come up with a schedule of several weeks or Hollywood filmmaking has called for scripts about strong months that juggles cast, crew, locations, and even seasons and central characters that struggle to achieve well-defined goals. It is geography for the most efficient use of resources. also generally believed that a script ought to have a “three-act” structure, with the climax of the first act coming about a quarter The Production Phase of the way into the film, the climax of the second act appearing In Hollywood parlance, the shooting phase is frequently called about two-thirds of the way through, and the climax of the production, even though “production” is also the term for the final act bringing about the resolution of the protagonist’s entire process of making a film.

2 Although the director is often involved at various stages of pre- action scenes, and the like, at a distance from where principal prod-uction, he or she is primarily responsible for overseeing shooting is taking place. the shooting and assembly phases. Traditionally, the director 3 The most publicly visible group of workers is the cast. The puts the script on film by coordinating the various aspects of cast will likely include stars, well-known players assigned to the film medium. Within most film industries, the director is major roles and likely to attract audiences. A screen test is a considered the single person most responsible for the look and procedure used to determine casting and to try out lighting, sound of the finished film. costume, make-up, and camera positions in relation to the Because of the specialized division of labor in large-scale . The cast also includes supporting players, or production, many aspects of the task of shooting the film performers in secondary roles; minor players; and extras, must be delegated to other workers who will consult with the those anonymous persons who pass by in the street, come director. together for crowd- scenes, and fill distant desks in large 1 In the preparation phase, the director has already begun work office sets. One of the director’s major jobs is to shape the with the set unit, or production design unit. This is headed performances of the cast. Most directors will spend a good by a . The production designer is in deal of time explaining how a line or gesture should be charge of visualizing the film’s settings. This unit creates rendered, reminding the actor of the place of this scene in drawings and plans that determine the architec-ture and the the overall film, and helping the actor create a coherent color schemes of the sets. Under the production designer’s performance. The first usually works with supervision, an supervises the construction and the extras and takes charge of arranging crowd scenes. On painting of the sets. The , often someone with some productions, more specialized cast members require experience in interior decoration, modifies the sets for specific particular coordination. Stunt persons will probably be filming purposes, supervising a staff who finds props and a supervised by a stunt coordi-nator; professional dancers will who arranges things on the set during shooting. work with a choreographer. If animals join the cast, they will The is in charge of planning and executing be handled by a wrangler. (Mad Max beyond Thunderdome the wardrobe for the production. Working with the carries the memorable credit line “Pig Wrangler.”) production designer, a graphic artist may be assigned to 4 Another unit of specialized labor is the photography unit. produce a , a series of comic-strip-like sketches of The leader here is the , also known as the the shots in each scene, including notations about costume, director of photography or DP. The cinematographer is an lighting, camera work, and other matters. Most filmmakers expert on photographic processes, lighting, and do not storyboard every scene, but action sequences and manipulation of the camera. The cinematographer consults shots using special effects and complicated camera work tend with the director on how each scene will be lit and filmed. In to be storyboarded in detail. In such instances, the Figure below, on the sets of Citizen Kane, Orson Welles storyboard gives the unit and the special- directs from his wheelchair on the far right, cinematographer effects unit a preliminary sense of what the finished shots Gregg Toland crouches below the camera, and ac-tress should look like. Dorothy Comingore kneels at the left. (The female script 2 During the shooting, the director will rely on what is called supervisor can be seen in the background left.) the director’s crew. This includes: a The , known in the classic studio era as a “script girl.” (Today one-fifth of Hollywood script supervisors are male.) The script supervisor is in charge of all details of continuity from shot to shot. The script supervisor keeps track of details of per-formers’ appearance (in the last scene, was the carnation in the left or right buttonhole?), props, lighting, movement, camera position, and the running time of each scene. b The first assistant director, who, with the director, plans out each day’s shooting schedule and sets up each shot for the director’s approval. - c The second assistant director, who is the liaison among the first assistant director, the camera crew, and the electricians’ crew. d The third assistant director, who serves as messenger for The cinematographer supervises: director and staff. a The , who runs the machine and who may e The dialogue coach, who feeds performers their lines and also have assistants to load the camera, adjust and follow speaks the lines of offscreen characters during shots of other focus, push a dolly, and so on. performers. b The key , the person who supervises the grips. These f The director, who films stunts, location footage, workers carry and arrange equipment, props, and elements

3 of the setting and lighting. clapboard up before the camera at the start of each shot. The c The , the head electrician who supervises the placement clapboard records the production, scene, shot, and take. The and rigging of the lights. In Hollywood production the clapboard’s hinged arm makes a cracking sound that helps the gaffer’s assistant is called the . editor to synchronize sound and picture later. (See the Figure, from Jean-Luc Godard’s La Chinoise. The white “X” marks this 5 Parallel to the photography unit is the sound unit. This is as the exact frame with which the cracking sound should headed by the production recordist (also called the sound synchronize.) Thus every take is identified for future reference. mixer). The recordist’s principal responsibility is to record dialogue during shooting. Typically the recordist will use a portable tape recorder, several sorts of microphones, and a console to balance and combine the inputs from various microphones. The recordist will also attempt to tape some ambient sound when no actors are speaking. These bits of “room tone” will later be inserted to fill pauses in the dialogue. The recordist’s staff includes: a The , who manipulates the boom microphone and conceals radio microphones on the actors. b The “third man,” who places other microphones, lays sound cables, and is in charge of controlling ambient sound. In the course of filming, most directors and technicians follow Some productions have a “sound designer” who enters the an organized approach. Assume that a scene is to be filmed. process during the preparation phase and who, like the produc- While crews set up the lighting and test the sound recording, tion designer, plans a “sonic style” appropriate for the entire the director rehearses the actors and instructs the cinematogra- film. pher. The director then supervises the filming of a . 6 A special-effects unit is charged with preparing and executing The master shot records the entire action and dialogue of the process shots, miniatures, matte work, -generated scene. There may be several takes of the master shot. Then graphics, and other technical shots. During the planning portions of the scene are restaged and shot in closer views or phase, the director and the production designer will have from different angles. These other shots are called coverage, and determined what effects will be needed, and the special each of them may require many takes. Contemporary practice is -effects unit consults with the director and the to shoot a great deal of coverage, occasionally by using two or cinematographer on an ongoing basis. more cameras filming at the same time. The script supervisor 7 A miscellaneous unit includes a make-up staff, a costume checks to ensure that continuity details are consistent within staff, hairdressers, and drivers (who transport cast and crew). coverage shots. 8 During shooting, the producer is represented by a unit often Postproduction called the producer’s crew. This consists of the production Members of the film industry today call the assembly phase of manager, also known as the or the filmmaking postproduction. Yet this phase does not begin associate producer. This person will manage daily simply when shooting is completed. Postproduction staff organizational business, such as arranging for meals and members work steadily, if sometimes behind the scenes, accommo-dations. A production accountant (or production throughout shooting. auditor) monitors expen-ditures, a production secretary Before the shooting has begun, the director or producer has coordinates telephone communication among units and probably hired an editor (also known as the supervising editor). with the producer, and production assistants (PAs) run This person has the responsibility of cataloguing and assem- errands. Newcomers to the film industry often start out bling the various takes produced during shooting. working as production assis-tants. Because each shot usually exists in several takes, because the film All this coordinated effort, involving perhaps hundreds of is shot out of continuity, and because the master-shot/coverage workers, results in many thousands of feet of exposed film approach yields so much footage, the editor’s job can be a vast and recorded sound-on -tape. Every shot called for in the script one. A 90-minute 35mm feature, which comprises about 8000 or storyboard or decided on by the director usually has several feet of film( for 35mm 16 frames= 1 foot), may have been takes, or unique versions, of that shot. For instance, if the carved out of 500,000 feet of exposed footage. For this reason, finished film requires one shot of an actor saying a line, the postproduction on major Hollywood pictures has become a director may make several takes of the speech, each time asking lengthy process. Sometimes several editors and assistants will be the actor to vary the expression or posture. Not all takes are brought in. printed, and probably only one of those becomes the shot Typically, the editor receives the processed footage from the included in the finished film. laboratory as quickly as possible. This footage is known as the Because shooting usually proceeds out of continuity, the , or the rushes. The editor inspects the dailies, leaving it to director and crew must have some way of labeling each take. the assistant editor to synchro-nize image and sound and to During filming, one of the cinematographer’s staff holds a sort the takes by scene. The editor will meet with the director to

4 examine the dailies or, if the production is filming far away, the sound editor’s material. editor will call to inform the director of how the footage looks. All these sounds are recorded on different pieces of magnetic Since retaking shots is costly and troublesome, constant tape each person’s voice, each musical passage, and each sound checking of the dailies is important for spotting any problems effect may occupy a separate track. At a final mixing session, the with focus, exposure, framing, or other visual factors. director, editor, and sound-effects editor put dozens of such As the footage accumulates, the editor assembles the shots into separate tracks together into a single master track on 35mm a rough cut-the film loosely strung in sequence, without sound magnetic film. The sound specialist who performs the task is effects or music. Some films are notorious for having gargan- the rerecording mixer. Often the dialogue track is organized tuan rough cuts: That of Heaven’s Gate ran over six hours, that first, then sound effects are balanced with that, and finally music of Apocalypse Now seven and a half. Still, even the average is added to create the final mix. Often there will need to be rough cut is significantly longer than the finished film. From equalization, filtering, and other adjustments to the track. Once this the editor, in consultation with the director, builds toward fully mixed, the master track is transferred onto sound record- a fine cut or final cut. The material not used comprises the ing film, which encodes the magnetic sound as optical sound. outtakes. At the same time, a second unit may be shooting The film’s camera negative, which was used to make the dailies footage to fill in at certain places, titles will be prepared, and and the work print, is normally too precious to serve as the further laboratory work or special-effects work may be done. source for final prints. Instead, from the relevant camera Once the shots are arranged in something approaching final negative footage the laboratory draws an interpositive, which in form, the sound editor, also known as the sound effects editor, turn furnishes an internegative. It is this which is assembled in takes charge of building up the sound track. With the editor, accordance with the final cut and which will be the primary the director, and the composer, the sound editor goes through source for future prints. Then the master sound track is the film and chooses where music and effects will be placed, a synchro-nized with it. process known as spotting. The sound editor may have a staff The first positive print, complete with picture and sound, is whose members specialize in recording or cutting dialogue, called the answer print. Once an answer print has been ap- music, or sound effects. proved, release prints are made for distribution. These are the One of the sound editor’s principal duties is supervising the copies shown in theaters. rerecording of dialogue after filming. This has become known In contemporary Hollywood practice, the work of production as automated dialogue replacement (ADR for short). Although does not end with the final theatrical version. In consultation dialogue is recorded on the set, this may serve only as a guide with the producer and director, the postproduction staffs track. Then the actors are brought into the sound studio to prepare airline and broadcast television versions of the film. In rerecord their lines (a process called , or looping). In some cases, particular versions may be prepared for different addition, if there is a recording error or muffled line in the countries. The European version of David Lynch’s Wild at original recording, dubbing is used to replace it. Heart contained footage that was not in the American print, and Nonsynchronized dialogue, such as the babble of a crowd, will Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in America was completely also be added. In addition, the sound editor will loop alterna- recut and rearranged for its American release. At the same time, tive lines of dialogue that eliminate phrases that may be found laboratory personnel, often working with the director and the offensive; this sanitized track will be used in broadcast television cinematographer, transfer the film to a master , which and airline versions of the film. will form the basis of videocassette and versions. This The sound editor also adds sound effects. Most of the sound video transfer process often involves new judgments about effects the audience hears in a studio-produced film are not color quality and sound balance. recorded at the moment the image is shot. The sound editor Many fictional films, such as Singin’ in the Rain, have been may draw on a library of stock sounds, utilize effects recorded made about the studio mode of production. Some films set “wild” on location, or create particular effects for this film. their action at particular phases of the process. Fedrico Fellini’s 8 Sound editors routinely manufacture footsteps, cars crashing, ½ concerns itself with the preperation, or preproduction, stage doors closing, pistol shots, a fist thudding into flesh (often of a film that is abandoned before shooting starts. Frangois produced by whacking a watermelon with an axe). Truffaut’s Day for Night takes place during the shooting phase During the “spotting” of the sound track, the film’s composer of a production marred by the death of one of the cast. has entered the assembly phase as well. Reviewing a fairly The studio mode of production is characterized by a minute advanced cut of the film, the composer decides, along with the breakdown of labor. With this comes an attempt to control director and sound editor, where music should be inserted. The every aspect of the filmmaking process by means of paper composer then compiles cue sheets that list exactly where the records. At the start there will be versions of the script; during music will go and how long it should run. The composer shooting reports will be written on camera footage, sound proceeds to write the score, although she or he will probably recording, special-effects work, and laboratory results: in the not orchestrate it personally. While the composer is working, assembly phase there will be logs of shots catalogued in the the rough cut will be synchronized with a “temp dub,” musical editing, and a variety of cue sheets for music, mixing, looping, accompaniment from preexisting sources that approximates the and title layout. Once planning and execution are committed to sort of music that will eventually be written. With the aid of a paper, the production workers can control, or at least adjust to, “click track,” which synchronizes the beat of the music to the unplanned events. finished film, the score will be recorded and form part of the This is never wholly successful. Every case study of a large-scale

5 studio production will attest to the compromises, accidents, Some Terms & Roles in Film Production and foul-ups that plague the process. Weather may throw the The rise of “packaged” productions, pressures from union-ized shooting off schedule. Disagreements about the script may workers, and other factors in the US have led producers to credit result in a director being fired. Last-minute changes demanded everyone who worked on a film. (The credits for Who Framed by the producer or director may require that some scenes be Roger Rabbit? contained 771 names.). Indian filmmakers also reshot. Studio production is a constant struggle between the try giving credits to everyone who worked on the crew. Here are desire to plan the film completely and the inevitable “noise” some terms that you might see in a film’s credits besides the created by the sheer complexity of such a detailed division of one ones that we have already discussed. labor. ACE: After the name of the editor; abbreviation for the Not all films that use the studio mode of production are large- , a professional association. budget projects financed by major companies. Many so-called ASC: After the name of the director of photography; independent films are made in similar ways, though on a ab-breviation for the American Society of , a smaller scale. For example, very low-budget “exploitation” professional association. The British equivalent is the BSe. filmmaking tailors its product to a particular market-in earlier Additional photography: A crew shooting footage apart from decades, fringe theaters and drive-ins. But such a production the supervised by the director of continues to divide the labor along studio lines. There is the photography. producer’s role, the director’s role, and so on, and the produc- Casting director: Searches for and auditions performers for the tion tasks are parceled out in ways, which roughly conform to film. Will suggest actors for leading roles (principal characters) as mass-production practices. Because of cost constraints, well as character parts (fairly standardized or stereotyped roles). however, many functions of the studio mode of production Clapper boy: Crew member who operates the clapboard that are carried out here by amateurs, friends, or relatives. And in identifies each take. such circumstances people often double up on jobs: The : Sound editor specializing in making sure director might produce the film and write the script as well; the recorded speech is audible. picture editor might cut sound as well. : Crew member who pushes the dolly that carries the The rubric of independent production also includes projects camera, either from one setup to another or during a take for that seek to go beyond the exploitation market, even though moving camera shots. their budgets are comparably miniscule. Often regionally based, artist: A sound-effects specialist who creates sounds of these projects may find success with wide audiences, as did body movement by walking or by moving materials across large Robert Townsend’s Hollywood Shuffle and Joel and Etan trays of different substances (sand, earth, glass, and so on). Coen’s Blood Simple. In these more ambitious small-budget Named for Jack Foley, a pioneer in postproduction sound. efforts, production functions of the studio model are approxi- Greenery man: Crew member who chooses and maintains trees, mated by a small staff and crew. shrubs, and grass in settings. There are also more prominent Hollywood-financed filmmak- Lead man: Member of set crew responsible for tracking down ers who are considered “independent” because they work at various props and items of decor for the set. budgets significantly below the industry norm. Oliver Stone’s Loader: Member of photography unit who loads and un-loads Platoon or Spike Lee’s School Daze (each of which cost $6 camera magazines, as well as logging the shots taken and million) would exemplify this sort of filmmaking. sending the film to the laboratory. In this type of independent production, the director usually Matte artist: Member of special-effects unit who paints initiates the project and works with a producer to get it realized. backdrops which are then photographically incorporated into a As we would expect, these industry-based independents shot in order to suggest a particular setting. organize production in ways very close to the full-fledged studio Model maker: (1) Member of production design unit who mode. Nonetheless, because they require less financing, such prepares architectural models for sets to be built. (2) Member of independents can demand more flexibility and control in the the special-effects unit who fabricates scale models of locales, production process. Woody Allen, for instance, is allowed by his vehicles, or characters to be filmed as substitutes for full-size contract to rewrite and reshoot extensive portions of his film ones. after he has assembled and initial rough cut. In shooting School Optical effects: Laboratory workers responsible for such effects Daze, Lee was able to create an off--camera tension between as fades and dissolves, as well as matte shots and other special performers portraying conflicting factions of African-American photographic processes. college students. Lee assigned each group’s cast to separate, : Member of set crew who supervises the use living quarters, different meals, and different hairstyling of all props, or movable objects, in the film. treatments. “It’s a very sensitive subject, class and color,” Publicist, Unit publicist: Member of producer’s crew who reflected one actor. “And I think the majority of the people on creates and distl:ibutes promotional material regarding the the shoot thought they were beyond it. They were forced to production. The publicist may arrange for press and tele-vision examine it, though, and many realized they weren’t as far interviews with the director and stars, and for cov-erage of the removed from the subject as they thought.” Lee’s status as an production in the mass media. independent allowed him to control the production circum- Scenic artist: Member of set crew responsible for painting stances in ways that he believed would benefit both the film surfaces of set. and its personnel. Still photographer: Member of crew who takes photographs of

6 scenes and “behind-the-scenes” shots of cast members and the work of many experimental filmmakers. Maya Deren, one others. These photographs may be used to check lighting or set of the most important American experimentalists, made several design or color, and many will be used in promoting and films in the 1940s (Meshes of the Afternoon, Choreography for publicizing the film. Camera, Ritual in Transfigured Time) which she scripted, Timer, Color timer: Laboratory worker who inspects the directed, performed in, and edited. In some cases the shooting negative film and who adjusts the printer light to achieve was done by her husband, Alexander Hammid. consistency of color across the finished product. A comparable example is the work of Stan Brakhage, whose Video assist: The use of a video camera mounted alongside the films are among the most directly personal ever made. Some, motion picture camera to check lighting, framing, or perfor- like Window Water Baby Moving and Scenes from under mances. In this way, the director and the cinema-tographer can Childhood, are lyrical studies of his family life; others, such as try out a shot or scene on tape before committing it to film. Dog Star Man, are mythic treatments of nature; still others, Modes of Production : Individual & Collective such as 23rd Psalm Branch and The Act of Seeing with One’s Own Eyes, are quasi-documentary studies of war and death. Our survey of the studio mode of production demonstrates Funded by grants and his personal finances, Brakhage prepares, how precisely production tasks can be broken down. But not all shoots, and edits his films virtually unaided. For a time, while filmmaking demands such a detailed division of labor. In he was working in a film laboratory, he also personally devel- general, two alternative modes of production treat the prepara- oped and printed his footage. The work of Brakhage, which tion, shooting, and assembly phases differently. now comprises over 150 films, demonstrates that in the In individual film production the filmmaker functions as an individual mode of production the filmmaker can become an artisan. He or she may own or rent the necessary equipment. artisan, a solitary worker executing all the basic production tasks. Financial backing can be obtained on a film-by-film basis, and There are other experimental directors, such as Bruce Conner, the production is generally on a small scale. The preferred Michael Snow, Robert Breer, and Ernie Gehr, who have likewise format is 16mm or may be super 16 but lot of independent fulfilled several production roles in the making of their films. films are also done on both 35mm and formats as In collective film production several film workers participate well. There is very little division of labor: The filmmaker equally in the project. Like individual filmmakers, the group oversees every production task, from obtaining fi-nancing to may own or rent its equipment. The production is on a small final editing, and will actually perform many of them. Although scale, and financing may come from foundations or members’ technicians or performers may make distinct contributions, the personal resources. But although there may be a detailed principal creative decisions rest with the filmmaker. division of labor, the group shares common goals and makes Documentary production offers many examples of the production decisions collectively. Roles may also be rotated: the individual mode. Jean Rouch, a French anthropologist, has sound recordist one day may serve as cinematographer on the made several films alone or with a small crew in his efforts to next. The collective mode of production attempts to replace the document the lives of marginal people, often members of authority vested in the producer and director with a more minorities, living in an alien culture. Rouch wrote, directed, and broadly distributed responsibility for the film. photographed Les Maftres fous (1955), his first widely seen Not surprisingly, the political movements of the late 1960s film. Here he examined the ceremonies of a Ghanian cult fostered many efforts toward collective film production. In whose members lived a double life: Most of the time they France, several such groups were formed, the most noteworthy worked as low-paid laborers, but in their rituals they passed being SLON (an acronym for a name that translates as Society into a frenzied trance and assumed the identities of their for the Launching of New Works). SLON was a cooperative colonial rulers. Other documentary filmmakers will work on a that sought to make films about contemporary political scale only somewhat larger than that of Rouch. Frederick struggles around the world. Financed chiefly by television Wiseman, produces, plans, and distributes his own films. companies, SLON filmmakers often collaborated with factory During filmmaking he often serves as sound recordist while a workers in documenting strikes and union activities. cinematog-rapher runs the camera. In the United States, the most famous and long-lived collective Politically activist documentary offers another example of unit has been the Newsreel group, which was founded in 1967 individual film production. Barbara Koppel devoted four years as an effort to document the student protest movement. to the production stages of Harlan County, U.S.A., a record of Newsreel attempted to create not only a collective production Kentucky coal miners’ struggles for union representation. After situation, with a central coordinating committee answerable to eventually obtaining funding from foundations, she and a very the complete membership, but also a community distribution small crew spent thirteen months living with miners during the network that would make Newsreel films available for local workers’ strike. A large crew was ruled out not only by Koppel’s activists around the country. During the late 1960s and early budget but also by the need to be absorbed as naturally as 1970s, the collective produced dozens of works, including possible into the community. During filming Koppel acted as Finally Got the News and The Woman’s Film. Newsreel sound recordist, working with cameraman Hart Perry and branches sprang up in many cities, with those in San Francisco sometimes also a lighting person. Like the miners, the filmmak- (now known as California Newsreel) and in New York (known ers were constantly threatened with violence from strikebreakers. as Third World Newsreel) surviving into the 1980s. After the Some of these incidents were recorded on film, as when the mid-1970s, Newsreel moved somewhat away from purely driver of a passing truck fired a gun at the crew. collective production, but it retained certain policies characteristic The individual mode of film production is also exemplified by

7 of the collective mode, such as equal pay for all participants in a film. Important Newsreel films of recent years are Con-trolling Interests, The Business of America…(funded largely by American public television), and Chronicle of Hope: Nicaragua. Members of Newsreel such as Robert Kramer, Barbara Koppel, and Christine Choy have gone on to work as individual filmmakers. The catchall label of “independent filmmaking” thus includes not only small-budget filmmaking modeled on the studio mode but also individual production and collective production. The drawbacks of independent pro-duction consist, chiefly, in financing, distribution, and exhibition. Studios and large distribution firms have ready access to large amounts of capital and usually can ensure the distribution and exhibition of the films they decide to back. The independent filmmaker or group has trouble gaining access to money and to audiences. But many filmmakers believe the advantages of independence outweigh the drawbacks. Independent production can treat subjects that large-scale studio production ignores. Few film studios would have initiated Sayles’s Matewan, and no would have made Jim Jarmusch’s Stranger than Paradise or Spike Lee’s She’s Gotta Have It. Because the independent film does not need as large an audience to repay its costs, it can be more personal, more unusual, and perhaps more controver- sial. The filmmaker need not tailor the script to the Hollywood three-act, plot-point pattern. (Indeed, the independent film- maker may not use a script at all.) Independent filmmaking is thus often on the cutting edge of exploring new possibilities of the film medium. Like in the other parts of the world India also has many modes of production depending upon the project, its budget and the format that it is shot on. We have big production banners and independent filmmakers. With the coming in of the digital word sometimes it’s just one person planning, shooting and editing an entire film. Film and Video productions requires some division of labor, but how that division is carried out, and how power is allocated to various roles, differs from project to project. The process of film production thus reflects different conceptions of what a film is, and the finished film inevitably bears traces of the mode of production within which it was created.

Notes :

8 UNIT 2 LESSON 2: VIDEO FIELD PRODUCTION VIDEO FIELD PRODUCTION

Flim & Video lines are 625. Before we go into the other modes of production let’s talk Motion picture film can carry far more visual information. about the differences in the two formats of Film and Video. By Estimates vary, but a 16mm color negative image offers roughly far the most significant nontheatrical means of exhibition is the equivalent of over 1100 video scan lines, while 35mm color video, in the form of broadcast, cable or satellite transmission, negative offers lightness and color resolution equivalent to 2300 or home formats like videocassette, VCD and DVD. Since the to 3000 horizontal lines. Moreover, while American-standard mid-1970s the number of films seen on video has steadily video has a total of about 350,000 pixels per frame, 35mm increased. By 1988, the American film industry garnered twice as color negative film has the equivalent of about 7 million. The much income from nontheatrical video as from domestic number of lines and pixels decreases significantly when we theater returns. consider positive prints rather than negative film, but the film image still remains far more infor-mationally dense than the video one. Some of the digital formats today our striving hard to come close the quality film formats offer. A similar disparity exists in contrast ratio, a term for the relation between the brightest area and the darkest area of the image. The video camera can reproduce a much less contrast ratio than that a color film negative can reproduce. As a result of these factors, the 35mm film image can be far more detailed and can display a much greater range of tonalities. When a film is transferred to video, its detail and contrast ratio are sharply reduced. A film on video may fall prey to other defects as well. The current, video image, projected at 25 frames per second in the PAL system (or 30 frames per second in the US), has a pro- nounced flicker. Video color is likely to smear, with sharp-edged reds and oranges particu-larly difficult to render. There is also Film Camera the problem of “comet tailing,” streaks of light that trail Certain differences depend on technological factors: movements of objects against a dark background. Highly Film uses light and film emulsion technique to produce a patterned clothing and strong horizontal stripes produce moire, picture. The film, once exposed, has to be processed and or “herring-bone,” striping on the monitor. Things have developed before you can actually see the images, either on a improved with some of the latest formats like HDTV and photograph or moving images projected at 24 frames-per- other digital formats. second onto a screen. By its very nature, film has a “grain” to it. There are other important differences between film and It looks “alive” on the screen, all wriggling and squirming television. An obvious one is scale. A 35mm film image is around with pulsating colors washing all over each other on a designed to be displayed on a screen area of hundreds of square second by second basis. With the proper lenses it can be feet. Video images look faint and stippled when projected on projected and blown up to just about any size. even a 6-by-8-foot area. Video, on the other hand, uses electronic capture technology. It records light onto and scans it back across a moving playback head onto a cathode ray tube (TV set) at 25 frames-per-second( for PAL in India). Video images are created by bombarding light-sensitive phosphors on the surface of the monitor’s picture tube. A “gun” at the rear of the tube scans the surface horizontally, rapidly activating the phosphors one by one. Video tends to look “clean” and distinctly “hard”, and is usually confined to a box no larger than 21". An exception would be large-screen TV’s and Television projector systems. In the United States standard established by the National Television Systems Committee, the picture tube has 525 scan lines, each with about 600 separate dots, or picture elements (pixels). (In practice, the number of lines available on a home Video Cameras television monitor is around 425.) In the PAL system the scan All said and done the video formats are highly used today

9 were all part of the event. Not only was the demon-stration impressive but so was the equipment, particularly its size. Televi-sion cameras and television lights were very large and complicated pieces of equipment. Indeed, during the first several decades of its existence, tele-vision production was characterized by the large size of the equipment needed to produce those images. In the early days of television (and even today for large-scale remote sports productions), a remote production-one staged outside a studio- was an incredibly complicated event, involving scores of technicians and an armada of equipment. When one went on a remote, essentially one took the television studio around the world to make low budget film. Most of the along and set it up at the remote location. The same equipment programming in India for TV is done on video. Video copies used in the studio was often rolled into a truck and used for a of films are very convenient to use, widely accessible, and remote broadcast. comparatively inexpensive. Video has aroused viewers’ interest For many years, only two alternatives were available to a in a wider range of films than is available in local theaters. If a producer who wished to incorporate remote material into a film is no longer in circulation or is prohibitively expensive to production. The first al-ternative was a live electronic remote rent, watching it on video is usually better than not seeing it at broadcast, with the attendant prob-lems inherent in transport- all. And then of course the introduction of VCD and DVD has ing huge amounts of television equipment to the remote made it much easier for the consumer. location. The other possibility was to cover the event on film. Video cameras are much lighter and easier to shoot. Video And so, for many years, film had an important place in televi- cameras are cheaper to hire (or even buy), tapes don’t cost as sion produc-tion primarily because it was portable. Until the much as film stock, in fact much cheaper. The production crew mid-1970s, film was used extensively in television for news and does not need as many people and the entire process of documentary production, largely because of the portability of shooting and editing is much faster. 16mm film equipment. However, a revolution was brewing in As the television image improves, chiefly through the develop- television that would change remote production. It started ment of high-definition video, it may compete with 16mm. quietly enough, but by the 1980s, the use of film for remote Like all media technologies, video has its own advantages as television pro-duction was largely replaced by the use of well as disadvantages. portable video equipment. Lot of television programming in India is done on video. In many ways, the development of television paralleled the Indian soaps and sitcoms on the various channels are mostly develop-ment of film. Just as film depended on a studio done on video. We do have a lot of advertisements and music setting for recording in its early decades, so did television. that are shot on film. Now in the previous chapter we Television of the 1940s, 1950s, and 19605 was essentia1ly saw the big studio production setup and their functioning. In studio production. Live television was studio television (unless this lesson lets try to see what all kind of programming is it was a sports event). The teleplays of the Golden Age of dome on video and what kind of set up does it involve. Television (the mid-1950s) were live television studio produc- tions. When the first videotape recorders were introduced by Ampex in 1956, at the annual con-vention of the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), they also fol-lowed the large format of studio television cameras. The videotape recorders were behemoths, weighing hundreds of pounds. Even though they came equipped with wheels, they could hardly be characterized as portable. However, in 1965, Sony introduced the first “sma1l-format” record-ing system to the market, and the video revolution began. This black and white videotape recorder used a 1/2"- wide tape format (compared to the 2" broadcast format) and an extremely sma1l camera pickup tube. Although the signal quality was not technica1ly of broadcast quality, the introduc-tion of the equipment was a boon for people interested in video equip-ment and production. Video produc- tion equipment, previously accessible only to those with a large The Changing Nature of Video Production amount of capital to invest, was now available to almost anyone who wanted it. In addition, whereas television had When television was introduced to the U.S. public at the 1939 largely been a studio enterprise prior to the introduction of World’s Fair in New York, it thrilled those who saw it. The portable small -format equipment, video makers now could display was impressive: Technicians, cameras, lights, and the venture into the field with their electronic equipment. In 1970, instantaneous transmission of a tele-vised image and sound

10 l/2" video formats were standardized, l/2" videotape editors have been broadcast or ca-blecast, or they are used to play back were introduced, and the revolution was truly under-way. owned or rented videocassettes and VCDs. A growing segment The introduction of portable 3/4" VCRs and automated of users have purchased portable video in ad-dition editing sys-tems in the early 1970s was of great importance to their home player-recorders. These low-cost camcorders have because the 3/4" format was suitable for use by both broadcast- the advantage of producing picture and sound color recordings ers and other videomakers interested in nonbroadcast remote that are available for immediate playback. They used extensively production. The portable 3/4" recorder-camera- editing to record family events such as birthdays, special parties, and systems, along with the newly developed time base correctors weddings. Sports en-thusiasts use them to record and then (TBC) that stabilized the video signal, paved the way for the full criticize their own sports perfor-mances, such as golf swings, develop-ment of broadcast electronic news gathering and the swimming strokes, and tennis serves. In addi-tion, they are acceptance of portable video equipment by the broadcast convenient for making visual and sound messages to send to community. Portable video systems have been significantly friends or relatives who live far away. refined in the three decades since their in-troduction. Portable Independent Video Production systems composed of a separate camera tethered by cable to a Independent video production refers to those organizations portable VCR have been replaced by one piece camcorders, and and individu-als who use video to make their own programs or videotape editing systems have become smaller, less expensive, who make their produc-tion skills and facilities available to and more precise. While much of the equipment used in video others who want to produce and dis-tribute messages via video. field production and editing today is based upon conventional A large group of independents has used video to produce analog signal processing and recording, a whole new generation television documentaries. Almost any large or medium-sized of digital camcorders and nonlinear digital editing systems is community contains individuals who are working on video poised to take their place as the current analog systems wear out documentaries that focus on various community-oriented and are replaced. social, economic, and political problems. These independents It is important to note that video production no longer is an may have a number of goals in mind. Some may try to gain expen-sive, labor-intensive activity available only to federally access to their local cable company or television station with licensed television broadcasters. The technological advance their finished program, whereas others may try to distribute involving the development of more flexible and less expensive their ma-terial regionally or nationally or might be doing the production equipment has become a communication revolu- project for a local NGO. Whatever the distribution aim, the tion. Individuals can produce and present video tapes on topics avail-ability of relatively inexpensive equipment and facilities of their own choosing, small companies can produce provides an op-portunity for video production independents to in-structional or promotional materials to fit their specific express alternative viewpoints on community and national needs, and television broadcasters can more frequently provide problems. on-the-spot coverage of community events. Today, a large Independent artists have been using video for some time. variety of small-tape analog formats (Hi8; 1/2" VHS and S- Video is becoming popular as a medium for artistic expression, VHS; I/2" ); and the digital formats (DV, DVCAM, and numerous video experimenters have gained access to the DVC Pro, digibeta) offers video producers a wide range of medium through the use of portable equipment. Whether the production choices. artistic statement is dramatic or experi-mental, whether it Production Uses of Portable Video Equipment involves the manipulation of content or formal proper-ties of As a result of the portability and accessibility of this technology, the medium (such as lighting, editing, or sound), access to the video has found a host of new uses. Portable video is increas- medium has been facilitated by the introduction and use of this ingly being used for personal expression, for independent equipment. production, in educational institutions and corporations, as well Many independent producers produce for clients. as in the broadcast arena. These may range from producing a videotape for a couple who Personal Video want to record their wedding, to producing tapes for a small company that does not have its own video production facility Because of its relatively low cost, portable video equipment has but that wants a tape that introduces a new product to a client made video accessible to individuals in much greater numbers or trains employees in new sales techniques, new methods of than ever before. In many ways, video has supplanted film as product maintenance, and so on. the primary medium for home and personal use. In the 1940s and 1950s, 16mm film was used as a home recording medium. Educational Uses That format was replaced by 8mm and super 8mm film m the In the past decade, numerous educational institutions have 1960s and 1970s. Now, portable video has taken over. Al- turned to video, primarily for nonbroadcast, in-house uses. For though some of the other video formats never really achieved example, video is often used in schools as a supplement to the mass popularity with consumers that had been predicted, instruction. Indeed, some actual instruction may be done via the small cassette formats (VHS, S-VHS, 8mm, Hi8, digital 8 televised lectures live or on videotape. Speeches in public and miniDV) have made a significant impact on the home speaking classes are taped and then played back for a critique by market. the instructor or class. Teacher-training programs often Personal uses of portable video equipment vary. Some people video-tape student teachers to provide a record of their buy player-recorders for use primarily in their home entertain- classroom performance. Colleges and universities with pro- ment systems. That is, they are used to record programs that grams in the broadcast or electronic media most frequently use

11 portable, small-format equipment in their labo-ratories and video equipment have centered in two areas: electronic news cable television facilities. gathering (ENG) and electronic field production (EFP). It was Medical Video in the area of ENG that portable video equipment first made a significant impact in broadcasting. Prior to its in-troduction, broadcasters relied on film for stories that took place in the field or on the placement of live, remote television cameras. The difficulty with film recording was the time delay involved in returning the film to the station or network and in processing and editing the film.

One of the fastest growing areas of video use is in the field of medicine. Many hospitals have their own video staffs and put video to a variety of uses. It is used for the distribution of in- house information or for instruc-tion in new medical techniques as a part of an ongoing program of contin-uing The introduction of lightweight, portable video cameras and education. It is also sometimes used to provide infor-mation to recorders changed the face of television news. Most local patients on various health problems and their treatment. television sta-tions, as well as the major broadcast networks, Institutions involved in providing therapeutic treatment, such made the transition from film to portable video for electronic as counseling or other forms of therapy, to patients with speech newsgathering in the mid-1970s. The availability of reliable 3/ defects or mental or emotional problems often use video as 4" portable VCRs and editing systems made large -scale part of therapy or to record therapy sessions. commitment to ENG possible among local broadcasters. Legal Video With the development and refinement of broadcast-quality 1/ Video is finding increasing use in legal settings. Professional 2" tape formats (Betacam, Betacam SP, and M-II) in the 1980s guidelines have been established in most states for the record- and the introduc-tion of the digital tape recording formats (D3 ing of legal depositions. Legal video producers are in demand and D5) in the 1990s, and other digital formats now commonly to produce video reenactments of ac-cidents and crime scenes as available (DV, DVCAM) professional broadcasters had access to well as to design effective video presentations of critical exhibits high-quality systems that were even more portable of evidence, such as photographs, maps, time lines, and so on, and produced better quality pictures and sound than the two- for use in courtroom presentations. piece systems (separate camera and recorder) that pre-ceded Corporate Video them. Corporate video is another significant growth area for the use Similarly, the existence of portable broadcast-quality video of video. Many large corporations use videotapes and VCDs to recorders and cameras made possible the growth of EFP. Before distribute electronic corporate newsletters to their employees, the introduction of this equipment, much local programming particularly if corporate offices are widely distributed. In-house had been based in the studio or shot on film by those few training or staff development is another common use, as is stations with a commitment to remote produc-tion. The video for use at the point of sale. introduction of portable broadcast-quality equipment made it much easier for producers to get out of the studio. Nationally Government Uses syndicated television magazine feature programs, such as Hard Local, county, state, and federal government agencies also are Copy, A Current Affair, and Entertainment Tonight, relied on significant users of video. Many government agencies produce remote production crews using portable video camcorders. videotapes to inform their constituents of new programs, Programs such as 48 Hours, 60 Minutes, and 20/20 are policies, regulations, or accomplish-ments. In some cases, these examples of network television programs that make extensive tapes may be cablecast or broadcast via local media outlets. use of portable television technology. A host of “reality-based” Broadcast Television programs, such as Rescue 911, Cops, and America’s Most The move toward the miniaturization of broadcast equipment Wanted, relied as well on portable video technology for field is a strong and continuous process. Broadcast uses of portable production and editing. These programs reflect the fact that

12 quality production no longer depends on studio-based responsible for the visual treatment of the subject matter as equipment. Portable video production equipment has proven well as for the physical operation of the camera; sound recordist itself to be a reliable and cost-effective part of the professional and an editor. The editor has primary responsibility for video production process. physically performing the edits, and, depending on the role of the producer, the editor may have much or little responsibility for actually making editing decisions. In many cases, work roles overlap. Two or three people with each assuming several responsibilities during the production may produce an entire production. The nature of single-camera field production and the small produc-tion crew it involves often create a sense of excitement and responsibility that studio productions often lack. Each person’s contribution counts. There is often intense involve- ment by the crew on the production, and they can exercise greater control over the final product than do their counterparts in studio production. The challenge of recording in the field can be excitement of instantly playing back images that were recorded only minutes ago, and the intense involvement demanded by the editing process all characterize video field production Consumer, Industrial, and Broadcast Equipment Shooting in the studio on the other hand has large production crew. The shoot is mostly done with a multi- camera setup( 2 or Manufacturers of video equipment are sensitive to the fact that 3 cameras). These would be usually fully or semi scripted. The equipment capabilities and cost need to be matched to the essentials crewmembers would be the Producer, Director, needs and budgets of different kinds of equipment users. As a Audio, Camera operators (2 or 3), Floor director or floor result, equipment is designed and marketed to serve distinct manager, Technical director and VTR operator. Such a program segments of video users: consumer (or home) video users, the is usually live or live on tape; complete program or large professional corporate/industrial market of largely segments. nonbroadcast producers, and the broadcast market. A fourth Multiple camera Studio and Single Camera Video Field Produc- market niche, often called prosumer, falls between consumer tion Characteristics video and professional/industrial video. Generally speaking, as you move up the scale from one category of equipment to the Studio next, the range of features, performance characteristics, and cost Number of Cameras Multiple cameras (usually 2 or 3) of the equipment all increase significantly. Size of crew Large Video as a Medium of Communication Key crewmembers Producer Video is both a medium of communication and a type of Director technology. The successful producer must understand not only Audio the components and opera-tion of the technology of video Camera operators (2 or 3) communication but also the elements of the process of Floor Director/Floor communication via video. As we view the process of video field Manager production, five elements characterize this particular communi- Technical director cation situation: VTR operators 1 The unique elements of the production organization Recording method Usually live or live on tape: a (source) complete program or large seg 2 The fundamental importance of message design ments 3 The importance of the television medium as a channel of Amount of control Controlled Studio communication over environment. Studio Lighting 4 The particular nature of the audience Sound(acoustics) con trolled 5 Audience feedback to the program producer Assured source of power Production Organization Availability of technical The video field production group is often significantly smaller support staff than the studio production organization. Typically, the principal Type of script Usually fully or semi scripted roles involved in producing single-camera remote productions Field are the producer, who is re-sponsible for the overall organiza- Number of Cameras Single cameras tion of a production and for delegating responsibility to the Size of crew Usually small] other members of the production team; the camera op-erator, Key crewmembers or videographer (sometimes called the shooter), who is

13 Director home, school, and institutional viewing situations television is Cameraperson most often watched on screens measuring 27 inches or less in Sound recordist diagonal. Until larger screen “home theater” and HDTV television sets become the standard, television programs will Recording method Individual segments or shots to be con-tinue to be designed in close-up detail for viewing on small edited or inserted into a larger screens. program. The audience has learned to expect close-ups and reaction shots, Amount of control Uncontrolled remote location and the successful producer will give the audience what it over environment. Available light expects with respect to these conventions. Close-ups provide Ambient location Sound the magnification often necessary for small-screen use. Magnifi- Assured source of power cation, a key to visibility, is central to most television Less or no technical production. Close-ups are also important because they are support in the field means of focusing audience attention on a specific detail or Type of script May be fully scripted, often semi relationship by eliminating all other parts of the picture. scripted Reaction shots are important to messages designed to persuade This was a general comparison of the studio and field produc- or generate an emotional response. The use of reaction shots tion for television. evolved as media practitioners learned that the effect of a Message Design statement or action is determined by the receiver, not the sender. The quick cut to the face of a person 1istening to a Message design is a critical part of the telecommunication speaker reveals how the speech is being received, whether it is process. Ironically, one of the first elements that should be being accepted or rejected. In seeing how this person reacts, the considered is the desired ef-fect of the message. Who is to do audience is, in turn, told how to react. what with this information? Because the goal of most commer- cial television programming is to maximize the size of the The Audience viewing audience at a given time, many program producers and The dictum “know your audience” is just as important for sta-tion program directors desire to design and distribute video producers as it is for public speakers. Producers of entertaining and informative programs that will appeal to the corporate and instructional video always include a description of largest cross-section of the gen-eral viewing audience. Success is the characteristics of the program’s target audience in their typically measured in terms of program ratings, which provide preproduction planning material and use their knowledge of an estimate of the size of the audience and determine how the target audience to guide production decisions at each step of much money advertisers can be charged to place their commer- production process. Even though broadcast television is often cials on air. thought of as a form of mass communication, the successful Producers of educational and industrial video programs realizes that communication takes place frequently begin the design stage of their productions by between the message and an individual- in the audience. Even thinking in terms of a list of specific objectives-things they though someone may be part of a very large audience, the hope the audience will be able to understand or do after viewing individual’s response to a program is always an important one. a particular program. Whether you are producing a program For a message or program to be effective, it must communicate designed to teach language or computational skills to children individually to each person in the audience. This is no easy task, or new safety procedures to employees in your manufacturing given the variations that may exist among different audience facility, you I must have a clear understanding of the effects you members. expect your program to have on the viewer before you begin to The producer should also remember that the audience is produce it. Naturally, you will also need to consider your target composed of individuals who most often watch alone or with audience as well. A program aimed at children will be ap- one or two other people. Although there tends to be little proached differently from one aimed at adults, even if the audience interaction during programs-, the televised message subject matter is similar. often has to compete for attention with distractions in the Message design is therefore concerned With the basic idea, home viewing environment. Therefore, the message must be which in-volves the choice of subject; a decision about how that designed to catch and hold the viewer’s attention. In addition, subject will be I treated as it is presented through the video because the viewing is often done alone or in a small group, the medium; and an understand-ing of how to control the successful producer realizes that the pace of television is not treatment of the subject to achieve maximum impact on the based on group response timing, nor is the purpose limited to audience. entertainment. We would be going into the details of planning a production in Theatrical production values dominate the business of network the later lessons. The stage also referred to as the Pre-Produc- television production, and the producer of drama or comedy tion stage. should note the techniques used. Video producers whose The Video Medium purpose is to explore a phenomenon or provide specific instructions or information must understand that producing Perhaps more than anything else, the small screen characterizes novelty or laughs instead is dysfunctional. The individual television and video. Unlike theatrical motion pictures, for at-tempting to use the program for serious purposes will not which the screen may be 30 feet high and 100 feet wide, in most appreciate the substitution.

14 Feedback with any new technology that comes in. Feedback is that part of the communication process in which Creative Problem Solving audience responses to the production are transmitted to the If there is one phrase that expresses our idea of what is at the producers. The nature and extent of feedback is related to the center of video field production, it is creative problem solving. type of production and the way in which it is distributed to and Communication via video means that the producer/writer/ received by the audience. In commercial broadcast television, director must understand the medium and how to use it. program ratings-a measure of the size of the audi-ence-provide Finding the appropriate techniques to effec-tively express the one indication of the audience response to a program. idea and content of a program presents problems that must be Tele-phone calls and letters from audience members to stations solved creatively. and networks are also an important part of the feedback Video field production also presents a unique set of logistical process. For the home video producer, feedback might take the prob-lems. No two days of shooting in the field are ever quite form of comments by family members on the quality of the the same because no two locations are ever the same. The ability videotape documenting a family celebration. to deal with the range of problems encountered on location is Feedback is extremely useful to the video producer because it the mark of the successful field pro-duction person. pro-vides important information about the audience’s response Finally, video field production presents a set of unique technical to the program or videotape-information that the producer problems. People involved in field production simply must needs to have in order to make subsequent productions more know more about the technical side of video production than effective. must their studio coun-terparts. All manner of technical Technical Factors and Aesthetic Factors problems arise in the field, and field pro-ducers must be able to Video field production combines an understanding of the anticipate and avoid them or correct them when they arise. technical factors of production with the aesthetic factors of Summary production. Technical factors relate to developing an operational Changes in video technology have greatly changed the way understanding of the way in which equipment functions. To television is produced. Portable video equipment is character- work successfully with portable video equip-ment, you must ized by the small size of the cameras and videotape recorders. understand how the equipment works. This does not mean Portable equipment has brought video production out of the that you need to be an engineer or understand all of the studio and into the field. Video equipment has been made electronic and physical principles that govern the operations of accessible to large numbers of people because it is relatively the equipment (knowing a little about that might help though) inexpensive and easy to operate. but what it does mean is that you must have an understanding Portable video equipment has found widespread use in a of the way in which the system operates-the way in which number of different production situations. It is often used to different technical elements interrelate and the way in which you produce personal and artistic video and is also used in indepen- can control the technical compo-nents of production. It does dent production. Educational and industrial users include mean that you need to have a basic under-standing of what the schools, hospitals, corporations, and government agencies. video signal is and how it can be controlled. All video equip- Portable equipment has also found significant use among ment operates on similar principles. Because underlying televi-sion broadcasters, as it is widely used for both electronic operational princi-ples vary little among brands of equipment, news gathering and electronic field production. you should have little diffi-culty in adapting the general All video production can be viewed as a method of communi- principles that you would learn during this course to the specific cation, and the successful producer needs to understand video re-quirements of a particular system. technology as well as how to communicate effectively in the Many handbooks on video production are nothing more than medium. Important characteris-tics of the video production man-uals of equipment operation. However, it is our position communication process include the nature of the production that one must know not only how to manipulate the equip- organization, the importance of message design, the characteris- ment but also how to manip-ulate the medium in which one is tics of the audience and the video medium, and feedback to the working: video. This brings us to the area of media aesthetics. producer. Aesthetic factors refer to production variables and the ways in To be successful, the video field producer must understand which they can be manipulated to affect audience response to both the technical and aesthetic aspects of production and the video message. possess an aptitude for creative problem solving. Technical We see the process of video field production as a combination production factors relate to an opera-tional understanding of of technical factors and aesthetic factors. Whether you are the way in which video equipment functions. Aes-thetic engaged in video production for personal, artistic, educational, production factors concern production variables and the ways in or broadcast uses, the requirements of the technology and the which they can be manipulated to produce more effective medium must be considered. The fundamentals of production programs. and the production processes discussed during the course will be helpful to you, no matter what type of video production you are engaged in. Especially when we know that the way things are they come up with a new camera and editing software every year. A better understanding of the fundamentals of video production will help you to make the desired program

15 UNIT 2 LESSON 3: PRE PRODUCTION PRE PRODUCTION

In the following chapters we will go into the details of the f everything else you forgot different stages of a production. We would try to keep our 2 Production discussion to the video productions but whereever necessary field and studio shooting take reference from the film production setup as well. We start with the pre-production hear in this lesson and then will move 3 Post-production towards production and post production in the latter chapters. a audio narration Production Pyramid b graphics c rough cut d final edit e dubs The world of Analogue or digital video productions operates a little differently to traditional film production. Of course we use the same visual language and communication techniques that have been developed through the history of the moving picture, but the nature of DV equipment has changed the way a lot of developers approach the planning and production process. Traditional Film Making is a collaboration of many specific disciplines as discussed earlier. There is a Producer, a Director, Assistant Director, Director of Photography, Camera Operator, Gaffer, Grip, Make-up, Wardrobe, Sound Recordist, Sound Editor, Editor and about a hundred other positions. With the nature of inexpensive DV equipment and desktop editing in broadcast quality, there has been a trend towards multi-skilling and the distinctions between different rolls often blur. But a good video production team would still comprise of the four different departments Direction, Camera, Sound and Editing. And of course then there is the Producer. Most of the indepen- dent filmmakers many a times take up both the roles of a producer and a director. The setup is quite different in the production houses or various channels. Pre Production Careful pre-production planning can save hours of headaches Production Pyramid: Text Description and work-around during the production and postproduction The pyramid is divided into three main sections. The base is stages. For example, careful planning of your shots and angles “Pre-production,” which is divided into six subsections. The can prevent the editor from having to deal with shots that have middle section is “Production,” which consists of field and characters facing the wrong screen direction due to axis of action studio shooting. The top of the pyramid is “Post-production,” line crossings. It can also prevent continuity inconsistencies, and which is divided into five subsections. An arrow pointing from iron out communication weaknesses and ambiguities. the base toward the tip reads “Expense and difficulty in fixing Pre-Production includes, but is not limited to, establishing problems increases.” The sections are listed below numbered audience need, developing a concept, establishing a program’s from one through three beginning at the base. Immediately objectives and approach (treatment), writing a script, and hiring following each section are its subsections, which are lettered. and meeting with your principal players. 1 Pre-production Since pre-production involves all aspects of planning your a objective, research, concept program before actual production, it’s also known as the b script, visualization, storyboard “paper” stage of production. Your planning is done and problems are anticipated before assembling talent, equipment, c location, talent, products and a full crew. It’s much easier and less expensive to correct a d props, equipment, crew problem on paper than it is during production itself. Despite e travel music your planning, problems may still occur. But pre-production

16 allows you to anticipate them and find solutions beforehand. Discuss the target audience for your video and the reason for Then if problems do arise during production you can easily picking that target audience. This will ensure your audience correct them. understands your intent. Pre production could be broadly divided into the following Often while submitting a proposal for a production you stages. submit a synopsis, treatment, storyboard and a script. Objective, research, concept 1A Synopsis is a brief, clearly defined description of the When you’re making a film, you usually start with an idea and project. It should communicate the essence and ‘feel’ of the work out your concept and story. Lay out your ideas with paper project and pencil. This helps you formulate a clear idea of what 2A Treatment is a detailed outline describing the project as it message your video is attempting to communicate. will unfold on screen. A treatment usually includes detailed Think about these questions: descriptions of elements but does not have dialog. Most of • Is it possible to turn your idea, investigation or concept into any necessary research is done during the development of the a short movie? treatment. • What is the purpose of your movie? 3 Storyboard A storyboard is a number of static visuals (photos or illustra- • What point(s) or point of view are you trying to get across? tions) organised into a preconceived sequence. It is created for • Do you have the time and equipment to turn your idea into the purpose of planning and communicating a moving picture a movie? concept. • Have you selected a genre and style for your movie? A storyboard is an essential part of planning for most film and • Who is your intended audience and will they understand video productions. Producing a storyboard has the following your production advantages: Think of your movie as a story. When creating your story, keep • It gives the video producer a chance to experiment with in mind the five W’s: Who, What, When, Where, Why. This shots, coverage, camera angles, special effects and editing helps you fill in the main body of your story. possibilities all before setting foot on the set. Make a decision about genre. Every genre has its own unique • Pre-conceiving shots and coverage speeds up production style or conventions that influence audience expectations about time. how the story is told and interpreted. • Can solve many production problems before they arrive. Some broad genres or categories with which we are familiar include… • A story board can be used to help unify the cast and crews comedy; adventure; drama; crime; horror; musical; thriller; ideas and concepts about the visual direction of the historical; romance; science fiction; animation; documentary. production. This way everybody involved is working towards Some interesting sub-genres or alternative categories to think the same visual goal. about as a starting point for a short movie production in- • A storyboard is valuable when budgeting and scheduling. It clude… can really give you an idea of how long things are going to a documentary; a mockumentary; an advertisement or info- take to shoot, and how much its going to cost. mercial; a training video; a music video; a comedy or sitcom; a • It can help in looking for funding, sponsorship or to sell children’s video; a parody; a poem; a melodrama; a report; a your idea. lifestyle video; a soap opera; a biography; an adaptation; an Generally a storyboard consists of a series of simple clear event; a personal story. illustrations with each frame providing new information. (The Decide also on the narrative style of your movie, i.e. how the rules of good storyboarding follow the rules of video editing) story will be told, and from who’s point of view will the story The pictures are usually accompanied by brief descriptions of be told. Will it be told in the “first person” or “third person” camera moves, subject directions and audio. The best way to style. Some examples include… learn good storyboarding techniques is by studying comics. confrontational; adversarial; issue based; persuasive; analytical; Comic books are the best of all. reflective; fictional; factual; observational. 4 The script brings more life to the treatment. It usually Be aware some stories require no spoken narrative at all. includes directions and dialog. A lot of visuals and words are Messages and points in short are communicated through visual developed in the script. images, both static and moving, written text, sound effects and In most cases your script will be formatted in one of two ways. music. Examples include silent movies, montages, and postcard The split-script format separates the audio and video elements style productions. into two columns. The related elements are positioned next to Script, visualization and storyboarding one another for easy reference. Once the objective and concept is clear you can start working on The screen play format groups audio, video and direction brainstorming ideas and jotting down notes and thoughts elements in a staggered layout. This format is generally more about your concept. This is the stage when you start to visualize descriptive. the types of shots, locations and characters in your production. Split Script Format Write down a rough outline for your production (list all the Duration: 30 seconds parts of your video). Video Audio

17 Fade up Music under Boy with livestock. Old Capitol cr. 1900 -NARRATION - Yet as a profession... The University of Iowa. agriculture has its rewards. - Early class photo The nations first state 8 WIDE ANGLE university to admit Family working together. women on a equal basis Families working together... with men. fresh air...physical exercise... DISSOLVE - 1930’s footage of A unique writing program and strong ties to the community... writing group which for 6 decades has 9 MEDIUM ANGLE fostered Pulitzer Prize Grandfather working in field. winners. ...all contribute to the fact that DISSOLVE - Van Allen Rocket A pioneer in space farmers live longer and healthier lives. Footage exploration. Once a script is purchased, it often goes through a series of DISSOLVE - Dance footage A center for the arts rewrites before it is put into production. Once that happens, the SUPER - various posters attracting world renowned script becomes a ‘Shooting Script’ or Production Script. All the performers. scenes and shots of a shooting script are numbered and each DISSOLVE - Hospital Exterior One of the nations largest scene and shot are broken down into all the component pieces DISSOLVE - Patient care. university owned teaching required to film it. The production assistants and director can hospitals. then arrange the order in which the scenes will be shot for the Looking at microscope. Paving the way to most efficient use of stage, cast, and location resources. CRT Monitor. breakthroughs in the A general comment about script formatting: Although a certain understanding of human format has become more and more standardized in recent years, health. there isn’t one way, one set of margins, one style. There is a PAN - Sky to Old Capitol Dome For 150 years, range of correctness. There are software program available for SUPER - Sesquicentennial logo The University of Iowa: A writing scripts and their formats and measurements fall within Tradition of Innovation this range. Fade Out While the storyboard is useful to help you develop the actual Format structure and parts of your film the shooting script is there to “IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL HEALTH THROUGH provide: detailed directions to the camera operator on what to RESEARCH” shoot and how to shoot it, and the specific information about The Agricultural Health Study what the audio track is to contain. It also includes details on any FADE IN: graphics required and how they are to be 1 CLOSE ANGLE - SLO-MO MOVING integrated into the video. If any special effects were required the Hot steaming coffee is poured into a cup. shooting script would indicate what type they are and how long 2 CLOSE ANGLE - MOVING they were to last. The shooting script is a critical document to Several television channels flip on the screen until colorful the next stage that of Production, recording our video and weather graphics appear. sound resources and even of Postproduction, editing it all 3 CLOSE ANGLE - MOVING together. It does not limit the creativity involved with these later A pair of heavy worn work boots sit under jackets hung in a steps but provides very important direction towards the mud room. A hand reaches in and takes the boots. achievement of your overall objective. As you can see the stages CUT TO BLACK in the planning process have started from the general and proceeded to a more and more detailed level of information. 4 INT. BARN - DAWN Not all projects need to be approached with this level of detail The large door of a barn swings open by the silhouette of a as part of the planning process but you will have to move figure. The landscape of a farm is revealed in the background. through this refining process as you take our ideas, capture the -NARRATOR- video and sound, then select from that what you want and edit Agriculture today is as much a business... it together. Any time spent in the planning stage is a good as a way of life. investment which is paid back over and over again in the 5 WIDE ANGLE production and post production stages. If you have a well Mother and son working with livestock are met by father. thought-out shooting script your camera operator can insure Time has persuaded the farmer to adapt to the that all of the necessary shots are recorded. There is no question realities of a changing profession. about what is required. When it comes to editing, you will not 6 MEDIUM ANGLE have to create it or save it in the editing stage as can often Father repairing machinery. happen when there was insufficient time spent planning the Agricultural work can be demanding and project and you discover that critical shots are missing. unpredictable. Picking Locations for Your Film 7 MEDIUM ANGLE After you’ve locked down your script — meaning there are no more changes — comb through it and determine where you

18 want to shoot your scenes. Well they have actually come up with out-of-service], factories, and outdoor fountains)? software, which break down your script for you by pulling out • Is there available electricity to plug in your lights? (If not, all your scene headings and generating a list of settings from you’ll need a generator.) your screenplay. Of course, you can also go through the script • If you’re shooting out of town, are there overnight yourself and jot down all the locations without having to use a accommodations nearby? computer. After you have a list of the settings for your film, you can start looking for the actual locations that will fit your • Is there air-traffic noise if the site is on route to the airport? story. • Do you have space to set up a picnic area to feed your cast You’re casting your film with actors who have a lot of character, and crew? so why not find locations with character, too? Don’t list generic • Can you get permission to shoot there? Do you need a locations like a bookstore or a restaurant; you could go for more permit? Can you afford to film there? options. Does your lead character live in a small, messy apart- • Does using the site require the hiring of a police officer to ment or a lavish house on gated grounds with an stop foot or street traffic? Olympic-sized swimming pool? Managing location scouts and managers • Is there a photocopy store nearby (for copying the next day’s A location scout searches out the perfect locations for your film schedule)? this person is your “reel” estate broker. Anyone can be a • Do cell phones work in the area? If not, are there public location scout, but someone who does it for a living will be phones nearby? familiar with every type of location, saving you weeks or even Finding the perfect location that works both inside as an months of searching for the right place. If you can’t afford a interior and outside as an exterior may be difficult. Remember location scout, you can hire someone who’s eager to drive that you can film the exterior of a house and then use a around, make phone calls, and search the Internet — or you can different house’s interior, or even construct the indoor rooms do it yourself. Finding the right locations for a film takes time. on a soundstage. Doing so gives you a more controlled Contact your local film commission (if there’s one in your city) environment. and ask if it can recommend a location scout, or call your city Casting permit office and ask if it can refer you to a location scout. A manages the locations after you’ve found Producer Auditions them. He or she looks after getting the appropriate releases and The credibility of the project rests on proper casting. It cannot permits for your locations and makes sure that the proper be stressed enough how important it is to find the right actors insurance is in place. Your location manager can also double as for the project. The actors are the words with which you will tell your location scout on a lower-budget production. If you go your story. They allow the audience to enter the world of your this route, make sure to find someone who is detail-oriented drama by bringing to life the scripted characters. No matter how and persistent. slick the camera work, it will be difficult for viewers to empa- Don’t forget to put the word out to friends, family, and thize with your story if they don’t be-lieve in your characters. acquaintances that you’re looking for locations. You never know The young boy in Truman and the woman and homeless man who may have a great location that you can use for one of your in The Lunch Date seem to inhabit their roles effortlessly. As scenes. viewers, we experience the characters, not actors playing parts. Evaluating potential locations This illusion is due partly to their performances and partly to Filming on a soundstage or in a warehouse is not always their being physically right for the characters. Had the ac-tors’ practical — you just may not have the budget to do it. Some- physical types not suited the characters they were supposed to times you can find a location at which you can film for free or play, no degree of performance could have overcome this false for a price that’s within your budget. By shooting on location, impression. you don’t have to start from scratch and construct sets for every No matter how many people participate in the casting process, scene in your film (not practical at all on a low budget). the final decisions should rest with the director. Not only must Whether you’re in Delhi, Mumbai or a small town in say Kerala, the actors fit her vision for the project, but she must also feel you’re sure to find some vacant building or aplce not in use, comfortable with their working relationship. The producer’s job which you can get permissions for and that, can work wonders is to ensure that the director has the widest choices of tal-ent to for your story. From an old restaurant that’s been shut down to review. The producer also lends support by serving as a creative a bank that closed its doors, you can usually negotiate with the sounding board when the direc-tor requires an objective building owner or the government to film on this existing set. opinion. When deciding on locations, make sure that they’re appropriate The assistant director hires the background or players for sound as well. You don’t want a location that’s too close to based on the number requested by the director. The producer the highway or a construction site. Here’s a list of things to must balance that number against the budget. Although it is consider when scouting locations: always better to have a fully peopled scene, extras are paid a negoti-ated fee and must be fed and transported to and from • Is parking available for cast, crew, and equipment vehicles? the set. • Is it near bathroom facilities (a public park or a local restaurant)? The Casting Director An important addition to the creative team is the cast-ing • Is it in a quiet location (away from traffic, train tracks [unless

19 director. After gaining an understanding of the director’s passed out from NSD, Naseerudin Shah, Om Puri, Pankaj requirements, the casting director sifts through many of the Kapur and Anupam Kher to name a few. Posting a flier may submissions so the director sees only those actors who are work, but contacting the teachers personally might be more genuine possibilities. The casting director looks at a script and, ef-fective. Ask them about the best ways to approach their based on her ex-perience in the field, establishes a viable list of students. They might allow you to sit in on a class. actors for each part. The following are some of the elements a Organize Submitted Head Shots and Resumes casting director brings to a production: When they hear that you are casting, interested actors or their • Valuable creative input representatives will submit a photo-graph, with a resume. From • A solid resource bank (file of actors) the resume, you can get the following infor-mation: experience, • Awareness of new talent height, weight, age, union affili-ation, and the actor’s contact number. A single advertisement in a national daily could at-tract • Good working relationship with agents and managers hundreds of 8-by-10 glossies. Organize and file the glossies • Ability to make deals with actors (understand-ing of SAG according to the part. rules) From these head shots, look for actors you are in-terested in A good casting director does all the setup work so the director auditioning. This is a tough call because you will most likely be and producer need only make the de-cisions. If you can afford flooded with applicants. When choosing actors to audition, it, this is a valuable and worthwhile person to have on the base your decision on their “look,” their experience, and your production team. If you cannot afford to hire a casting director, gut instinct. However, be aware that a glossy may be an the pro-ducer and director assume these duties. idealized version of what the actor really looks like. To find a casting director, inquire of other pro-ducers and Arrange Casting Calls directors who work in the low-budget arena. Find a space in which to hold the auditions. It should have The Basic Casting Steps some kind of waiting area where the actors can study the pages Although the exact method used to cast a production varies they will read for the audition. The audition space should be from project to project, the following steps pro-vide a useful large enough to allow the di-rector, producer, camera operator, overview of the basic process: and reader to sit comfortably and to allow the actors to move • Advertise specific roles around with ease. The space you choose should also have • Scout local theater companies ad-equate light for video. Set up a working schedule for the day or days you plan to • Scout acting schools audition. Find out how many actors the direc-tor wants to see • Organize submitted headshots and resumes. Arrange casting each day and for how long. Start with a plan for 15-minute calls intervals, and work from there. Call the actors or their agents to • Arrange callbacks schedule appoint-ments. If you can’t reach an actor, leave a • Negotiate with selected actors phone num-ber where he or she can reach you or leave a message. • Deal with rejected actors On the day of the audition, be sure to do the fol-lowing: Advertise Specific Roles • Have a production assistant log the actors in at the door. Use advertising to let the creative community-actors, agents, and • Be sure you have plenty of copies (at least one per actor) of managers-know about your project and the specific parts the sides to be read. available. It is easiest to locate a vari-ety of talented performers in major metropolitan areas. Actors are attracted to these areas • Arrange to have someone read opposite the actors. (The because of the op-portunities they offer for professional work. director should not read with the candidates because it will hinder her objectiv-ity.) Scout Local Theater Companies If are in a major metropolitan area that has theater companies, • Have a pitcher of water and paper cups avail-able for the it can be use-ful for you and the director to scout out the actors. currently running shows for new talent. These cities have many • Keep the auditions as close to schedule as possi-ble. It is small and interesting theater groups, but don’t dis-count the impolite and unprofessional to keep actors waiting for long. many community theaters all over the country. Arrange Callbacks Check the cast lists for the specific types for which you are It is now that the casting process begins in earnest. The goal is looking, and plan to see these actors in action. If you are not only to look for the best actors for the parts, but also to impressed by an actor’s per-formance and feel that he or she find the right chemistry or balance among the players. This is might be right for your project, go backstage after the show and especially critical when casting a love story. Your two lovers must intro-duce yourself. The actor will be flattered by the attention. seem to be attracted to one another. To achieve the right Scout Acting Schools chem-istry, read actors opposite each other in different combina- Many acting programs run their own theater groups, and these tions. The best combinations can then be put on video. can be a good source of talent. Keeping in touch with some of Negotiate with Selected Actors the people at National School of Drama, NSD could help. By the time you sit down with the actor you want to hire or Don’t forget lot of the big names in the acting world have with the actor’s agent, everyone involved should already have an

20 understanding about your budget constraints. Be honest and Director Auditions upfront at the be-ginning about how much money you have to As a director, your relationship to the actor is ex-tremely spend. important. The producer is involved in cast-ing and is ulti- If you have no budget for talent, your only hope to attract mately responsible for hiring the cast, but it is the director-actor good actors is a well-written script with good parts that can dynamic that breathes life into the characters that propel the showcase performers’ talent. A video copy of the project might story. prove to be payment enough. The director, cinematographer, and art director exercise their craft If you are working primarily with “struggling ac-tors” who do behind the camera. It doesn’t mat-ter how they look or how not earn a living from their craft, you might have to work they feel when they work because they are not exposed to the around their schedules. They usu-ally have day jobs to pay the camera’s eye. The actor, though, is the very instrument through rent. which the drama is played. It is not uncommon for a talent to receive little or no compen- Actors must sometimes call on deep, personal feelings. Helping sation for work with beginning or student filmmakers. the actor discover the emotional life of a character is a trying, Generally, their entire compen-sation consists of the following: exciting, and sometimes painful process. When casting, you • A screen credit want to find the actors who have the craft to make truthful discover-ies about the character and the talent to reveal these • A video copy of the completed film discoveries to others. • Transportation to and from the set The life of an actor is not easy. Actors constantly audition for • Meals during the shoot parts they don’t get. Most work at acting intermittently. Many • Dry cleaning of the actor’s personal wardrobe work at other jobs to pay their bills. When an actor auditions, Here in this course as you start working on your ideas, do try he or she usually com-petes with dozens of other actors for a getting in touch with people from different theatre groups in single part. To help you understand something of the actor’s Delhi, or start observing people amongst your friends and work process, it is recommended that you attend acting classes. families who you think could act in front of a camera. Of This will help you discover how to draw out the best in the course with many it might be a total different story once they performer. face a camera. Respect for Actors: We want to suggest a simple but ef-fective If you are obligated to pay one of your principal actors, credo: Treat all actors with respect and cour-tesy. Make each however, you should pay all of them (at least all the speaking experience pleasant and professional no matter how wrong for parts) to avoid resentment on the set. the part the actor may be. They have made the effort to come in and put them-selves on the line. Respecting that effort, you Deal with Rejected Actors create goodwill with that individual and show respect for the The producer should be the “heavy” when it comes to breaking whole acting profession. You never know-they might be right the bad news to actors who have not been cast. It is emotionally for your next project. For those who are even-tually cast, this difficult to call an actor who has come in for several callbacks to first encounter represents a positive and congenial foundation tell him that he has not been cast. A courteous phone call on which to build. thanking the actor for his time and enthusiasm during the cast-ing session will be appreciated. Always strive to build good Casting relationships with good actors. What if you rudely reject the The audience attends a film or video to witness a story told next Dustin Hoffman or Amitabh Bachan? through actors. If viewers do not care about the characters, then they will not care about the story. Added Benefits of Casting The important creative relationship between actor and director The casting process offers many benefits besides find-ing the begins during the casting process. If the film- or video maker best talent for your project. Casting offers an excellent opportu- makes an error at this junc-ture, it will affect the whole produc- nity to audition the script as well as the actors. Hearing the lines tion. Choose wisely. Take your time. Be objective, and spoken will give the di-rector and writer a sense of what works remember that the casting process is not perfect. Some actors, and what doesn’t. Scenes are often overwritten, and readings can for example, audition better than others. This does not expose fat that might be eliminated. necessarily mean that the actors who audition well are the better Through the casting process, the producer can get a sense of actors. how the director works with actors. Is she comfortable? Does she put the actors at ease? The ability to find a rapport with her Casting Children actors is a necessary part of the director’s craft. Finding talented child actors can be particularly diffi-cult. First, Finally, the casting process offers the producer and director an there are far fewer child actors than adults. Second, even trained opportunity to meet and build rela-tionships with talented child actors can be difficult to control. Many children are born performers. Once you have worked with an actor, if you feel performers. An un-trained child can often give a more sponta- that the results and relationship were successful, you might neous and engaging performance than a professional child actor. want to work with that actor again. The bond that results from When casting, assess a child’s energy and attention span as well the actor-director relationship is very special. It might last only as his or her talent. for the duration of the shoot or for a lifetime.

21 actor reads the sides for the first time at an audition, it is called a cold reading. Auditions for the first call usually run at 5- to 15-minute intervals. The material you prepare for the actor to read should be short. This will allow you to make the most of the meeting. The actor will need to act with a partner the pro-duction provides. This individual should not be the director, because she needs to observe and assess the performance. The reader can be the producer, a pro-duction assistant, or another actor. The reader should make eye contact with the actor. This gives the actor someone to whom he can relate. Because the audition is for the actor, not the reader, the reader should not “act” nor read in a mo-notone, which would be equally distracting. When the actor begins reading, allow him to read through the scene with no direction. This reveals the actor’s interpretation of Finding your lead actor is an exciting moment. the role, which might bring a unique slant to the character, one Audition Guidelines you had not con-sidered before. If you like the actor, ask him to read the scene again for an For a successful audition and to make the most of the search emotional value different from that of the first reading. Ask for the best actors, we recommend following the guidelines in him to find the humor in the scene, for instance, or the irony. the next sections. This second reading is key because it gives you an idea of the Before the Audition actor’s range and flexibility. During the audition process, it is The audition can be held in any quiet room. A rented rehearsal more important to discover whether the actor can take di-rection hall is an ideal place to hold an audition. The space should than whether he already understands the char-acter. contain at least three chairs: one for the actor, one for the Take notes on your assessment of each actor. Your notes will director, and one for the per-son who will read opposite the help you decide at the end of the day which actors you would actor. Some additional personnel might be present at the like to use or which you would like to call back. audition, including the producer, the casting director, and a Monologue. In addition to or instead of the cold reading, you camera op-erator if the audition is recorded on videotape. can ask the actor to prepare a mono-logue for the audition or Beginning the Audition the callback. A monologue is a speech for one person from a Introductions. The production assistant ushers each actor into play or film. It gives you the opportunity to witness a prepared the audition space. The director should at-tempt to relax the perfor-mance. The combination of the cold reading and a actor and put him at ease. If the di-rector creates an atmosphere prepared monologue offers that much more informa-tion on that encourages the actor to feel confident, the audition will go which to make casting decisions. better. The actor will perform at his best, and the director will be Improvisation. Another useful technique is to have the actor able to make an informed decision. improvise a scene from the script. That is, to act like his The director should greet the actor, introduce the people in the character, spontaneously, in a situation you create. Improvisa- room, and make small talk before be-ginning the audition. The tion is a specialized acting form. Some actors, especially actor will bring to the au-dition a recent photograph, called a comedians, are very adept at this type of performance. Other head shot or glossy. Attached to the back of the photo will be actors do not have this facility. It is, however, an acceptable the actor’s resume, which contains information about the parts request to make of an actor. the applicant has played. It also describes the actor’s talents and Evaluating the Audition interests and lists the teachers with whom he has studied. The primary goal of the audition process is to dis-cover the This material can be used as a good place to begin small talk. actor’s range of talent and his ability to take direction. If the For example, you might say, “I see you studied with Mira actor reading for the part is ab-solutely perfect, indicate this in Rostova” or “Do you enjoy doing Pinter?” or “When you say your notes, but never offer an actor a part during the audition. here you speak French, are you fluent?” You never know who might come in later and cause you to Depending then on how much of the script the actor has read, change your mind. If the actor is not ideal but has in-teresting you might briefly tell the story you plan to shoot. This will put qualities, this, too, should be noted. After all, the ideal actor for the audition scene in con-text, which will be helpful to the actor. the part might never audition. You will have to cast the role Only when the director feels the actor is ready should she begin based on the talent available. the audition. Keeping an Open Mind. The readings are an excel-lent opportu- Types of Auditions nity to explore many different casting possibilities, and these Sides. The most common method used to audition actors for a possibilities are as varied as the actors who walk through the film or video project is to have them read a scene or part of a door. Remain flexi-ble and open-minded as to the many ways a scene from the script. These pages are called sides. When the part can be cast. Too often, directors have a set image of a charac-ter in mind during the audition. If an actor matching that image doesn’t

22 appear, the audition is merely an exercise. Casting against type If you can’t find the actors you want, you might have to look often makes the script even more vital. It might be interesting beyond the normal casting arena. Leave no stone unturned. to cast as the villain of your piece an actor who has the appear- Things to Keep in Mind ance of a nice guy. This will create a doubt in the viewer’s mind Benefits of the Casting Session. The casting session is a learning and add a tension that wouldn’t otherwise exist. process for the director. How lines are read, how a character is Use your imagination when casting. If a talented blond actor interpreted, and how a scene is performed all add to the auditions but you see the character as a redhead, consider using director’s excitement and enthusiasm during preproduction. a wig or asking the actor to dye his hair. The director must be Although the cast-ing session is not foolproof, it is a time- aware of how the various departments can help shape an actor’s tested process that generally provides successful results. look. The audition process requires stamina and con-centration. Rehearsal Reading actors all day with only a short lunch break can be Rushing into a production without proper preparation results exhausting. Be sure to give ade-quate consideration to the last in wasting more time than it would have taken to simply few actors who audi-tion. Among them could be the actor who rehearse before getting started? Whether you realize it or not, is just right for the part. Remember, casting can make or break every production requires some kind of rehearsal, set-up, or pre- your project. shoot preparation. Notes. If you write pertinent observations on the actor’s Ideally, you should rehearse every shot before recording. But in resume or on a separate log sheet during the reading, you can the wonderful world of video and film making there’s no such later review the day’s many audi-tions. It is also important to thing as the “ideal”. note the actor’s schedule and availability. It’s always a good idea to gather all your key players for a formal Videotaping. Videotaping is an excellent way to re-view script reading. Producer, director, talent, writers, technical staff, auditions and helps in making a casting deci-sion. Recording the and anyone else whose input is valuable to the production audition on video gives the creative team an opportunity to should attend. Script reading sessions help clarify the film’s review the different combinations of actors at a later time. It objectives. They allow the director and technical crew a chance to also allows you to see how an actor relates to the camera. Certain formulate a method for achieving those objectives with the actors have an affinity for the lens, and some don’t. Some very equipment available to them. talented people freeze under the scrutiny of the lights and the And it’s through understanding the complexity or simplicity of camera. Therefore, videotaping is best used for the second the script that the director can best determine in details his shot audition, or callback. and angles. Using video during auditions is most effective with actors who Your next step will be the walk-through. A walk-through is have little or no exposure on film or tape. It is vital that you see nothing more than a brief orientation to the set or location them on tape before mak-ing any final decisions. where the production will take place. Both technical crew and If you use a video camera during the audition, set up the talent will require separate walk-throughs to understand their equipment unobtrusively. For example, the camera might be roles in the production. You might not always have a luxury of placed in a corner, with a long lens at an angle, out of the actor’s being at the exact location with your entire crew before the eye-line. shoot but you could work upon some things that are as close as Video Operators: Make sure there is enough light for the video possible to the scenario you have in mind. camera. Shoot with lenses of several sizes. Start wide to see how The technical walk-through becomes extremely critical especially the actor moves and communi-cates with his body. Then move when you’re shooting outside the confines of a studio. When in to a and finally a close-up to see the actor’s face, using remote locations for your productions, the crew must be particu-larly the eyes. given time to familiarize themselves with the location and to set up the equipment for maximum performance and flexibility. Callbacks When the general auditions have been completed, the producer The talent walk-through helps the actors and performers to get arranges for callbacks. A callback is another audition, but with comfortable with the set and understand the conditions under actors who have already read for the director once and are being which they’ll be working. This is extremely important when considered seriously for the part. using amateurs or people not accustomed to working in the The callback can be conducted in the same fash-ion as the first medium. audition, but with some modifications. The time periods are Video production can be very intimidating for the unseasoned. generally longer; say 15 to 30 minutes, which permits the The lights, the cameras, (the “Action”), the cables, and the director to work on spe-cific details in the scene. Actors are asked controlled chaos of the set can turn even the most eloquent to read op-posite other actors who are being considered to speaker into a babbling idiot. Corporate video speakers can be determine whether there is the right kind of chem-istry between the most challenging and amusing clients you’ll ever work with. them. For the most part, they’re used to public speaking and sales If the lead has been cast, you can ask that she read with all the presentations in front of large audiences. They usually ap- candidates who might play opposite her in the film or video. proach video with a “How hard can this be?” attitude. Twenty This process, referred to as mix and match, is useful in casting five takes and countless applications of foundation make-up family members. later, he finds that speaking to a live audience is child’s play

23 compared to speaking to that invisible audience behind the little • Have you permission to shoot at the locations red tally light. You can save yourself a lot of aggravation by • When are your subjects / actors / extras available helping familiarize the talent with the set and the seemingly • When is your crew and equipment available chaotic atmosphere of a production. The final step is what’s commonly known as the dress rehearsal. • What time of day and what lighting is required for your A dress rehearsal is a full run through of scenes form your shots production script with the exception that the cameras won’t be • How long do you estimate you shots will take to set up and rolling or might not be even there. Hiring equipment is shoot. expensive. In every production you plan out the number of • Which shots and scenes can you group together and shoot days you’ll be hiring all the equipment. Even with non fiction on the same day / location. (you don’t need to shoot your films its always better to get used to the location and the space scenes in narrative order) you’ll be shooting in. • Do any props / costumes / set dressings need to be found Well a lot of filmmakers would rather have it otherwise. They or created. like their cast to be spontaneous so don’t prefer going in for rehearsals before the shoot. Well that for you to decide but in • Is transport going to be an issue low budget productions you usually cannot afford a lot of • What if it rains retakes. • If time runs short, which shots are the most important ones The Art of Scheduling a Film to get Even if you have a definitive budget, you need to break down Lining your script all the elements of your film to determine how to distribute the You break down, or line, your script by pulling out elements money you have. These breakdowns also help you figure out that affect your budget and schedule. With different-colored how many days it will take to shoot your film. You have to highlighters in hand, start combing through your script (or have make your budget fit your schedule, so be prepared to do some the assistant director do it, if you have one), highlighting juggling. If you’re on a tight budget, you won’t have the luxury important items with a different color for each category. You of shooting your film over a period of several months. Your end up with a very colorful script after the process is complete. budget may only allow you to schedule a 12-day shoot (every This process is intended to flag the script so accurate break- additional day is going to cost you money). Juggling includes downs can be made. The categories to highlight include the consolidating scenes. If you can shoot the scene in the cave in following: two days instead of three, and the breaking-up scene in the car, • Actors instead of in the shopping mall, you’ll be able to shorten your schedule — thus, saving time and money. • Extras (background people) The director and assistant director usually make the schedule • Props together. The process includes figuring out what scenes can be • Wardrobe or special costumes shot together in the same day, scheduling actors to work • Sets and locations consecutive days, and how to tighten the schedule so the film can be shot in fewer days. If you don’t have an assistant director • Special effects to help schedule and be on the set to help things stay orga- • Vehicles nized, then you have to do the schedule all by yourself. • Animals Scheduling your film includes • Special equipment • Lining the script by going through and marking items such • Special makeup as actors, props, wardrobe, and special effects. • Optical effects • Putting those items on individual breakdown sheets, each representing one scene from the film. Breaking into breakdown sheets After you highlight the various categories of items, transfer the • Transferring the elements on the breakdown sheets to highlighted elements to individual breakdown sheets — one strips. for each scene in your film. A breakdown sheet contains separate • Rearranging the order of production strips to find the best drawn category boxes to add the elements you’ve highlighted in shooting schedule. the script. You enter each element in the appropriate category A calendar is your best friend when scheduling your film. You box, such as a hammer in the props area, either by hand or by choose the date on which to start principal photography and the using one of the available software programs. date on which the shoot will wrap. By looking at a calendar, you Each breakdown sheet should be numbered so that you can go see what days the weekends fall on and whether any statutory back and reference it if you need to. Every character in the script holidays occur that the cast and crew will have off (like Diwali is also given a reference number, usually starting with the and Memorial Day). number 1 for your lead actor. You transfer these numbers to Working out the most efficient and effective shooting schedule the breakdown sheets and eventually to the individual strips on requires a lot of considerations, here are some more: the production board. Numbering saves space so that you • When are your desired locations available

24 don’t have to keep writing the characters’ names (plus there includes a picture frame on a mantle or flowers in a vase on a wouldn’t be enough space on a strip). table. The baseball bat in Mel Gibson’s film Signs would have A breakdown sheet also has a header that includes the following been categorized as set dressing, but because the actors actually details: interact with the bat (which is displayed on a wall), it is catego- • Scene number rized as a prop. You address set dressing in your breakdown sheets only if it’s crucial to the story. • Script page • Page count (length of scene divided into eighths — 1-1/2 Dressing up your wardrobe list pages would be 1-4/8) You add certain wardrobe elements to your breakdown sheets, such as costumes, uniforms, or clothes that have to be sewn • Location/setting from scratch. A character’s jeans and T-shirt don’t need to be • Synopsis of scene (one sentence) entered in the wardrobe box, but a gangster’s zoot suit does. • Exterior or interior Because scenes aren’t usually filmed in chronological order, each • Day or night outfit is given a script day number to ensure that the actor wears the correct wardrobe in each shot. Script days (the timeline of • Script day (for example, third day in the story when Mary your story) will be part of the breakdown sheets, and if the arrives at the plantation) story takes place over five days, you’ll sit down with the • Breakdown sheet number wardrobe person and decide what clothing your actors will wear Figure below shows a sample breakdown sheet from the film each day if it’s not addressed in the script. The Dragon’s Candle. Scene 106 has Ghandlin the wizard driving a borrowed police car and zapping traffic out of his way Locating locations with his magic wand. The breakdown sheet provides separate You can list your location setting in the heading of each boxes listing the elements that are needed for this scene. breakdown sheet. Locations dictate a lot regarding scheduling and budget. You can cross-reference details about the locations (Are they private or public property? Do you need to secure permits or pay location fees, and how much do they cost?). Keep your locations to a minimum; otherwise, you may end up going over budget. A “special” on special effects Scheduling special effects on your breakdown sheets helps you determine what kind of effects you can afford. Keep effects to a minimum if you’re working with a lower budget. You may find that designing special effects on a computer fits within your budget better, depending on how elaborate the . Before you create your storyboards, you have to perform certain tasks and make certain decisions. First, begin by evaluating your screenplay and picturing it in terms of separate shots that can be visually translated into individual storyboard panels. Then you determine what makes up each shot and also which images need to be storyboarded and which ones don’t. After you start storyboarding, you’ll need to determine whether you’re shooting for a TV movie or a theatrical release, which will ultimately affect the frame dimensions of your panels. Things to think about before a video shoot The Production Team • Review your project plans as a team. Everyone should be familiar with the overall production plan and the shots that are needed. • All team members should be sure of their roles and Propping up your prop list responsibilities. Every prop that will appear in your film must be pulled from the script and added to the props category in your breakdown The Equipment - do you have it all? sheets. A prop is defined as anything your characters interact • Make a list of all the equipment you will need. Prepare an with, such as guns, cell phones, brooms, and so on. On a low- equipment checklist budget film, try to borrow your props — especially if they’re The Equipment - is it working? contemporary items. For hard-to-find props, you can usually rent them from a prop house or rental house. • Check the tapes. Make sure you have the correct tape, and Often, props are confused with set dressing, but the difference that it is rewound and labeled. Always take a back-up tape in is that actors don’t interact with set dressing. Set dressing case the first one is damaged or breaks. Generally, the better

25 the quality of the tape, and the newer it is (hasn’t been used over and over again) the higher quality video you will get. • Check the camera. Do a test recording and play it back to make sure the camera is working. • Check the audio - this requires earphones, which are plugged into the earphone jack. When you do your test recording, test the mics you plan to use. • Be sure you are using the right microphones for your shoot and see that they are placed close enough to your sound source to get good clear audio (4 - 6 inches away). Remember, for interviews, hand- held mics and lavalier mics are ideal. • Check the battery: For a remote shoot (away from electrical outlets), be sure to check your battery to see that it has a full charge. • Remember to bring your tripod, and to check that it works. The locking parts should lock in place (and also release from being locked). The and pan should operate smoothly.

Notes :

26 UNIT 4 LESSON 4: THE CUT THE CUT

Video came later; film has been there much longer. That’s why Yet the second, in a way equally momentous, beginning of lot of our vocabulary in video has been taken from film. In this cinema could be said to follow some time later - if we want to chapter we will also understand certain basic terms associated date it, let us say in the years immediately prior to 1900 - when with video and film production, which will help us move to the two strips of film were first spliced together to form: what? other lessons ahead. Before we go into the postproduction Another mode of narrative? Or maybe narrative itself - film process let us look at the beginning of editing. narrative - for the first time? Stories may indeed be told without In the beginning, there was the shot. You saw what you shot editing - a little one-minute gem like the Lumière Brothers’ and there were no edits upon the face of the land. People shot L’Arroseur Arrosé tells its story perfectly - but in an important some stuff with the camera and then showed the same without way the beginning of editing is the beginning of cinema itself. any changes made. Before we go any further let us understand these basic terms. The earliest movies were not really what we would call “narra- Cut tive” (story) or “dramatic” films. They were not really designed Cut (cutting) an abrupt or sudden change or jump in camera to tell stories—rather, they gave us little pieces of reality, slices angle, location, placement, or time, from one shot to another; of life, and home movies for the culture. Just consider the titles consists of a transition from one scene to another (a visual cut) of the movies in the first Lumiere program (Dec. 28, 1895), or from one to another (a sound cut); cutting refers which included Feeding Baby, Train Pulling Into the Train to the selection, splicing and assembly by the film editor of the Station, Workers Leaving the Factory. various shots or sequences for a reel of film, and the process of Nearly all the films made during the first 10 years of cinema fell shortening a scene; also refers to the instructional word ‘cut’ into the category of documentaries: travelogues, newsreels, and said at the end of a take by the director to stop the action in bits of sporting events. For excitement, we would get dancing front of the camera; cut to refers to the point at which one shot girls, body builders flexing their muscles, firefighters putting or scene is changed immediately to another; in the different out fires, sharpshooters showing off their skill. We might even stages, or at the completion of editing the edited film itself can be given snippets of filmed theater: Sarah Bernhardt declaiming be referred to as “the cut” or “the edit.”(e.g., rough cut, (silently) a scene from Phedre or a comic act from a vaudeville director’s cut); show. But these early films were not really telling stories. On television cuts occur on average about every 7 or 8 seconds. The first films marveled audiences precisely because of their Cutting may: ability to reproduce reality, to bring the distant and the little known to life. If one wanted stories, one could go to the • change the scene; theater or read a book. Story-telling was not really considered an • compress time; essential property of the medium. • vary the point of view; or And then there came the CUT. • build up an image or idea. One of Edison’s directors, Edwin S. Porter, made some of the There is always a reason for a cut, and you should ask yourself first films to use properly . The Life of an what the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the American Fireman (1902) related the story of a mother and fade, dissolve, and . We’ll talk about them a little later. child being rescued from a burning house. It stitches together different segments to tell the story. We first see the firefighters Shot (played by actors) at the firehouse set. Then, after a close-up of A shot is the film exposed from the time the camera is started the alarm ringing, we get (archive, documentary to the time it is stopped or a single run of the camera or the footage) of real firefighters racing in their horse-drawn fire piece of film resulting from such a run. A shot is one image. If wagons to a fire. We then see a segment of the woman and there’s a cut, you’ve changed shots. Shots can range from split child inside the burning house (a stage set), eventually rescued seconds, like in Terminator 2, to several minutes, such as in by a firefighter. Finally, we get a “replay” of the rescue, this time Secrets and Lies or the opening sequence of Halloween. Shots from the of the exterior of the house. To modern are generally chosen by the director although the writer can use audiences, this “replay” will seem rather strange and the splicing capital letters to suggest where the camera should be. When a together of staged action and documentary action also seems a writer absolutely must have a certain shot at a certain moment little awkward. What we have here, though, are the beginnings in a film, he has a few options each described in detail elsewhere of film narrative—the process of editing together pieces of a in this list: , and CLOSE ON. story. SHOT is the basic building block or unit of film narrative; it can Cinema has two beginnings: the first, when the photograph also refer to a single film frame (such as a still image); shot originally budged, the limbs uncoiled, the human being walked, analysis refers to the examination of individual shots; a one- the single spool of film flickered into life - on whatever occasion shot, a two-shot, and a three-shot refers to common names for we choose to date this (whether in 1893 or 1895). shooting just one, two, or three people in a shot.

27 The EWS is often used as an “” - the first shot of a new scene, designed to show the audience where the action is taking place. Very (VWS) or Very Long shot

Example of a single film frame or shot, of Fay Wray rehearsing the moment of meeting Kong, from King Kong(1933). The one-shot Film: The film Russian Ark(2002) is a film shot in one continuous 97-minute take. No cuts, no editing, no second chance.

The very wide shot is much closer to the subject than an extreme wide shot, but still much further away than a wide shot. The subject is (just) visible here, but the emphasis is very much on placing her in her environment. This often works as an establishing shot, in which the audience is shown the whole setting so they can orientate themselves. For the single screen, single take film, Russian Ark, director The VWS also allows plenty of room for action to take place, or Aleksandr Sokurov (holding script) and cinematographer for multiple subjects to appear on screen Tilman Bûttner (with camera), used a portable rig for the Sony The subject is visible (barely), but the emphasis is still on HDW-F900 24p HD camera. placing her in her environment. Types of Shots There is a convention in the video, film and television indus- tries, which assigns names and guidelines to common types of shots, framing and picture composition. The list below briefly describes the most common shot types. Extreme Wide Shot or Extreme Long Shot

WS Wide shot or LS long shot The subject takes up the full frame, or at least as much as possible. In the wide shot, the subject takes up the full frame. In this case, the girl’s feet are almost at the bottom of frame, and her head is almost at the top. Obviously the subject doesn’t take up the whole width and height of the frame, since this is as close as we can get without losing any part of her. The small amount of room above and below the subject can be thought of as safety room - you don’t want to be cutting the top of the head off. It would also look uncomfortable if her feet and head were exactly at the top and bottom of frame. As with most shot types, the wide shot means different things In the extreme wide shot, the view is so far from the subject to different people. However the wide shot seems to suffer that she isn’t even visible. The point of this shot is to show the more from varying interpretations than other types. subject’s surroundings.

28 MS Mid Shot In the closeup shot, a certain feature or part of the subject takes up the whole frame. A close up of a person usually means a close up of their face. ECU Extreme Close Up

The mid shot shows some part of the subject in more detail, whilst still showing enough for the audience to feel as if they were looking at the whole subject. In fact, this is an approxima- tion of how you would see a person “in the flesh” if you were The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail. You would having a casual conversation. You wouldn’t be paying any normally need a specific reason to get this close. It is too close to attention to their lower body, so that part of the picture is show general reactions or emotion except in very dramatic unnecessary. scenes. You might have a shot of just the eye or the nose. The MS is appropriate when the subject is speaking without too much emotion or intense concentration. It also works well when the intent is to deliver information, which is why it is frequently used by television news presenters. You will often see a story begin with a MS of the reporter (providing informa- tion), followed by closer shots of interview subjects (providing reactions and emotion). As well as being a comfortable, emotionally neutral shot, the mid shot allows room for hand gestures and a bit of move- ment. MCU Medium Close up

There are a few variations on this one, but the basic idea is to have a comfortable shot of two people. Often used in inter- views, or when two presenters are hosting a show. A “One-Shot” could be a mid-shot of either of these subjects. A “Three-Shot”, unsurprisingly, contains three people. Two-shots are good for establishing a relationship between subjects. If you see two sports presenters standing side by side facing the camera, you get the idea that these people are going to be the show’s co-hosts. As they have equal prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input. Half way between a MS and a CU. This shot shows the face A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good more clearly, without getting uncomfortably close. way to follow the interaction between two people without CU Close Up getting distracted by their surroundings. (OSS) Over-the-Shoulder Shot

29 Looking from behind a person at the subject, cutting off the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend frame just behind the ear. The person facing the subject usually to be just sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting occupies about 1/3 of the frame. adding to the disorientation of the viewer. The added height of This shot helps to establish the positions of each person, and the object may make it inspire fear and insecurity in the viewer, get the feel of looking at one person from the other’s point of who is psychologically dominated by the figure on the screen. view. Oblique/Canted Angle A variation of this shot can be a bit wider and include the Sometimes the camera is tilted (ie is not placed horizontal to shoulder of the person facing the subject. floor level), to suggest imbalance, transition and instability Camera Angles (Titanic!!). This technique is used to suggest POINT-OF-View The relationship between the camera and the object being shots (i.e. when the camera becomes the ‘eyes’ of one particular photographed (ie the ANGLE) gives emotional information to character, seeing what they see - a hand held camera is often used an audience, and guides their judgment about the character or for this). object in shot. The more extreme the angle (ie the further away : A specialized that does not employ it is from eye left), the more symbolic and heavily-loaded the the normal horizontal and vertical axis. Often the primary axis shot. becomes a diagonal with the intent of eliciting a disconcerted The Bird’s-Eye view effect in the audience. Psychologically the effect can be used to bring the audience into the uneasiness or anxiety of the This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and character and the situation depicted on the screen. strange angle. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognizable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, Camera Movements dancers’ legs). This shot does, however, put the audience in a Moving the camera can be a very effective way to reveal details of godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be a shot or to change from one subject to another. Here is a short made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider scheme of guide to basic camera movements. The shots with a certain things. Hitchcock (and his admirers, like Brian de Palma) is fond camera movement then get the same name. A shot with a of this style of shot. camera pan in it is quite often referred to as the Pan Shot. High Angle Pan Not so extreme as a bird’s eye view. The camera is elevated is when the camera is stationary and is moved on the above the action using a crane to give a general overview. High tripod, sweeping across the action or scene from side to side, as angles make the object photographed seem smaller, and less when the shot is following a character or moving object in a significant (or scary). The object or character often gets swal- horizonal direction. lowed up by their setting - they become part of a wider picture. A pan can also be used to move from one subject to another in Eye Level a large scene, like this scene of Wenceslas Square in Prague. The camera moves from one group of people to another. A pan is A fairly neutral shot; the camera is positioned as though it is a also useful to reveal more of a wide view without having to human actually observing a scene, so that eg actors’ heads are on back away from it. For instance, one could pan across the Czech a level with the focus. The camera will be placed approximately National Museum in the background to reveal its length and five to six feet from the ground. intricacy of architecture or to show how many windows it has! Low Angle

Tilt TILT Like a pan, a tilt is done with the camera stationary, and the joints on the tripod are used to tilt it up or down from one angle to another to follow a subject, as one would have to These increase height (useful for short actors like Tom Cruise) move to tape a launching of the Space Shuttle. A tilt can also be and give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give a used to reveal new information or to show detail as in the sense of confusion to a viewer, of powerlessness within the picture below. The tilt may be done either way - up or down.

30 The shot might start on the statue of Saint Wenceslas to set a This is the one where the camera movies closer or farther from mood in the scene and then tilt down to the two characters who the subject (instead of merely in or out). Actually have met at the base of statue to head out for an evening on changing the camera’s position is very effective, but often tricky. the town. Or the shot could start on the characters and - as they The change of the relative positions of objects in the shot talk about the majestic landmarks in Prague - tilt up to show a caused by a moving camera makes a shot look much more detail of the old statue. Note that, due to the placement of natural. objects in this photo, this tilt has a slight angle to it, which is At this stage these are a few that you have to keep in mind, you sometimes necessary to keep the new subject of the shot would be learning about the others as you move forward in this centered in the frame. If it is possible, set the camera or the course. action so that a tilt doesn’t require any other movement besides Take simply up or down. In most cases it is possible. A single continuous recorded performance of a scene. A director typically orders takes to continue until he or she is satisfied that all of his or her requirements for the scene or shot have been made, be they technical or artistic. A continuity report or a continuity sheet stores the status of each take. Scene A scene usually takes place in a continuous time period, in the same setting, and involves the same characters. If we go outside from inside, it’s a new scene. If we cut to five minutes later, it’s a new scene. If both, it’s a new scene. Scene usually a shot (or series of shots) that together comprise a single, unified dramatic event, action, unit, or element of film narration, or block (segment) of storytelling within a film, much like a scene in a play; the end of a scene is often indicated by a change in time and/or location; Zoom It is usually used in place of actually moving the camera in and out on the subject, which can be a pretty complicated matter. The pros in and out of Hollywood will always opt for moving the camera if it is possible. The zoom control on their big expensive lens is used simply to make that one lens more versatile. A zooming mechanism makes one lens able to act like many different kinds of lenses, so that lenses don’t have to be changed for different kinds of shots. If you are unable to devise a way to move the camera in and out, and if you feel it is just more effective to “move in” on Example: The classic love scene of John Wayne and Maureen something or “move out” from it, instead of cutting to a closer O’Hara caught in a drenching rainstorm in a graveyard, and their or wider shot, a zoom is definitely the easiest way to do it. rain-soaked embrace in The Quiet Man(1952) Actual Camera Movement Sequence In short educational productions the need for actually moving A scene, or connected series of related scenes that are edited the camera is fairly non-existent. In the case of a field trip/ together and comprise a single, unified event, setting, or story documentary situation where shots cannot be planned, this will within a film’s narrative; also refers to scenes that structurally fit probably not be the case. But in such cases where movement is together in the plot; sequence usually refers to a longer segment required but cannot be planned, the camera often has to be held of film than a scene; sequences are often grouped into acts (like and carried, which must be practiced and done with care. a three-act play); In other cases, such as shooting in a controlled situation where Examples: The wedding sequence in The Godfather (1974), the all shots can be planned, moving the camera is usually done on drug-bust sequence in GoodFellas (1990) a wheeled device called a dolly. Dollies come in all shapes and sizes and orders of complexity, but their main function is to The Great Train Robbery move smoothly. A professional dolly is often put on a set of Now that you are acquainted with the basic terms associated metal tracks in order to assure a smooth motion. with film making lets get back to our discussion about the beginning of editing. Dollying & Trucking A year later after Edwin S. Porter’s The Life of an American There is a type of shot called a DOLLY wherein the camera is Fireman (1902) he made The Great Train Robbery (1903), moved parallel to the action, often following a character - much considered the first Western and the first real story film. Porter like in a pan but without the physical limits to one camera directly cuts from scene to scene to show action that is either position. The other major moving shot is called a TRUCK. sequential or parallel. He cuts in the middle of a scene, thereby

31 maintaining a very dynamic feel. sweeping vertical movement, or panning shot. Edwin S. Porter’s work was not the first to use editing or the 10 Interior of the telegraph office: the operator’s daughter first to use a popular play as its source, but Porter certainly arrives and unties her father, who then runs out to give the advanced the art of editing, and his film illustrates a transition alarm. in audience expectations. Porter’s editing helped to free film 11 Interior of a crowded dance hall; a “tenderfoot” is made to from the strictly linear story and showed, among other things, “dance,” as six guns are fired at his feet; the telegraph that different simultaneous time strands are part of its power. operator arrives and a posse is formed. The transition embodied in Porter’s film is fascinating: some of the fourteen scenes are patent theater imitations, with painted 12 Shot of the mounted bandits dashing down the face of a scenery and with actors playing profile, while others are as ’real’ hill with the posse in hot pursuit; both groups move rapidly as anything done today. Some scenes, for instance, are on top of toward the camera; one of the bandits is killed as they a rushing train, with the actors moving as naturally as the approach. moment requires. Porter clearly was counting on an audience 13 Shot of the remaining bandits examining the contents of conditioned by a lifetime of theater-going, expecting scenery the stolen mail pouches; the posse approaches stealthily that looked like scenery, yet eager for the new. (This paradox from the background and kills them all in a final shoot-out. continued for years. In 1920 Griffith made Way Down East, in 14 Medium close-up of the leader of the bandits firing his which there are scenes shot in an actual blizzard, yet the revolver point-blank into the camera (and, thus, the heroine’s bedroom has snow painted on the windows.) Porter audience), a shot which, according to the Edison Catalogue, dramatized the transition further. The interior of the railroad “can be used to begin or end the picture.” depot, which has a window, is a patent canvas-and-paint job Each of these scenes is told by means of a single shot—still a with a window, yet at one point a real locomotive goes past the fairly primitive storytelling technique, but clearly a marked window drawing a real train. (Double exposure, of course.) advance beyond Life of an American Fireman and earlier films. Porter assumed, correctly, A fairly substantial story is told in a mere 12 minutes. Porter is that audiences would welcome the contrast. Imagine being a able to tell so much because of the dramatic cuts between member of that audience. People could have had as much as scenes. For example, we in scene #11 we see the posse being eight years of film-going experience by then, mostly of non- formed, then in #12 the posse is already in pursuit of the fiction films, but now they were entering a dimension in which bandits. A big chunk of time has been cut out. We presumably everything in the world could become a character in a story. A are missing out on a lot of scenery, hard riding, perhaps a horse breeze, a leaf, a raindrop, a ship at sea could become a member or two going lame. Instead, we cut from essential information of the to essential information. cast. (Even today those facts have not lost a tickle of the This strategy of cutting out the non-essential in order better to metaphysical.) highlight the essential will become central to the practice of Here is a scene breakdown of the film: making films. In a similar manner, within a few years the close- 1 Interior of the railroad telegraph office: two bandits enter up and careful lighting will be used to eliminate the and bind and gag the operator while the moving train, non-essential parts of the body or the room in order to focus visible through the office window, comes to a halt. on the essential emotion-bearing feature: usually the face. 2 Railroad water tower: the other members of the gang board The Great Train Robbery also uses camera movement (tilts, the train secretly as it takes on water. pans, and tracking shots of the train) both to help tell its story and to make the story visually exciting. The interior scenes look 3 Interior of the mail car with scenery rushing by through an as if they were filmed on a stage set (they were), but the exterior open door; the bandits break in, kill a messenger, seize scenes are fresh and dynamic. valuables from a strongbox, and leave. Another interesting moment in the film is when the robbers 4 Coal tender and interior of the locomotive cab: the bandits stop the train out in the countryside. (Porter cleverly films the kill the fireman after a fierce struggle, throw his body off the train at an angle, not straight across the screen, to give the train, and compel the engineer to stop. composition perspective.) At gunpoint, the passengers are 5 Exterior shot of the train coming to a halt and the engineer forced to disembark and line up against the train, hands raised, uncoupling the locomotive. while the robbers go down the line taking money and jewelry. 6 Exterior shot of the train as the bandits force the passengers One of the passengers, a man in a derby, is apparently eager to to line up along the tracks and surrender their valuables; one protect his belongings. He runs. One of the robbers shoots passenger attempts to escape, runs directly into the camera him in the back. He falls. This, might be considered by some as lens, and is shot in the back. an evolutionary moment in the , one that revised concepts of space in drama. That passenger doesn’t run right or 7 The bandits board the engine and abscond with the loot. left: he runs, at a slight angle, directly toward us, toward the 8 The bandits stop the engine several miles up the track, get camera. If this had been a scene in a play and the actor had run off, and run into the woods as the camera tilts slightly to toward the footlights, the audience would instantaneously have follow them. expected him to leave the fiction and join the facts—themselves. 9 The bandits scramble down the side of a hill and across a Equally swiftly they would have thought that the actor or stream to mount their horses; the camera follows them in a director was out of his mind.

32 When an actor leaves the stage, he steps out of the play. When Griffith was a Southerner who initially planned to be a play- an actor leaves a film shot, in any direction, we simply assume wright and stage director, found himself in movies almost by that he is continuing on in the rest of the world. Even when an accident. He was out of work, unable to sell any of his plays, so actor walks out of a set in a studio, we don’t envisage him as he took a job as a bit actor in Porter’s 1908 film Rescued from walking ’off-stage’ as we do in the theater. We don’t think of the Eagle’s Nest (an imitation of Rescued by Rover). Although the camera as seeing only what it ought to see at any moment, initially embarrassed to be associated with the “flickers” (as was with something quite different bordering it on every side. We generally true of most actors and directors working in the early conceive that the camera at any moment is focused on one days of film), Griffith soon fell in love with the medium and fragment of immensity. Porter’s fugitive wasn’t heading toward began to dream of expanding its artistic potential. He quickly the end of anything: if he hadn’t been killed, he might still be became a director (for the standard pay rate of $5 per day) for running. Biograph, one of the most important career moves in film The theater has its own powers, some of which are shared with history. film, some not (like a centrality in language). But the theater has Even the best films of Porter, Hepworth, and Alice Guy Blache never been greatly concerned with verity of place and has rarely were fairly low on the aesthetic register. Many, if not most, were used such verity successfully. Eisenstein began his career in the shot in sequence, in the consecutive order in which they would theater, and in 1923 he appear in the final film. They were generally shot out of doors, staged a play called Gas Masks in the Moscow gasworks, but where there was plenty of light, so lighting effects were kept to a this production only signaled to him that he belonged in the minimum. Retakes of flubbed scenes were rare, rehearsals were cinema. The stage lets a play concentrate on matters other than even rarer, and in general films rarely took more than a day to ’placeness.’ Film always has ’placeness’ at its careless command. make. Getting back to our discussion about The Great Train Robbery, Griffith wanted more. Fortunately for Griffith, audiences were the film uses editing to convey the two basic elements of becoming sophisticated to the point that they began to demand cinematic syntax: continuity (“And then . . .”) and parallelism more. His films for the Biograph Company became tremen- (“Meanwhile . . .”). It is by no means a polished film—within dously successful, and Griffith felt encouraged to experiment. the next few years other filmmakers would refine Porter’s David A. Cook writes both of Griffith’s importance and the techniques and improve the flow of narration. But no one until controversial nature of his contribution: D. W. Griffith would be able recapture the excitement, the shock In the brief span of six years, between directing his first one- of discovery, that Porter was able to create in this film. Audi- reeler in 1908 and The Birth of a Nation in 1914, Griffith ences knew that they were seeing something radically different, established the narrative language of the cinema as we know it even if they couldn’t articulate why the film was so exciting. It today and turned an aesthetically inconsequential medium of would be the most popular film until Griffith’s controversial entertainment into a fully articulated art form. He has been masterpiece The Birth of a Nation (1914), more than ten years called, variously, and, for the most part, accurately, “the father of later. film technique,” “the man who invented Hollywood,” “the Between 1905 and 1910 movies followed Porter’s lead and most cinema’s first great auteur,” and “the Shakespeare of the screen.” were constructed as a series of scenes stitched together (what we It would be a mistake to say that Griffith “invented” techniques call continuity editing). This was the case for films made both in such as the close-up, the pan, or expressive lighting; one can the US and other countries. In England a group of filmmakers find earlier films in which such techniques appear. But in those who have come to be known as the “Brighton School” were earlier films the close-up, for example, is just a one-time effect, a making story films that were quite compelling and dynamic; gag, something used randomly. Griffith began the systematic probably the best known of the Brighton School films was use of such effects in order to shape the audience’s response Rescued by Rover (1905) by Cecil Hepworth. This tells the story and express emotional subtleties. Between 1908 and 1912 he of a young family whose domestic bliss is disrupted when a made hundreds of one-reelers. None is a masterpiece, but each gypsy steals their baby. Fortunately, they are blessed with Rover, provides a step in the creation of a unique language system for their faithful and ingenious pet dog, who is able to sniff out cinema. and find the beloved baby, then lead his master to the ultimate Most crucially, he shifted the basic unit of cinema from the rescue. As you can see, it tells a simple, sentimental story, but it scene (a piece of the story occurring in a particular place for a is technically quite advanced. It breaks the rescue up into a series particular duration) to the shot. Remember, before Griffith the of shots, so that we are led easily and seamlessly from one place most advanced story films were a sequence of scenes edited to another. In fact, The Great Train Robbery’s chase scene of together. The camera stayed on until a scene was finished. If two years before seems quite primitive in comparison. two characters were having a conversation, the scene would be Story films also proliferated in France, made by two rival shot in a frontal two-shot, appearing much as it would appear companies: Gaumont (whose chief director, the very talented on a stage, until the conversation was over; then we would cut Alice Guy Blache, is hailed as the first woman director) and to the next scene. Pathe (the most important film company in the world for the Griffith began to cut within a scene. Thus, if two characters first two decades of this century). However, the real impetus for were having a conversation, he would start with the two-shot, change, with respect to film art, would again come from the but then move to a medium shot of one character making a key United States, in the person of David Wark Griffith (1875- confession, then cut to a medium shot, or perhaps a close-up 1948). of the other character, showing his/her response, then perhaps

33 back to the two-shot. None of these shots was dramatically use of soft focus. He also influenced the expansion of film complete in and of itself. Rather, these different camera setups length—by 1912 he was making two-reel films, by 1913 he had were used as jigsaw pieces edited together to present the made the feature length film Judith of Bethulia, and in 1914 he complete scene. made his epic The Birth of a Nation The Biograph executives were initially appalled. They felt that Still, we have to ask ourselves, what is so “momentous” about audiences would never accept close-ups—Why would someone this joining or splicing that impels us to pause on it and puzzle who had paid to see an entire actor be satisfied to see just a piece out its meaning? After all, in the theatre we are used to the of the actor? But audiences loved the close-ups. They could division of the play into acts, which operate through a principle finally really see the actors; receive the full impact of the actors’ of ellipsis. Thus, at the end of a given scene, the lights go emotional responses. They could identify with the character’s down, the set is invisibly whisked away and, when the lights go plight in a way that simply did not happen when the camera up again, we are in a different place (surely by magic), while time was kept back. Also, the variety of setups and variety of shot has moved on, sometimes by decades (this too is magic). duration within a scene made the films more visually exciting. But the splice, in cinema, has more dialectical properties. It This method of breaking scenes down into a number of shots serves not merely as a pause or caesura - something that came to be known as the “classical editing style” or what the separates or provides a brief breathing space - but on the French called decoupage classique. contrary something that joins: “syntactic” in the root sense of After Griffith, the scene would continue to be an important the word. And if we are talking about magic, the magic of element in story construction. The best scenes were miniatures cinema is surely sensed to lie here: in the strange alchemy arising of the film as a whole—with conflict rising to some sort of out of the juxtaposition of images - images that cut through, climax, which might be temporarily resolved or not. Technically or rather dispense with, pages of theatrical dialogue to achieve speaking, however, the shot became the basic building block. their effect instantaneously: a subliminal effect in the best A number of other changes flowed from the creation of this instances, too swift to be put into words, though when we do new editing style. With the use of close-ups, acting styles began take the trouble to find words for the experience we see that to change. Since the close-up could register subtle nuances of what we are dealing with is the imagistic equivalent of a emotion, actors had to “unlearn” the techniques used in stage metaphor. Such and such a thing, says the film, is “like” acting. They had to learn to underact, to use slight eye move- something else - in ways that we might never have thought of; ments and posture changes to register internal states. only once there (placed there, by chance or by the genius of the Otherwise, their acting would appear ridiculously artificial. To editor) understood as rich, suggestive, inevitable or (when it achieve these subtleties of acting, Griffith found it necessary to needs to be) satirical. rehearse his actors extensively. The investment in time paid off, The theorization of these properties of filmic syntax is the as film acting became an art in its own right, and audiences legacy of the Russians: Kuleshov for example (in the famous began to feel a real attachment to their favorite actors—who “”) and above all, of course, the great were becoming movie stars. Eisenstein. These men and their colleagues practiced this sort of Griffith began to use fades, irises, and dissolves as transitional cinema (“the cinema of attractions”, “the cinema of shocks”) devices to link scenes. The straight cut would be used for and wrote about it extensively. Yet to mention such names at editing within a scene, and these other devices used to move all, since they lived so long ago (in the epoch, precisely, of the from one scene to another, usually showing passage of time. silent cinema) is to wonder if their conclusions are still valid. He also used these devices to open up flashbacks, another Perhaps it was just because, for the first 30 years of its life, narrative dimension that Griffith brought to film. cinema had no spoken word that the juxtaposition of images Griffith was probably best known for his refinement of the in the way we are describing was sensed to be so fundamental. technique of parallel editing or cross-cutting, where he would The major breakthroughs in editing technique are convention- edit between two simultaneous lines of action—e.g., a woman ally attributed to Griffith and Eisenstein. Griffith, whose being abducted by an evil suitor and her boyfriend trying to find achievement, of course, is stupendous, the hesitation crystal- out what has become of her. He would cut back and forth from lizes round the idea that the viewer has to be thrilled by the one scene to the other as a means of building suspense and speed and the frenzy of his chases. The climax of so many excitement. In fact, this style was known by many as the Griffithian films being the ride to the rescue, the adult viewer “Griffith last-minute rescue,” since he used it so often in rescue can’t avoid feeling, I suppose, a certain boredom and impatience films. He used cross-cutting in a similar way in his film A at the mechanical way Griffith cross-cuts between the doughty Corner in Wheat (1909), which juxtaposes shots of a tycoon rescuing party forging forward on the one hand, and on the living the high life with scenes of poor rural workers dealing other hand, the imprisoned heroine (it is usually a heroine) with unemployment and poverty. Thematic meaning is created awaiting her last minute deliverance. Editing, in Griffith’s by the contrast between these two story lines. (A more modern hands, confirmed the genius of cinema for excitement, thrills, example of this technique can be found in The Godfather and suspense, along with the pleasures of audience identifica- ((1972)), where Coppola cross-cuts between a scene showing the tion. But in doing so it cut out, or rather forced underground, baptism of the baby of the new Don Corleone and the another strand of film-making (beautifully exemplified in early gangland executions of various gang rivals.) Russian and Scandinavian cinema) whose characteristics are Griffith also experimented with dramatic camera angles (both thoughtfulness and languor. The case of Eisenstein is different. high angle and low angle), expressive lighting, split screens, and

34 Without being excessively pious: the stature of the great 8 Similarly repeat the same for an advertisement and a music Russian - like the stature of Griffith - is unassailable. video. So what is editing? Classical editing involves cutting: there is an image, and then there is another image. A choice is made as to Notes : how and when they combine, but until they do so they are discrete separable entities, stored on separate pieces of celluloid. Modern editing, by contrast, is increasingly electronic and digital, and the images in question are not so much joined as fused together, or “morphed”, in a process that comes closest, in the vocabulary of classical editing, to a continuous optical dissolve. It’s all done within the frame, and not, as it were, between the frames. It’s impossible now speak of editing, in short, outside the context of the whole aural and visual revolution in post- production - paintboxing, image manipulation, the drive towards “special effects” - that cinema, aided by the advertising industry, is currently going through. As we move into the lessons ahead we’ll try to go into the details of both the Classical Editing Style started by D. W Griffith and the Russian Montage. Also we would try to explore other alternatives to continuity editing. Assignment Try the following exercise while you’re watching a movie: - 1 Record the movie as you’re watching it or you can issue one in the library. 2 Get a piece of paper, a pencil, and a watch. 3 Rewind the tape (or get the cursor) to any particular section of the movie. 4 Play the movie and make a mark on the paper each time a new shot appears. Don’t look at the paper while you make the marks, or you’ll miss what’s happening on the screen. (The marks don’t have to be beautiful, only clear.) Don’t try to follow the story; you’re looking for edits. 5 Do this for two minutes, then count the number of marks on the paper and divide that number by two. The result is the average number of edits per minute. Depending on what you’re watching, the edit rate can vary from 10 to 30 or higher. 6 Calculate how long the average cut lasts by dividing the average number of edits per minute into 60 (60 seconds per minute). If the edit rate is 30 edits per minute, then the average cut is only 2 seconds long. You’ll probably be surprised at how short an average cut lasts. That’s because when you’re casually watching television, you are following the story that’s being created in your head, not the individual shots that help create that story. Now rewind the tape and watch the same section again, only this time don’t make any marks. Instead, try to notice each edit and try to follow the story. It’s hard at first, but it gets easier with practice. You’re now analyzing the video instead of just watching it. You’ve broken the illusion and are seeing the individual parts that make up the story. Practice this new way of viewing television/films by looking for the different kinds of shots used in a scene. Try to notice the editing pattern used. 7 Do this exercise for two pieces from two different paced scenes.

35 UNIT 3 LESSON 5: PRODUCTION PRODUCTION

Running the Set ACTORS AND CAMERA. If the blocking of the actors or The hierarchy of the crew is a pyramid, with the di-rector on camera is complicated, the will put tape on the floor to top. Her goal for production is to shoot the script within the mark the actors’ and camera’s positions. Any camera move, such schedule and to walk away with enough shots to tell the story as a dolly, is rehearsed for smoothness. adequately. Achieving this task depends on the director’s ability THE FOCUS MARKS ARE SET. The assistant camera to commu-nicate her vision confidently to the cast and technical operator sets the focus for the actors’ move-ments. Each time support personnel who will execute her ideas. A strong director the camera and/or actor moves, the operator adjusts the creates a tone, attitude, and pace on the set that allows the team footage ring on the lens to maintain focus. to respond to whatever problems and challenges arise. An THE SET IS LIT. The D P directs the gaffer to set the lights insecure director, on the other hand, brings down morale and and the grip crew to set the camera. As the lights are being slows the natural pace of a well-oiled and capable crew. positioned, turned on, and aimed, the DP moves around with On the set the director’s word is law. Her talent, intelligence, and his light meter, checking light readings from each unit. Once the drive are applied to the script and the resources available to her. lights are in place, a stand-in sits or stands where the actor will Her choices and swift decisions can be made because she’s spent eventually be placed so the camera team can reestablish focus, hours and hours of formulating and interpreting the script in lens size, and lighting. During these tech-nical rehearsals, the her mind. A director often seems to function by intuition. Her gaffer tries to keep the lighting instruments out of the shot and decisions might be right or they might be wrong, but they are tries to block, or flag, any glare from hitting the camera lens. for her to make. She is free to consult whomever she chooses, The time it takes the camera team to light the set to the and she can al-ways change her plan for a scene. Ultimately, director’s satisfaction is critical for meeting daily schedule. The how-ever, the vision of the piece is in her head. It is the director’s estimate of the number of scenes or shots for a day is director’s job to impart that vision succinctly and suc-cessfully to based on the DP’s projected setup time at each location. The DP the cast and crew through her words and performance. bases his setup time on the location scouts and final A Typical Day walk-throughs. It is the assistant director’s job to monitor -the DP’s schedule. If it appears that the lighting team will fall This is what happens on a typical day during pro-duction. behind on their projected schedule, adjust-ments to the shot CAST AND CREW ARRIVE ON THE SET. The director list might be required. often arrives at the location before the cast or crew begins to REHEARSAL. While the set is being prepared, the director may arrive. It is a good idea to walk around the set to get a feel for feel it necessary to rehearse the scene further. She can then take the location. It might be the first time you have been on the the actors away from the set to another room. fully dressed set. ACTORS ARE DRESSED AND MADE UP. The actors are The call time, indicated on the call sheet, tells each cast and then sent to be made up and fitted in their wardrobe. crewmember when to arrive. If a particular department needs A RUN-THROUGH IS HELD FOR THE ACTORS AND lead time, the call times can be staggered. For example, if an CAMERA. Once the technical aspects of the shot have been actor has to undergo a lengthy makeup application, the location finalized, the actors are brought back to the set for a final dress manager, makeup artist, and actor will be called before the rest rehearsal. of the crew. The assistant director makes these arrangements. ADJUSTMENTS ARE MADE FOR THE ACTORS AND Call times should be arranged so that when the actor is ready, CAMERA. Between the rehearsal and the lighting period, the crew has arrived and he need not wait to begin rehearsal. technical adjustments or new cre-ative ideas might require SHOT IS BLOCKED FOR THE CAMERA. As soon as the altered or additional blocking for the actors and camera. actors arrive, it is customary for the director to conduct a short THE SCENE IS SHOT. When the director deter-mines that run-through rehearsal of the first scene scheduled to film for everything is ready, she shoots the scene. Each time the scene is the DP, gaffer, and first AD. The director and DP then make a shot from a particular angle with a specific lens, it is referred to plan for the day’s photography, based on the storyboards or as a take. The director shoots as many takes of each shot as she floor plans as well as information gleaned from the rehearsal. feels are necessary. Between takes, the D P walks into the shot As the director and DP talk over the shooting plan, they decide and checks the light to see if the readings are correct. on the first setup and where the camera will be placed. On the A word of advice: Don’t act as though the production company basis of the rehearsal, the director might decide to shoot the can return to a location should the footage incomplete. Get it scene differ-ently than originally planned. Seeing the completed right while you are there. set or dressed location might inspire her to reveal the environ- THE director might request a retake for any num-ber of ment or characters in another way. This is the time to discuss reasons. The director or an actor wants adjust-ments in the any changes. performance, technical problems occurred with the camera or MARKS ARE PLACED ON THE FLOOR FOR THE

36 lights, an actor flubbed or misread a line, an actor doesn’t hit his There are, however, potential problems. Having the director or or her focus mark the dolly doesn’t hit its mark, a microphone others look at each take can slow the production process down. dips into the frame, the boom shadow enters the frame, a light The image quality is usu-ally poor and can misrepresent what bulb pops during a take, or an airplane loud noise buries the the film will eventually look like. And because you are not sound. seeing the actual film, the tap can’t inform you about other Even if the director is satisfied with the first take, it is wise to problems such as scratches or even a run-out. take each shot at least twice, with one of the takes acting as a Finally, those who are watching often become in-stant critics. As safety. Unforeseen mishaps often necessitate a safety shot being mentioned earlier, the only audience during principal photogra- used in the editing room to get around a problem. phy should be the director. THE CAMERA IS MOVED FOR THE NEXTSET UP OR In video productions of course you can rewind and watch the SEQUENCE. When the director is satis-fied that all of the last shot taken but doing this more often can slow down the required takes from a particular camera angle have been shot, she production process. Since videotapes digital or analogue are requests that the camera be moved to the next camera position. much cheaper than a film stock you sometimes do end up This way, the director works her way through the script taking a lot of takes. But then this means more time spent on Camera Moves the editing machine, which you would be paying for by the hour. Lot of directors are known to rewind the tape in case of If the shot must be terminated because of a technical error too many NGs. But then the quality might go down depending from the cast or the crew, the script supervisor marks the shot on the format that you are shooting with. So all said and done as a false start. Out of 10 takes, there might be only two there are too many parameters taken into consideration while complete takes. on a shoot and with practice the director becomes quite skillful Every time you decide to use a moving camera, even for a small at taking the right decisions at the right time. pan or tilt, you’ll need time to re-hearse the camera and the actors. Each member of camera team has a particular function Slates that must be performed properly. In a long dolly, crane, or In film, it is necessary to identify each take with @ shot, the DP must light the entire area the actors clapboard. This is also referred to a slate; clap sticks, or simply and camera travel along and must make sure that everything is sticks. Written on the clapboard, or slate, is pertinent informa- in focus(unless of course they have planned otherwise). These tion about the take for the editing process. Information on the moving shots often require that precision moves by the dolly slate can include the name of the film, director, DP; scene and grip or Steadicam@ operator be repeated exactly for each take. take numbers, sound take number (if any), cam-era and sound This increases the chance of something going wrong. roll numbers, and date. A small gray card may also be included Static shots, where the camera does not move, are generally to assist in color correcting the work print or video transfer. easier to set up and less risky to shoot than dolly or When the sound and the developed film arrive in the editing Steadicam@ shots. They also require less rehearsal time. room, the assistant editor matches the clap of the slate on the You can attempt elaborate camera moves, but consider adopt- sound track to its corresponding film image. This is called ing an alternate plan if you face too many technical hurdles in syncing up the footage. This ensures that all the sound will be getting a satisfactory shot. Don’t give up unless it becomes perfectly in sync with the picture. The editor must be able to obvious that time is being wasted. If the dolly shot you are read the material on the slate so she can relate her logbooks to attempting is taking too long, consider breaking the scene down the script supervisor’s notes. into individual static shots (basic coverage). Your goal is to get In video on the other hand audio and visuals are recorded on into the editing room with something to cut. the same tape and are in sync. But you still need the informa- Video Tap tion about the take for the editing process. It makes the things much easier. Even in documentaries you might want to record a During film shoots as you can’t just rewind and check a shot slate before certain shots. For example you might want to many directors use a video assist (also called a video tap). The record a slate with the name of the person who will be inter- video tap diverts some light from the film camera to a small viewed, which goes in as a record on your tape. attached video camera that allows the director and others to watch the take as it hap-pens on a monitor. The video tap can Tail Slates be recorded, en-abling the take to be studied immediately When an opening slate would be impractical or in-convenient, a afterward. This can be helpful for reviewing takes for framing tail slate can be used. For example, the opening shot might have and performance, for logging or even editing footage before a very tight frame and then pull out to a wide one. In this case, processing. It is especially useful for continuity when staging a slating the scene at the head of the take might prove difficult. It complicated camera move. A video assist is crucial for would be easier to start the scene without a slate, and when the Steadicam@, crane, or car shots in which the camera operator director calls “cut,” keep the camera rolling, and slate the take at cannot look through the viewfinder. the end, or tail , of the shot. Other appropriate uses for tail Video tap is also extremely helpful when the di-rector is acting slates would be emotionally acted scenes or unstaged documen- in the project. Being objective while acting is difficult. After the tary filming, since they don’t disrupt the beginning of a take. take, the director can watch the playback on the video monitor When tail slating, the clapboard is usually held upside down and judge for herself whether to move on or shoot another and the person announcing the slate calls “Tail slate” or “End take. sticks.”

37 Video Slates in the editing room. This happens to all directors, but as a Slating is used in video for identification purposes only (unless director becomes seasoned, she begins to value the role of the a separate audio track is being recorded-the sound will then have script supervisor for the time it saves in the editing room to be synced up, just like film). There is no need to create a solving shooting problems, and for helping avoid expensive “clap,” as the sound is recorded directly onto the tape stock. It is “pickup” or “reshoots.” wise to log each shot into a notebook to keep track of what you When a director finally comes out the other end of the shoot- have photographed. ing period and settles down to edit, prob-lems that arose or Action! Cut! were neglected on set become glar-ingly difficult to fix. Even with a script supervisor, editorial problems can arise, which is After the slate has been clapped and only when the di-rector why directors are encouraged to shoot cutaways and inserts, as feels that everything is ready, she calls, “Ac-tion!” The scene plays these small pieces of film or tape can be used to good effect as long as the director deems necessary, and then she calls, solving editing or continuity problems. We would be going “Cut!” The director will ask for as many takes as needed or as into the details of continuity style of editing in the later time allows to get the best material in the can. The cast and crew chapters, at this point of time you only need to know that if make adjustments after each take. Hair, makeup, and continuity things like a man leaving a house with a hat on are not noted must be maintained from take to take. down you might see him coming out of the house without Script Supervision one (this part might have been shot a couple of days after the The script supervisor keeps track of the slates, main-tains the interior of the house was being shot) which is a big continuity continuity within each scene and from scene to scene, and makes jump. notes in her script about each shot. Besides taking notes about Similar is the case with continuity in action. An actor sits down each shot, her duty is to ensure that the material delivered to the on a chair, takes a glass of water with his right hand, and crosses editing room can be cut together. The script supervisor bears his left leg over his right leg. Later in the day, a tighter shot is the responsibility of making sure that the action is matched or done, but this time the actor uses his left hand to drink the duplicated from one shot to the next. For example, an actor water and crosses his legs right over left. To cut from a wide crosses to a chair, sits down, and crosses his legs. shot to a tight shot with two different leg crosses may look like Did he put the left leg over the or vice versa? In order not to a jump and could distract the audience from the flow of the confuse the audience the same actions need to be repeated story. Often an audi-ence won’t notice this continuity error. But, exactly from each camera angle. if the di-rector has an insert shot of the hand reaching for the The script supervisor’s tools include an instant camera (to glass and lifting it out of frame, there is less chance: the record continuity) and a stopwatch to time the shots). audience will notice the left hand/right hand, left leg right leg The script supervisor’s book contains shooting notes and a continuity jumps. Some of the words might seem new at the lined script for the show. Her notes include the following: moment but registering them in your mind will give you a basic • Brief description of what happened during the take idea which is going to help you as we move toward later • At what point in a scene an actor does what . lessons. If at any point in the film or video the audience takes a • Length of each shot (timed with a stopwatch). moment to ask him or herself, “Did he pick up the glass with • Lens used his right or left hand?” you have lost them for that moment • Director’s comments and possibly for the duration of the show. A director’s job is to • DP’s comments create such a dy-namic story that continuity errors will not break After photography has been completed on a scene, the script the suspension of belief, which is part of the contract be-tween supervisor will transfer her notes onto a “continuity script.” the audience and the screen. This is what edi-tors mean when This copy of the shoot-ing script has a series of vertical lines on they say they try to achieve a “seamless picture.” it that indi-cate from which angle and in which take each part of There are occasions where continuity errors are acceptable. script was shot. If, at the end of production, a part a scene does Sometimes it is more important to make a cut for performance, not have a line through it, it probably was not photographed. A pace, and/or emotional kick than it is to attempt to correct a precise record of what was shot is an important guide for the continuity error. The director and editor make the judgment call editor. Once in the editing room, the assistant editor can in the edit-ing room as to the gravity of a continuity error. If a identify material to be used by first referencing the lined script. script supervisor can work with the director, DP, and actors This saves time sifting through material on a flatbed or from during the shoot to guarantee seamlessness, then the effort to the digitized (or undigitized) takes. make a good cut will be less of a struggle. In working with a small crew, often the duties of the script Script supervision may seem like a luxury, but besides fulfilling supervisor fall to the entire crew. The di-rector, actor, DP, or her duties on set, which are numer-ous and take great skill of anyone who is a witness can identify continuity mistakes. But in observation, there is one other aspect to the position that is of the heat of shoot-ing, some continuity issues can be missed. great help to the director and D P. At the beginning of the This is ex-acerbated by the fact that most scripts are filmed out shooting day, after a run-through for blocking and lighting, the of continuity. The pressure is usually so great on a di-rector that director will conference with the DP and script su-pervisor on she will opt to move on with the day’s photography rather than the coverage they will shoot to record and develop the scene. spend time laboring over whether a shot mayor may not match The script supervisor not only makes notes and suggestions,

38 but also may often assist in organizing the coverage to reflect • The production unit starts to go over schedule editing style and schedule as well as continuity. • The producer is needed as a troubleshooter. It is the script supervisor to whom the director turns after every • He has to alleviate tension between the director and the DP. shot and asks, “What are we going to cut to, and what are we cutting from?” • He has to reassure an actor. Here are some examples of script supervision editing remind- During production, the producer keeps a watch on both the ers: budget and the material to -shoot. This requires that he oversee OVERLAP THE ACTION. When a character walks to a chair all aspects of production. During the shoot, the producer does and sits down, always overlap the action. This means that in a the following: wide shot, the character walks to the chair and sits. In the tighter • Keeps on top of daily cash flow shot of the char-acter sitting, he must sit into the shot, or in • Finalizes location arrangements, transportation plans, and other words, start with a clean frame and let the actor make an meal plans entrance and then sit down. Shooting the scene in this manner • Deals with schedule changes makes a very smooth cut. EXIT AND LEAVE THE FRAME EMPTY. When an actor or • Completes daily production reports action exits the frame, let the frame be empty for a few beats. Guidelines This gives the editor options in making the next cut. Each shoot presents unique challenges and obstacles. The INSERTS SHOULD BE LOWER AND SLOWER. When producer must be ready to deal with each as it arises. The shooting an insert, such as reaching for a glass on a table, shoot following guidelines should help the -novice understand the the insert at a slightly lower angle and ask that the actor reach producer’s basic priorities that can be applied to any production. slowly. This is because the action in the wider shot seems to Keep Morale Up take more time, so the low angle and slower motion make a As the producer, you are the head cheerleader and - support better match on the insert of the hand reach-ing for and person. You should remain positive and flappable even under clutching the glass. Overlap the action by letting the hand enter the most trying circumstances. Keep a “happy face,” no matter the frame, and let the hand with the glass exit the frame before what you are thinking or feeling. the director says “Cut. “ FINAL NOTE. It is clear that one of the advantages of Support the Director and the Creative Team shooting video or using a video tap on a film camera is that the Support the director and the crew by creating a Com-fortable tape can be reviewed for continu-ity errors. However, the script work environment that includes good food to eat. Production supervisor is still an important asset for keeping an exact record is stressful and physically demanding work. If the crew of what was shot. performs well, show your appreciation. Don’t take the crew for Producer granted; the success, your project rests on their shoulders. If you treat your crewmembers well, they will be more likely to go Organize that extra mile for you. The producer’s responsibility is to ensure that from the Watch the Budget beginning of the shoot, everyone has a precise idea of what The budget dictates what the director can do. You must know they are supposed to be doing and when and where they are from day to day if the production is on, over, or under budget. supposed to be doing it. This re-quires the following: To do this, you must approve of and account for all expendi- • Clear chain of command tures and keep track of the daily cash flow-that is, the money • Realistic budget being paid to vendors for food, supplies, or expendables. Keep • Day-out-of-day schedule a complete itemization of every expenditure and a thor-ough collection of receipts and bills. • Enough crew to carry out the director’s visual plan • Secure locations Act as Coordinator During principal photography, you must see to it that arrange- • Call sheets ments for locations, transportation, and food are confirmed • Daily meal plans and reconfirmed. (Never assume any-thing.) This includes • Transportation schedule establishing a regular system of getting the exposed film stock Unless the producer is also serving on the crew as the assistant to the lab. (This is not an issue with video.) You must always director, there is no traditional position for him on the set. The keep ahead of production unit to ensure that each day will go as director is in charge of pro-duction, and it is up to the assistant planned. During this time, you should also be con-firming the director to keep the production unit moving in accordance with postproduction arrangements, such as editing space. the agreed-upon schedule. This allows the producer the If exteriors are planned for the week, keep on top of the freedom to deal with the problems that inevitably arise during weather forecast. If the forecast is for rain, either have a cover set the course of any shoot. (murphy’s law applies to every aspect ready or assemble proper gear for shooting in the rain, such as of the picture-making process). The producer becomes umbrellas and parkas. The actors will need a dry and comfort- involved with set operations only in special situations, such as able place dose to the set. these: Keep the Production Moving Ahead

39 Always keep the production unit focused on moving ahead. the situation quickly. Don’t let problems interfere with the momen-tum on the set LOCATION. Losing a location can throw a monkey wrench or with the schedule. Keep problems away from the cast and into the best-laid plans. If you are prepared with backups, the crew if possible. loss will be only momentarily disruptive. Be a Troubleshooter TRANSPORTATION. You must carefully monitor and coordinate key moves from set to set. Travel, even if across the You will need to find creative ways to solve problems if you street, eats some precious time from your shooting schedule. don’t have the money to do so. There is often a great deal of Company moves must be executed quickly and efficiently. satisfaction in “saving the day” and the creative team to complete photography, by solving a difficult problem with your Safety of the Set head rather than with cash. Some of the potential problem Safety and security are two of the producer’s main concerns areas: during principal photography. Equipment and personal items SCHEDULE. The key to making the daily schedule is to get the on the set are covered by the com-pany’s umbrella insurance first shot by a specific time. The depart-ment heads agree to this policy, but these policies come with large deductibles. Follow time beforehand. If the crew does not complete the shot per these guidelines to reduce the risk of loss or injury: this plan, it not only pushes them back for that day, it inevitably • Do not leave equipment or valuables on the set or in a pushes them back for the entire shoot. They must either make vehicle unattended. up the lost time that day or squeeze it into another day. If the • Do not place lighting instruments near pictures, drapes, or crew is pushed to make up the time, it infringes on proper other items that are sensitive to heat. , pushes the next day back, and so forth. There are several ways to get the crew back on schedule so that • Lighting units must be secured and properly weighted down one bad day doesn’t throw off the whole shoot: with sandbags. • Cut scenes or pages • Keep electric cables away from sound cables and water. • Cut shots Proper Wrap-Out • Collapse several shots into one Make sure you leave each location in as good or bet-ter shape All these options must be considered and agreed to in a timely than when you arrived. One way to allevi-ate a major cleanup is and calm manner. to lay down plastic or butcher paper where the crew will be It is the producer’s job to serve as a stabilizing in-fluence on working. If objects, fur-niture, lights, pictures, or knickknacks what could be tough decisions for the di-rector and DP. have to be moved or put away before the crew can shoot, Compromise is an unfortunate but necessary part of the some-one (usually a set dresser) should make careful notes of process. Having to make changes in the original plan doesn’t where these items were, arrange to have there stored properly, necessarily mean that the original idea is compromised. and then return them to the correct place when wrapping out of Sometimes, the best ideas emerge from economic necessity. the location. It is helpful to record the original layout by taking On the basis of your experience with the crew’s pace during the Polaroids. first few days, you might have to ad-just the schedule. During This is proper professional behavior. Keep in mind that you the first days, it will become clear whether you have hired the might need to come back to the loca-tion for additional work or correct number of crew members. The effective people will re shoots. Even if you will never see the owners again, think of stand out; the slackers will be revealed. It is good to cut the each location as if it were your home. Someone should be dead-wood from the crew quickly so as not to slow down assigned LC keep an eye on what is happening to the location shooting. Finding replacements should not be too difficult if dur-ing the shoot. Here are a few things to watch out for: you kept a list of available crew people. PLACEMENT OF GAFFER’S TAPE. This tape has a tendency DEPARTMENT HEADS. There needs to be a cre-ative bond to peel paint off walls. Remove it carefully. between all the department heads (cam-era, sound, art depart- GARBAGE DISPOSAL. A crew can generate a lot of garbage. ment) and the director. If there is tension, it can affect the entire Make sure it is packed up and disposed of regularly. crew. The director sets the tone and the pace of the production, MAJOR CLEANUP. On leaving a location, arrange to have the and if she is unhappy, dissatisfied, or angry, it will have a ripple area cleaned and, if need be, repainted. effect on everyone around her. Working on the set is difficult Dailies enough under the most ideal cir-cumstances. Stress and tension While the company shoots, the assistant editor syncs up the between the key players can drain the energy and enthusiasm material shot the previous day, whereas videos dailies are from the best of crews. instantly available for viewing and discussions. At wrap, the If there is a problem with the director’s relation-ship with any editor takes this material to screening room. There she meets of the department heads, the producer serves as the mediator. the producer, director, D P, and department heads, and they Some personality conflicts you must live with; others you must screen footage. During the screening, important decisions can be confront. For exam-ple, a strong, experienced DP might take made about the progress of the project. Should an actor’s hair over the set and override an inexperienced director’s designs. If be changed? Does the lighting match should a costume be the DP is slow, you may need to replace him, even if the more distressed? material looks terrific. If you have a suitable re-placement, you During dailies screening, the director makes comments to the might decide to fire the DP. Use your best judgment to resolve editor about the different shots. For example, she might

40 instruct the editor to use the head one take and the tail of • Consult the actors to understand the character another, to start it tight reveal the master shot farther into the • Thrift shops are good sources of costumes scene, or to a specific take because of performance. • Duplicate the costumes Art Direction • Consider the continuity and script time Another important department during the shoot is the art direction Makeup and Hair Art Department • Basic skin-toned makeup called pancake, which is spread evenly over the face and hands. • Art Director (AKA Production Designer) • A typical production problem involves a character who has a • Art Director is the person ultimately responsible for the “change of look” in the story. overall “look” of the picture. History of Set Decoration • Art Director creates the world of the picture, and the DP is responsible for lighting the world. • Until 1941, there was no category for this demanding job. Sets and Locations • Since 1955, identical Oscar statuettes are given to the art director and the set decorator for the film winning the Art • Art Director’s involvement in the search for location is crucial Direction Award. since she will have to transform these spaces into the world as defined by the director’s vision of the script. Environments where cameras may be set up include: • Benefit of shooting on a set is that it is a camera-friendly • in a studio environment. A set can be designed for flexibility, ease of • on location - interior manipulation, and good camera angles, and it imposes none • on location - exterior of the constraints of a “real” location. • day Working with DP • night Set Dressing Shoots may include: • The location and their details set a tone for the film. • single • They can help tell the story and convey a great deal of • multi camera information about the characters. Types of production include: • Set dressing is everything that is placed on the set. • electronic field production (EFP) • Set dressing does not include smaller items, such as guns, canes, lighters, or rings, used specifically by the actors. They • electronic news gathering (ENG) are props. • feature films Duplicate Set Items and Props • documentaries • Items are to be destroyed, distressed, or consumed during • short films the course of shooting a sequence. • animated productions • The property master is responsible for all the props. • commercials • A prop is a movable object, used by an actor, integral to the • filmed events or performances story. • music video • Most property masters own a kit or box of common props. • television productions of any type, eg music, drama, comedy, This is called a box rental. variety, sport • Food is also a prop • live or prerecorded television productions • The set decorator and the property master have overlapping Film gauges may include: areas of responsibility. Ex) Consider the wedding reception where the decorator has • super 16mm coordinated the decorations and table settings. The food, • 16mm drinks, and caterer are the domain of the property master. • 35mm Ex) Imagine the possibility of the deceased wife’s picture in our 65mm hero’s wallet not matching the framed photo of her on the desk. Equipment and accessories may include: Wardrobe • Arriflex • The costumer, or wardrobe designer, works with the art • Bolex director. • Aaton • What each actor wears provides worlds of information about • IMAX the character he portrays. • • Panavision

41 • video split monitor • technical • cables • creative • mounts Relevant personnel may include: • filters • supervisor • lenses: • head of department • lens hood • director of photography • lens filters • director • matte box • camera operator • lens support • • Betacam • gaffer • Betacam SP • lighting personnel • Digital betacam • technical director • 1 inch tube • other technical staff • 2/3 inch tube • other specialist staff • 2/3 inch CCD in both large format and portable • floor manager configuration • safety officer • video split monitor • lighting kit Notes : • lighting bulbs • lights • filter wheel • viewfinders • diopter • zoom demands • focus demands • shot boxes • cue cardholders • headphones • autocue monitor • talkback • tallies and return video Video camera may: • be manually controlled • be computer controlled • combine camera and recorder function • separate the camera function from record function Operation of camera may include: • hand held operation • fixed/supported camera • zoom lens Power sources may include: • mains power • generators • batteries Requirements for the shoot may include: • specific lighting conditions

42 UNIT 6 LESSON 6: PRODUCTION SOUND PRODUCTION SOUND

You would study the details of sound, the production, microphone for quality and purity of the sound. You would reproduction and the other technical aspects in the next have a separate subject on sound next semester but we start semester. Here in this lesson we try to see where the production with a few basics here. sound team fits in, in the production process and what are the Although all sounds, including dialogue, can be recreated essentials to be kept in mind while doing sound. There has during the postproduction process, it is eco-nomically and been a tendency of not giving as much importance to sound as aesthetically best to record as much of the dialogue and natural one gives to the visuals. Many filmmakers now realize the ambience as possible at the location during principal photogra- importance of good production sound and people have phy. starting devoting lot of time to their film sound track. Dialogue can be replaced during postproduction with a process Director called automatic dialogue replacement (ADR), but ADR can be time-consuming, costly, and problematic, especially for the Record Clean Tracks beginner. It requires that the actors report to a studio months During the past 25 years, the processing and trans-mission of after the shoot to duplicate their original performances line by sound to film audiences have undergone a radical evolution. line. Even having to duplicate unique sounds from a particular Today, projection sound systems such as THX@, Dolby@, location can be a problem. Domino@, and Surround Sound@ have heightened the aural Aesthetically, the dialogue recorded on the set is usually the best dynamic of the film experience. Digital sound reproduction is representation of each scene. There might be interference, of drastically changing the way audiences hear sound tracks in course. Unavoidable noises from traffic or airplanes might make the-aters. However, with everything that can now be done in it impossible to record clean dialogue. postproduction to process and deliver a com-plex and exciting In the long run, the can save the sound track, the most important step in this chain is still the production time and money by delivering an accurate rendition first one: the recording of good, clean sounds during principal of the production dialogue. A little extra time setting up a photography. microphone or stopping an annoying sound can save thou- Film- and video makers have a wide range of op-tions for sands, of Rupees in postproduction. recording audio. When shooting video, sound is recorded right Along with a mastery of his craft, the production sound mixer on the videotape in the cam-corder. Different video formats should have a thorough understanding of the postproduction have different audio capabilities. Some record digital audio, process-that is, what happens to the sounds after they are some analog, and some combine both technologies. For film recorded in production. Being aware of what can be accom- shoots, until the mid-1990s, most professional production plished in postpro-duction gives the production sound mixer a sound mixers used analog tape recorders with 1/4" tape. The proper context for judging the work he must do and for Nagra recorder was the industry standard. These recorders are properly evaluating the sounds he must sometimes fight for in still used, but newer digital for-mats including DAT (digital order to record clearly. See the figure below. audiotape) have replaced them in the professional market. Lot of directors now prefer using a DAT recorder even for a video shoot. Although the tools have changed, the process of recording sound has remained basically the same. These new recording devices can’t perform magic. If the microphone is not placed properly in a dialogue scene, there is no recorder (analog or digital) that will deliver a clear rendition of the actor’s voice. Production Sound The sound recorded on the set, called production sound, is an extremely important aspect of your short film or video, and it should be examined, recorded, and mixed with the same care and enthusiasm given to the visuals. Production sound consists of dialogue, the natural sounds associated with each scene, and any other sounds that might be of value during the postproduction process. The person responsible for recording production sound is the production sound mixer because she controls, or mixes, the levels of the dialogue spoken on the set. Equally important is the boom operator, who positions the It is important to pick up wild sounds on location. Photo from the filming of Truman.

43 The production sound mixer must also have a clear under- If recording clean dialogue in a particular loca-tion appears to be standing of all the crafts that interact with his, such as camera, impossible, the production man-ager should be notified about lighting, and grip. He needs to find a way to achieve the best the problem and asked if it’s possible to look for another sound possible within the limitations of each lens choice, location that is more “sound-friendly.” If the location is locked, camera move, or lighting setup. the mixer will have to do the best he can. Sound Preparation It’s possible that the production sound mixer might walk onto the set for the first time on the first day of principal photogra- Just as the director and the director of photography (DP) pre phy, whereas the director has visited it many times. In this case, visualize the picture, the director and the sound person the production sound mixer must play catch-up. “preaudiolize” the sounds. This re-quires reading and from the sound perspective: how much Responsibilities of the Sound Team dialogue, how many characters, the nature of the locations, any The following are the basic responsibilities of the film sound extra sounds that must be recorded. The script usually re-veals team: many of the challenges for the production sound mixer. Often, • Record “clean” dialogue a bit of business or a joke relies on the presence of a sound, or • Match sound perspective with camera angle at least the cue of a sound that will be added to the picture in postproduction, such as a gunshot, a doorbell, or the sound of • Record sound effects to accompany the shot. Record room screeching brakes. tone Location Scout • Record additional sounds Having “preaudiolized” the project’s sound require-ments, the • Record the scene so it will cut smoothly (sound consistency) production sound mixer should visit the lo-cations next. • Keep accurate sound reports Walking through the actual spaces in advance will reveal any Dialogue inherent sound problems that the production sound mixer The production sound mixer’s primary responsibility is to must deal with before the start of principal photography. The record all the dialogue spoken on the set clean that is, unencum- one location choice that has no inherent sound problems is a bered by any other ambient sounds connected with the shot. sound stage, which is a soundproof environment. The only Just as the DP is responsible for focus and proper exposure, the noises you should hear there are the actors’ voices. production sound mixer strives to record dialogue at consistent When visiting a site, the production sound mixer needs to levels that can be replayed clearly. A great effort is ex-pended to consider the following: create magic on the set, and it should be recorded properly. You • How large is the space? can’t duplicate a magical per-formance in a postproduction • What are the acoustics of the space? (Hard sur-faces reflect sound studio. sound.) If it is impossible to record the dialogue clean, the sound team • Can a loud refrigerator or air conditioning sys-tem be shut records it dirty- that is, cluttered with the overbearing sounds of down? airplanes, cars, or ocean surf in the background. Although unusable as the final product, this recording is used as a • Can neighbors be controlled? reference, or guide track, in the editing room for both cutting • Are key windows right above traffic noise? and ADR work. • If the location is near an airport, what are the air traffic Perspective patterns? An important goal of recording dialogue is that it should be • Will sound blankets solve the noise problems? . consistent with the point of view of the camera and from the • What time of day will the shooting occur, and how is the perspective of the lens used for the shot. If the camera sees the local traffic at that time? action from across a room, the sound should approximate that Production teams often scout locations on week-ends when it is visual per-spective and should sound somewhat distant. In a quiet and peaceful. Then the crew shows up to shoot on a close-up, the sound should have an intimate, almost overbear- Monday, and the street activity makes the noise level inside ing presence. Ideally, viewers should hear the sound from the impossible for sound recording. Therefore, it is highly advised same point of view from which they see the visuals. Of course, that you scout the location on the day of the week and at the there are times when it’s necessary to sacrifice perspective, approximate time that you’ll want to shoot. especially if proper perspective means that the dialogue will not The location manager can research any street maintenance be heard. There are times when the camera is so far away from scheduled to take place in and around your location during the the action that performers can -only be recorded if their voices time of the shoot. Many un-fortunate crews have found their are transmitted to a receiver from mi-crophones concealed in supposedly quiet neighborhood suddenly invaded by a team of their clothing. An example of this is a scene shot with a long con-struction workers and their equipment. Once they get lens of a couple walk-ing along a beach. The audience sees the started, there is nothing you can do about the noises couple from a distance but hears them as if they were right Be sure to listen for planes. If a location is on a flight path, the there. To help correct this “unnatural” perspective, sound effects production sound mixer will be hard pressed to record clean of waves, seabirds, and wind can be added during sound. postproduction

44 Sound Effects number, timecode start and stop, scene number or content, and The production sound mixer should capture during production any notes about whether the take was good or bad. Also as many of the ambient sounds and live effects connected with information about sound is recorded on what track may be the shot as possible. Examples are footsteps, rustling clothes, noted down. There are elec-tronic devices such as the Shot and slamming doors. These extra sounds should be properly Logger, a handheld computer that allows information, slated and la-beled for future reference. They will be mixed in including time-code start and stop, to be later uploaded to a sep-arately during postproduction. nonlinear editing machine. For example, in a bar scene, after the principal photography is completed or before the extras are dismissed, the production sound mixer should ask the assistant director for a short recording session in which the crowd chats, drinks, sings, and cheers as though it were in a real bar. Two minutes of this sound will furnish the sound effects editor with ample material to create a full bar atmosphere. Because the main dialogue is recorded while the crowd is silent, the editor will have the dialogue and the background sounds on two different tracks, giving her complete control over volume levels. Room Tone If you stand on a set and ask everyone to be still and quiet, the silence you will hear is room tone. The sound team should record 60 seconds of room tone from each set before leaving the location. It is impor-tant that the tone be recorded with the lights on and the full cast and crew on the set, with the same micro-phone that was used to record the dialogue and at the same levels. The AD will ask everyone to freeze in his or her Consistency in Sound Recording place for one minute. These 60 seconds of tone can then be The production sound mixer’s goal is record sound consistently copied and used in postproduction to fill in holes and smooth from shot to shot. Audiences expect the sound quality of a out the dialogue tracks when preparing for the mix. If it is motion picture or video to flow seamlessly and continuously. It difficult to get the cast and crew to stand around at the end of a does not matter to an audience that the final sound track was sequence, record the room tone before the first take of the day. constructed out of numerous camera angles and takes, shot It is also suggested that you record the hum of a refrigerator, over a wide expanse of time. On screen, it becomes one fluorescent lights, or other equipment separately. This gives the con-tinuous mise en scene. The realistic consistency or continu- editor freedom to add that ambient sound during the editing ity of the final sound track is the goal of the entire production process. and postproduction sound team. It all starts with the produc- Additional Sounds tion sound mixer. The pro-duction sound mixer must be concerned with: Supplementary sound effects should be recorded and delivered to the editing room. If the crew is shooting in an interesting • Consistency within the shot location, especially if it is distant, the sound team should record • Consistency within shots within the scene . any particular sound that is unique to that area. It saves time • Consistency between scenes and money to record additional sounds during the shoot, Within the shot, levels should remain relatively constant rather than having to come back later. During the shoot, for between actors and also between back-ground ambience. Actors example, if the production sound mixer knows that a school is are not expected to match each other in terms of recording near the location, he might go to the schoolyard and record levels; variations are normal. But their levels should match children at play. themselves. As they speak, the actor’s audio should appear These sounds might be used for background am-bience, or they some-what constant. There should be no unwarranted sud-den might not. Regardless, they give the sound editor a variety of changes in volume, except when justified by dramatic intent. choices and might even stim-ulate other sound ideas during In addition to the actors, the production sound mixer should postproduction. be mindful of background noise. The side effect of continually Sound Reports adjusting the level of the mics to balance the level of the actors The production sound mixer should take clear and comprehen- may result in the background noise bouncing up and down. sive notes of the dialogue recorded on the set and the “wild The problem can be avoided by taking advantage of the acoustic sounds” recorded on or off the set. He should confer with the properties of the mics in order to control the relative levels of script supervisor or assis-tant camera operator for the scene the dialogue by positioning and an-gling the microphone rather numbers and the director’s comments. These notes, called a than by electronically ad-justing the gain (volume) at the sound re-port. recorder or mixing panel. This is why the boom operator is For video shoots, someone may be assigned to keep logs of such an im-portant player and why he should be provided with each take using a simple log form with columns indicating tape a good headphone.

45 When the camera changes angle, the mixer must be especially is happening, but away from the traffic of lights and grip attentive that the levels of the new shot match and be equipment. Careful attention must be paid to positioning the intercuttable with the previous angles. Minor changes in angle microphone cables. At no time should an electric cable and a do not motivate drastic changes in audio. Panning or cutting mi-crophone cable be parallel to one another. Electric current can from one close-up to another of two people standing and induce hum into the signal in the microphone, cable, making it talking does not constitute a major perspective change. Lev-els impossible to record clean sound. and background are expected to remain constant. However, The next step is to decide how many microphone to use, what when you move the microphone for a close-up, readjust the specific kinds to use, and where to place them. A production volume so that the actor’s voice remains constant with the rest sound mixer is only as good as the sound coming from his of the sequence. A character’s audio should be somewhat microphones. Choosing the type of microphone to use and constant throughout the course of the scene, even as the shot where to place are important parts of clean dialogue recording. changes from wide shot to medium to close-ups. If you close Much of sound recording involves “riding lev-els,” which your eyes, the changes in audio from shot to shot should not means leveling out the extremes of performance and balancing sound unnatural or unexpected. multiple characters. For example, the production sound mixer Not only does sound need to be consistent within a shot and might have to handle dialogue between one actor who speaks from shot to shot, but also since this footage will be integrated softly and another who bellows. during editing, the sound must match up when scenes cut with Balancing these two performances is part of the mixing. It also other scenes. Throughout the duration of the production, try requires maintaining consistent sound among the different to es-tablish and then maintain relative audio levels for all your takes of the same scene. If you have already shot the master of characters. Of course, there are going to be some changes in the a scene and the background ambience is clean but a plane flies audio levels. The nature of production is such that we can’t over when you shoot the close-up, you should redo the close- always control things as much as we like, such as mic placement up to match the background of the long shot. and background am-biance. The idea, though, is to try and keep There are many variables in recording, and be-fore making any the changes in levels minimal and inconspicuous as we can decisions, the production sound mixer and the boom operator when we record them and then to fix them during must watch a rehearsal of the scene (this is important for the postproduction. sound and cam-era team). Knowing where actors will be Playback/Music Video positioned and how they will move allows the production sound team to make informed decisions. They must be able ill When examining the script, the production sound mixer looks see what the camera is seeing in order to keep mics safely away for any situation that might require un-usual equipment such as from the frame line. This is accomplished by looking through radio microphones or a play-back machine. The latter is the camera’s viewfinder. necessary when actors must sing, dance, or otherwise respond Once the microphones are positioned, there should be a final on the set to previously recorded music. Because this music will rehearsal to enable the production sound mixer to adjust for be used later in the film or video, it must be recorded with proper recording levels. Ac-tors should speak at the level they reference pilot tone or SMPTE time code, so it can be later will be projecting during the actual take. The mixer should do a synchronized with the picture. Unless the sound person is test that can be erased when you start recording for real. Now familiar with handling playback du-ties, he may need to bring in the production sound mixer is ready for the take. a specialist on days when playback is required. If you are planning to shoot a music video, the music will come Basic Attitude on the Set to you on tape, CD, or other format. During the shooting of The production sound mixer’s ability to record the best sound the “video,” the band will lip sync with the song. The produc- possible in any situation depends on her ability to communicate tion sound mixer is re-sponsible for playing back the song. properly with the DP and the director. She must know when to Shooting a music video with video cameras is fairly straightfor- fight for another take and when to let it go. The production ward. As long as the playback is on a stable, speed-controlled sound mixer should be assertive regarding her needs. format such as DAT, the singers’ mouth movements captured In addition, the production sound mixer must be sensitive to on video should match up to the song in postproduction. the needs of the actors. She must use the utmost tact and grace Some video cameras may drift slightly in speed. A timecode or when placing microphones on the performers. Working with sync generator may be used to keep the audio playback and actors who mumble or shout can also be problematic. If this is camera locked together Even without it, if shots are kept short, the case, the production sound mixer should request the they probably won’t reveal noticeable sync drift. director to ask the actor to speak more softly or loudly. Shooting with a film camera for release on video is slightly more Communication with Boom Operator complicated as the film runs at 24fps and PAL video 25fps. No Ultimately, the recording of quality production sound relies on need to worry about these now you will go into these details successful teamwork between the produc-tion sound mixer and later in your course. the boom operator. The mixer is not a magician; she can only Set Procedure record sound that is properly mic’d. Because they usually work On the day of the shoot, the first step for the production at a dis-tance from one another, they need to develop a sound mixer is to decide where to place the recorder. It is best short-hand communication that enables them to work quietly to be on the edge of the set, close enough to see and hear what and efficiently. The sound team also needs to be able to

46 communicate effectively and unobtrusively with the camera A cable operator might be required if the shot calls for camera operator regarding the microphone’s relationship with the movement. This crewmember keeps the microphone cables frame line. To avoid having the mic accidentally appear in the clear of the camera, grip, and electric equipment, while the boom frame during a shot, the sound and camera teams should operator concen-trates on following the action. The movement rehearse each shot, especially if any camera move is planned. of the microphone cable might cause a rustling noise on the Students: Hard as it can be to find a production sound mixer track, so it must be handled carefully. for a student shoot, it is equally difficult to find a boom operator. The boom operator is usually some PA who is not doing something else, or someone’s best friend who is visiting the set. These are hardly the proper criteria for this important crew position. If a novice boom operator is recruited, it is recommended that the production sound mixer spend quality time before the shoot to rehearse proper boom techniques. Don’t wait until the first real take! Approaches to Recording Sound The production sound mixer has four tools with which to record sound: • Boom • Plant • Lavaliere • Radio microphone Boom Using a boom is, in most cases, the best way to record dialogue. Boom is a generic term for any long pole with a microphone attached to the end of it that is used to record dialogue. It might be a complicated unit called a Fisher boom, which uses a pulley system to expand and contract, or a variable-length pole called a fishpole, with the microphone attached to a movable The production sound mixer needs to be quick in a reallocation. “shock mount” at the end. The latter is most common. Photo from the filming of The Lunch Date. Fishpoles usually run from 12 to 18 feet in length and are rigid Documentary sound crews usually do not have a separate boom enough not to bend at full extension. (You don’t want the operator. The production sound mixer acts as a self-contained microphone to dip into the shot.) The boom is used to sound recording unit. He does not have to be positioned far position the microphone close to the scene to record dialogue from the action and can easily handle the levels and position the between several actors si-multaneously. The mount allows the microphone at the same time. boom operator to manipulate the microphone from one actor Plants/Stash to an-other during the scene, depending on who is deliver-ing lines. Because it is a mobile unit, the boom operator can follow Plants or stash are microphones that are not mobile; they are moving action at a safe distance from the camera and still be “planted or stashed” in a fixed location for the duration of the close enough to pick up a clean signal from the actors. scene. For example, they might be used to pick up the voice of The boom is usually held still and secure above the frame line an actor who is too far away from the boom. They need to be and has a directional microphone pointed down at the actors. hidden from the view of the camera. They can be taped or (Microphones can be an-gled up toward the actor’s mouth as mounted in doorways, on bed headboards, behind pictures, well.) Boom movement should be practiced during rehearsals under chairs, in flowerpots, and so on. not only for sound quality, but also to avoid having the Lavaliere microphone, interfere visually with the camera’s frame line or to This small, lightweight, omni directional microphone is pinned create unwanted shadows as it passes under lights. under an actor’s clothing or taped to the body. It must be During exterior shoots, a blimp-type windscreen is required to carefully placed so as not to pick up the rustle of clothing as the reduce the wind sounds the microphone picks up. Even when actor moves, and it must be rechecked constantly in case it shooting interiors, always use a slip-on foam windscreen becomes dislodged as a result of constant movement or because some microphones are sensitive to even the most moisture (if taped). minute air movements. The boom operator should use a set of Lavalieres are effective microphones if the actor remains fairly head-phones to monitor what is being recorded. The stationary during a take, but if the actor is required to walk, pro-duction sound mixer can give direction and speak to the dragging the microphone cable might be awkward. A radio boom operator through the headphones. This way, the microphone might be needed in this case. Lavalieres are often production sound mixer doesn’t have to shout to the boom used when interviewing subjects for documentaries operator. Radio Microphones

47 Radio microphones are used to cover hard-to-reach areas, such Sound blankets can be used in a variety of ways to deaden the as a wide shot of a couple talking on a beach. If the actors are sound of “live” rooms by baffling the reflective sound echoes far from the reach of a boom, a plant, or a lavaliere, a radio caused by hard floors, ceilings, walls, and windows. Sound microphone might be your only . These microphones are blankets are heavy mov-ing blankets, preferably with a white attached to the body like a lavaliere, but they transmit the signal side and a dark gray or black side and grommets for hanging. from a radio transmitter to a receiver. The basic prob-lem with They can be taped to walls, hung from C-stands and over radio microphones is that they are apt to pick up other frequen- windows, or even draped over refrigerators and air conditioning cies, such as police car or taxi transmissions, that interfere with units to create a quieter environment. your sound. They are expensive to rent and have the same CAMERA NOISE. Although 16mm sync cameras are designed inherent problems as lavalieres. to run quietly, often a camera leaks noise during a take. This is Variables for Placing Microphones most noticeable when shooting interiors in a confined space. Blimping, or creating a soundproof housing for the camera, The placement and use of the different microphones depend might reduce the noise that emanates from the lens mount, on the many variables of a particular scene. Evaluate the scene magazine, or body of the camera. (This is the AC’s job.) This first, and then work with the fol-lowing considerations: muffling can be accomplished with a blimp or barney, which is a THE DIRECTOR’S VISION. Who and what does the director jacket that is specially designed for the camera. You can create want to hear in the shot? Start with this as the basic premise of your own blimp with anything that will deaden the camera every decision. noise, such as a changing bag, foam rubber, or a coat or jacket. PLACEMENT AND BLOCKING OF ACTORS. How much One way of cutting down on camera noise is to position the does an actor move in the shot? An actor pacing in the frame camera as far away from the micro-phone as possible during the must be microphoned differently than one sitting still. A boom take. A small amount of camera noise can usually be camou- or two separate microphones might be necessary to record the flaged by the other sounds or music that will inevitably be sequence. mixed in during postproduction. This is a good example of PLACEMENT OF CAMERA. How far away is the camera why the production sound mixer must understand what from the action of the scene? This defines how close you can happens during postproduction to be able to effectively evaluate get with a microphone. If the most directional microphone is the sounds recorded on the set. unrealistic, mics are then “stashed” within the frame of the master shot closer to the action. Recording Concerns SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF SHOT. What is the lens One of the differences between how sound and film images are seeing? This affects a number of things. How close to the actor recorded is that you can immediately hear a sound take played can the microphone on the boom be positioned without back on the set. Video has this advantage as well, but film must slipping into the frame line? The boom operator must be be sent to a lab to be processed. With the sound, if there is any keenly aware of the frame line at all times. He should rehearse question of quality, the director can listen to a take with the with the camera operator before the final rehearsal with the head-phones on to decide whether she wants to do the shot actors. Both the camera operator and the boom operator must over for sound or performance. be consistent in their moves. The director will ask whether a take is good for camera and The size of the shot also affects the visibility of a lavaliere or whether it is good for sound. Camera will be first on the list. radio microphone. A very tight shot of an actor will require that Asking for another take because of sound problems is a the microphone be more carefully disguised than in a long shot. judgment call the director makes after listening to the track. LIGHTING OF SHOT. The lighting plan can cause problems Many sound problems can be addressed in postproduction, if the sound boom creates a shadow that can be seen in the whereas picture problems must always be addressed on the set. frame. During the lighting setup, any boom shadows should be Pickups dealt with before the lights are fixed with the use of flags and If only a small section of a take is ruined because of extraneous cutters on the lights. During the shoot, the elimi-nation of sounds, it might not be necessary to do the complete take again. boom shadows must be a coordinated effort between the You might be able to “pick up” the section of the take that was boom and camera operators. spoiled. In a pinch., the sound can be also taken “wild” (audio MOVEMENT OF SHOT. If a dolly is used for a shot, the recording only) and matched to the picture in postproduction. boom operator must rehearse her actions around those of the If the day has been fraught with sound problems holding a dolly. A production assistant or cable operator might be needed makeshift ADR session in a quiet room after the day’s work can to keep the micro-phone cable free from the path of the dolly save a lot of money. If it is impossible to do it right after the and clear of the electric cables. The mixer also needs to avoid scene is shot, have the actors come to the quiet area when they picking up the sound created by the dolly. get out makeup and costume. After the actors listen to the ACOUSTICS AT LOCATION. The production sound mixer performance on headphones, they repeat the origin -dialogue might need to position the microphone away from disruptive for the production sound mixer. This mate-rial will most likely sounds to minimize their pres-ence on the track. Common match well with the actor’s lips in the editing room. If it does troublemakers are refrig-erators, air conditioners, fluorescent not, with some minor ad-justing (stretching and shrinking), the lights, traffic noise from the windows, and natural echoes in the new material can be made to fit. This method is most successful location. Sound blankets might also be required to eliminate or when used in wide shots when it is more difficult to see the at least lessen the problem. actor’s mouths.

48 Keeping It Clean (transfer) the tape dur-ing editing to a four-channel format, and Be aware of actors who step on one another’s lines. This is then release in six -channel DVD. called overlapping. If two sounds are already blended on the Most camcorders have microphones built into the camera. track, they can never be controlled s-eparately. They will be These are simple and convenient, but may result in inferior married forever. Record dialogue that can later be controlled in sound because the microphone is too far from the source for the editing room. In a single shot in which an off-camera actor optimum recording. Professional-quality sound can be achieved has lines, he should make sure there is a pause between -the on- by using separate mics that are placed closer to the subject. camera actor’s line and his own line. Recording separately, or These may be fed to the camcorder or VTR through a cable or with a pause, lines can be manipulated in the editing room to wireless transmitter. When there is a pro-duction sound mixer create overlaps, but the editor -will be able to control each voice. on the crew, the mics are often fed to a mixer, which allows easy If the director wants the lines overlapped for dramatic purpose, monitoring of sound levels and blending of multiple mics. the off-camera dialogue should be microphoned as well. If the Video sound crews vary according to the com-plexity of the scene is a wide shot. Over -lapping lines may be an integral part production (how many characters have to be recorded in a of the drama. sequence) and whether it is a lo-cation shoot or a studio shoot. Difficult Situations A single-camera setup in the field might need only a one-person crew to op-erate the videotape recorder, mix the incoming The production sound mixer might not be able to achieve clean mi-crophone levels, and hold the boom. A scene with many sound on a difficult set or location. -Planes traveling overhead characters requires a boom operator and a pro-duction sound will destroy a sound locations, such as Grand Central Station, mixer with a mixing unit that has any-where from two to 12 are too busy to control. If the company is on a flight path inputs. A studio shoot with multiple cameras for one scene where waiting for good sound translates to little or no photog- might use a mixing console of up to 18 tracks. raphy, the director will have to bite the bullet and plan for ADR When shooting video, the choice of camcorder or VTR format work. However, it is still important- record production is usually driven by picture needs, but these decisions will clearly dialogue. It can be used as guide track for editing purposes and have an impact on sound as well. In selecting a system, review as a reference for the actors when they perform the lines during these considerations: the ADR session. Clean ambience (background sound) should also be taken to mix or blend with the lines that will inevitably • How many audio tracks do you need? be recorded later. • Does the camcorder allow manual adjustments of audio Crowd Scenes levels? To record clean sound in a crowded bar sequence, assistant • Can you use external mics? - director instructs the background extras to mime speech and the • Are there professional mic connectors (such as XLR), or will clinking of glasses. This means that during the take, the you need adaptors? background actors move their lips, but utter no sound. They • If you are working with a production sound mixer, will you raise their glasses but do not let the glasses touch. They dance to need a mixing console so she can control levels? a predetermined rhythm, but there is no music playing. These Most professional camcorders give you a choice between manual sounds are added later. control of audio levels and automatic. Many consumer models This allows the dialogue recorded on the set to be clean. It will only have auto-matic control, which is convenient but may not have any dirty crowd noise to fight the dialogue. To result in inferior recordings. Whenever possible, choose a maintain the illusion, the speaking actors must project their cam-corder that offers the option of manual level control. Also, voices as if they were fighting the din of the crowd and the the consumer shotgun microphone that comes with the camera music. (To help the actors with this, it is good to rehearse the will usually sound fine, but plugging in a non-professional mic scene with the full- background noise.) This way, when the three may result in a lot of buzz, hum, and lower audio levels. Make sound tracks-dialogue, music, and background noise-are sure to plan and test your video sound recording system well in married in the mix, the volume of each Tack can be controlled advance. You want the advantages that video can offer without separately. The scene will sound natural, and the dialogue will having to compromise when it comes to the quality of the come through so that the audience can understand it. audio. Video Sound Documentary Most video sound recording is done single system with the Documentary crews are small and mobile. The pro-duction sound recorded right on the videotape (there are situations sound mixer and boom operator are usually the same person. when audio is recorded separately). Dif-ferent tape formats have She must be adept at booming, mixing (if additional micro- different configurations of sound tracks, but most allow for phones are used), and oper-ating the recorder simultaneously. stereo recording (two channels: left and right). Formats that In upstaged docu-mentary shooting for film, it is important allow you to record four separate tracks will give you flexibility that the production mixer be ready to roll at a moment’s in production, since you can assign different microphones to no-tice. If shooting is imminent, the recorder should be put on different channels. One of the virtues of video is that is “standby” position and the recording level should be set. If the generally easy to transfer the project from one video format to scene looks interesting, the mixer should not hesitate to roll another. One could shoot with a Hi-8 camera, bump up

49 sound. Tape is inexpensive. If the scene does not pan out, A key piece of equipment for recording sound for film or video simply say, “No shot.” (when recording audio separately) used to be the Nagra tape Producer Control Environment recorder. This analog recording device was the most popular choice for documentary as well as narrative filmmaking and was Because one of the producer’s major concerns is man-aging the the work-horse in the motion picture industry for more than 30 budget, anything that contributes to saving time and money years. I was invented in Switzerland in the early sixties by Polish will get his attention. In the area of sound recording, hiring a inventor Stephan Kudelski. The word nagra means “it will skilled production sound mixer and boom operator is the first record” in Polish. The Nagra records all the sounds during the step. Be sure the production sound mixer knows that his main shoot onto 1/4" tape. Record sound that can be synchronized concern is recording clean production dialogue. with the picture later, a 50-Hz sync pulse (60Hz in the US) is Other than this, the following are the areas the producer must recorded onto the center of the tape while the live sound is focus on: being corded. Meanwhile, the camera is running, through crystal • Ensuring that the equipment needs of the pro-duction are motor, at a speed of precisely 24 frames per second (fps). When fulfilled (recording devices, micro-phones, sound tape, etc.) the 1/4" tape is later transferred to magnetic track, the sound is • Getting the best deals possible on the rental equipment resolved to run at precisely 24 fps, allowing the sound and • Guaranteeing that all locations are “sound- friendly” picture to be joined in unison for perfect sync. Digital recorders have now taken over as the in-dustry standard. • Asking the production sound mixer to capture sufficient They offer high quality in a small light package and have had a ambient and interesting sound effects from each location huge impact on video and film production. There are many • Ensuring proper care of the equipment types of digital recorders used for field production. These Equipment needs for the Shoot include cassette tape formats such as DAT; open reel tape Once he understands the demands of the script and the recorders such as the Nagra D; disk recorders such as Deva, locations, the production sound mixer can de-velop an accurate which record on hard drives and many other. list of his equipment needs. These might include some of the Compared to analog tape recorders, digital tape machines following tools: provide longer continuous recording on a smaller tape. The DAT (Digital Au-diotape) cassette is small enough to fit in a Film shirt. Most DAT and other digital formats have very accurate • DAT or Nagra speed control and can be used for film and video work with no • Portable mixer additional modifications. Many consumer DAT machines do • Assorted microphones not use time code. Higher end recorders have built in preamps and time code capability. In this category, the Fostex PD-4 is one • Headphones (2 or 3 sets) of the most com-monly used timecode DAT machines • Microphone cables currently in use. • Extra batteries • Tape stock • Shock mounts • Slip-on windscreen • Sound blankets • Blimp-type windscreen • Boom pole • Mounting clips Video • Shotgun (hyper-cardioid) mic • Lavalier mic, assorted clips Tascam DA-Pl. Portable DAT recording —machine. • Wireless transmitter and receiver DAT recorders employ a technology that dupli-cates a “clean” • Fishpole mic boom with shock mount sound devoid of hiss or sound buildup. There is no generation • Zeppelin windscreen loss with digital sound as long as it is duplicated onto other digital machines. (We discuss in more detail the basic differences • Field mixer between analog and digital technology in next semester.) • Headphones Microphones Cables for mic-to-mixer and camera-to-mixer connections Microphones are delicate instruments that convert sound waves • Sound blankets into electric signals. The production sound mixer must have a • Sound recorder thorough knowledge of mi-crophones and how they can be used effectively to capture sound under a wide variety of conditions. She must be able to identify the right microphone

50 for each situation. Microphones (and speakers) are still ana-log, so sound is captured and reproduced using the same equip- ment regardless of the recorder format. The sound signal comes from the mic and goes to an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. To play back the tape, the digital signals are then sent to a digital-to analog (D/A) converter, which transforms the binary numbers back to an analog signal that can be heard through speakers or headphones. Care of Equipment Proper care and maintenance of sound equipment are very important. Treat it with respect. Nagra • Keep dust and dirt away from the tape; they can impair sound quality. • Do not touch the tape. • Keep the tape in its box, and protect it from temperature extremes. • Keep the lid of the tape deck closed as much as possible. • Do not smoke, drink, or eat around sound equipment-food and ashes have a way of winding up on the tape. • Use alcohol-soaked cotton swabs regularly to clean the parts of the machine that touch the tape, including the heads, rollers, guides, and capstans. • Clean the empty take-up reel each time it is used. Inspect it for warpage or rough edges. A damaged reel can tear or warp the edges of the tape and affect sound quality. • Do not rewind the tape after recording or play-back-leave it “tails out.” Rewinding can cause a sound bleed-through. Dat DAT players use small cassettes, so many of the main-tenance steps are unnecessary. However, it is as important to keep the heads clean. For a timecode -capable deck, check that the timecode can be properly recorded and played back. Key Points • The production sound mixer should know what happens to sound in postproduction. • Scout the location at the time of day or night for which the shoot is planned. • During rehearsals, find the best places for the microphones and the boom. The boom operator should work out boom shadows and frame lines with the grips and the camera operator. • Record room tone, wild sounds, and possibly even replacement dialogue at the end of the day. • When shooting video, make sure that you plan your audio system well in advance. There are many video formats, and each has its own dis-tinctive audio configuration.

Notes :

51 UNIT 7 LESSON 7: ANIMATION PRODUCTION ANIMATION PRODUCTION

Animation comes from a Latin word anima, which means soul Script- and animation means putting life into the characters. Anima- Drafting your ideas in words tion is an art from with tremendous potential. It gives reality to the dreams of the visionary, it makes it possible to create a Story board - character that not only appears to be living and thinking but Visually depicting your script in shots. A series of sketches, also makes the audience feel the emotion of the character similar to a comic strip, which outlines the action and dialogue “ILLUSION OF LIFE. FRANK THOMAS AND OLLIE in a scene. These drawings would be pinned up on a bulletin JOHNSTON board and arranged, re arranged and replaced as the story took Animation is a vast and virtually unexplored art form. It is, shape. perhaps, more popular today than ever before and new Character designs – techniques and methods of animating –including computer Character designs would be created by concept artist or lead animation –are being developed all the time. There are many , and once they were approved called model sheets character styles, and background designs. Animation is the art would be produced and distributed to the various departments of bringing something to life. Animation is a performing art to insure absolute consistency between the sketches of all of the rather than graphic art. The drawings and models replaces actors artist working on a project. Hundreds of Photostats would be and actresses, so when you are creating your own animation it is produced from a single paste-up, consisting of various important to approach through the creative skills you would drawings trimmed and applied to a board. Sometimes anima- like to use in drama rather than graphical skills. Animation plays tors would create their own model sheets, traced from their a huge role in entertainment (providing action and realism) and own or other artist ‘s drawings education (providing visualization & demonstration). David Layout- Pruiksma, supervising , Walt Disney feature animation A detailed pencil drawing that either indicates the fielding said, “there is no magic in the magic there is a lot of hard character action, or design of the background. Which acts work”. scenery behind the character. There are two types of the layout Animation is a varied art form, which has few limitations on character layouts, which outline the path of movement, imagination or cinematic techniques. Forms of animation can expressions and action within the scene and the background range from; drawings, time lapse photography, cel animation, layer, which generally consists of line drawing of the environ- cutouts, clay animation, puppets, or rotoscope. All animation is ment in which the character exists. These layouts are used as a series of images with slight progressive changes made and references by the animator and the background painter, arranged to be photographed, (filmed), then projected like a respectively. motion picture. When the film is projected on a screen the eyes The actual shooting part might happen just in one location blend the slight changes of the images together producing the hence the illusion of smooth motion. Besides being an art form, animation is also a craft which Production requires time and patience to learn. In large scale animation Rough animation drawings productions many people become specialists in areas such as; The original, first generation sketches by the animators in drawing characters, painting backgrounds, script writing, creating the movement in a scene. Roughs can be divided into producing, and editing. However, with independent produc- three basic types – key drawings, break and in betweens. tions the animator sometimes for fills all or most of these roles. Key Frame Rough Animation Since there are so many forms of animation it would be Keys are the story telling drawings. The frames that shows what difficult to classify all the different production stages each goes is happening in the shot. Key frames mark important visual through. But here we would try to look at some to get a basic transitions (extremes of action) idea. Fi In - Betweening Three Stages of Animation In betweening is creation of intermediate frames between the key frames Pre-Production For animation also you have to go through the process of Background Painting working on the concept, thinking about the objectives, scripting A painting or other artwork depicting the environment in which and story boarding. the character operates. First, the background stylist made small color sketches called key backgrounds, which were created to Concept - establish the color scheme and mood. These keys acted as a Idea, creating a plot model for the other background artist to follow. Key back-

52 grounds were also referred to as preliminary backgrounds. Writing the Script Backgrounds, which were rejected or cut from the film, were A new season of “King of the Hill” generally kicks off with the called not good backgrounds. Although hundreds of anima- team of writers gathering to pitch story ideas. After a lot of tion drawings and cell were required for a scene, typically there collective brainstorming, the team narrows down the possibili- was only one background. A setup featuring a cel and back- ties to a final list of stories. The producers then assign each ground from the same scene is often incorrectly referred to as story to specific writer or writing team. key background setup, but a more accurate description would be After a writer has prepared a story outline, a few other writers a matching background setup. A cel and background from the will gather to discuss the story, identify any problems, and same film but not the same scene is often referred to as brainstorm new jokes. production background setup, while a cel and background from Unlike writers for live action shows, writers for animated shows different films is correctly referred to simply as a background don’t have to worry much about practical production issues. setup. Dave Krinsky, Executive Producer for “King of the Hill” Final line Animation explains “because you don’t have to worry about sets, you can have many locations, so you don’t really have to worry too It is final line animation. Giving final touch to drawings. much about the reality of [physical production] when you’re Tracing of the original animation roughs, which are often more, writing your scripts.” Basically, if a writer can imagine in, it can detailed and refined than the drawings, which precede them. go in an animated show. Created by the assisting department, these sketches represent Krinsky also enjoys animation because you can do things with the final stage of animation before the image is transferred to the characters you wouldn’t be able to successfully do with real scanning. These sketches often include colored lines to indicate actors. “We’ve found that there’s a slight distance with anima- different ink colors, colors markups to tell the tion you don’t have with real actors,” Krinsky explains. That Painters which areas to paint which colors and notes to the ink distance allows them to get away with more, such as an early and paint department about the parts of the characters that episode of ‘King of the Hill’ where Hank Hill was dealing with needed to be registered to other characters or background constipation. elements. Krinsky doesn’t see many disadvantages to writing for anima- Post Production tion, but he acknowledges there are some tradeoffs. “There’s a This is the stage where the software helps you definite delayed gratification [to animation], whereas on live TV make your animation final and complete. you get to hear the audience laughing, and you get the feedback Producing an animated television program right away.” The lack of immediate audience response leads the Let us look into the production stages of producing an writers and producers to rely on their own comedic instincts to animated television program. In this section we take examples guide them through the process, which necessitates many from some existing TV series helping us understand the revisions along the way. process better Table Read The production process for a live action TV show is fairly When the writer or writing team is finished with the script, it’s straightforward. Writers come up with a script, actors perform time for the table read. At the table read, the entire cast of the script in front of a few cameras and a studio audience, the actors, all of the show’s writers, and anyone else in the office footage is edited, and the show is ready for broadcast. (This is a that isn’t busy gather in a room and act out the script. simplification, but that’s the production process in a nutshell). The table read is very important, because it lets the writers finally Producing an animated television program is a far more hear how their words sound when spoken out loud. The laborious process, involving dozens of people working writers and producers play close attention to the audience’s hundreds of hours. In traditional animation, still the standard reaction and take notes on what works and what doesn’t. In the for animated TV shows, every single frame of an animated case of “King of the Hill,” the writers and producers are show must be drawn by hand. The 20 or so minutes of actual especially concerned with what gets a good laugh and what footage that make up a typical half-hour program consists of doesn’t. around 30,000 separate frames. After the table read, the writers gather to discuss any problems Typically, a half-hour animated program is the product of a and explore ways to improve the script. Collectively, the writers nine-month journey, involving eight major steps: and producers create a final version of the script, and pass it on • writing the script to the recording stage. • the table Read Recording and Editing the Soundtrack • recording voices and editing the soundtrack Once the script has been finalized, it’s time to record the actors’ • creating the storyboard voices. In order to eliminate any extraneous noise, the actors all record their voices in a recording studio. The exact process varies • creating the animatic depending on the producers’ preferences. Some shows record • creating the color every actor separately, recording each line with a variety of tones • editing the color and inflections. Some prefer to record the actors working • adding sound effects and music together, in the same way classic radio shows were produced. In the next few sections, we’ll look at each step in the process. In any case, it is not necessary to have the entire cast present at the initial recording session. Some actors may be away on other

53 jobs, or unavailable for other reasons. If that is the case, they can record their lines at a later date, and the new tracks can be inserted into the final recording. After the actors record their dialogue, it’s time to start putting together the show’s audio track. “Editing the soundtrack is about a two week process,” says Kenny Micka, Co-Producer of King of the Hill. “We’ll take the parts that are recorded from the actors, assemble them, choose alternate takes, and cut it down to our target length of nineteen minutes and thirty seconds. We try to get the performances to cut together to satisfy the writers and producers, and then we send it on to Film Roman, our animation house.” Storyboards and Artwork The storyboard is the first step in adding art to the words in the script. A storyboard is made up of pages of paper with space for the director to plan out how the episode will be animated. A typical storyboard consists of a boxed-in area containing a loose sketch of the action, with character lines and camera directions written under the image. “Even though storyboards look bland on paper, they really mean a lot,” says Micka. “They’re a backbone of the show.” For animation, a storyboard must be heavily detailed. “Storyboards provide a lot of information,” Micka says. “They provide the different camera angles and shots, and most Homer has to always look the same, no matter who draws him. importantly, we get a sense of timing and character perfor- mance.” really work. This is also the last chance the producers have to The director begins sketching ideas for the storyboard upon make major changes to the direction of the story. After this, any receiving the final record script, and starts drawing the final big changes will be a costly and time-consuming proposition. boards when he receives the soundtrack. After the animatic is completed, and all changes have been Once the producers approve the rough storyboard, the lead made, the American animators send their key drawings off to animators can begin creating the key drawings for the episodes. an animation studio in Korea. American TV producers hire These artists don’t fully animate the action, but instead draw Korean firms today because the Korean animation industry has the significant moments of every shot in a scene, as well as all relatively low operation costs and access to a large supply of the necessary backgrounds (interior rooms, street scenes, etc.) highly trained artists. for the episode. In Korea, the first order of business is “in-betweening.” Let’s In order to maintain a consistent look for each character, the say Hank Hill is flipping a hamburger on his propane grill. The animators refer to character model sheets — collections of American animators provide several key frames of this action. drawings showing how each character should look. The The first frame would be a drawing of Hank with a spatula character model sheets illustrate each character’s body propor- under the burger. The next frame would be Hank’s arm raised a tions, specify each character’s size relative to other characters and little bit and the burger in the air. The next frame would have show each character in a variety of poses, from multiple angles. the burger land back on the grill. The Korean animators start This is a crucial tool for making animated characters function out by animating every frame in between each key frame, so that like real actors. Without this guide, one animator might draw a once animated, we see smooth motion. character differently from another animator, and the character After the in-betweening stage, it’s time for the ink and paint would seem to change size and appearance throughout the stage. The animators trace every frame in ink onto clear acetate show. transparencies and then paint in the color. As computer The Animatic and the Color technology advances, more shows are doing ink and paint After the producers approve the completed storyboard, it’s time digitally. to create an animatic. An animatic is a very roughly animated When the ink and paint stage is completed, each transparency is draft, sometimes called a “pencil test.” It is almost like a laid over the appropriate background image and photographed moving storyboard. The animators take the pencil-drawn key to create a frame. The developed film is sent back to the United drawings and photograph them so that they have a representa- States for the next leg of the process. The finished product is tion of what the final product will look like. Because it isn’t called the color. fully animated, characters have jerky movements, and their Editing mouths don’t always match their voices. The producers use the Even with a fully-animated product in hand, the show isn’t animatic to make sure the performances and comedic timing necessarily finished. There may be mistakes in the color that

54 necessitate retakes, or the producers might be unsatisfied with a painted cells and they playing the images back at high speeds, joke or a scene. typically 14 to 30 frames per second”. Animating retakes can be costly, so the editors have found As it is understood from these definitions, it is necessary to editing tricks to achieve the desired results. “With some creative create image frames which are related to each other to form an editing, we can make a lot of changes,” says Kenny Micka. “We animation presentation. In early times, this operation was being can repurpose animation to have characters say new lines, or we made by hand and called traditional animation. Every frame was can use shots from other episodes. We’ve actually built entire drawn one by one and then painted by hand on paper, celluloid scenes from various shots from different shows. You can’t do or film. Even the assistants were comforting the animator by that in live action.” drawing and painting the in-between frames which complete This is one of the reasons characters in animated shows usually the movement while the experienced animators were drawing wear the same outfit week to week. With this consistency, it’s the key frames. With this method it is obvious that a 3-4 easier to borrow animation from other scenes and other minute long animation is very troublesome and requires a lot episodes. of time when it is thought that a minute animation requires 12- The Soundtrack and Score 24 frames per second. Another operation which also needs high care is to take photograph each frame one by one by using a When the picture is “locked,” the producers hand the show to movie camera. the sound department, and the sound engineers cleans up the The popularity of traditional animation production, which was vocal tracks and adds sound effects. For most shows, the sound described above and the increase in perception of some effects do a lot to determine the tone of a show. “‘The messages by the spectators made the developing technologies Simpsons’ is more cartoonish, which is reflected in its exagger- inevitable to be used, especially the animation. When computer ated sound effects,” notes Micka, “Where ‘King of the Hill’ is technology was applied to the animation production, in the more of a realistic show, and you hear stuff in the background beginning, traditional animation point of view was not left like birds chirping, dogs barking, lawnmowers running.” aside, developments were reached in transferring two dimen- “Music can make a great impact on a show’s tone, as well,” sional animation production to computer in terms of time and Micka adds. “The tone of ‘King of the Hill’ is often best served technical easiness. often by an acoustic guitar, although we have used full scale In 2D computer animation, animator makes the drawings by orchestras when it fit the story.” the help of digitalizers on a computer screen, not on a paper After the sound department assembles all the sounds, they mix which is made by hand working. On the other hand there is the tracks to the appropriate level. It’s important to makes sure another possibility that one can transfer the products of a character’s voice isn’t covered by the background music, or that traditional animation that were ones produced on paper to a isn’t unnaturally loud. computer by scanning. Some primitive drawing forms like After nine months of work, the episode is finally finished. The square, circle, line and the tools for an artist like eraser, brush, production company delivers a high definition master tape of and airbrush are simulated in computer. There is no need for the episode to the network, and the network broadcasts it over the user who produces computer animation to use a ruler to cable, satellite, and the airwaves. By that time, many more draw a line, to struggle with the measurements for a milimetric episodes have entered the pipeline and are moving along at square or to mix different colors to obtain the desired color. various points in the production process. These kinds of simple operations are made with a high What is Computer Animation? sensitivity by the computer software. At the end, compute gives By the help of technological improvements the transfer of the opportunity to the user to get an outcome for his/her traditional two dimensional animation production to comput- animation through a printer, a video, etc. ers made many things easy for the animators. Though some of 3d computer animation is the projecting of two-dimensional the traditional animators don’t feel close to computer-based pictures one after the other which are rendered in the means of animations, gave the animators much more time to width, length and depth in the space supplied by computer spent on creative thought since the in-between frames are drawn software’s. 3-d computer animation has some characteristics that and painted by computers instead of assistant animators. The are different from the traditional animation in terms of method rapid development of computer softwares on this field, and techniques. By the user’s commands, the computer directed the animators toward producing animations by calculates the details like movement, color, light, and perspective computer. According to production levels, possibilities and of the objects on the created visual stage accurately and gives the differences of obtained results computer made animations are outcome as an image. Animator plans the model, which is technically divided into two parts: two and three dimensional thought to be on the stage with architecture sensitiveness, chips animation. into shape with a skill of sculpture, makes it move in aesthetic In this respect, it seems logical to start with the classical way by the help of observation, experience and creativeness. definition of animation. Its definition is “to create many stable While doing this work, his/her brush is digitalizers like mouse images which show an object in a movement and to direct us to and keyboard, his/her canvas is computer screen. His other think as if it moves by the help of playing these images one tools are like modeling, metamorphosis, giving movement; after the other. primitive objects, camera, lighting and color materials that the Another definition is “In traditional frame-by-frame animation, software enables. the illusion of motion is created by filming a sequence of hand- Producing Steps of 3-D Computer Animation

55 In the process of 3-d computer animation production, it is according to the flow of scenario and the effect that the inevitable to realize some series of steps related to production characters must follow. The places of the intermediary move- technique and methods based on both technique and expres- ments between two key frames are calculated by the computer sion style. The information about these steps is as follows. through animation software. The movements on the stage are • Design not limited with only the movements of the characters. With the possibilities of 3-d computer animation software, the • Producing the models (modeling) places, angles of camera and the color and the density of light • Determining the surface qualities of models. sources can be changed by time. Beside this, the images can be • Scene arrangement obtained that cannot be seen in real life by changing the surface • Transformation characteristics. For example, a glass vase can be transformed into a vase which is covered with a texture of tree. • Rendering the objects The last step is the rendering step, once the scene is designed • Assembling and special effects three dimensionally. By this operation, the defined surface • Transferring to video, CD, or film. characteristics, by the help of light sources, can be viewed on the First of all, an idea must be formed to produce an animation. computer screen. Producing 3-d computer animation comes to And design enables the transfer of the idea. “The design an end by playing all the frames in a sequence. process of animation production is a kind of planning process Using sound, music, effects can take the animation to its goal so in which the subject of animation, the message to be sent to easily. Sound and music are the most important elements that target population, the method to be followed in presenting the support the image. The perception level increases for the information, time and expression characteristics are all taken audience when the image comes with sound. into consideration and planned as a whole.” Besides this The sound that comes from the floor when an object falls description, the drafts of characters, models, images and sound down, in a manner that supports the structure of the object on which are going to be used in the animation are formed in the image, gives information about the object and the floor. mind. The event takes its first form with the scenario. Scenario In animation production, the usage of types of sound or can be thought as the story of the planned design. The event music and how and where they are going to be used is planned that is going to be told, the message that is going to be given, during design step. If the animation is built upon a narration relations, atmosphere, manner and behaviors all form the text or music with a specific goal, the movements in the animation in this step. are applied in a synchronized way with the edited sound or 3-d computer animation production begins with the modeling music. On the other hand, if the sound and music is going to of the characters that are thought to have roles in the story. be used to support the images and the events in the animation, Models are made in the computer’s virtual space where width, then these elements are inserted to animation after it is pro- length and depth are entered with numerical values. In the first duced. step, a three-dimensional skeleton of the model, which seems After the editing of animation, it is transferred to any medium to be made of wires, is made. On the surface of this skeleton like film, video, CD, etc. color, texture and material features are defined. These features Animation is being used very wide-spread in many fields today are the simulations of the objects surface characteristics in real which has many steps from design to production. life. Animator produces very realistic images by defining the materials to objects like transparent like glass and light perme- Notes : able, bright like chromium and reflecting light, dull like plastic and absorbing light. After the surface qualities of the models are done, the scene where the events will occur can be built. A placement is arranged on stage according to the positions of characters, objects and accessories, and their movements that will be performed in a planned time, which is determined, by shooting script and storyboard. Light sources and cameras are also placed in this section. Virtual cameras and light sources in animation software have similar features with their equivalents in real life. However, movements and shows that cannot be made in real life can be done by using the capabilities of a computer. Light sources are placed on the scene according to the kind of atmosphere that is to be created. Lighting density colour values are determined. And the camera is also placed on the stage according to point of view. Stage arrangement is done in the form that the first frame of the animation is seen. The keyframes of the objects or the characters that are being planned to be moved are placed on the time line. On these specific points, the movements are applied

56 UNIT LESSON 8: POST PRODUCTION (EDITIN THE GRAMMAR OF EDITING

Filmmaking has been called the art of telling stories through alertness .... [The shots] are not a record of how the deer reacted images; others have referred to it as “sculpting in time”. In to the bird. They’re basically uninflected images. But they give reality, it is both of these: a film is a series of images fixed in the viewer the idea of alertness to danger when they are time. juxtaposed. That’s good filmmaking. This is true at the most fundamental level. We may refer to By using the conventions of editing, the filmmaker can films as “moving pictures”, but when one looks at a strip of compress or expand time, jump between different places and film, it consists of a series of still images. Each of these is times, switch between different viewpoints, or use close-ups to slightly different from those before and after it; when they are emphasise certain objects or actions, without confusing the projected, our eyes take these still images and blurs them audience. A cut implies connection and this, in turn, produces together - this is how we get the impression of movement. meaning - a meaning that may not have been present in either On a filmstrip, we can see time recorded. We can measure time of the shots individually. in frames - on a 35mm film, 24 frames equal one second - but This ability to jump between different places and times means, we can also measure it in terms of distance. On the same size for instance, that the filmmaker can produce suspense by cutting film, eighteen inches also equal one second. to another location and showing the bad guy waiting in Time, in film, therefore becomes something physical, some- ambush, or by cutting to some time in the past and showing thing that can be cut and glued back together. I can take one the bad guy plant a bomb where our hero is now. In both of section of film and place it after another shot - from a different these examples, the filmmaker reveals information to the viewer place, or at a different time - and when it is projected, it forms that is not available to the protagonist of that film. The one continuous sequence in viewing time even though the opposite of this is when the filmmaker uses montage to show sequence may refer to different times in the story. what is going on in the mind of the characters in the film. You Even the simplest sequence is composed from a number of can show a character sitting alone in a room, and then cut to a different shots, from various angles and locations. These shots shot of someone else (in another location) to show that they add variety to the film, but they are not used solely for this are thinking of them. Alternatively, you can cut to the same purpose - they also tell the story. A close-up of the hero allows room at some moment in the past; in this case, it is showing us to see the expression on his face clearly, while a wider shot the character’s memories. shows us where he is and what is around him. Indeed, a close- In short, film has - over the years - developed a variety of up does more than just allow us to see the expression on his techniques: camera angles, lighting, editing, use of sound etc. - face - by excluding all other detail, it forces us to look at his with their readily understood conventions - to enhance narrative expression. The wide shot, likewise, forces us to look at the development. These techniques serve the narrative in compress- scene as a whole, rather than concentrate on one part of the ing or expanding time, portraying emotion and feelings, scene. In a film, every detail is significant - film does not present emphasising objects and movement. The judicious combina- reality, but rather an enhanced reality where every extraneous tion of these techniques allows for powerful storytelling. detail has been cut out and every object left in the frame has The use of editing enables time to be discontinuous - for the been considered on the basis of what it does for the narrative. future, present and past to exist simultaneously e.g. in Yet meaning in film comes not only from what is in the frame, or sequences, or parallel action sequences where the but also from how it is composed. A shot from high up, viewer is in two places at one moment in time. In film, “time” looking down on the hero makes him appear vulnerable. If this is never “real time”, it is always being compressed and expanded shot is held for a long time, then it implies that it is the at the service of the story. viewpoint of someone watching him. These conventions form The same could be said for the notion of “space” in film. Once part of the “language” of film - the vocabulary of shots that again, space is flexible, compressible, expandable through the the director can use, safe in the knowledge that the audience is use of lighting, camera moves and angles, sound and editing. familiar with them and know what they mean. There are also Space and perspective are also always at the service of the established conventions regarding styles of lighting, types of narrative, there is no “real” or “true” space in film that exists camera moves, the use of music and sound effects, etc. outside of the drive of the narrative. A further layer of meaning comes from how these individual In verbal communication, the same words can yield different shots are put together, one after another. David Mamet gives statements because their meanings depend on the punctuation the example in his book On Directing Film of a documentary used in each sentence. The rules governing punctuation and filmmaker using a shot of a bird snapping a twig and a shot of sentence structure are of course called grammar, and if you a fawn raising its head. He says: didn’t know them you couldn’t figure out a pause from a The two shots have nothing to do with each other. They were paragraph. shot days or years, and miles, apart. And the filmmaker Similar rules are equally important in visual communication. juxtaposes the images to give the viewer the idea of great Where verbal grammar covers exciting stuff like predicates and

57 subjects, visual grammar addresses three kinds of pictorial a motion, color, or direction. transitions: cuts, fades and effects. The simplest transition between shots it is a straight cut, which Traditionally, a cut joins two shots in a continuing action, a fade is an abrupt transition between two shots. Another type of signals a change from one action to another and an effect makes transition is called a fade, in which the overall value of the scene either type of transition purposely calling attention to itself. increases or decreases into a frame of just one color. For Today, television commercials, music videos and trendy movies example, a fade to black may indicate the end of the sequence. routinely ignore any rules they please; but in order to tell when When one scene fades out as another scene fades in this is a the rules are broken or even to break them ourselves we need to dissolve. A transition between two shots during which the first know what they are. So let’s summarize visual grammar in its image gradually disappears while the second image gradually classic form, starting with the most common transition: the appears; for a moment the two images blend in superimposi- straight cut. tion. These dissolves are used frequently to indicate a passage of In a cut, the first frame of a new shot directly follows the last time. For example, you might have a shot moving down a hall frame of the previous one. Grammatically, a cut is like the space and then a dissolve as it moves into a different part of the between two words: a division between units of meaning that building. signals no change at all. Another type of transition is when one scene wipes across the Before we examine the continuity style of editing and under- frame and replaces the previous seen. Wipes can move in any standing the grammar of film making let us first what the other direction and open one side to the other or they can start in the kinds of transitions are there besides a simple cut and some center and move out or the edge of the frame and move in. other terms. Wipes are very noticeable and best not used often. Transitions Dissolves can be used as a fairly straighforward editing device to link any two scenes, or in more creative ways, for instance to The shot is defined by editing but editing also works to join suggest hallucinatory states. In this series of shots from The shots together. There are many ways of effecting that transition, Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Dario Argento, some more evident than others. In the analytical tradition, 1996), a young woman becomes so absorbed by Brueghel’s The editing serves to establish space and lead the viewer to the most Fall of Icarus that she actually dives into the painting’s sea! (at salient aspects of a scene. In the classical continuity style, editing least in her imagination, in “real life” she faints). techniques avoid drawing attention to themselves. In a constructivist tradition such as Soviet Montage cinema, there is no such false modesty. Vertov’s Man with the Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom, USSR, 1929) celebrates the power of the cinema to create a new reality out of disparate fragments. We would go into the details of the two styles of editing continuity and montage in our later segments lets now look into the various transitions/cuts.

In film or video scene consists of a sequence of shots. Each Another Example: a dissolve in the opening sequence of shot is made from a different perspective and then they are Citizen Kane(1941). joined together. The joining together of the individual shots to make a particular scene is accomplished through transitions. The transition may be from one camera angle to another camera angle or from one camera to another camera. When you do transitions as a CG animator you are fulfilling the role of the editor, whose task is to put together a set of individual shots into a scene. One technique that film editors use is to focus on a particular element that is consistent between shots. This can be a physical object or it can be a compositional element such as

58 Wipe A transition between shots in which a line passes across the An extremely fast movement of the camera from side to side, screen, eliminating the first shot as it goes and replacing it with which briefly causes the image to blur into a set of indistinct the next one. A very dynamic and noticeable transition, it is horizontal streaks. Often an imperceptible cut will join two usually employed in action or adventure films. It often suggests whip pans to create a trick transition between scenes. As a brief temporal ellipsis and a direct connection between the opposed to dissolves, action or graphic matches, and fades — two images. In this example from Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai the most common transitions of the continuity style— whip (Sichinin No Samurai, Japan, 1954), the old man’s words are pans always stand out, given their abrupt, brisk nature. immediately corroborated by the wandering, destitute samurai Commonly used in flashy action genres such as kung-fu movies coming into town. from the 70s, like Fists of Fury (Tang Shan Da Xiong, Wei Lo, Honk Kong, 1971). Superimposition The exposure of more than one image on the same film strip. Unlike a dissolve, a superimposition does not signify a transition from one scene to another. The technique was often used to allow the same performer to appear simultaneously as two characters on the screen (for example Son of the Sheik), to express subjective or intoxicated vision (The Last Laugh), or simply to introduce a narrative element from another part of the diegetic world into the scene. In this clip from Neighbors (Buster Keaton, 1920), the resentful father of the bride looks at the wedding ring and immediately associates in his mind with a five and dime store. The subjective shot gives us a clear As other transitions devices, like the whip pan, wipes became indication of his opinion of his soon to be son-in-law. fashionable at a specific historical time (the 1950s and 1960s), so much so as to became stylistic markers of the film of the period. For some of the other wipes possible see the figure below.

Matte Shot A process shot in which two photographic images (usually background and foreground) are combined into a single image using an . Matte shots can be used to add elements to a realistic scene or to create fantasy spaces. In these four examples from Vertigo (1958), director Alfred Hitchcock

59 uses all possible combinations. In the first image, the white (Taiwan, 2000), father and daughter go out on dates at presum- belfry is a model added on the foreground of a shot of the ably the same time, and go through the same motions, even if roof; in the second image, the sky in the background is clearly a the father is in Japan and the daughter in Taipei. painting, with the purpose of making us believe the scene takes place on a bell tower’s top floor, rather than on the studio’s ground.

To further stress the similarities, the father is actually reliving his first date with his first girlfriend (whom he has just met again after 20 years), while his daughter is actually on her first date! Yang uses parallel editing across space and time to suggest that history repeats itself, generation after generation. Examples: Porter’s The Great Train Robbery(1903), D. W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation(1915) and the finale of Griffith’s Intolerance(1916), where the chase to save the pardoned hero from execution in the modern story is cross cut with Christ’s procession to Calgary; also the scene in The Godfather(1972), where the baptism of Michael Corleone’s godson is cross cut with the violent elimination of Corleone’s multiple underworld rivals. The other two shots belong to the fantasy sequence of Scottie’s Cut - in, Cut Away dream. In the first one his face is superimposed over a campy An instantaneous shift from a distant framing to a closer view “unconscious” image; the last one reverses the process, having a of some portion of the same space, and vice versa. In Lars Von mixture of “real” and matted elements in the background (the Trier’s Dancer in the Dark ( Denmark, 2000) Selma and Bill have roof and the belfry) with the added silhouette in the fore- a dramatic conversation in Bill’s car that is framed by a cut-in ground. and a cut-away.

Example: Also used to combine a cartoon character with a human actor (e.g., Who framed Roger Rabbit?(1988)). Crosscutting, aka Parallel Editing Editing that alternates shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places, usually simultaneously. The two The two cuts neatly bracket Bill’s anguished confession as a actions are therefore linked, associating the characters from both separate moment, private and isolated, that only Selma knows lines of action. In this extended clip from Edward Yang’s Yi Yi about. This editing-constructed secrecy will ultimately have

60 drastic consequences for Selma. Cut away is a brief shot that momentarily interrupts a continu- ously-filmed action, by inserting another related action, object, or person (sometimes not part of the principal scene or main action), followed by a cutback to the original shot; often used to break up a sequence and provide some visual relief, or to ease the transition from one shot to the next, or to provide additional information, or to hint at an impending change; reaction shots are usually cutaways; cross-cutting is a series of cutaways and cutbacks indicating concurrent action; a is different from an insert shot.

Example: a quick cutaway shot of a newspaper headline in North by Northwest(1959) - after the famous crop-dusting scene. Iris A round, moving mask that can close down to end a scene (iris- out) or emphasize a detail, or it can open to begin a scene when it is used after 1930 it is often perceived as charmingly (iris-in) or to reveal more space around a detail. For instance, in anachronistic or nostalgic, as in Truffaut’s Shoot this scene from Neighbors (Buster Keaton, 1920), the iris is Player (1960). used with the comic effect of gradually revealing that the female protagonist is 1) ready for her wedding and 2) ready for her not- too-luxurious wedding.

Commonly used in silent films, such as The Birth of a Nation, or here in Welles’ The Magnificent Ambersons(1942) as Eugene’s horseless carriage drives away. An elliptical cut that appears to be an interruption of a single shot. Either the figures seem to change instantly against a constant background, or the background changes instantly while the figures remain constant. Jump cuts are anathema to Classical Hollywood style, but feature prominently in avant-garde and radical filmmaking. When the French Nouvelle Vague films of the 1960s made jump cuts an essential part of their playful, modern outlook, many directors from around the globe started to use jump cuts —either creatively or in a last ditch attempt to become “hip”. More recently, jump cuts are more commonly associated with music videos, video or alternative filmmaking, Iris is a common device of early films (at time when some like Lars Von Trier’s Dogma films. Here is an example from techniques like zooming were not feasible), so much so that Dancer in the Dark (Denmark, 2000).

61 Manipulating Time Only since the introduction of editing to the cinema at the turn of the 20th century has not-editing become an option. The Jump cuts are used expressively, to suggest the ruminations or decision to extend a shot can be as significant as the decision to ambivalences of a character, or of his/her everyday life, but they cut it. Editing can affect the experience of time in the cinema by are also a clear signifier of rupture with mainstream film creating a gap between screen time and diegetic time (Montage storytelling. Rather than presenting a film as a perfectly self- and overlapping editing) or by establishing a fast or slow contained story that seamlessly unfold in front of us, jump cuts rhythm for the scene. are like utterances that evidentiates both the artificiality and the Screen time: a period of time represented by events within a difficulties of telling such a story. film (e.g. a day, a week). Example: in Don’t Look Now (1973), the director Nicolas Roeg Subjective time. The time experienced or felt by a character in a cuts from the wife’s scream on seeing her dead daughter to the film, as revealed through camera movement and editing (e.g. drill her husband is using in his work on the church in Venice - when a frightened person’s flight from danger is prolonged). a sound match and cut. Compressed time. The compression of time between sequences Flashback Flashforward or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipu- lation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a A jump backwards or forwards in diegetic time.( The diegesis dramatic narative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part includes objects, events, spaces and the characters that inhabit of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then them, including things, actions, and attitudes not explicitly cut to him entering a room. The logic of the situation and our presented in the film but inferred by the audience. That past experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere audience constructs a diegetic world from the material presented at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into in a narrative film.) With the use of flashback / flashforward seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in the order of events in the plot no longer matches the order of parallel editing. More subtle compression can occur after reaction events in the story. Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941) is a shots or close-ups have intervened. The use of dissolves was famous film composed almost entirely of flashbacks and once a cue for the passage of a relatively long period of time. . The film timeline spans over 60 years, as it traces aka PLAN-SEQUENCE A single shot (or take, or the life of Charles Foster Kane from his childhood to his run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of deathbed — and on into the repercussions of his actions on time. The long take has an ‘authentic’ feel since it is not the people around him. Some characters appear at several time inherently dramatic. The average length per shot differs greatly periods in the film, usually being interviewed in the present and for different times and places, but most contemporary films appearing in the past as they tell the reporter of their memories tend to have faster editing rates. In general lines, any shot above of Kane. Joseph Cotten, who plays Kane’s best friend, is one minute can be considered a long take. Here is an excerpt shown here as an old man in a rest home (with the help of from the initial shot of Robert Altman’s The Player (1992) some heavy make-up) and as a young man working with Kane which not only runs for more than eight minutes, but it is in in his newspaper. itself an homage to another famous long take, the first shot of Welles’s Touch of Evil (1958).

62 Unless shot at a fixed angle, with a fixed camera and no background. movement, long takes are extremely hard to shoot. They have Overlapping Editing. Cuts that repeat part or all of an action, to be choreographed and rehearsed to the last detail, since any thus expanding its viewing time and plot duration. Most error would make it necessary to start all over again from scratch. commonly associated with experimental filmmaking, due to its Sophisticated long takes such as this one from The Player, temporally disconcerting and purely graphic nature, it is also which includes all kinds of camera movements and zooms, are featured in films in which action and movement take precedence often seen as auteuristic marks of virtuosity. Aside from the over plot and dialogue: sports documentaries, musicals, martial challenge of shooting in real time, long takes decisively influence arts, etc. Overlapping editing is a common characteristic of the a film’s rhythm. Depending on how much movement is frenzied Hong Kong action films of the 80s and 90s. When included, a long take can make a film tense, stagnant and spell- director John Woo moved to Hollywood, he tried to incorpo- binding, or daring, flowing and carefree. Indeed, directors like rate some of that style into mainstream action films, such as Altman, Welles, Renoir, Angelopoulos, Tarkovski or Mizoguchi Mission: Impossible 2 (2000). have made long takes (usually in combination with and deep space) an essential part of their film styles. Example: Hitchcock’s Rope (1948), composed of a series of continuous, 8-minute takes; or the opening of Robert Altman’s The Player (1992) Simultaneous time. Events in different places can be presented as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross- cutting, by multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no progression of shots: shots are either Rhythm. The perceived rate and regularity of sounds, series of inserted into the main action or alternated with each other until shots, and movements within the shots. Rhythmic factors the strands are somehow united. include beat (or pulse), accent (or stress), and tempo (or pace). . Action which takes place on the screen at a slower Rhythm is one of the essential features of a film, for it rate than the rate at which the action took place before the decisively contributes to its mood and overall impression on camera. This is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make the spectator. It is also one of the most complex to analyze, a familiar action strange; c) to emphasise a dramatic moment. It since it is achieved through the combination of mise-en-scene, can have a lyric and romantic quality or it can amplify violence. cinematography, sound and editing. Indeed, rhythm can be Accelerated motion (under cranking). This is used: a) to make a understood as the final balance all of the elements of a film. Let slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to us compare how rhythm can radically alter the treatment of a increase the thrill of speed. similar scene. These two clips from Deconstructing Harry Reverse motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, (Woody Allen, 1997) and Cries and Whispers (Viskingar Och magical or explanatory effect. Rop, Ingmar Bergman, Sweden1972) feature a couple at a table, Replay. An action sequence repeated, often in slow motion, and both clips feature a moment of fracture between the two commonly featured in the filming of sport to review a signifi- characters. Still, they could not be more dissimilar. Allen cant event. employs fast cuts (even jump cuts), pans, quick dialogue and Freeze-frame. This gives the image the appearance of a still gesturing, as he concentrates exclusively on the two characters, photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device. shot from a variety of angles but always in medium close-up Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion and close-up. of time can be accomplished by intercutting a series of shots, or by filming the action from different angles and editing them together. Part of an action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the outside, shows him opening it again. Used nakedly this device disrupts the audience’s sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion. Ambiguous time. Within the context of a well-defined time- Even if both characters overtly disagree with each other, there is scheme sequences may occur which are ambiguous in time. This an overall feeling of warmth and immediacy between them, is most frequently communicated through dissolves and suggested by their proximity (established in short pans and superimpositions. close-ups) and in the tone of their speech. The quick camera Universal time. This is deliberately created to suggest universal movements and different camera placements suggest the relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasized. Context uneasiness of both characters, as they budge on their seats. may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of Cries and Whispers, on the other hand, present us with a scene close-ups and other shots, which do not reveal a specific of horrifying stillness. Bergman accentuates the separation

63 between man and woman by shooting them frontally and can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera almost eliminating dialogue. In this context, even the smallest (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the sounds of forks and knives sound ominous; a glass shattering movement is not gradual or smooth. resonates like a shot. Objective treatment. The ‘objective point of view’ involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the ‘privileged point of view’ which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.

Notes :

Furthermore, the mise-en-scene becomes as equally, if not more, important than the characters, reducing everything to dour red, black and whites. The feeling of claustrophobia is enhanced by the use of shallow space, having the characters become one with the austere backgrounds. Pace is deliberately slow, and it only quickens when the glass breaks and both characters lift up their heads, only to immediately return to normal. Bergman accelerates the rhythm for a second, punctuat- ing the moment of the glass breaking so that a trivial incident is magnified into a clear signal of disaster. Lastly, rhythm is, almost by definition, intrinsically related to music and sound. Some of the most striking examples of the use of music as a film’s driving force occur in the (endlessly imitated) spaghetti westerns of Sergio Leone, which were written in close collaboration with composer Ennio Morricone. In fact, sometimes the music would be composed first and then a scene that fitted that rhythm would be shot, thus reversing the customary order.

The prelude to the final shot down of The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Il Buono, il Brutto, il Cattivo, Italy, 1966) runs for several minutes (of which we only see the last minute here), as three men face each other in a triangle, waiting to see who will take the first step. One of the film’s theme songs is played in its entirety, from a slow, elegiac beginning to a frenzy crescendo that is abruptly cut off by the first gunshot. The slow mounting crescendo is paralleled by an increase in the editing rate, and an intensified framing (the sequence actually begins on a long shot similar to the previous one). Narrative style Subjective treatment. The camera treatment is called ‘subjec- tive’ when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but how he or she sees it. A temporary ‘first- person’ use of camera as the character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it

64 UNIT 9 LESSON 9: CLASSICAL EDITING CLASSICAL EDITING

(The Classical Hollywood Style : Continuity Cutting) In the initial sequence from Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, A highly standardized system of editing, now virtually universal Honk Kong,1986), director Tsui Hark uses three shots to in commercial film and television but originally associated with establish the locale. In the first one, three musicians are shown Hollywood cinema, that matches spatial and temporal relations against a fireplace in what looks like a luxurious room. Our from shot to shot in order to maintain continuous and clear suspicions are confirmed by the second establishing shot, which narrative action. Generally speaking, the continuity system aims shows us the other half of the ample room shot/reverse shot to present a scene so that the editing is “invisible” (not and reveals a party going on. consciously noticed by the viewer) and the viewer is never distracted by awkward jumps between shots or by any confu- sion about the spatial lay-out of the scene. Classical editing achieves a “smooth” and “seamless” style of NARRATION, both because of its conventionality (it is “invisible” in part because we are so used to it) and because it employs a number of powerful techniques designed to maximize a sense of spatial and temporal continuity. A key element of the continuity system is the 180-DEGREE RULE, which states that the camera must stay on only one side of the actions and objects in a scene. An invisible line, known as the 180 DEGREE LINE or AXIS OF ACTION, runs through the space of the scene. The camera can shoot from any position within one side of that line, but it may never cross it. This convention ensures that the shot will have consistent spatial relations and screen directions. In other words, characters and objects never “flip flop:” if they are on the right side of the screen, they will remain on the right from shot to shot; those on the left will always be on the left. For example, an actor walking from the left side of the screen to the right will not suddenly, in the next shot, appear to be walking in the opposite After this introduction, the camera moves forward with several direction — a reversal that would strike the viewer, if only close-ups of both the musicians and the spectators. At the end fleetingly, as confusing or jarring. With the 180 DEGREE of the sequence, Hark shows us the entire room in a larger shot. RULE, the viewer rarely experiences even a momentary sense of This final establishing shot is called a reestablishing shot, for it spatial disorientation. shows us once again the spatial relationships introduced with In theory, the camera may move anywhere on one side of the the establishing shots. axis of action. In practice, however, the continuity system tends to follows a conventional pattern of camera placement and editing. For example, in a classic instance of two people facing each other in a conversation, a sequence would begin with an ESTABLISHING SHOT, a shot presenting a more or less complete view of the setting, showing the spatial relations among the key figures. The establishing shot gives the spectator an overview so that subsequent shots dissecting the space at a closer range are much less likely to be spatially ambiguous or disorienting. Periodically, the director will provide a RE- ESTABLISHING SHOT, to refresh the viewer’s sense of the scene’s overall geography. Establishing Shot / Reestablishing Shot Another Example: the beginning of Laurence Olivier’s Henry V (1944) includes an establishing shot across a detailed model of A shot, usually involving a distant framing, that shows the 16th century London. spatial relations among the important figures, objects, and setting in a scene. Usually, the first few shots in a scene are establishing shots, as they introduces us to a location and the space relationships inside it.

65 After the establishing shot, the camera typically moves incre- mentally closer to the action. One might see a LONG SHOT of the characters in conversation, followed by a MEDIUM SHOT. Any shot focusing on two people is referred to as a TWO SHOT. As the scene progresses to moments of emotional or dramatic intensity, the camera typically presents closer shots of the individual characters — MEDIUM CLOSE-UPS and CLOSE- UPS. These shots usually alternate between the two speakers, with the camera placed at more or less opposite ends of the axis of action between them. This pattern of alternating shots is called the SHOT/REVERSE SHOT structure. ...but with the use of successive shot/ reverse shots, eyeline Shot / Reverse Shot matches and matching framings, it soons begins to look as if Venus herself is looking at Anna! Two or more shots edited together that alternate characters, Another example: a typical dialogue scene with shot/reverse typically in a conversation situation. In continuity editing, shot between two characters in Written on the wind (1956). characters in one framing usually look left, in the other framing, right. Over-the-shoulder framings are common in shot/reverse- shot editing. Shot / reverse shots are one of the most firmly established conventions in cinema, and they are usually linked through the equally persuasive eyeline matches. These conven- tions have become so strong that they can be exploited to make improbable meanings convincing, as in this sequence from The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy,1996). Director Dario Argento has his protagonist Anna looking at There are three common variations of the SHOT/REVERSE Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus (c1485)... SHOT: 1 In a simple SHOT/REVERSE SHOT, the camera simply alternates between shots that show one person at a time (usually the person talking). 2 An OVER-THE-SHOULDER TWO SHOT is also commonly used in conversation sequences. The camera is placed behind the shoulder of one of the people in the conversation. We see both characters — one more or less frontally and the other from behind (usually we see just part of the head and torso). 3 A somewhat less common approach to the SHOT/ REVERSE SHOT is to use a POINT-OF-VIEW SHOT or POV. The camera is placed where a character’s eyes would be (either exactly or approximately). In a conversation sequence, a POV would generally show a more frontal, head-on perspective of the other character. (The POV, of course, is not found only in conversation sequences. More commonly, a POV shot is cut in before and/or after a shot of the character looking. Hitchcock’s Rear Window, for example, is comprised largely of shots showing the Jimmy Stewart character’s POV as he spies on the apartments across the way, followed by REACTION SHOTS showing him respond to what he sees). A key aim of the CONTINUITY SYSTEM is to ensure that no edit calls attention to itself or strikes the viewer as spatially confusing, inconsistent or awkward. The 180 DEGREE RULE and the conventionality of the editing formula described above do a great deal to achieve this end. There are other standard editing techniques in classical editing: Matches Editing matches refer to those techniques that join as well as divide two shots by making some form of connection between

66 them. That connection can be inferred from the situation portrayed in the scene (for example, ) or can be of a purely optical nature (graphic match). Eyeline Match Hollywood editing employs the EYELINE MATCH to preserve spatial continuity and make the cut less noticeable. In an eyeline match, shot A shows a character looking offscreen and shot B shows what the character is looking at. The character’s gaze is directed precisely so that it corresponds to the spatial layout established in earlier shots. This matching keeps the spatial relations among characters and objects consistent Ironically, even if Argento managed to film inside the real Uffizi from one shot to the next. At the same time, the eyeline match gallery, the painting he wanted to use, The Fall of Icarus, is not makes the cut slightly smoother, since the viewer expects the cut part of the museum’s collection! The painting that we see is and is eager to see what the next shot will show. A cut obeying probably a reproduction, shot in the studio, and edited together the axis of action principle. with Anna’s shots in the Uffizi to make us believe that they are The following shots from Dario Argento’s The Stendhal both in the same room. As this example demonstrates, eyeline Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy, 1996) depict Anna matches can be a very persuasive tool to construct space in a looking at a painting, Brueghel’s The Fall of Icarus. The scene film, real or imagined. takes place inside Firenze’s most famous museum, the Uffizi Gallery. Graphic Match First we see her looking... then we see what she looks at. Two successive shots joined so as to create a strong similarity of compositional elements (e.g., color, shape). Used in transparent continuity styles to smooth the transition between two shots, as in this clip from Women On The Verge Of A Nervous Breakdown (Mujeres al Borde de un Ataque de Nervios, Almodóvar, 1988).

As her interest grows, the eyeline match (that is the connection between looker and looked) is stressed with matching close-ups of Anna’s face and Icarus’s falling into the ocean in the painting. Again, this implies that Anna is looking directly at Icarus’s body.

Graphic matches can also be used to make metaphorical associations, as in Soviet Montage style. Furthermore, some directors like Ozu Yasujiro use graphic matches as an integral part of their film style.

67 Match on Action Examples: North by Northwes(1959), Cary Grant pulls Eva A cut which splices two different views of the same action Marie Saint up the cliff of Mt. Rushmore; then to together at the same moment in the movement, making it Grant pulling her up to a bunk in a train; or the moment in seem to continue uninterrupted. This technique helps “hide” 2001: A Space Odyssey(1968) where a bone tossed in the air by a the cut, since the viewer is paying attention to the action rather primordial ape is visually displaced by a shot of a spinning than the edit. Quite logically, these characteristics make it one of spacecraft. the most common transitions in the continuity style. Here is an Creating this illusion is easy when the shots show different example from Traffic (, 2000) subjects, such as close-ups of two different actors, because the viewer expects the image to change completely from shot to shot. But when two shots cover successive views of the same subject you must spackle the seam with two crucial editing techniques: matching action and changing camera angle.

In matching action you set the edit points so that the incoming shot picks up precisely where the outgoing shot leaves off. There are three ways to do this: continue movement, cut between movements, and start or end off-screen, as you can see from Figure 1.

A match on action adds variety and dynamism to a scene, since it conveys two movements: the one that actually takes place on screen, and an implied one by the viewer, since her/his position is shifted. Match cut a cut in which two shots are joined or linked by visual, aural, or metaphorical parallelism.

68 Cutting in the middle of an ongoing movement is the hardest Cheat Cut method but it delivers the most convincing illusion. In the Cheat cut. In the continuity editing system, a cut which outgoing shot of Figure 1a, the cup descends part-way to its purports to show continuous time and space from shot to shot saucer. Then the incoming shot starts with the cup on-screen but which actually mismatches the position of figures or objects and continues on its path toward the table. With precision in the scene. In this sequence from Meet Me in St. Louis matching, the two arcs seem like different views of the same (Vincente Minelli, 1944) the editing sacrifices actual physical continuous action. You can match continuous action with space for dramatic space. As we can see in the first shot, there is consumer-level editing decks if you’re willing to practice with a wall behind the telephone. the deck’s accuracy. An easier way is to make the cut during a pause in the action, as shown in Figure 1b. Here, the performer completes the whole set-down in medium shot and the close-up starts with the hand and the cup at rest. With no movement to match, the edit is easier. Simpler yet is the old off screen ploy (Figure 1c). The incoming shot starts before the cup enters the frame, so the viewer cannot compare its end position with its start position. With this method, you don’t have to match action at all. The method works equally well if you reverse it so that the outgoing cup ends on-screen and the incoming cup starts off- screen. And when you have a really difficult edit, try both at once: finish the outgoing and start the incoming shots with empty screens. Whichever method you use, matching action does only half the job of concealing the cut. To perfect the illusion you must also shift the camera position. By moving the point of view, you change the subject’s background and deprive the viewer of reference points for matching action. As we’ve often noted, you can change three aspects of camera setup: vertical angle (from bird’s-eye down to worm’s-eye), horizontal angle (from front through 3/4 and profile to rear) and image size (from long shot to close-up). Figure 2 shows why it’s tough to conceal a cut without changing at least one of these aspects and preferably two. Figure 2a shows no angle change between the two shots and the obvious jump cut that results. Figure 2b changes one aspect: image size. If you’re a slick editor you can make this cut work, but it’s easier if you can change a second aspect as well. In Figure 2c the edit changes vertical angle as well as image size for a smoother transition. Should you change all three aspects of a camera position? Maybe, but not necessarily. It doesn’t add to the illusion and it can actually call attention to the edit because the viewpoint change is so great. On the other hand, an extreme angle change can be effective in building suspense precisely because it produces an effect of uneasiness or even disorientation. However, that wall magically disappears in the third shot in 30 DEGREE RULE order to show both the telephone and the family seated around the dining table (an important element in the film) from an Hollywood editing typically adheres to the 30 DEGREE RULE, angle that would had been impossible in an actual room. Cheat which holds that the camera must move at least 30 degrees cuts were also often used to disguise the relatively short stature between shots. In other words, it is taboo to show one shot of leading men in relation to their statuesque female co-stars. and then cut to another shot that is almost the same as the first. If the angle of framing of two adjacent shots is too similar, it Types of Shots used in Continuity Editing creates the appearance that an object is jumping in a staccato We talked about different shots in the previous chapters and burst from one position to another. Although a number of also now we have discussed about certain elements in the modernist directors take advantage of this effect, called the continuity editing system. When considering your shots for use JUMP CUT, to draw attention to editing, Hollywood editing in continuity editing, it is useful to them by what function they avoids it for precisely the same reason. provide for within the scene.

69 The Master Shot The Two-Shot The Master Shot (also known as an establishing shot or the A two-shot is a shot that shows two characters. It can be an MS, wide) is a wide shot that captures all the action in a scene. The MCU or CU. Two-shots are generally distinguished separately to master shot is usually of an objective perspective and shows all Over the shoulder shots (OSS) the characters within the scene and their spatial and directional relationships between one another and their environment. The master shot is usually used at the beginning of a scene (estab- lishing shot) to set up the spatial relationship of the subjects and their environment for the audience. Once the audience knows where the scene is taking place, which characters are involved and where they are in relation to each other, the scene can continue to be shown in closer shots. The Master Shot, however, usually runs for the entire length of the scene. The editor always has the option of cutting back to the Two Shot Two Shot master during any part of the scene. This is particularly used (OSS) when characters move around and change their spatial relation- The over the shoulder shot shows two characters in relation to ships. each other. One character has their back to the camera and is in the foreground, the other character faces the camera. OSS shots are commonly used in dialog scenes.

Over the shoulder shot Over the shoulder shot The Reverse Shot A reverse shot refers to a shot that is taken from the opposite angle to the preceding shot. Its most common use is in OSS shots during dialog.

This master shot shows all the action in the scene. It was used at the beginning and end of the scene. The rest of the scene was shown in close-ups. The Single Shot The single shot is a shot of only one person within the scene. It can be a CU or MS. OS Shot Reverse OS Shot The Reaction Shot (RXN) shows one character’s reaction to another character or situation. Generally a reaction shot is a shot without dialog. Often while one character is talking, an editor will cut to a reaction shot of another character and then back to the talking character. Cutaway The cutaway shot is a shot that is not part of the previous shot but is somehow related to the scene. The cutaway is used to briefly cut away from the action without breaking continuity. It is acceptable for characters to be in a slightly different position or Single Shot Single Shot activity after a cutaway. Cutaways can be used to suggest the

70 Dealers POV Shot Reverse MS Dealer Continuity Rules Avoid Jump Cuts A jump cut is a cut that shows action that couldn’t happen in real life. Any cut which destroys the illusion of continuity is a jump cut. For example, if you have a CU shot of someone passing of time as well as providing the viewer with more drinking a cup of coffee and you then cut to an MS of the same information. Cutaways are also a very handy treatment for person who is no longer holding the coffee cup, you have unwanted jump cuts. created a jump cut. The action across the two shots could not be continuous in real life. If, however, you placed a cutaway of a café waiter between the two shots, the sequence would be acceptable. The audience is not confused and they can accept that during the cutaway, the person put down the coffee cup. Cutaways are often used to avoid jump cuts. Jump cuts can also occur when two shots that are very similar in size, angle and subject, are cut together. For example if you had an MS of a subject and cut to a MCU of the same subject from the same angle, it would appear as a jump cut. Despite the fact that the action is continuous across the cut, the shots are quite similar, yet a little different that it is jarring to the audience and draws attention to itself. The audience are less likely to notice an edit if the next shot is providing them with new information. To provide new information with a shot of the same subject, you need to substantially change the shot size or shot angle. The rules of thumb to avoid a jump cut when cutting between Insert shots of the same subject are that you must either: An insert shot is similar to a cutaway, however, it is usually a CU shot of an element of already present in the current shot. Insert • Change the shot size by at least two standard shot sizes shots draw attention to particular elements of a composition. • Change the camera angle by at least 30 degrees The Axis of Action ( 180 degree rule ) In every scene you shoot there is an axis of action. The axis is an imaginary line that can be drawn through the action in your scene. All your shots must be shot on one side of the line. If you cut to a shot that is taken from the other side of the line, suddenly the action is occurring in the opposite direction and the audience will be confused. For example suppose you are filming a drag car race. The axis of action runs alone the path that the cars are traveling. To not cross the axis of action, you must stay on one side of the road. If you were to cut from a shot taken from one side of the road to a shot taken from the other side of the road the cars would suddenly appear to be traveling in the opposite direction. Two Shot Insert Crossing the line in any scene causes the action to appear to be The Point Of View Shot (POV) happening in the opposite direction. The POV shot shows a scene or setting through the eyes of a People end up facing and traveling in the reverse direction. particular character. It is commonly preceded or followed by a People should only change direction if they are seen to do so reverse shot to show which character’s POV it is. within a shot. You should not cross the line unless you show the audience you are doing so in a moving shot.

71 Maintain spatial and directional relationships Part of this rule relates to the previous rule. Continuity editing is about defining spatial and directional relationships between the elements in your scene. The audience should always know where one character is in relation to another. You can set up spatial and directional relationships by showing the audience a wide or establishing shot of the scene. The audience then knows where everyone is in relation to each other and the scene could continue in closer shots if you wish. In these closer shots however, you need to maintain the relationships. Use eyelines and make sure your character is looking in the appropriate direction. If a character engaged in conversation are not looking where the audience expects the other character to be, then the audience is confused and no longer has a mental picture of the spatial and directional relationships. Keep your characters screen direction ( facing left to right or right to left ) consistent in a scene unless you show them changing.

Notes :

72 UNIT 10 LESSON 10: CONTINUITY EDITING CONTINUTITY EDITING

Continuity Editing Techniques 12 MCU Jane Continuity sequences are a variety of the shots described in the 13 LS Mary leaves previous chapter, that are arranged in a way that complies with Most dialog scenes should be cut with split edits, (edit points the three main continuity rules. for audio and vision differ). For example you might start with a LMC Pattern shot of someone speaking, but before they finish there line you The most basic of continuity sequences use the LMC Editing cut the vision to catch the other characters reaction. Splitting Pattern. LMC stands for Long, Medium, Closeup. This is the your audio and vision edits make your edit points a lot less most common scene structure used. The first long shot (LS) noticeable and a lot more natural feeling. Next time you watch a establishes the scene and introduces the characters involved and film or drama series on television, look and listen carefully for their environment. Then by cutting to a medium shot (MS), split edits. You may even find that the program uses split edits you are engaging your audience by moving them closer into the exclusively during dialog scenes. action. Finally, closeups provide and emphasise the emotion Dialog scenes must be well paced. The pacing must feel natural and details of the scene. Often the LMC pattern is used at the on the screen. What seems natural on the screen is usually a little introduction of a scene and then in reverse (CML) to end a faster than ‘natural’ in real life. Quite often the pacing of dialog scene. needs to be adjusted slightly in the edit room. Pauses, words and even entire sentences and monologues can be deleted if Cutting Dialog necessary. Dialog is often at the heart of narrative video and provides us with the most common of all editing patterns. Cutting back Manipulating Time and forth between two characters engaged in conversation Continuity editing must preserve the illusion of continuous probably dominated a lot of films. For a dialog scene to be action, however if it were really true to life, films would be quite successful, you need to communicate the essence of the the boring and run for days. The filmmaker and editor must use dialog to the viewer. techniques to reduce time while still maintaining the illusion of It is often not enough to merely show whoever is talking. Body continuity. Consider the following scene: A student is burning language of the actors, reaction of the conversers and onlook- the midnight oil, trying to get a last minute assignment ers, cutaways and the environment could all be important finished. This real life event might begin at 6:30pm, after the elements to the scene. Quite often it is more important to see ‘Simpsons’, and not finish until 4:30am the next morning. No the reaction of the character listening rather than seeing the one is ever going to watch a scene that long. You need to shoot character speaking. This involves using the audio from one and edit it in a way to subtly communicate to the audience that shoot and the video from another. When the audio and video time is passing while maintaining an illusion on continuity. edit points differ, it is known as a . 1 MS: Student at desk When cutting dialog between two people it is important to 2 CU: Student face concentrating establish and maintain spatial relationships. This is usually 3 CU: Candle burning on desk done by showing a two shot. You can then continue cutting with single shots or OS shots. When cutting back and fourth 4 CU: Students hand scribing quickly between single shots (or OS shots) always match your shots or 5 MS: Student scrunches paper and throws towards bin you will jar your audience. For example the following sequence 6 CU: Paper lands in bin matches shots during dialog. 7 MCU: Students scribing quickly 1 Establishing Shot, LS Café 8 CU: Student looks out window 2 MS two shot Mary and Jane drink coffee 9 MS: Cutaway night scene outside window. 3 MCU Mary 10 MS: Student leaning back rubbing eyes 4 MCU Jane 11 CU: Candle burnt half way down 5 MCU Mary 12 CU: Student’s face concentrating 6 CU Insert coffee cup 13 CU: Student Scribing 7 CU Jane 14 MS: Student gets up and leaves room 8 CU Mary 15 MS: Student enters Kitchen and opens fridge 9 CU Jane 16 CU: Students grabs food 10 MS two shot Mary stands up 17 CU: Cutaway: Kitchen Clock 11 MCU Mary 18 LS: Student back at work

73 19 CU: Student Flicking through book anticipating a result or effect. Every setup should have a payoff 20 MCU: Cutaway: Window, day is breaking or the audience will not be happy. By making the audience wait for the payoff, you are creating a cliff-hanger. Be careful not to 21 CU: Student tidies and staples papers keep your audience hanging too long or they may become 22 MS: Student blows out candle which is almost full burnt disinterested. Watch a movie or TV drama and identify the down cause and effects, cliff-hangers and payoffs. Take note of the 23 LS: Student falls into bed timing that is involved in a Set-up and payoff. The above sequence is edited down to just over a minute, yet Transitions Between Shots the audience accepts it as continuous action throughout an entire night. Notice the use of cutaways and inserts, bridge The Cut shots and allow for the passing of considerable amounts of • Most basic and most used manner of getting from one shot time. Notice also the use of Exits and Entrances. to another. Exits and Entrances • Used when the action is continuous. If a character exits a the frame in one shot, the audience will • Can be used for change of information or locale. accept it if they enter the next shot even if it is in a different • Can be used effectively in many different contexts eg. time and place. The exit and then subsequent entry give an continuity, montage illusion of continuity. In the above example, when the student leaves their room, we needn’t show them walking down the • Generally this transition is not perceived by the audience. hallway, through the lounge and into the kitchen. We need only • If it is perceived it is called a “jump cut”. use a shot of them entering the kitchen. The illusion of The Dissolve continuity is maintained even though the time and place have • Mixing of one image to the next changed slightly. • Leap in time Parallel Action Parallel Action involves cutting back and fourth between two • Can be used to slow time events that are occurring at the same time. Using parallel action • Change in locale gives your audience two events to observe and will challenge • Use where there is a strong visual relationship between the them to draw conclusions about the relationship between the images to be edited together. two events. It also gives you excellent means to manipulate • Fantasy and dream sequences time. Each time you jump back to a particular event, a considerable The Wipe amount of time may have passed and the audience will accept it • A physical change between two images if a character has made considerable advancements. The faster • Bridges noticeable gaps in image or narrative you cut between the two events, the closer they seem to each • Can be used to suggest a new location but the same time other. The crosscutting between two events that eventually unite should start off relatively slow and become faster and • eg “Star Wars” - wipes used to say “meanwhile, on the other faster. side of the galaxy….” Devices used to manipulate Time The Fade In • Cutaways • Fade in is usually used at the beginning of a narrative sequence • Inserts • Suggests beginning of scene • Exits and Entrances • Also may suggest a change in time and location • Parallel Action The Fade Out • Fades and Dissolves Editing Considerations • Image fades to a single colour, most often black • Suggests the end of a narrative scene or current timeIt is Cause and Effect tempting for a beginner to use a lot of the fancy transitions Everyone who lives in the real world are aware of cause and available in . A lot of these transitions draw effect. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. attention to themselves and destroy the illusion of When something happens, it causes some sort of effect. The continuity. The audience is made explicitly aware that they are order in which you arrange your shots during editing, suggests watching an edited program, and it may distract them from a lot to the audience about cause and effect. Simply reversing the the content. Use these types of transitions sparingly and order of shots can suggest a completely different cause and with care. effect and thus meaning to the audience. Considerations for Cutting & Editing Narative Set-Up and Payoff • Is the audience able to identify with a particular character or A set ut is used to create suspense and dramatic tension. It is a are we merely observers? series of shots which show a cause and has the audience • Does a particular character dominate, - does that dominance shift during the scene?

74 • Does the dialogue function as narrative or is it merely shot focusing on the curves of Ripley’s sleeping face to a curve embroidery? of the Earth. Generally the filmmaker tries to keep elements • How does the movement of the camera or characters help constant across a number of shots; he or she will attempt to the scene? avoid colour clashes, will focus on the centre of the shot, and keep lighting levels constant. • Should the scene be carried wide or are close shots essential? Although most editing generates a sense of continuity discon- • If you cut in close will it preclude you from cutting wide tinuous editing also has a purpose. Bordwell and Thompson again? give an example from Paris, Texas, where two men confronting • Are there significant details or reactions that must be seen? each other are both slightly off centre, looking across the space • Does a reaction need to be explained? to where the other stands off screen. Nevertheless, the scene is balanced across the two shots. • When is a reaction more significant than an action? The editing in Forbidden Planet is of such quality that there is • Does the movement in a scene demand a shock cut to point no sense of discontinuity in these graphical elements across out the drama? shots. Costumes, lighting levels, framing are all constant and • Does the scene have a natural climax? seamless. • What elements apart from the characters are important to the Rhythmic relations scene? Inherent rhythm of the shot • Are there visual and sound metaphors that are important to determined by length of the shot the scene? Filmmakers may establish certain effects by varying the length • Do other sounds have any significance apart from dialogue? of the shot and thus the rhythm of the film. A scene from exemplifies this. After a • What is the function of the scene? display of swordplay that is meant to establish dominance and • How does the scene fit into the overall film/program? fear in Indiana Jones, he coolly draws a handgun and shoots • When is the best time to reveal elements of the story? If it the black-dressed swordsman. Spielberg discovered here that he happens too early will you lose the audiences interest? had to add some film to the shot after this climax to allow the Dimensions of audience to ‘calm down’. Continuity editing is a convention of editing a film that has In other instances editing is used to establish a rhythm when been established in the beginning of the film history. It has shots are of the same duration, or are of increasing or decreas- been carried through to present times by the editors to tell a ing duration. A sequence of rapid shots often is linked with story, so that it can be understood by the viewer without any action and has the effect of leaving the audience with little time distraction. Some time we follow the rules of continuity and to think. This builds up excitement and, apart from sometime discontinuity is needed for the desired effect. action sequences, is used in television advertisements and music The aesthetics of editing relies on four basic areas of choice and videos. In some respects this fast cutting replicates the montage control: effect in Russian film we’ll talk about in the lessons ahead. • graphic relations Spatial relations For Creating geography of the scene • rhythmic relations Juxtaposition of two image to create new meaning • spatial relations Using Symbolic attributes of the image • temporal relations This is one of the significant powers in editing. When we see Graphical relations cause and effect in two different shots we immediately associate Every image on the screen has a graphic quality and it is kept them. Bordwell and Thompson’s example of a cannon firing, continuous from shot to shot within a scene. For this purpose followed by another shot of a shell exploding at a target is an one has to look for – example. We assume that one shot is caused by the other but Similarity of graphic elements : like line/shape/depth this logical sequence, this logical association, is only made logical Similarity of composition : angle/ arrangement of characters through editing. In fact the shot of the cannon firing may bear Similarity of texture : tonal contrast/ lighting no relationship to that of the target being hit. It is only because Similarity of direction : speed /direction of movement /Action of editing that we infer a relationship. occurring in the same area of the frame A good example of this is in television interviews that are Graphic relations involve the pictorial elements of the shots; conducted outside the studio. We see the interviewer asking the that is, lighting, setting, costume, actors’ behaviour, photogra- question in one shot and in a different shot the interviewee phy, framing and camera mobility. answers that question. During the answer the we might cut to These elements generally need to match in the transition from the interviewer nodding or in some other way expressing shot to shot in any one scene. Filmmakers generally aim to interest. In these interviews the takes of the interviewer asking achieve an ease of transition from one shot to another. At the question are shot at a different time to the interview where, times, though, this transition is used to move the viewer’s because cameras are limited, the focus is all the time on the attention to a different plane in the narrative, to a different interviewee. Takes of the interviewer feigning interest (called perception. For example, in Aliens you’ll see a transition from a ‘noddies’ in the trade because he is nodding in agreement) are

75 made after or before the interview. But the use of judicious • change the scale, angle, or both; cutting makes it all appear to be a seamless interview. • camera angle should shift by 30 degrees. Temporal relations • Graphic patterns are similar from shot to shot. Determined by the order of the shots and then as a whole • Figures are balanced and symmetrical. order of the scenes. • Lighting is constant and consistent. Order of the shots how they are placed in the scene Overlapping edits • Dramatic action is centered in frame. jumpcuts • Rhythm of editing follows scale of shot. flashbacks and flashforwards The 180 degree Rule Shots presented in order infer a particular sequence in time. But Establishes an axis of action that shots can be edited to infer flashbacks. The filmmaker controls this order of events through editing. • ensures consistency of backgrounds; What you should look for achieving continuity • ensures consistent screen direction; editing • preserves the audience perspective of an invisible fourth wall. continuity editing, scenes are analyzed into their constituent • Ensures common space from shot to shot parts (e.g. establishing shot (showing the whole layout), • Ensures constant screen direction • Clearly delineates space • Shot/Reverse Shot • Eyeline Match • Establishment/Breakdown/Reestablishment • Match on Action Why we need the continuity - to • Maximize the dramatic impact of each shot; • Direct the audience’s attention to significant parts of the two-shots (showing two protagonists discussing action. something), shot-reverse shot structure (cutting from MCU • Break down events into individual actions. of one character to MCU of another as they talk) and CUs of • Identify details in close-up. significant objects or small gestures. In order for these to be appreciated as taking place within a • Link actions in a cause and effect chain. single space, the formula is that the camera can be placed The Premises behind : anywhere on one side of an imaginary line drawn through the Practical premises of continuity editing : scene (This is called the 180 degree rule because the camera can • Audience should perform no labor of attention. be placed anywhere on an arc of 180 degrees on one side of the line: an angle of 180 degrees is a straight line) • Audiences memory of dramatic space must be reinforced Here is the idea in graphic form: through constant repetition. Looked at the figure below, cameras 1, 11 and 1111 are on the • Audience interest should be maintained through patterned correct side of the line. Camera 111 is on the wrong side. variation of scale and angle. • The film should prevent a series of changing views that conform to a consistent pattern of expectations. Aesthetic premises of continuity editing : • Linking of actions should be linear and consecutive, following logic of cause and effect. • Passage from one shot to the next should be perceived as continuous; transitions between shots should be Invisible. • Motivation and verisimilitude. • Unrestricted narration and omniscience of camera. • Perceptual freedom and mobility. • Spectator as voyeur or invisible guest. What are the factors which contributes - Composition Composition and framing in continuity editing : • When changing setups

76 Camera 1 sees both characters face to face, like this We also looked at a more recent innovation, the use of cranes and steadicam to produce dynamic descriptions of a specific space, such as the Jack Rabbit Slim’s set in Pulp Fiction, where the camera crosses the line repeated following John Travolta through the set, but in the process gives us all the information we need to understand the spatial relationship between characters. In another example, from The Abyss, we saw how the editor cuts between a fluidly moving point-of-view shot from the ‘eye’ of the pseudo pod to a shot-reverse shot scene in which it first meets the two protagonists of the film. Examples in Continuity Editing: It was at this point that the theory of continuity editing was Camera Two Looks over Lite’s shoulder to see Dark’s face, like born. The basic concept is to create an illusion of continuity this: while leaving out parts of the action that slow the film’s pacing. For example, you need to shoot this scene: A woman drives up to an apartment house in a car. She gets out. She enters the building and takes the elevator to the 12th floor. She gets out of the elevator. She walks to Apt. 1294 at the end of a long hallway. She knocks on the door. The action takes five minutes in “real time.” Viewers will get bored watching the woman travel from her car to the apartment house door if nothing meaningful happens during her journey. What do you do? Use continuity editing to shorten “real time” to “screen time.” Here is an edit list that makes the action move faster but yet Camera 4 reverses the angle, to look over Dark’s shoulder to see maintains the illusion of continuity (The number in parenthe- Light’s face, like so: sis is shot length in seconds): • LS: Car drives up to apartment house entrance.(10) • MS: Woman gets out of car and walks towards apartment house. (5) • ZOOM: From LS of apartment house to window on 12th floor. (2) • LS: Woman gets out of elevator on 12th floor. (3) • CU: Woman’s feet as she walks away from the camera. (2) • MS: Woman knocks on the door of Apt. 1294 (4) • CU: Apt. number #1294 on door and her fist hitting door. (2) But camera 3 reverses the spatial relationship between them, so Seven shots. 28 seconds in screen time instead of five minutes that Dark appears to be on Light’s left, thus confusing the in real time. Our imagination fills in the missing parts — the viewer and disturbing the spatial continuity which continuity walk into the building; waiting for the elevator; the elevator ride, editing seeks to produce: walking down the hallway, etc. Continuity editing compresses “real time” to screen time” to hide the “pieces of time” missing from the sequence. Scene matching In matching scenes the following three requirements must be satisfied. It is necessary to match: 1 The position. 2 The movement. 3 The look. The movie screen is a fixed area. If a performer is shown on the left side of the screen in a full shot, he must be on that side if there is a cut to a close shot placed on the same visual axis. If Continuous camera movement and the description of space this rule for matching the position is not respected, awkward

77 visual jumps on the screen will result, so that the audience has naked desert hills were back too; all we had to do was make that to switch attention from one sector to another to locate the day’s footage look just like the stuff we shot the day before. main character whose adventures they are following. This is Matching footage is a common production problem, but both annoying and distracting. The spectator must be given a luckily, one with all kinds of solutions. We’ll show you how to comfortable eye scan of the shots with a constant orientation match shots made in separate locations, how to solve problems that allows him to concentrate on the story. For this purpose (like the sergeant) at a single location and how to bring disparate the screen is usually divided in two or three vertical parts, in places together through compositing. Before we wrap, we’ll which the main performers are placed. All position matching is divulge some directing and editing tips that’ll make your fakery done in any or all of these areas. more convincing. Matching the movement has a similar logical base. Direction of Oh, about the sergeant: waiting until late afternoon, we parked movement should be the same in two consecutive shots that our tallest slab-sided grip van across the sun’s path to throw a record the continuous motion of a performer otherwise the huge shadow on the ground. We soaked the shadow area with audience will be confused about the supposed direction of water from 55-gallon drums; drenched the actor to match and movement. If the movement is of a similar kind and in the shot all his closeups from angles high enough to frame off the same direction, the audience follows the motion of the subject surrounding sunshine and the giveaway hills beyond. We got easily. But if the direction of movement is suddenly reversed in our downpour from a garden sprayer that pumped rain in the second shot, there will be confusion as to where the subject convincing style. In post, we then cooled the sunny color is going. temperature down to drizzle-blue and the resulting closeups cut Matching the look is the third requirement to be taken into together perfectly with the rainy wide shots. account when assembling shots where players appear individu- Matching Different Locations ally or in groups. Matched looks on the screen are always The most common multi-location matching problem involves opposed. Two subjects who exchange looks, do so in conflict- stock shots. Establishing shot of Eiffel Tower (with cheesy ing directions. When two people face each other, their glances accordion on sound track), CUT TO sidewalk cafe. Trouble is, are in opposed directions. If the actors are framed in separate you’ve faked the cafe on your back patio and this fact is painfully shots, this opposition in directions must be maintained for a obvious. To improve the match, you’ll want to work on both proper visual continuity. If both players were looking in the the stock shot and the cafe set. same direction in both shots, they would logically be looking at First, lose the cliche Eiffel Tower. Try to find a Parisian street a third person or object, and not at each other. Without this with readable signs in French, a street that might have a cafe opposition of glances, scenes become weak and sometimes somewhere up ahead. This will tell the audience where they are meaningless. and form a plausible relationship with the backyard set. Establishing and maintaining a constant opposition in the Then fix the patio. Swap the resin chairs for classic wire models direction of a look exchanged between two players, can be and get an umbrella with Pernod ads on it. Place a laser-printed achieved very simply. The only requisite is that their heads face menu with a readable Plats du Jour or some-such on the table each other. The physical distance between them is unimportant. and don’t forget an ashtray because the French still smoke. This If a player moves to a position where he now has his back to is called “selling the gag.” We’ll have more to say on this later. his fellow player, the opposition of looks is maintained as he Sometimes you need to combine different locations into one. I periodically glances at the other person over his shoulder, or if once created a show in which I staged a bank robbery at three after a moment, he turns to face his interlocutor again. In a completely different spots: a building that resembled a bank, an group of three, one of them is the arbiter of attention. When actual bank and a public phone booth. My ten-year-old hero one of the actors speaks, the other two look at him. As the catches sight of the baddies escaping from the stand-in bank, interest shifts, one of the players looks to the new centre of glances up to see the real bank’s sky sign, then rushes into the attention, making an effective and clear change for the audience phone booth (which was actually miles away) to morph into an to follow. adult superhero. Tips & Tricks for cutting a seamless scene We made the matches using two techniques: so-called “glance- Shooting on location in a Noah-grade downpour, we were object” cutting and screen direction. As its name suggests, a drenched but happy. The sheeting rain obscured the fact that glance-object pair is a shot of someone looking off camera our “Vietnamese field” was really a canyon near Hollywood and that’s cut with a shot of what he or she supposedly sees. This the photogenic mists created the only “Southeast Asian” editorial pairing tells the audience that the looker and look-ee are weather we’d been granted in four sunny weeks of production. in the same location. By cutting to the bank sign from our We covered most of the sergeant’s death scene: plodding hero’s look and then back to him, we established boy and sign through the field, hit by an unseen sniper, he flailed to the to be in the same place. ground as his men scattered, he sprawled face down in the To integrate the phone booth, we established it with a glance- mud. We shot the sergeant falling face down to hide his object combination and then cemented the spatial relationship features, because that day he the part was played by a crew with screen direction. Our hero looks off-right to “see” the member doubling as the actual actor, who was off on another booth, then runs “toward” it and exits the frame, screen right. production. In the matching phone-booth shot, he runs in from screen left, The actor who played the sergeant was back the next day for his makes his transformation in the booth, then rushes back off close up, but the blinding sunshine, the bone-dry field and the screen left. And he then runs into frame from screen right at the

78 bogus bank location. The matched action and screen direction Photoshop or Corel Photopaint and build composites, frame bring the phone booth and bank together. by painstaking frame. (Even these programs do a better job Matching Different Conditions when assisted by compositing software plugins.) In compositing, matching action is more critical because The opposite of matching different locations is matching components from different locations appear on screen at the conditions at the same location, but in different shooting same time where they can be directly compared. Recently I shot sessions. Simple continuity can be a frustrating hassle in any some footage of my daughter to add to our summer vacation shoot, as actors show up in different clothes, or worse: “Hey: video by compositing her onto the Staten Island ferry. I got you dyed your hair green!” “Yeah, it’s green now. Is that a most of it right: posing her against a plain blue sky, I aligned problem?” her to match the sun angle on the distant Statue of Liberty in After continuity, the trickiest match is light: sunshine or the background shot (at least as I remembered it) and she raised overcast, long or short shadows, noon white color or sunset her arm just the right amount to “point” at it. orange. If you’re going to match multiple shooting sessions, go But when I tried compositing her with a distant Miss Liberty, for a neutral white balance in all of them (you can dial in a the proportions were all off. With a lot of patience, I was able uniform sunset or whatever in post). If the day-to-day to scale her down to fit the background footage, but not all weather’s uncertain in your area, avoid ostentatiously sun- software allows this. Again, the moral is, there’s no substitute splashed lighting. However, if you do have available power, you for reviewing the “A” footage when setting up the “B” shots. can sometimes simulate sun by pumping blue-filtered light into closeups. Directing and Editing Tricks When the problem is a missing actor like our sergeant you can With compositing or any other matching process, you can’t sometimes double the performer as described above; but this is simply juxtapose elements and expect them to work. Your tough to pull off when there’s dialogue. In this situation, have success depends largely on how well you sell the gag, that is, a stand-in play the scene with the actor present, for reference. If how cunningly you supply extra evidence that your separate practical, make a rough edit with the stand-in and play it later for pieces are really one. the missing actor, so that she or he can replicate the rhythm of For example, pretend you’re shooting Son of Matrix. You’ve the main scene. Use the tape yourself to ensure that the actor’s got plenty of wide shots of a giant factory but you’re not orientation and eye movement will cut smoothly with the earlier allowed on the grounds to shoot scenes with actors. To footage. combine the two, you plan your sequence like this: In fact, a 12-volt VCR/TV combo and a work tape of previous 1 Establishing shot of factory. footage are indispensable tools for matching everything about 2 Closeup of hero (in distinctive leather overcoat) against wall lighting, performance and continuity. Planning helps too. In that matches factory shot. another project, we rented an antique milk delivery truck. The cost was so high that we could only afford it for one day, 3 Another factory wide shot with small-size hero composited though it appeared in a sequence that took three days to shoot. in. As he moves forward ... To solve the problem, we shot all the truck setups together, out 4 ... Action-matched closeup of hero as before. of sequence, and we pre-planned the other camera angles to See how it works? The opening wide shot can remain on screen frame off the spot where the vehicle was (no longer) parked. long enough to solidly establish the locale. (Because it’s a The whole business was complicated by the fact that the truck’s “straight” shot it will withstand audience scrutiny.) The supposedly pre-dawn rounds had to be shot day for night, but introductory close shot of the hero includes a visually distinctive that’s another story. feature, the overcoat. When you Composite the hero into the second wide shot, he’s small enough to be visually plausible but Compositing still identifiable through his signature overcoat. Because the Nowadays, most advanced amateur and professional opening has already established the factory, this second wide videographers can combine separate elements by placing shot can be brief enough to conceal the fact that it’s a compos- foreground subjects in completely different backgrounds ite. Finally, the matched action with the hero’s second close shot through the process of digital compositing. ties the composite to it. How much you use this postproduction technique depends on Another trick is to use portable elements in both locations. how well your computer system works. The chromakey controls Shooting in a convenient alley, a ho-hum director might have on stand-alone switchers are okay for titles and brief compos- the bad guys, drive up and pile out of the car. A good director, ites; but they fringe somewhat under most conditions and the however, might use the car door to glue alley and factory results can look disappointing. together: Some digital editing packages, like Adobe Premiere, include a compositing feature that works pretty well. But for truly 5 Baddies drive into shot and stop. Passenger looks out seamless integration of subject and background, you may want window. to add a plug-in that does compositing, like Boris FX or a 6 His P.O.V.: the factory framed in the passenger door window. stand-alone compositing program, like Adobe After Effects, The door swings open. which is specifically designed to feather, defringe and otherwise 7 Medium shot: the passenger Baddie jumps out of the car. blend the images. For the most finicky work, you can export Because we see the door at the factory location, we assume that your raw materials to a still image program like Adobe the whole car and its passengers are there too. In fact, the

79 director simply drove the car to the factory, aimed the camcorder i The 180-degree rule, a major rule of Continuity Editing that out the passenger window and then pushed the door open. states that the camera must remain on one side of the If I’d been smarter in shooting my bank robbery, I could have narrative action in order to ensure consistent spatial placed the same prop bus bench (with a distinctive ad on its relationships and direction of movement from shot to shot. back) in both the main locale and the phone booth location. (drawing an imaginary line through the action and shooting Then we’d see the left half of the bench bleeding off screen from only one side of that line) right as the boy exited right. And we’d see the right half ii A reverse angle shot is a shot taken from an angle opposite bleeding off left in the matching phone booth setup. the one from which the preceding shot has been taken. Editors depend on directors to supply the raw material for a The reverse angle technique is frequently employed in blending elements together. But there are also tricks that are dialogue scenes to provide the editor with alternate facial pure postproduction. Aside from matched cutting and shots of the actors speaking – “shot/reverse shot” compositing, most of these tricks involve blending. Color blending is the easiest technique. Footage from the iii The 30-degree rule (moving camera set-ups at least 30 factory, the alley and the wall are all shot with a neutral color degrees from each other during a scene). balance. Now the editor imposes a faint greenish tint across all iv Eyeline match of them, partly to indicate that they take place within the a The alternation of two shots, the first showing a character “matrix,” but partly to give them all the same look. (Science looking off-screen, the second showing what the character’s fiction films, from Blade Runner on, rely heavily on the use of seeing. color design to unify disparate elements.) But the most powerful blender of all is audio. Present the Notes : ominous rumbling hum of the factory under the establishing shot and then roll it under every subsequent setup. Stitch locations together with split edits, in which the audio starts the new shot before the video or vice versa. By laying the screech of the baddies’ tires under our hero’s closeup, the editor estab- lishes that their car is in the same place even before we see it. (If the director was on the ball, our Hero will look offscreen toward the tire sound.) And deep down, under all the sound effects, the music is pulsing and jangling under every shot in the sequence, mainly for emotional reinforcement, but at least partly to help blend everything together. Finally, it’s worth repeating that you shouldn’t linger on what you’ve doctored. Even the finest fakery will give itself away if the audience can study it long enough. Points to remember about Continuity Editing 1 The classical Hollywood narrative film is usually cut according to the rules of continuity or the invisible editing that is critical in the storytelling process but the viewer should be unaware of shot transitions (how we get from one shot to the next) – the editing. 2 The system of editing, largely was developed in the US in the 1910s, that still dominates film language. 3 This type of editing optimizes the illusory power of cinema and allows the viewer to become absorbed by the narrative, 4 Continuity editing in narrative filmmaking is used to condense time and space as well as to emphasize story elements, structuring the narrative material so that patterns of meaning are created. 5 Continuity Editing moves the story and is generally slower than dynamic editing 6 Continuity Editing can work only if the director shoots the original sequence according to certain rules. The Continuity approach uses a set of rules that aim to hide rather than emphasize the cut. These rules include:

80 UNIT 11 LESSON 11: THE EARLY RUSSIAN CINEMA & THE EARLY RUSSIAN CINEMA & MONTAGE MONTAGE

During the 1920s a vibrant film culture arose in the Soviet elements and organizes them into a larger context by adding the Union in the period following the Russian Revolution. This causal relationship between them. This relationship exists only resulted in influential developments in film theory and a in the viewer’s mind. A series of still images, when projected, distinctive body of films. Several of these films stand as results in the illusion of motion itself. A series of larger units landmarks in the history of world cinema. The Soviet film- (shots), when shown in sequence, will result in an illusionary makers of the 1920s were instrumental in the development of narrative meaning. Formalism, the dominant film theory of the silent era. Sergei Eisenstein’s Montage Theory Formalism was applied to a range of arts, including literature Our view of early Soviet cinema is now dominated by the films and painting, and held that an artwork’s meaning existed and theories of Sergei Eisenstein, in particular his theories on primarily in its form or language, rather than in its content or montage which informed his method of film-making. He subject. Formalists saw their art as a tool of social change. developed his ideas first in the theatre and then in a series of Lev Kuleshov Experiments films: Strike (1924), Battleship Potemkin (1925), October (1927) Lev Kuleshov was an early Russian filmmaker who believed and The General Line (1928). Eisenstein constructed these films that juxtaposing two unrelated images could convey a separate using shots as his cinematic building blocks. He avoided long meaning. Kuleshov experiments with Birth of a Nation and takes, which detracted from the control he could exert over his Intolerance and develops a new theory on the c.u.: that it can be images and the impact they subsequently had on an audience. used as more than an intensification of longer shots; that it can The short shots were referred to as shocks or attractions because be useful in juxtapositions. In his experiment he filmed they stood out and commanded attention within a film. These Mozhukhin, a famous Russian actor, and shots of a bowl of shocks were edited together in a process called montage, to soup, a girl, a child playing, and a coffin. He then cut the shot of convey a particular meaning. For example, in Strike the nature of the actor into the other shot; each time it was the same shot of the slaughter perpetrated by the Cossack army is conveyed by the actor. juxtaposing scenes of advancing soldiers with a bull being CU Actor+ Shot of a bowl of soup slaughtered and ink being spilt over a street-map of the city CU Actor+Shot of a girl being attacked. CU Actor+Shot of a child playing Eisenstein was building on theories of film-making developed CU Actor+Shot of a coffin by Lev Kuleshov and Dziga Vertov. Audiences saw Mozhukhin as “hungry,” “sorrowful” and These pioneers of Soviet cinema, working under economic “fatherly.”Viewers felt that the shots of the actor conveyed constraints, re-edited existing film-stock to develop their ideas different emotions, though each time it was in fact the same of film grammar. Kuleshov experimented with how shots shot. Kuleshov used the experiment to indicate the usefulness before and after an image affected its interpretation. He realized and effectiveness of film editing. he could modify an audience’s reaction to a shot by changed the One of the most significant theoretical discoveries in the history images either side of it in a montage sequence. Vertov devel- of film is the effect discovered by Lev Kuleshov in the early oped an influential theory called Kino-Pravda (film truth) and 1920s in the Soviet Union. Kuleshov proved that two shots stressed the importance of rhythm in editing, for example, projected in succession are not interpreted separately by the speeding up a montage sequence towards its climax. viewer; in the audience’s mind, they are integrated into a whole Eisenstein extended the initial theory of montage to encom- according to the well-known equation A + B = C (in which A pass intellectual montage, by which a film is constructed as a and B are the two joined shots and C is a new value, not series of colliding shocks (attractions) to convey a specific originally included in any of these shots). meaning to the audience. Eisenstein saw montage as a dialectical This effect is extremely powerful. A scene, for example, process, which raised conflicts that needed to be resolved. The consisting of the shot of aircraft dropping bombs followed by specific meaning created in the minds of the audience, by the the shot of a burning village will be routinely interpreted as juxtaposition of two images, was solely due to their juxtaposi- “these aircraft have bombed this village.” Needless to say that tion and not the content of the individual images. Therefore, these two shots could have been filmed at different places, at intellectual montage is a good example of formalistic thinking different times, and the burning village may have been the result in film. It is concerned with creating definite meaning through of an accident. form, using brief juxtaposed shocks, for an ideological The Kuleshov effect has been adequately described, analysed purpose. In Battleship Potemkin the juxtaposition of descend- and explained. Yet its implications have been generally seen in a ing faceless soldiers with close-ups of students, pleading restricted context. Actually, the Kuleshov principle is analogous mothers and other identifiable members of society, forcefully to the mechanisms, which produce the illusion of film motion. conveys a message of repression, whilst explosions at the palace On both occasions, the viewer perceives individual and separate are juxtaposed with statues of lions on the gates that appear to

81 rise up suggesting the awakening of a revolutionary spirit.

In October a revolutionary leader is juxtaposed with a gilded peacock to indicate his vanity. The images used in this style of montage could therefore interrupt the narrative to make specific points. A film could be constructed using a series of shocks, according to Eisenstein, to convey any abstract concept to an audience. He claimed that even Marx’s Das Kapital could be filmed in this way. His intention was to convey clear messages through the manipulation of images, for example, to strengthen a viewer’s political conviction in revolutionary politics. Eisenstein saw that sound and vision could be treated indepen- dently in montage, or used in concert to great effect. Shots in a film and phrases of music, for example, could be timed together to increase the impact of a key shot. He also under- stood the importance of the rhythm of music in accentuating the rhythm of montage, for example, the use of military music in the Odessa Steps sequence of Battleship Potemkin. Typage Another feature of Eisenstein’s work was that he was not interested in using professional actors, but used amateurs who were asked to draw on the experience of their own lives. This formed the basis of his theory of “typage” — people chosen on basis of their “type”. Quote: “The only thing I need is contact with the people” — felt their was a greater sense of reality with this technique. Came from imagination and observation. He wanted people in his films to represent archetypes, and cast people who resembled the universal image of groups within society. For example, in Battleship Potemkin archetypes of students, mothers and soldiers are presented. Philosophy — a 30 year old playing a 60 year old —> rehearsal is weeks at tops. 60 year old playing 60 year old has a lifetime of rehearsal. Act as themselves The “Odessa Steps” sequence from The Battleship Potemkin by Sergei Eisenstein Eisenstein believed that montage (juxtaposing images by film editing) could create ideas or have an impact not found in the individual images. Two or more images together create a “tertium quid” (third thing) that makes the whole greater than the sum of its individual images. Sergei Eisenstein’s theory of montage involves the combining of fragmental shots of film into intellectual series and contexts. How the fragments combine and are formed is the essence of his notion of montage by conflict. This theory challenges traditional narrative movies because it involves taking an idea and recombining broken fragments in an incongruent way to produce new ideas, and occasional shocks.

82 The most famous sequence in “Battleship Potemkin”—the massacre on the Odessa Steps—is one of the most famous in film history. The Odessa citizenry have been supporting the mutinous sailors with food and good cheer. Suddenly, from the top of the flight of marble steps leading to the harbor come marching Czarist soldiers with drawn rifles. Shots ring out, and men; women and children flee in a dizzying, terrifying rush. A mother screams in horror at the sight of her fallen child. She cradles his body in her arms, and approaches the soldiers: one woman defying an army. Another mother is shot; and the force of her falling body causes a baby carriage to roll out of control down the steps. Corresponding close-ups of faces unforgetta- bly reflect the sheer insanity of the moment. “Perhaps no other movie has ever had such graphic strength in its images … The Odessa Steps sequence, the most celebrated Expressionist film makers like Robert Wiene who created The single sequence in film history, has been imitated in one way or Cabinet of Dr. Caligari build their distorted and tortured scenes another in countless television news programs and movies with with the artifice of shape, paint and light. The expressionists crowd scenes; it has also been parodied endlessly. And yet the were concentrating attention on the image and inviting the power of the original is undiminished.” spectator to examine and react to that image as a notion of a —Rob Edelman state of mind-an intent not totally different from Eisenstein’s. Eisenstein’s images from The Odessa Steps sequence (the boots of the Cossacks stomping down the Odessa Steps, the woman’s face after she has been shot, the falling baby carriage, and the woman’s bleeding eye) evoke a horror that is just as distorted and tortured (albeit, more naturalistically) as the images of The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.

83 17 Wide shot, same as 10, shows the plate smashing onto the edge of the table, and then shots fades out NOTE: The action of the sailor smashing the plate required 8 shots—Eisenstein was interested in extending the action with uninflected shots—as if to show the rage of the sailor—he lifts the plate above his left shoulder, then down and up above his right shoulder, and then he smashes it down. Shot 15 is especially important—a quick close-up of his enraged face. Eisenstein creates a montage effect—expanding the impact of the dramatic action with shots that go in the same direction— eight shots to express “rage” at such mistreatment at the hands of the officers. This action sets up the climactic action explored below—when all of the men decide to mutiny. Hollywood would never do this - it would take the mise-en- scene first, rather than the editing - the opposite to Potemkin. Here we have form matching the content, and it also expands In Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin, a small scene where a sailor time. Eisenstein’s editing is very emotional. The patterns that smashes a plate, occurs over ten cuts. On one hand, we have the Eisenstein makes is a montage of collusions - one shot being mise-en-scene. On the other, we have the editing. The editing very different to another. makes the action more powerful, and it agitates. There is no Montage Theories smooth continuity between the cuts, and there is hardly any In Eisenstein’s essay, ‘A Dialectical Approach to Film Form’, match-on action. There is also a zoom effect which, rather than Eisenstein articulated the doctrine which underlies many of his being smooth, jumps. theories relating to montage: Context: In Odessa, 1905, Czarist Russia. Frustrated and For art is always conflict: angered by poor shipboard conditions, the sailors of the Russian ship Potemkin are near mutiny. They are served 1 according to its social mission, maggot-ridden meat, gruel, and dry bread. One of the sailors, 2 according to its nature, washing dishes, comes across a plate that is engraved, “Give us 3 according to its methodology this day our daily bread.” Enraged, he smashes the dish. How According to its social mission because: It is art’s task to make is this shown? manifest the contradictions of Being. To form equitable views The smashed plate: by stirring up contradictions within the spectator’s mind, and to forge accurate intellectual concepts from the dynamic clash of 1 CU of hands washing plate opposing passions. 2 Reaction shot of sailor According to its nature because: Its nature is a conflict between 3 CU of his hands moving plate around so that he reads the natural existence and creative tendency. Between organic inertia saying and purposeful initiative. 4 Reaction of sailor—he is still reading Applied to cinema, this ‘stirring up’ of contradictions and forging of ‘accurate intellectual concepts’ is achieved via two (not 5 CU of his hands moving the plate around necessarily related) shots which, when juxtaposed, function to 6 Reaction shot as he looks up, an angry expression in his eyes create a new state of feeling in the spectator. A useful equation 7 CU of plate in his hand for this dialectical montage (or what Eisenstein also describes as 8 Wide shot of other sailors at wash basin—another one leans the ‘montage of attractions’) would be: Thesis + over toread the inscription Antithesis=Synthesis. The juxtaposition or montage of shots can be calculated and 9 Reaction shot of the sailor—anger in his face is plain manipulated in a number of different ways to achieve a variety 10 Quick wide shot of the three sailors at the wash basin—we of effects. In Film Form, Eisenstein lists four ‘definite’ can see sailor holding plate in his hand—he begins to lift the categories of montage rhythmic montage, tonal montage, plate metric montage and his final, and perhaps most controversial 11 High angle of the three sailors—he begins to lift the plate form, intellectual montage. over his head It must be noted however that these categories have been 12 Tight shot of that sailor—lifts plate over his head— applied with relative indifference. For example, in a 1929 text Eisenstein uses musical metaphors to provide names for his 13 Back to previous shot—his hand moves down swiftly montage categories and refers to harmonic montage, a term 14 But now to tight shot again—his hand moves back over his which he later abandons. This reversal perhaps indicates the other shoulder— difficulty of exhaustively listing every form of montage 15 Dark close-up of his angry face possible. However, to prevent any confusion, we will now 16 Wide shot again—this time similar to 11 and 13, his hand examine the categories listed in Eisenstein’s own collection of above his head— he throws his arm down violently— essays, Film Form.

84 Metric Montage: In metric montage, shots are joined together of which is tonal montage. And, like rhythmic montage, this is according to their length, ‘in a formula-scheme corresponding also a special variation of metric montage. to a measure of music. With the absolute length of the piece The parallels between rhythmic and tonal montage are clear; already determined, the content within the shot is arranged so both forms function in accordance with the actions within the that it fits in to the confines of this absolute length. Thus, frame. Indeed, it is important to note that any of these forms tension is created by shortening each shot while preserving the of montage can operate simultaneously within any given original proportions of the formula. Metric montage deter- sequence. mined the tempo of the editing, and was dictated by the duration, rather than the content, of each shot. Rhythmic Montage: While in metric montage, the content was determined by the absolute length of the sequence, in rhythmic montage, the action within the frame is given as much weight as the actual physical length of each shot. The rhythm of the montage can therefore conflict with the rhythm of the move- ment within the frame thus generating tension. Therefore, in the ‘Odessa steps sequence’ in The Battleship Potemkin, it is not only the length of each shot which creates tension but also the rhythmic marching of the soldiers’ feet which, unsynchronised with the rhythm of the editing, ‘violates all metrical demands.’ As Eisenstein himself points out: The Odessa steps sequence in Potemkin is a clear example of this [rhythmic montage]. In this the rhythmic drum of the soldiers’ feet as they descend the steps violates all metrical demands. Unsynchronized with the beat of the cutting, this drumming comes in off-beat each time, and the shot itself is entirely different in its solution with each of these appearances. The final pull of tension is supplied by the transfer from the While the texture or emotional feel of the shots was the basis rhythm of the descending feet to another rhythm - a new kind of Tonal Montage, you would often hear about another type of of downward movement - the next intensity level of the same montage called the Overtonal montage which is a synthesis of activity - the baby-carriage rolling down the steps. metric, rhythmic and tonal which, while not existing in a single Although it may not be readily apparent upon first glance, a frame or in an edited sequence, became evident, as Eisenstein tension does exist, in the Odessa steps sequence, between the wrote, the moment the ‘dialectical process of the passing of the slow marching of the soldiers and the quicker beat of the film through the projection apparatus’ commenced. montage. Indeed, as Eisenstein goes on to suggest, the Intellectual montage rhythm of the movement within the frame and the rhythm of Intellectual montage, perhaps more than any of his other the cutting only begin to parallel when the pram, described by theories, brought Eisenstein the greatest amount of criticism. Eisenstein as a ‘progressing accelerator’, begins its descent In October, intellectual montage was deemed a failure by the downwards. Party leadership. They had asked Eisenstein to make a film, Tonal Montage: Tonal montage, represents a level above which would be ‘intelligible to the masses,’ (the film was rhythmic montage, and is motivated by the emotional tone of a commissioned to celebrate the proletarian revolution) but with particular sequence. Thus, in the sombre mourning sequence October they were given something, which was as convoluted as following Vakulnichuk’s death in The Battleship Potemkin, we Eisenstein’s definition of his new form of editing: find, in contrast to the rapid cutting of the Odessa steps An example of this [intellectual montage] can be found in the sequence, each shot lasting around five or six seconds. With its sequence of the “gods” in October, where all the conditions for slower pace, the mourning sequence acts as a caesura, a low key their comparison are made dependent on an exclusively class- bridge which functions not only to cool the violence of the intellectual sound of each piece in its relation to God. I say preceding rebellion but also to prepare for the angry demonstra- class, for though the emotional principle is universally human, tions from the citizens of Odessa. the intellectual principle is profoundly tinged by class. These The movement of the water, the gliding sea-gulls, the haze pieces were assembled in accordance with a descending intellec- which filters through the harbour and the gently rocking boats, tual scale-pulling back the concept of God to its origins, forcing all contribute to the somber tone and (subsequently) languid the spectator to perceive this “progress” intellectually. pace of the sequence. As Eisenstein suggests with reference to This sequence from October (Oktyabr, USSR, 1927) is an the mourning sequence, tonal montage is closely related to example of Eisenstein’s intellectual montage. The increasingly several other forms of montage: primitive icons from various world religions are linked by In this example it is interesting that, alongside the basic tonal patterns of duration, screen direction and shot scale to produce dominant, a secondary, accessory rhythmic dominant is also the concept of religion as a degenerate practice used to legitimate operating. This links the tonal construction of the scene with corrupt states. the tradition of rhythmic montage, the furthest development In the sequence of the “gods”, alluded to by Eisenstein above,

85 intellectual montage functions to critique Christianity through the juxtaposition of a Baroque Christ figure with a number of primitive idols. By juxtaposing a number of concrete objects, Eisenstein articulates an intellectual (undepictable) argument and thus attempts to direct the spectator’s overall passage of thinking. Yet, such is the obscurity of the images in the “Gods” se- quence, that certain critics have viewed the primitive idols as representing General Kornilov and his troops (who were advancing from the east and did not believe in Christianity). Thus, if Eisenstein is directing our minds, what message is he directing it towards? There are a number of other sequences within October, which utilize intellectual montage as a means of commenting upon a figure or ideology. For example, Alexander Kerensky and his provisional government are criticized quite scathingly in one particular sequence. As we see him enter the Winter Palace, Kerensky moves up the steps. His climb involves a collapse of temporal reality as it Some of the other ways of looking at a Montage: takes him almost a minute (20 shots) to reach the top. His Montage by composition: the linkage of images due to the ascent to power like his ascent up the steps, the proliferation of composition of objects in the film frame. Relationship shots appears to suggest, is almost never ending. between 2 shots can be based on similarity or opposition. Intercut with his movement up the stairs, are six ‘intellectual’ 1 Similarity: ex. from Strike by Eisenstein (1924) of man’s shots of a statue holding a wreath; the implication being that hand holding the child at an angle then cut to man’s hand Kerensky, with all his posturing on the steps, is nothing more slaughtering cow at same angle. The 2 images form a than a vain and superficial dictator. Indeed, this theme of relationship to suggest the metaphor of workers being vanity is further emphasised by intercut shots of a peacock slaughtered like cattle. preening itself. 2 Opposition: ex. of 2 cowboys, one good, one bad — shot Whether October’s audience (or even the audience of today) of one coming from the left of the screen, the other coming actually understood either the Kerensky sequence or the from the right. Reversed composition. The juxtaposition sequence of the “Gods” is open to debate. However what is creates meaning in this example by a) suggesting conflict clear is that Eisenstein, despite all the criticism, was greatly between 2 men and b)by suggesting that the 2 men will excited by the possibilities of intellectual montage. Yet, for one eventually come together. (mainly political) reason or another, he was unable to fully test the extent to which he could synthesise art and science and promote, through film, intellectual dynamisation.

86 Montage by Movement: Although a number of Eisenstein’s contemporaries quite Similar or opposed movement generally combined with openly criticised his montage theories, there was no more composition, as most shots aren’t static. prominent critic than Vsevolod Pudovkin. 1 Similarity — ex. The Graduate — meaning is created through For Pudovkin, editing involved using shots as building blocks the similar movements of its central subject in juxtaposed rather than fragments for collision. As he himself pointed out, shots. ‘If the editing be merely an uncontrolled combination of the Benjamin jumps into pool various pieces, the spectator will understand (apprehend) Bejamin jumps into bed with Mrs. Robinson nothing from it; but if it be coordinated according to a Benjamin idly floats on inflated raft in pool definitely selected course of events or conceptual line, either Benjamin laying in bed next to Mrs. R. in similarly relaxed agitated or calm, it will either excite or soothe the spectator.’ position This view informs much of Pudovkin’s work. In his 1926 film, Mother (Vsevolod Pudovkin 1926), we find seemingly uncon- 2 Opposition — ex. Hitchcock’s Strangers on a Train — nected shots spliced together to form one coherent and physical direction of movement of 2 men is opposed. They co-ordinated whole. Shot-reverse-shots, where an action is arrive at the train from different ends. Move toward center complimented by a corresponding reaction, are found through- screen from opposite directions which gives viewers the out the film. sense that they will eventually come together. The best way to describe the soviet point of view in the movie Montage by Repetition: creation process is to discuss the opposition between two main Juxtaposition of different shots intercut with a repeated image. principles of editing, principles enounced by the main two Can be soothing or anxiety-provoking theoreticians of the time: Eisenstein and Pudovkin. They both Montage by Rhythm: agree on the significance of montage. This view is expressed as Series of shots creating a rhythm through the length of each an axiom of cinematography by Eisenstein: Cinematography is, shot. Cutting away or parallel editing would be an example. first and foremost, montage. The way montage was accom- Suspense created by shortening shots. plished made the difference between the two. On one hand, Vsevolod Pudovkin promoted the idea of summing the Montage by Content: separate pieces of a film. The idea behind this first principle is Detail and Metaphor: Juxtaposition of images with related to first divide the film into shots. Then, the collation of shots content. Detail is added to detail to create meaning. Ex. in a certain order would give birth to something, which is more attempt to show uniformity in commuters at train. So shots than the sum of its components. The keyword that he uses is of briefcases added to shots of similar suits and then cut to construction. For Pudovkin, editing means arranging pieces of faces all wearing same expression. All of these images are film in hierarchical structures, and then gluing these structures natural to the scene. However, could also use quicker method together: The construction of a scene from pieces, a sequence of linking shots with unrelated content but united by one idea from scenes, and reel from sequences, and so forth, is called — Eisenstein’s theory of collision in montage. He termed it editing. Furthermore, he extends the meaning of the word by “intellectual montage”. incorporating conceptually higher level hierarchies in it, for the Other Soviet film-makers working in the 1920s purpose of creating an impression on the spectator. Pudovkin During the making of The General Line, Eisenstein fell out of calls this technique relational editing. The higher level hierarchies favour with Stalin. His films had become more concerned with give birth to editing methods such as: contrast, parallelism, developing his theories than in selling the revolution. The symbolism, simultaneity and leit-motif. On the other hand, General Line was concerned with the introduction of modern Eisenstein states simply: montage is conflict. He postulates that equipment on collectivised farms, but Eisenstein’s portrayal of linkage [of shots] is merely a possible special case [of conflict]. this equipment, for example, a cream separator, in montage He asks and also provides the answer, to the question of what sequences with peasants to convey ideas of sexuality and the the base of montage is: By what, then, is montage characterized lottery of life went far behind his official brief. He left the Soviet and, consequently, its cell - the shot? By collision. By the conflict Union to travel to the US and Mexico, returning to the Soviet of two pieces in opposition to each other. By conflict. By Union a decade later. He completed two other major films: collision. Using an example from physics - the infinity of Alexander Nevsky (1938) and Ivan The Terrible (1942-46). combinations that arise from the impact of spheres - Eisenstein Eisenstein developed a unique cinematic style, which differed concludes that from the collision of two given factors arises a from that of other Soviet film-makers working in the 1920s. concept. In other words, he demands that it is absolutely Whereas Eisenstein used a montage style which drew attention necessary to collide shots, rather than link them, in order to to itself with colliding images, V.I. Pudovkin developed a obtain perfect editing. The idea of division into pieces is still different idea of montage in his theory of relational editing. present. The main difference from Pudovkin’s linkage principle Pudovkin wanted his montage to be seamless, not drawing is the way these pieces are glued back together. In Pudovkin’s attention to itself, and be used solely to support the film’s case, they harmoniously form a unity. In Eisenstein’s case, the narrative. This linkage editing, seen in films like Mother (1926) pieces themselves are at war with one another, assuring that the and The End of St. Petersburg (1927), was similar to the spectator is bombarded with their conflict, that he is involved in editing style developed by D.W. Griffith in the USA - for this war. To convince his readers about the power of his example, in Intolerance (1916). argument, Eisenstein even claims that he has convinced

87 Pudovkin that collision is a better way to edit a film than following the principle of construction. With humor, he states: Not long ago, we had another talk. Today he agrees with my point of view. True, during the interval he took the opportu- nity to acquaint himself with the series of lectures I gave during that period at the State Cinema Institute… Such was the conflict of views between Pudovkin and Eisenstein, that the latter was prompted to write in his essay, ‘The Cinematic Principle and the Ideogram’: In front of me lies a crumpled yellow sheet of paper. On it is a mysterious note: “Linkage-P and Collision-E.” This is a substantial trace of a heated bout on the subject between P (Pudovkin) and E (myself). This has become a habit. At regular intervals he visits me late at night and behind closed doors we wrangle over matters of principle. A graduate of the Kuleshov school, he loudly defends an understanding of montage as a linkage of pieces. Into a chain. Again, “bricks”. Bricks, arranged in series to expound an idea. Yet, when we examine Pudovkin’s films closely and, even his writings, his theories seem rather confusing. For example, in 1928, he wrote a lengthy article praising Eisenstein’s October and appeared to almost endorse the idea of dialectcal montage. On the screen one sequence follows another. Saturated with the single rhythm of a slow and powerful movement, they alternate in the same rhythm, quietly and surely: a downward fall slides across into an upward ascent, the horizon falls, upwards again, a slide across, a fall, up goes the dead white horse hanging over the edge of the bridge, a slide across, upwards, the clean river and the horizon fall downwards, swim upwards...the audience is completely seduced by the rhythm, the audience is captivated. Indeed, in several sequences from The End of St Petersburg, arguably Pudovkin’s most Eisenstinian film, dialectical montage is found to be quite clearly operating. Several sequences were built upon a juxtaposition of shots that involved a conflict of directions (i.e. the horses facing in opposite directions), a conflict of movement (the man static and sleeping juxtaposed with the movement of the driver), a conflict of masses and a conflict of scales. A small hand of filmmakers dominated the soviet film of the twenties: Vsevolod Pudovkin, Alexander Dovzhenko, Sergei Eisenstein and Dziga Vertov. Some of these artists were not only filmmakers, but also film critics and film theory authors. Their common central point on cinema theory was the impor- tance of film editing over the other aspects involved in film creation. A closer look at one of the most representative creation of the time might reveal whether this theory was indeed applied. In particular, one could analyse Dziga Vertov’s A Man with a Movie Camera to show it followed the soviet guidelines in filmmaking in his movie. The images below are from Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera. The first pair is an example of graphic match: two images unnrelated except for visual similarity. The second and third pairs are examples of using montage for thematic contrasts.

88 records the passage of a train moving in high speed. Images of the moving train are interleaved with images of an anonymous woman’s last minutes of morning sleep and her awakening. As the train approaches from the distance, the woman moves in her sleep as she has a nightmare. When the train passes, she wakes up and starts dressing up for the day. This moment is continued with a shot from the locomotive; it is suggested that the woman is not completely awake and, while dressing, feels the effects of the nightmare she just had. The image of the sleeping woman contrasts with the image of the increasingly speeding train, keeping the spectator in a state of tension; it represents a direct application of Eisenstein’s conflict theory. Also, Vertov accelerates the pace of the scene by continuously shortening the length of the shots as the train approaches; the climax is reached when the train passes by, and then the shots get longer again. Another direct application of Eisenstein’s conflict editing theory is the use of still-shots. Vertov filmed scenes of athletes in motion. Through editing, he manipulated the image so that the spectator is confronted with sudden stops of the athletes’ images in unusual postures. The effect is shocking, because one wouldn’t expect, for example, an athlete to pause in his motion while jumping over a hurdle. Using Eisenstein’ terminology, this effect is called conflict between an event and its duration. Furthermore, Vertov shocks the viewer by interrupting the action completely by inserting a scene of a woman manually processing the very film that we were watching a moment ago. Vertov collides shots from different levels of the movie: the original level - the level of the spectators that watch A Man with a Movie Camera inside the movie - and the story level - the running athletes. The theory of montage importance applies perfectly to Vertov’s However, construction type editing is used as well. After A Man with a Movie Camera. One could say that this film is speeding up the temporal montage of individual shots, more actually a masterpiece of editing. It begins with a claim of the and more, Vertov seems to realize: why not simply superim- director: the movie has no scenario and no actors. The claim pose them in one frame? Vertov overlaps the shots together, itself is not true; actors - like the women in the moving car, the two shots at first, then three, then four, achieving temporal woman working on the film and sometimes the cameraman efficiency - but he also pushes the limits of a viewer’s cognitive himself - are used. The author’s intention in issuing this capacities. Another construction editing technique he used was message is to prepare the spectator for a false improvisation to interpose images that create oppositions: poor people experience, created entirely with editing techniques, in which the working as opposed to rich people relaxing, marriage as role of the film story is reduced to a minimum. The narrative opposed to divorce, death as opposed to birth. Pudovkin plot itself is simple: it starts in a movie house, where the film A classified this technique under the relational editing category, and Man with a Movie Camera is about to be shown. The seats called it contrast. Even though these two last techniques can be begin to set themselves up as the audience arrives - a humorous categorized as construction editing techniques, they can also be use of stop-motion technique. The film is then shown, and it viewed as conflicts. When collating more images, Vertov took starts with a series of quiet shots without movement: empty care to synchronize only parts of the components. For example, streets, people sleeping on a park bench, closed factories. he took the upper part of a streetcar and the lower part of Gradually the rhythm builds up as the city awakes. The streets another streetcar, and matched them so that they will look as fill with people going to work, streetcars, automobiles, and one. However, the two streetcars were shot in different parts of horses. The movement of machines and people accelerate to a the city, using the same angle, so that only the streetcar pieces dizzying pace. And through it all we see, from time to time, the matched, everything else remaining unsynchronized. In other cameraman moving about and placing his camera strategically to scenes, the collated images didn’t even match their edges at all. shoot the action. The story has a circular structure, wrapping up This would be a conflict of edges. Also, the contrasting images with the city ending it’s working day. with opposite meaning - described above as Pudovkin’s More important than the story of the film is the way it is relational editing element - could also be included in edited. Actually, montage is the way Vertov is communicating Eisenstein’s conflict theory. It looks like Eisenstein was right, at with the spectator. Many scenes have significance only through least in this case: construction is just a particular case of montage. Take the moving train scene for example. The camera collision.

89 Other Eisenstein’s considerations apply to Vertov’s movie as that the artist uses to communicate with the spectator. well. Eisenstein was commenting on techniques used in the Dziga Vertov has created a film that complies with most ideas Japanese cinema, techniques that had their roots in ancient expressed in the soviet filmmaking guidelines of his time, Chinese tradition: ... in all ideational art, objects are given size proving that he took part in promoting these guidelines. Also, according to their importance, the king being twice as large as his Vertov breaks some of the rules and by doing so in a brilliant subjects, or a tree half the size of a man when it merely informs way, conquers the viewer’s attention even more. Of course, us that the scene is out-of-doors(Eisenstein, 36). Indeed, credit must be attributed to Elizaveta Svilova, which was the Vertov creates shots with the camera being much larger - and official editor of the film. A Man with a Movie Camera proves consequently, being a very important character - than the rest of to be a masterpiece of editing, by succeeding to communicate to the setting on the screen. Using Eisenstein’s terminology, this the viewer what the artist intended, through pure montage, effect is called conflict of scales, or conflict between an object and almost with complete lack of narrative story. It shows exactly its dimension. Through editing, different size versions of the what the title says, and that is, how powerful the image created camera become animated and come to life. The camera itself by a man with a simple movie camera can be. becomes one of the actors of the movie. Alexander Dovzhenko, on the other hand made Arsenal (1929) Some examples of conflict of depths are present in the film: a and Earth (1930) as a series of tableaux, like a linkage of still shot of a factory chimney, a shot of a high-level bridge, a shot photographs. This gave his films a slow pace and a solemn air. of a high building. These images are created using low-angle In Arsenal, his style is perfectly matched to the film’s anti-war shots. Others, such as the crowd and the parade, use high-angle theme, with long-shots of advancing archetypal soldiers, often shots. All these are frame-conflicts, as defined by Eisenstein, in silhouette, cutting to individuals dead, dying or insane. rather than montage conflicts. Despite their individual stylistic differences, however, all Soviet What is it about A Man with a Movie Camera that does not film-makers worked under a unique set of conditions that follow the theoretical guidelines of the soviet film of the made early Soviet cinema distinct from the early cinema twenties? Pudovkin considers that it is important, however, to produced in other countries. In the Soviet Union, after the remind the scenarist of the following point: a scenario has revolution of 1917, the cinema became regarded as an educa- always in its development a moment of greatest tension, found tional tool, to inform the rural population about the ideals of nearly always at the end of the film. To prepare the spectator, or, the new communist order. These propaganda films were shown more correctly, preserve him, for this final tension, it is especially in special trains that toured the country, thus the cinema reached important to see that he is not affected by unnecessary exhaus- a wider audience than in most other countries at that time. The tion during the course of the film(Pudovkin, 124). Vertov’s production of overtly political films was rarer elsewhere and movie neglects both pieces of advice stated above by Pudovkin. marked Soviet cinema out as being unique. First of all, there’s more than one moment of greatest tension Direct government money was available for Soviet film-makers in the movie. Second, these moments of tension are spread and an audience was guaranteed. This is in contrast with the across the film timeline, and they are not necessarily placed at the situation in the USA, where films were regarded primarily as a end. Vertov uses the technique of alternating the pace in order form of entertainment and had to pull in a fee-paying audience to keep the spectator alert throughout the whole movie. The to make a profit. Soviet films could also deploy large crowd thing to remark here is that, since the story itself is reduced to a scenes, thanks to government funding, which would have been minimum in importance, montage plays an essential role in beyond the means of film-makers working in many other controlling the pace of the film. countries. During the making of October, which was commis- Another unusual nonconformity with the guidelines is the lack sioned by the government to commemorate the tenth of the spectator’s question -scenarist’s answer duality, men- anniversary of the Soviet Union, the city of Leningrad (St. tioned by Pudovkin. In his opinion, a successful scenario Petersburg) and thousands of extras were put at Eisenstein’s implies that the viewer’s mentally formulated question must be disposal. The images from October came to illustrate Soviet answered naturally by the scenarist’s work. If the scenarist can history in textbooks, showing the power Soviet film-makers effect in even rhythm the transference of interest of the intent had to edit history and change society. spectator, if he can so construct the elements of increasing Soviet film-makers were working during a time of great social interest that moment the spectator is transferred whither he upheaval, which saw the collapse of an existing culture and its wishes to go, then the editing thus created can really excite the replacement with a revolutionary world-view. This stimulated spectator(Pudovkin, 124). The reason for which Vertov tries to film-makers to take fresh and often radical approaches to their persuade his viewers that A Man with a Movie Camera has no work. Soviet film-makers also saw themselves as part of a wider scenario, as I showed earlier, is simply a trick used to create the cultural movement, and were therefore receptive to ideas from impression of dynamism; the film actually has a scenario. But other disciplines. Eisenstein, for example, sought to produce this scenario does not follow Pudovkin’s advice. Vertov does work that was a synthesis of the art and science of his day. not answer any of the spectator’s mental questions. Instead, he Freud’s theories on the subconscious and Meyerhold’s ideas presents scenes from every-day life, scenes that are easy to from the theatre were also among the many cultural ideas that understand. Still, through the use of ingenious montage, he informed early Soviet cinema. In Hollywood, in comparison, succeeds in capturing the viewer’s attention by manipulating the cinema was more isolated and film-makers did not identify so pace of editing, and by conflicting images, thus obtaining the much with wider artistic or cultural movements. same effect as a good story would. The montage is the element Early Soviet cinema was less concerned with narrative than early

90 cinema in other countries, but great attention was given to the dissolving, or superimposing images. composition of shots. This gave early Soviet cinema a particular All of these definitions of montage share a common denomi- aesthetic quality. For example, Eisenstein worked closely with nator; they all imply that meaning is not inherent in anyone his cameraman Edouard Tissé to frame striking images of faces, shot but is created by the juxtaposition of shots crowds and objects. Soviet cinema also adopted a serious tone, 1 In the US, the term has been used in a sense akin to that of in keeping with its social function and its intellectual aspirations, photomontage in still photography—that is, the combining unlike cinema in the USA, where comedy was a popular genre. of several images in one frame by superimposition. The state control of film production in the Soviet Union 2 As applied to motion pictures, this came to specifically dictated the content of films. Film-makers were essentially describe a sequence made up of a quick succession of brief limited to one basic story-line: the triumph of the people over shots blending and dissolving into one another, created to bourgeois oppression. Films telling this story had to be compress action and convey the passage of time. understood by a largely illiterate peasant audience. Community was stressed over the individual, in line with communist 3 The technique, typically featuring linked images of such ideology. In Hollywood, on the other hand, a wider range of items as calendar pages, newspaper headlines, place names, stories could be told and the emphasis was on the individual, and train wheels, was particularly popular in Hollywood the hero and the Star. Individual characters seen at odds with films of the 30s. the system, like Charlie Chaplin’s tramp, the hero, as played for 4 In Citizen Kane, it creates the muckraking style of Kane’s example by Douglas Fairbanks, or the rise of stars like Lillian newspapers that leads to the Thatcher / Kane tension. Gish, had no equivalents in a Soviet cinema that emphasised Then we see a montage that connects images of Susan Albrecht community over the individual. Soviet film-makers, like in different operas, with positive press articles from Kane’s Eisenstein, preferred to work with amateurs, unlike film-makers Inquirer about her singing career. The shrill sound of her in the USA, like D.W. Griffith, who used actors who had been singing has been mixed together with the critical gaze of her trained in the theatre. The use of ordinary people, often cast as singing teacher and Kane himself as well as a light bulb which archetypes, gives early Soviet cinema a particularly distinctive fades, at the end of this montage. This gives the viewer the look, in comparison to Hollywood, in which actors are clearly impression that her career is not as successful as the Inquirer’s seen to be acting. Soviet film is also essentially different from articles want us to believe. The switched off light bulb makes us contemporary European cinema, particularly Scandinavian anticipate that something awful will happen. cinema, where films dealing with complex themes centering on 5 The term montage (collision) as it is generally understood human relationships, for example The Abyss (1910), were made today is associated with the work and theory of Sergei for an educated and sophisticated audience, who were quick to Eisenstein. He argues editing represents the rhetorical accept cinema as an art equivalent to music or painting. arrangement of shots in juxtaposition so that the collision The distinctive cinema, and related film theory, of the Soviet between two adjoining images creates a third independent Union in the 1920s continues to inspire film-makers today. The entity. And this gives the audience a whole new meaning of emphasis on the form and process of film, rather than the the visual / aural images. content of linear narratives, informs the work of Jean-Luc 6 Eisenstein’s ideas of montage were inspired by the editing Godard and other 1960s film-makers, while Eisenstein’s ideas techniques of D. W. Griffith and the laboratory experiments stimulate a range of directors seeking to experiment with the of Lev Kuleshov. possibilities of film in the 1990s. 7 Eisenstein saw montage as a means of eliciting emotional Summing up responses from the audience. Montage — A term derived from the French word for mount- 8 Eisenstein identified five types, or levels, of montage: ing, or assembling—hence, staging in theater usage and editing in film terminology. Montage - the juxtaposition of separate a Metric images - is one way of creating meaning in the cinema. b Rhythmic Originally, the word montage was simply; borrowed from the c Tonal French language by the Russian filmmaker and theorist Sergei d Overtonal Eisenstein, it literally means mounting and was used to signify the physical act of editing, the cutting and splicing of one piece e Intellectual or the expression of abstract ideas of film to another. However, the word has undergone an interesting and somewhat confusing evolution. Refined and Notes : qualified by Eisenstein himself, it has come to be associated with the Russian principles of editing, principles that stress combining images so that they will pro-duce an idea. The word has also been used to describe a certain kind of editing com- mon in the German silent cinema: sequences were con-structed primarily with dissolves, and their aim was less to create in-tellectual meaning than it was to create mood. In Hollywood, the word has been used generally to describe sequences that compress and link time, whether they do so by cutting,

91 UNIT 12 LESSON 12: ALTERNATIVES TO CONTINUITY ALTERNATIVES TO CONTINUITY EDITING EDITING

Editing in the depth of the surface time and space, it is - de facto - only an illusion. Even Holly- A few basic principles of graphic editing wood continuity classics such as Casablanca (Curtiz, 1942) and The Maltese Falcon (Huston, 1941) manipulate time and space The history of film editing can be roughly divided into three quite heavily. Likewise, if you try to make a map of the major steps: labyrinth in Orson Welles’ Kafka adaptation The Trial (Welles, From the single shot of the very first films - the only ‘editing’ 1963), you’ll see that this is not at all possible with real three- being the timing of the action to take place in the short time of dimensional space as your yardstick. approximately one minute between the beginning and the end The important thing, however, is that time and space relations of the take - to the ‘photoplay’ where several single shots of appear to be solid. Cuts are not used explicitly, unless you have this kind were joined together, some of them with texts in a dissolve or a wipe as a filmic punctuation between scenes, but between. implicitly, without attracting the spectator’s attention to the cut Secondly, the step towards different ways of establishing time itself. The spectator thus makes a kind of functional, cognitive and space, the so-called continuity principle, with the actual map of filmic space and doesn’t care that editing only makes the footage being shot discontinuously - in numerous pieces, from film look right and doesn’t reflect a true space. And this holds different angles and in varying scales. This principle evolved true for the experience of time in film as well. mainly in the United States in the first decade of the previous century, but soon was adapted by most film producing The development of a new editing style countries. This article will present some of the editing principles after the And finally the step towards the breaking up of these conven- third step. The questioning of the continuity style started off as tions, with an emphasis on the graphic qualities of the picture avant-garde, but has now entered mainstream film and at the expense of clear time and space configurations. television ‘language’, first through MTV and other youth It is, however, impossible to assign an exact date, year or even programmes. Then it entered the world of television jingles, decade to these various steps. They somehow exist simulta- mainly in sport programmes, and now it is used in widely neously. For instance, you still see films made in only one shot. distributed TV-series such as Homicide and The Kingdom, in Alfred Hitchcock’s The Rope (1948) is a feature film example features like Woody Allen’s Husbands and Wives, Lars von (with the well known fact to be added that the film of course Trier’s Breaking the Waves, not to mention the films made as does contain a few hidden cuts - each reel runs only about 11 part of the Dogma 95 project. In the documentary genre, not minutes), but single shot films can be seen even on the MTV only directors such as Jørgen Leth and Jacob Thuesen have had channel, one of the heaviest users and developers of the new great success in employing the new style, also TV-documentaries editing style. The Massive Attack music video Unfinished and docu-soaps are now using this aesthetic approach. Sympathy, from the album Blue Line (1991), is made as one As a first principle, this new kind of editing is based, not on long steadycam ride that follows the band as they stroll down explaining the spatial relations as is the case with the continuity the street. system, but on using different visual and auditive tricks to make Correspondingly, the breaking up of continuity conventions, the audience relate to a two-dimensional picture surface, thus the last step in our three step history of film editing, is far from not missing the explanation of the third dimension. new. Some of these new principles date back to the European The American film scholars David Bordwell and Kristin avant-garde movements of the twenties, others to the French Thompson list four different relations between two shots ‘Nouvelle Vague’ of the sixties, and documentary aesthetics, of joined together: course, have always been less compulsory and conservative, 1 Graphic Relations probably because this genre doesn’t feel the tight limits of a 2 Rhythmic Relations narrative structure. And even though this third step is the latest, the continuity tradition is still in the best of health. The vast 3 Spatial Relations majority of films are still edited according to continuity 4 Temporal Relations principles, and the growing school of new editing will probably According to Bordwell, graphic and rhythmic relations are co-exist with classical continuity well into the future, maybe even present in any kind of editing, whereas spatial and temporal forever. relations are irrelevant in more abstract forms of non-narrative When a film is edited according to the rules of continuity, you film. Lets understand what Bordwell and Thompson are will know exactly where everybody is and how the different talking about. persons, locations and props are situated in relation to one Graphic & Rhythmic Possibilities another, and there are no explicit time lapses - no elliptic editing. Powerful and pervasive as it is, the continuity style remains only It is important to remember, however, that even though the one style, and many filmmakers have explored other editing continuity system is meant to give the impression of a coherent possibilities.

92 Films possessing abstract or associational form have frequently keeping the composition very similar across the cut. Even a beer granted the graphic and rhythmic dimensions of editing greater bottle (a different one in each shot) sits precisely in the same weight than conti-nuity filmmaking accords them. That is, position on -frame left, its label in a constant position as well. instead of joining shot 1 to shot 2 primarily on the basis of the spatial and temporal functions that the shot fulfills in present- ing a story, you could join them on the basis of purely graphic or rhythmic qualities-independent of the time and space they represent. In films such as Anticipation of the Night, Scenes from under Childhood, Western History, and others, Stan Brakhage has explored purely graphic means of joining shot to shot: continuities and discontinuities of light, texture, and shape motivate the editing. Interested in the very surface of the film itself, Brakhage has scratched, painted on the image, even taped moth wings to it, in search of abstract graphic combina- tions. Similarly, parts of Bruce Conner’s Cosmic Ray, A Movie, Fig 1. Fig 2. and Report cut together newsreel footage, old film clips, leader, and black frames on the basis of graphic patterns of move- ment, direction, and speed. Many nonnarrative films have completely subordinated the space and time presented in each shot to the rhythmic relations among shots. “Single-frame” films (in which each shot is only one frame long) are the most extreme examples of this overriding rhythmic concern. Two famous examples are Robert Breer’s Fist Fight and Peter Kubelka’s Schwechater. The preeminence of graphic and rhythmic editing in non narrative cinema is not, however, as recent a phenomenon as Fig 3. Fig 4. these examples might suggest. As early as 1913, some painters In Ohayu Ozu uses color for the same purpose, cutting from were contemplating the pure- design possibilities offered by laundry on a line to a domestic interior and matching on a red film, and many works of the European avant-garde move- shape in the upper left of each shot (a shirt, a lamp). ments of the 1920s combined an interest in abstract graphics Graphic continuity is, of course, a matter of degree, and in with a desire to explore rhythmic editing. The results were as narrative films the spectrum runs from Hollywood’s approxi- diverse as Man Ray’s Emak Bakia, Henri Chomette’s Cinq mate graphic continuity to Ozu’s precise matching, with two minutes de cinema pur. Germain Dulac’s Theme et variations, shots like these from Eisenstein’s Ivan the Terrible, Part I, Hans Richter’s Ghosts Before Break- fast, and Walter coming somewhere in the middle. (See Figs. 5 and 6) Ruttmann’s Berlin: Symphony of a Great City. Perhaps the most famous of these is the Fernand Leger-Dudley Murphy film Ballet mecanique . Important as the graphic and rhythmic possibilities of editing have been to the nonnarrative film, their powers have not been wholly neglected in the narrative film. Although the continuity style seeks an overall graphic continuity, this is usually subordi- nated to a concern with mapping narrative space and tracing narrative time. Some narrative filmmakers, however occasionally subordinate narrative concerns to graphic pattern. The most famous examples are probably the films for which Busby Berkeley choreographed graphed elaborate dance numbers. In Fig 5 Fig. 6 42nd Street, Golddiggers of 1933, Footlight Parade, The lighting (darkness on frame left, brightness on frame right) Golddiggers of 1935, and Dames, the narrative periodi-cally and triangular shape on frame right of shot 1 are picked up in grinds to a halt and the film presents intricate dances that are shot 2, with Anastasia’s head and body now closely matching arranged, shot, and edited with a concern for the pure configura- the tapering chair. If such graphic editing motivates the entire tion of dancers and background. film’s form, however, narrative will be dissolved, and the film More complexly related to the narrative is the graphic editing of will become more abstract in form. Yasujiro Ozu. Ozu’s cutting is often dictated by a much more Some narrative films have momentarily subordinated spatial precise graphic continuity than we find in the classical continuity and tem-poral editing factors to rhythmic ones. In the 1920s style. In An Autum-n Afternoon Ozu cuts from one man both the French ‘impressionist” school and the Soviet avant- drinking sake (Fig. 1) directly to another (Fig. 2) caught in garde frequently made narrative, secondary to purely rhythmic almost exactly the same position, costume and gesture. Later in editing. In such films as Abel Gance’s La roué , Jean Epstein’s the film, he cuts from one man to another (Fig. 3, Fig. 4) Coeur fidele and La Glace a trois faces, and Ivan Mosjoukin’s

93 Kean, accelerated editing renders the tempo of an onrushing train, a whirling carousel, a racing automobile, or a drunken dance. In Epstein’s Fall of the House of Usher a poetic sequence of Usher strumming a guitar and singing organizes the length of the shots in accord with a songlike pattern of verse and refrain. Kuleshov’s The Death Ray and Eisenstein’s October occasionally make rhythm dominate narrative space and time. More recently, we can find rhythmic editing momentarily predominant in narrative films as varied as the Busby Berkeley musicals, Rouben Mamoulian’s Love Me Tonight, Rene Clair’s Fig. 9 Le Million, several films of Ozu and Hitchcock, Resnais’s Last The film does not definitely present the Gabin shot as a fantasy Year at Marienbad and Muriel, and Godard’s Pierrot le fou. As image; we cannot tell whether Rene imagines himself as his star we saw with graphics, rhythmic editing may override the spatial confronting his coworker, or whether the film’s narration draws and temporal dimensions; when this hap-pens, narrative comparison independent of Rene’s state of mind. The cut relies becomes proportionately less important. upon cues of shot/reverse shot, but uses them to create a Spatial & Temporal Discontinuity momentarily jarring discontinuity that triggers narrational ambiguity. Nonnarrative films, of course, explicitly avoid the continuity More drastically, a filmmaker could violate or ignore the 180o style, for that style is founded on the cogent presentation of a system. The editing choices of filmmakers Jacques Tati and story. But what of narrative alternatives to the continuity Yasujiro Ozu are based -on what we might call 360o space. system? How can one tell a story without use of the continuity Instead of an axis of action that dictates that the camera be rules? Let us sample some ways particular filmmakers have placed within an imaginary semicircle, these filmmakers work as created distinct editing styles by use of what might be consid- if the action were not a line but a point at the center of a circle ered spatial and temporal discontinuities. and as if the camera could be placed at any point on the One option is to use spatial continuity in ambiguous ways. In circumference Mr. Hulot’s Holiday, Play Time, and Traffic Tati Mon Oncle d’Amerique, Resnais constantly intercuts the stories systematically films from almost every side; edited together, the of his three main characters with shots of each character’s shots present multiple spatial perspectives on a single event. favorite star, taken from French films of the 1940s. At one Similarly, Ozu’s scenes construct a 360o space that produces what point, as Rene’s pesky office mate calls to him we get the the continuity style would consider grave editing errors. -Ozu’s coworker in one shot (Fig. 7). But Resnais cuts to a shot of Jean films often yield no consistent background spaces and no Cabin in an older film, turning to him in perfect reverse shot consistent screen direction; the eye line matches are out of joint (Fig 8). Only then does Resnais supply a shot of Rene turning and the only consistency is the violation of the 180o line. One to meet his questioner (Fig.9). of the gravest sins in the classical -continuity style is to match on action while breaking the line, yet Ozu does this comfortably in Early Summer (see Figs. 10 and 11).

Fig. 7 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Such spatially discontinuous editing offers intriguing insights into spectator’s experience as well. The defender of classical continuity -claim that spatial continuity rules are necessary for the clear presentation of a narrative. But anyone who has seen a film by Ozu or Tati can testify that no narrative confusion arises from their continuity “violations.” Though the spaces do not flow as smoothly as in the Hollywood style (this is indeed part of the films’ fascination), the cause-effect chains remain intelligible. The inescapable conclusion is that the continuity system is only one way to order a narrative. Historically, this system has been the dominant one, but aesthetically it has no priority over other styles. Fig. 8

94 There are two other noteworthy devices of discontinuity. In Godard. In Eisenstein’s Strike the massacre_ of workers is Breathless Jean Luc Godard violates conventions of spatial, intercut with the slaughter of a bull. In Godard’s La Chinoise a temporal, and graphic continuity by his systematic use of the character tells an anecdote about the ancient Egyptians who, he jump cut. Though this term is often loosely used, its primary claims, thought that “their language was the language of the meaning is this. When two shots of the same subject are cut gods.” As he says this (Fig. 18), Godard cuts in two close-ups together but are not sufficiently different in camera distance and of gold relics from the tomb King Tutankhamen (Figs. 19, 20). angle, there will be a noticeable jump on the screen. Classical continuity avoids such jumps by generous use of shot/reverse shots and by the “30° rule” (advising that every camera position be varied by at least 30° from previous one). But an examina- tion of shots from Breathless suggests the consequences of Godard’s jump cuts. Between the end of one shot of Michel and his friend and the beginning of the next shot of them, they have moved several feet and some story time has elapsed (Figs. 12, 13). Between the first shot of Patricia riding in the car and the second, the background has changed and some story time has gone by (Figs. 14, 15). Far from flowing smoothly, these cuts disorient the spectator.

Fig 18

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Fig 19 Fig 20 As nondiegetic inserts, coming from outside the story world, they construct a running, often ironic, commentary on the action, and they prompt the spectator to search for implicit meanings. (Do the relics corroborate or challenge what Henri says?) Though both the jump cut and the nondiegetic insert can be utilized in a narrative context, they tend to weaken narrative continuity. The jump cut interrupts it with abrupt gaps, while Fig. 14 Fig. 15 the nondiegetic insert suspends -story action altogether. It is no A second prevalent violation of continuity is that created by the accident that both devices have been prominently used by the non--diegetic insert. Here the filmmaker cuts from the scene to a contemporary filmmaker most associated with the challenge to metaphorical or symbolic shot that is not part of the space and classical narrative, Jean-Luc Godard. time of the narrative. Cliches abound here. In Fury Lang cuts There are still other alternatives to classical continuity, especially from housewives gossiping (Fig. 16) to shots of clucking hens -the temporal dimension. Although the classical approach to (Fig. 16). order the frequency of story events may seem the most natural, it is only the most -familiar. Story events do not have to be edited in 1-2-3 order. Not only flashbacks but flashforwards are possible. In Resnais’s La Guerre est finie scenes cut in conven- tional continuity are interrupted by images that may represent flashbacks, or fantasy episodes, or even future events. Editing can also play with variable frequency for narrative purposes; the same event can be shown repeatedly. In La Guerre est finie, the same funeral is depicted -in different hypothetical ways (the protagonist is present, or he is not). Again, Godard offers a striking example of how editing can Fig. 16 Fig 17 manipulate -both order and frequency. In Pierrot le fou, as More complex examples occur in the films of Eisenstein and Marianne and Ferdinand leave her apartment fleeing gangsters,

95 Godard scrambles the order of the shots. First, Ferdinand become perfectly intelligible in a narrative context. On the other jumps into the car as Marianne pulls away. Then the couple are hand, with the jump cut and the nondiegetic insert, such seen back in their apartment( Fig 21). Then the car races down a temporal dislocations can also push away from traditional street (Fig. 22). Then Marianne and Ferdinand -climb onto a notions of story” altogether and create ambiguous relations rooftop (Fig. 23). among shots. Another way of treating the four relations would be to suggest that the graphic and spatial relations both have to do with the picture, while the rhythmic and temporal relations have to do with time. In traditional continuity editing, spatial and temporal relations serve to tell the story, explaining where we are and what is happening at any given moment. The two other sorts of relations are often thought of as a kind of polish, making the nice and meaningful flow of shots look even better. Conversely, in the style of new editing, spatial and temporal relations are given a lower priority. Consequently, the graphic Fig 21 and rhythmic relations get more important, but even though the style to some people may appear more abstract, the films are still narrative. Changing emphasis to the two-dimensionally based, graphic editing principles, new style editing allows itself to overrule two of the most basic continuity principles: it breaks the 180 degree rule and makes jump-cuts. But this is not easy at all, it’s not just something you do. The continuity convention is so established not only as a construc- tion principle but in our conception of a film that when you chose to ignore it, it’s important that you make your own contract with the audience. When using the continuity system Fig 22 it’s enough to ‘refer to the law’, but when you don’t recognize this basic law, you have to make a special contract with your audience - every time. A guide to two-dimensional editing There are two basic ways to make the audience accept violations of the continuity system. Either you build up a whole new set of rules or you distract spectators to make them overlook that you are breaking well-worn continuity rules. Eye-scanning The principle of eye-scanning is by far the most important feature among graphic editing principles. It’s based on the fact that the human eye is pre-cognitively Fig 23 attracted to whatever ‘it’ finds interesting at a given moment. As Godard also plays with frequency by repeating one story action in normal, minute-to-minute perception, when looking at a Ferdinand jumping into the car-but showing it differently each picture or a film, the eyes move in saccadic patterns, relatively time. Such manipulation of editing blocks our normal expecta- consistent from individual to individual, even considered over tions about story time and- forces us to concentrate on the very time. This is a pre-cultural aspect of visual perception, a process of piecing together the film’s narrative action. bottom-up process, and is thus something we do involuntarily. The editing may also take liberties with story duration. Al- If you show a picture of a human being to someone, his though complete continuity and ellipsis are the most common interest is most likely to lie in something like the question “who ways of rendering duration, expansion-stretching a moment is this?”, and the eye will travel directly to the face of the person. out, making screen time greater than the story time-remains a If it’s a close-up, and thus already a face, the eye will go directly distinct possibility. Truffaut uses such expansions in Jules and for the eyes and after that for the mouth, the ears or other Jim to underscore narrative turning points (Catherine lifting her recognizable facialelements. All the different elements that veil or jumping off a bridge). In Chabrol’s La Femme infidele, attract the eye are called eye-catchers. when the outraged husband strikes his wife’s lover with a One of the most powerful eye-catchers is movement. Other statuette, Chabrol overlaps the shot of the victim falling to the important eye-catchers are contrast, bright colours or objects floor. with a clear-cut meaning that can be used in the construction of These examples by Bordwell and Thompson indicate that the narrative logic or in the description of characters. certain discontinuities of temporal order, and frequency can Movement

96 Movement, as mentioned above, is one of the most potent different part of the picture gets in focus, our eyes will migrate seducers of the eye. In the ‘animal part’ of our brain, we turn to almost instantly to the new center of focus. If a new defocused see every movement, to check whether it involves some kind of object enters the screen, our eyes will try to focus on it, and if danger - a predator in the jungle, a car on the road. Scanning the the camera doesn’t try to do the same and the object remains in film frame, the same thing happens. If a person suddenly a central position, we get annoyed. In good films this is rare. makes a fast move with the hand, our eyes are glued to the Either the object (or person) is irrelevant and just passes movement until it stops or another stronger movement takes through the picture, or it is meant to take over focus as soon as over. Accordingly, there are basically two ways of using move- it enters the frame. ment in editing. Tolerance in time A sudden, but relatively short movement can move the But how do you decide when to apply the above mentioned spectator’s eyes where you want them, and you can cut to a shot rules? The answer is quite pragmatic. To find a strong eye- with the eye-catcher at approximately the same spot. catcher at a certain point in a shot is relatively easy. There is little If the movement is longer, you have to consider its speed and difference between the behavior of human eyes. All you have to direction - i.e. to get the movement to flow from one shot to do is watch the screen and notice where you have your eyes - the other. everybody else’s eyes will be there too. Meaning There is always, most editors will claim, one specific frame - and An object always has a certain meaning, either for the narrative nowhere else! - to place a cut if it’s to be perfect. Of course, it or in the description of a person or a location. When a man depends on a lot of things, for instance what the next shot is suddenly reaches for a gun, our attention obviously follows the like, and certainly also the rhythm of the whole sequence as hand because of the movement. But if we know that our hero such. But one thing is the perfect frame, the perfect split second has a gun, and he finds himself in a dangerous situation, our for a smooth cut, another the tolerance for an unacceptably bad eyes check out the gun even without the movement. one. This tolerance is much greater within traditional continuity Imagine an untidy nursery, with toys lying scattered on the editing than within new style editing. floor. Between all the toys, there is a teddy bear, which a child When you have looked at a picture for a while, your eyes get got for Christmas two scenes ago. This is what we are looking bored and start to move about to find new places of interest. at. This process is not very consistent from individual to indi- Contrast vidual. The eyes of the spectator will still concentrate on eyes Eye-catching based on contrast is not only a question of light and facial expressions, but now this activity is not so synchro- versus darkness. It’s obvious that our eyes are attracted by the nized any more. The eye-catcher is becoming weaker. This is little black dot in the snow or the flashlight in the midst of the what you use for instance in shot/reverse-shot editing and trees in the big dark forest. But contrast can also be applied eyeline matches, but it’s not enough to carry over a jump-cut. more generally. If all but one of the elements in a picture are Here you have to introduce a new and strong eye-catcher to alike, the one sticking out - in size, colour, light, texture or any divert attention from the jump-cut. Almost all eye-catchers start other quality - will surely catch our eye. off strong and grow weaker, as spectators get used to their Colours presence. You turn your head when you see bright red or yellow, nature’s This means that tolerance towards editing on strong eye- own alarm colours. They are used to signify danger. Some catchers is quite small. In a case where your eye-catcher is a animals or flowers use them to warn other animals, since if they movement that has to continue in the next shot, your tolerance are eaten, it doesn’t help the brightly coloured entity that the could be down to one single frame. Whereas a simple dialogue predator dies afterwards. scene edited in shot/reverse-shot can be cut almost at any point These colours catch our eyes before the message reaches our without breaking the concentration on the dialogue. That a cut consciousness, and only at a subsequent level, our cultural in this case will be acceptable anywhere is not to say that it background will add a conventional, coded meaning such as red cannot be better or worse, and getting the right rhythm into a for love and yellow for cowardice. shot/reverse-shot scene is quite an art of its own. But there are also other eye-catchers in colours. For instance, you can apply the principles of contrast to colour, when a brightly Distractions coloured object appears in a pastel-shaded environment. Or The other basic way to cover up that you are not using the more extremely, only one colour in a black and white film, such traditional continuity convention is to distract the spectator as the little red girl in Schindler’s List (Spielberg, 1993) or the red every time you break the rules. Distraction works almost like a smoke in Kurosawa’s High and Low (1963). magic trick. The magician attracts your attention to an innocent All these elements should be considered relatively. In a red thing, while the ‘magic’ is going on in his other hand. In film room with red furniture, as in Cries and Whispers (Bergman, making, you can make the viewer think of something else, 1972), the alarm colour is white, since red has become the while breaking the rules of continuity. The distraction can be general colour backdrop. In a panicking crowd, a calm person is visual or it can be auditive. the one who attracts our attention. White flash editing Focus One of the most used visual features is called white-flash- If every picture element but one is out of focus, our eyes will be editing. The distraction is a short white fade-in/fade-out or caught by the part in focus. Then if the focus changes so that a sometimes just one or two white frames between the shots. It

97 is, as most tricks in graphic editing, not a new trick. But in In many films based on two-dimensional editing, there is a traditional editing it is mostly used in environments where tendency towards more cross-cutting than in most films. In white flashes occur naturally: lightning in a thunderstorm or the continuity based films, cross-cutting is mainly used to show flash of a photographer’s camera, for instance in the beginning that two actions are taking place simultaneously, but in new of Highlander (Mulcahy, 1986), where a helicopter ride around a style editing this is far from always true. To start in the extreme, boxing ring at the Madison Square Garden ends with a close-up music videos often have two, three or more layers from totally of Christopher Lambert amidst the audience. To make the different worlds. One might be a narrative structure with actors, transition from the helicopter to the tripod, a flash from a another the musicians on a moody location, all mixed up with boxing spectator’s camera beside Lambert covers up what documentary footage from a concert and so on, with an abstract would have been a jump-cut. connection only through the music and lyrics. In other films, especially music videos and commercials, a This type of woven structure has been taken over by some of longer, more dynamic fade to white (and back) is used, referring the new style documentaries. For instance, in Heart and Soul, to the over-exposed frames at the end of a shot that people Tómas Gislason’s portrait of Danish documentarist and poet mainly know from Super-8 home movies. Jørgen Leth, in one scene Leth is talking about the similarities Swish-pan between making films and writing poetry. There are shots from Making a very quick pan blurs the picture so that you lose any three different interviews intercut with Leth reading his own sense of place, giving you the opportunity to cut to a totally poetry and pictures of the carnival in Haiti. And the interviews different location than where you started. If you look attentively are shot in different qualities, and, of course, intermingled with at a piece of film where a violent pan starts, you’ll notice that the rest of the film, as though it was one long plait - a ‘plait there’s only one frame between the clear and the blurred picture. structure’ rather than the ‘pearl-on-a-string structure’ that most This means that it’s possible to cut from anywhere in the blur documentaries employ. to any picture, or from any picture to the blur. Sometimes the It’s difficult to say whether it’s the freedom from spatial trick is made with a short dissolve between two blurry frames. relations that gives the possibility of making this structure or This is not a new trick either. One of the most famous places the wish to make a kind of structure that makes the style it’s used is Some Like it Hot (Wilder, 1959). Marilyn Monroe is necessary... trying to seduce Tony Curtis at a yacht and at the same time Jack In new style fiction, however, the narrative structure is normally Lemmon is dancing rumba with the actual owner of the yacht quite ordinary. Fictional TV-series, of course, may have a plait- in a restaurant ashore. A distance of several miles is covered like structure, but this is only on a scene-to-scene level, which is only by panning the camera. a general rule rather than an exception in soaps and series. But there is a difference between this swish-pan and the use of But “why this new style?”, a lot of people might ask. Isn’t swish-pan in for instance Lars von Trier’s The Kingdom. In continuity editing good enough? These questions sound like Some Like it Hot and Hollywood-like productions the swish- the ones posed to the first modernist painters. Weren’t realistic pan always moves left or right according to the continuity of paintings based on the conventions of central perspective good space. The pan from the yacht to the dance hall is in the enough? opposite direction than the earlier wipe from shore to yacht and Breaking down conventions gives a freedom to express feelings thus perfectly in concordance with the shore/ship relation as it’s in different ways. Carl Th. Dreyer once wrote that he was tired explained to us. of the fact that the grass was always green. That reality in itself In The Kingdom (Part 1) there is a confusing morning- isn’t art, only when it’s made into a style. It would be difficult conference where the camera is swish-panning from person to to think that the confusion at the morning-conference in The person. Here, the swish-pans are used to cover up the breaking Kingdom would have been the same with continuity editing, of the 180 degree rule and there is even one special cut where nor the insecurity of Bess in Breaking the Waves. two pans cut together move in opposite directions, one left-to- The French New Wave right, the other right-to-left. Creative genius seldom exists without an acute understanding The sound-bridge of and connection with the work of one’s predecessors. Since Sound is, however, one of the most frequently used distrac- the inception of the motion picture more than hundred years tions. Obviously in MTV productions the music plays a very ago, young people have been attracted to the film medium as a conspicuous part and loud music seemingly makes almost form to express their vision of the world. This vision has everything look good. To pick up on David Bordwell, you ranged from such diverse films as The Battleship Potemkin, could say that the rhythmic relation takes over. made by 25-year-old Sergei Eisenstein in 1927, to The 400 But there is also another, more specific use of sound: the Blows by 26-year-old Francois Truffaut in 1959, to not that old, sound-bridge. In traditional films, the slam of a door, Sex, Lies, and Videotape, by 26-year-old Steven Soderbergh. someone’s blowing his or her nose or the shot of a gun often Certainly these debut films by Eisenstein and Truffaut radically carries a bad cut from one shot to the next. In new style editing, affected the work of the filmmakers who followed them. And these sounds are added without any connection to the story. you might have a generation inspired by the impact of Cartoon-like sounds such as SSSWWWHISSS or Soderbergh’s films. WHOOOOWHH are added, almost as a kind of auditive white The beginning of the French New Wave can be traced as far back flashes. as 1955 with the production of Jean-Pierre Melville’s noir Bob Structure le Flambeur. However, it was not until the 1959 when Francois

98 Truffaut screened his autobiographical film The 400 Blows at responsibility for all their actions, instead of playing pre- Cannes that the French New Wave officially took hold. The ordained roles dictated by society. The characters in French New filmmakers of the French New Wave revolted against what was Wave films are often marginalized, young anti-heroes and considered classical French cinema and praised the conventions loners, with no family ties, who behave spontaneously, often act of commercial Hollywood cinema because of the embracing of immorally and are frequently seen as anti-authoritarian. There is film auteurs like Hitchcock and Hawks. a general cynicism concerning politics, often expressed as a The term French New Wave or La Nouvelle Vague refers to the disillusionment with foreign policy in Algeria or Indo-China. In work of a group of French film-makers between the years 1958 Godard’s A Bout de Souffle (1959) the protagonist kills and to 1964. The film directors who formed the core of this group, shows no remorse, while in Varda’s Cléo de 5 á 7 (1961) the François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Jacques protagonist stops playing the roles others expect of her, when Rivette and Eric Rohmer, were once all film critics for the she discovers she has cancer, and starts to live authentically. magazine Cahiers du Cinéma. Other French directors, including The French New Wave directors took advantage of the new Agnés Varda and Louis Malle, soon became associated with the technology that was available to them in the late 1950s, which French New Wave movement. This essay examines what was enabled them to work on location rather than in the studio. distinctive about the early films of these directors. They used lightweight hand-held cameras, developed by the During the late 1950s and early 1960s young film-makers in Eclair company for use in documentaries, faster film stocks, many countries were creating their own “new waves”, for which required less light, and light-weight sound and lighting example the working-class cinema of the “angry young men” in equipment. Their films could be shot quickly and cheaply with Britain, but the new wave movement in France turned out to be this portable and flexible equipment, which encouraged the most influential. The French New Wave directors’ back- experimentation and improvisation, and generally gave the ground in film theory and criticism was a major factor in this. directors more artistic freedom over their work. They changed notions of how a film could be made and were The films had a casual and natural look due to location filming. driven by a desire to forge a new cinema. The Cahiers du Available light was preferred to studio-style lighting and Cinéma critics were highly critical of the glossy, formulaic and available sound was preferred to extensive studio dubbing. The studio-bound French cinema of the 1940s and 1950s, but mise-en-scène of Parisian streets and coffee bars became a praised the work of 1930s French film-makers Jean Renoir and defining feature of the films. The camera was often very mobile, Jean Vigo and the work of the Italian neo-realists, including with a great deal of fluid panning and tracking. Often only one Roberto Rossellini and Vittorio De Sica. They also championed camera was used, in highly inventive ways; following characters certain Hollywood directors, for example, Alfred Hitchcock, down streets, into cafes and bars, or looking over their shoul- Nicholas Ray and Howard Hawks, who they saw as auteurs ders to watch life go by. Eric Rohmer’s La Boulangère Du (authors) of their films, despite the fact that they worked within Monceau (1962) opens by establishing the action in a specific studio systems making genre pictures. These directors were location in Paris, and is almost entirely filmed in the streets, labelled auteurs because of distinctive themes that could be cafes and shops of this area. In A Bout de Souffle (1959), the detected running throughout the body of their work. Through cinematographer Raoul Coutard, who worked on many of the their writings the Cahiers du Cinéma critics paved the way for French New Wave films, was pushed around in a wheelchair - cinema to become as worthy of academic study as any other art following the characters down the street and into buildings. form. Innovative use of the new hand-held cameras is evident, for In the late 1950s the Cahiers du Cinéma critics took the example, in Truffaut’s Les Quatre Cent Coups (1959), where a opportunity to become film auteurs themselves, when film boy is filmed on a fairground carousel. subsidies were bought in by the Gaullist government, and they The way the films were made reflected an interest in questioning put their theories into practice. The core group of French New cinema itself, by drawing attention to the conventions used in Wave directors initially collaborated and assisted each other, filmmaking. In this manner, the French New Wave directors which helped in the development of a common and distinct strove to present an alternative to Hollywood, by consciously use of form, style and narrative, which was to make their work breaking its conventions, while at the same time paying homage instantly recognizable. to what they regarded as good in Hollywood cinema. Godard’s The unique experience of French film-makers was evident in A Bout de Souffle set the tone for La Nouvelle Vague, by telling their films. During the war France was an occupied country, a simple story about a relationship in a convention-challenging unlike say England or the USA, and the experience of austerity style with numerous references to previous cinema. In addition and internal tensions, created by a population that in part to telling a love story, the film can also be seen as an essay about resisted and in part collaborated with the Nazis, left a mark on film-making. the country’s psyche. A distinctive philosophy - existentialism - French New Wave films had a free editing style and did not evolved in France in the post-war years. This philosophy, conform to the editing rules of Hollywood films. The editing associated with Jean-Paul Sartre and other French intellectuals, often drew attention to itself by being discontinuous, remind- was a major influence on La Nouvelle Vague. Existentialism ing the audience that they were watching a film, for example by stressed the individual, the experience of free choice, the absence using jump cuts or the insertion of material extraneous to the of any rational understanding of the universe and a sense of story (non-diegetic material). Godard, in particular, favoured the the absurdity in human life. Faced with an indifferent world an use of the jump cut, where two shots of the same subject are existentialist seeks to act authentically, using free will and taking cut together with a noticeable jump on the screen. In a Holly-

99 wood film this would be avoided by either using a shot/reverse Jean-Paul Belmondo models himself on Humphrey Bogart, shot edit or cutting to a shot from a camera in a position over while Malle’s Ascenseur pour l’Echafaud (1957) and several of 30 º from the preceding shot. In Godard’s first full-length film Claude Chabrol’s films make reference to Hitchcock. The A Bout de Souffle jump cuts are used during a lengthy conver- American jazz music that was popular in Paris at the time also sation in a room and in a scene in a car driving around Paris. featured in some of the films, for example, the Miles Davis Irrelevant shots were sometimes inserted for ironic or comical score for Ascenseur pour l’Echafaud. effect, for example, in Truffaut’s Tirez le Pianiste when one The French New Wave directors were prolific film-makers. The character says “May my mother drop dead if I’m not telling the five Cahiers directors (Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rivette and truth”, the shot is cut to one of an old lady falling over dead. Rohmer) made 32 films between 1959 and 1966. Although the The latter is also typical of the casual, sometimes anarchic, films represented a radical departure from traditional cinema, humour found in many Nouvelle Vague films. and where aimed at a young intellectual audience, many of them Long takes were common, for example, the street scene in A achieved a measure of critical and financial success, gaining a Bout de Souffle. Long takes have become particularly associated broad audience both in France and abroad. Truffaut’s Les with the films of Jacques Rivette. The use of real-time was also Quatre Cent Coups, for example, won the Grand Prize at the common, for example, in Varda’s Cléo de 5 á 7, in which the 1959 Cannes Film Festival, while A Bout de Souffle was a big screen duration and the plot duration both extend two hours, European box office hit. This contributed to the growing and in the slice-of-life scenes in Godard’s Vivre Sa Vie (1962). influence of these directors. After 1964 the experimentation These two films are also both firmly shot in the present tense, a elements of the French New Wave were already starting to common feature of French New Wave films generally. The films become assimilated into mainstream cinema. The directors tended to have loosely constructed scenarios, with many meanwhile diverged in style and developed their own distinct unpredictable elements and sudden shifts in tone, often giving cinematic voices. Truffaut incorporated more traditional the audience the impression that anything might happen next. elements in his films, for example, while Godard became They were also distinctive for having open endings, with increasingly political and radical in his film-making during the situations being left unresolved. Truffaut’s Les Quatre Cent 1960s. Coups is typical in ending ambiguously, with the protagonist The directors of the French New Wave, a movement whose Antoine on a beach caught in freeze-frame looking at the main concern seems to have been originality through a rejection camera. of cinematic traditions, were no exception to this rule. For The acting was a marked departure from much that had gone financial reasons, directors like Truffaut, Godard, and Chabrol before. The actors were encouraged to improvise their lines, or were unable to make films in the beginnings of their careers. talk over each others lines as would happens in real-life. In A Instead, they devoted their time to being film critics, and for ten Bout de Souffle this leads to lengthy scenes of inconsequential years they watched what is estimated to be 1,000 films per year. dialogue, in opposition to the staged speeches of much Therefore, the films of Francois Truffaut and his contemporar- traditional film acting. Monologues were also used, for example ies grew out of a thorough education in film history. The style in Godard’s Charlotte and her Bloke (1959); as were voice-overs of these films is a mixture of revolutionary techniques and expressing a character’s inner feelings, as in Rohmer’s La hommages to previously made innovations. Boulangère Du Monceau. The actors in these films were not big Sergei Eisenstein was another director whose movement, that stars prior to the French New Wave, but a group of stars soon of Soviet Montage, is said to have reinvented film language. became associated with the films including Jean-Paul However, this director’s work, like that of the New Wave Belmondo, Jean-Pierre Léaud and Jeanne Moreau. Women were directors, should not be viewed as an isolated occurrence. Like often given strong parts, that did not conform to the archetypal the later movement, Soviet Montage had its roots in the roles seen in most Hollywood cinema, for example, Jeanne broader context of film history. The events that most influ- Moreau in Truffaut’s Jules et Jim (1962) and Corinne Marchand enced and shaped Eisenstein’s art cover a broad spectrum. in Varda’s Cléo de 5 á 7. Most of these concern his fascination with the powers of French New Wave cinema was a personal cinema. The film- editing to create certain responses in the viewer. The work of makers were writers who were skilful at examining relationships Dziga Vertov and Lev Kuleshov can be seen as early predeces- and telling humane stories. Truffaut’s films were particularly sors of Eisenstein’s montage theories and practices. Vertov autobiographical. His first full-length film Les Quatre Cents realized the potential film had to capture reality, and his early Coups drew upon his early life, and the life-story of the main work was made up of exclusively documentary footage. character Antoine Doinel was developed through three subse- However, he soon saw the “necessity to arrange this reality into quent films: Antoine et Colette (1962), Baisers Volés (1968) and an expressive and persuasive whole.” This got him to begin Domicile Conjugal (1970). experimenting with editing techniques, which included splicing The Nouvelle Vague film-makers, being critics, were very together series of very quick shots. This also lead to experi- knowledgeable about cinema. Their films incorporated elements ments with self-reflexivity, or the ability of film to call attention of American genres, for example, film noir in A Bout de to itself and its own making. Souffle, the gangster movie in Tirez le Pianiste and the thriller For a short time, Eisenstein was a part of the “Kuleshov and the musical in Godard’s Bande á Part (1964). They also Workshop”, a group of young film makers who considered frequently contained references to particular Hollywood stars or editing the essence of film making. They made extensive films by American auteurs. In A Bout de Souffle, for example, experiments with the ability of editing to manipulate audience

100 response. The biggest foreign influence on Eisenstein’s work regarding problems with his eye sight. In the film, Soderbergh was the film making of DW Griffith. The latter’s film, Intoler- utilized one of the characteristics of the New Wave movement: ance, was viewed extensively by the young Russian film lovers in direct address. Conventional Hollywood cinema criticizes an the Kuleshov workshop. actor who looks at the camera. The response to direct address is Finally, Eisenstein brought to his film making the goals he had even more looked down upon. However, by allowing Gray to attempted to achieve with his early work in the theater. It was address the camera, Soderbergh created less of a barrier between here that he invented the “montage of attractions”, whereby the the audience and the subject, thus making the film more audience would be continuously jolted out of its expectations personal. through the juxtaposition of seemingly arbitrary “attractions’ or Soderbergh’s second film of 1996, , exemplified “impressions”. further the French New Wave influence on his films. Jump cuts Although the New Wave directors and critics theoretically are increasingly common, giving the film what is commonly rejected the theories of Soviet montage in favor of the aesthet- considered a “sloppy” feel. In the interrogation scene of the ics of mise-en-scene and the long take, people have argued that paranoid-schizophrenic exterminator, Elmo Oxygen, the two movements were more alike than many realize, and that Soderbergh utilizes this visual technique numerous times to the innovations made by Soviet directors like Eisenstein actually provide a temporal ellipsis. Visual style aside, Soderbergh also played an important role in some New Wave films. The primary adds unconventional narrative techniques to the film. For way they did this was through their interest in making films call example, during the film’s self-proclaimed third act, Fletcher attention to themselves as films, or as created works of art. Munson (Soderbergh) and his wife (Soderbergh’s wife at the Both movements, although often for different reasons, did time, Betsy Brantley) experience comical marital dispute and lack this, in part, through editing. personal communication. Soderbergh, aside from making this And coming to Stevan Soderbergh obvious in his performance and Brantley’s, makes this break- “Godard is a constant source of inspiration. Before I do down of communication literal by having his character speak anything, I go back and look at as many of his films as I can, as various foreign languages while his wife speaks English. This, a reminder of what’s possible.”-Steven Soderbergh of course, is not a technique commonly seen or embraced in Academy Award winning director Steven Soderbergh has conventional Hollywood cinema. However, casual humor is a directed over twelve films. From his critically acclaimed debut, characteristic commonly found in New Wave films. For sex, lies, and videotape, Oscar winner Traffic, to box office hit, example, a variation of this technique is seen in Godard’s Band Ocean’s Eleven. While his films cover a variety of different Of Outsiders when all three main characters resolve to be silent subject matter, his directorial style remains somewhat constant. for a moment and Godard literally makes the scene mute of all Much of his style seems to stem from his fascination with the sound. French New Wave movement. His utilizing of Francois Soderbergh’s return to Hollywood in 1997 brought forth one Truffaut’s The 400 Blows freeze frame is evident in the narrative of his most acclaimed films, the adaptation of Elmore structure of the 1998 film while his use of color Leonard’s noir Out of Sight. The film was nominated for themes in Traffic seems to harken back to the opening scene of numerous , including one for Anne V. Coates Jean-Luc Godard’s Contempt. Furthermore, many of for best editing. It is the editorial techniques in Out of Sight Soderbergh’s films incorporate breaks in the 180 degree line, that showcase much of the characteristics of the French New jump cuts, direct address, and an all out attack on conventional Wave. One of the most evident visual traits of the film is Hollywood cinema. It becomes clear, when looking at the films Soderbergh’s continual use of freeze frames. As previously in Soderbergh’s , that much of his directorial style noted, this first appeared in the final shot of Traffaut’s The 400 lies within the roots of the French New Wave. Blows. While Traffaut used his freeze frame to give the film an While the French new wave movement seemed to end in 1964, ambiguous ending, Soderbergh utilizes his temporally to lend it gave rise to a similar movement of the popular independent the film a stream of consciousness effect. For example, when Hollywood film, which went against the conventions set forth Jack () and Buddy (Ving Rhames) are left by Hollywood. Soderbergh was one of the founding members behind by Glen after the jail break, Soderbergh flashes back to with his 1989 debut film, sex, lies, and videotape. one of the first instances in which the duo met Glen. Time With the exception of some of the long takes and the reflexive does, however, catch up with itself. This occurs as the window role of the camera in sex, lies, and videotape, the influence of between past and future narrows during the cross cutting of the the French New Wave in Soderbergh’s early films seems pale in scenes in the bar and Karen’s hotel room. As Jack and Karen are comparison with the films that graced the middle of his on making love and are preparing to make love, the freeze frames going career. It was not until 1996 when Soderbergh produced become increasingly common until the two events occur within Gray’s Anatomy and Schizopolis that the New Wave’s influence the same moment. This leads to the final freeze frame of the seemed to take on full potency. As seen in his published film and a fade to black, separating the past from what has journals, dating from the post-production of both films in become the present. early 1996 to pre-production of Out of Sight in early 1997, Soderbergh’s follow up, 1999’s , also incorporated an Soderbergh became increasingly upset with the Hollywood editorial technique common in French New Wave films: system and ventured into . His first film to discontinuity editing. Most notably evident in the opening scene become a product of this hiatus, Gray’s Anatomy, consisted of Godard’s Breathless, this technique makes the viewer entirely of an eighty minute monologue by Spalding Gray confused to the character’s spatial relationship to their sur-

101 roundings. Most of this confusion stems from the lack of an the set, picking and providing their own wardrobe, maintaining establishing shot and frequent breaks across the 180 degree line. their own hair and make-up, not allowing trailers or personal These traits are seen numerous times in The Limey. The best free time, and encouraging improvisation. Furthermore, the example, however, is during the Wilson’s (Terence Stamp) film was to be shot on digital video handicams with a shooting monologue to Elaine (Lesley Ann Warren). Soderbergh shoots schedule only lasting eighteen days. This film was clearly not this exchange in numerous settings ranging from a restaurant, a going to be what was considered conventional Hollywood boardwalk, to a hotel room and intercuts them together. By cinema. Soderbergh, in the commentary on the recently released doing so and not altering the audio track to include an ellipsis, DVD, compares the film to the work of Godard and the Soderbergh not only makes the audience unsure of where the French New Wave and this can clearly be seen in the film. From true conversation took place but disorientates them. The the use of direct address, soft focus, jump cuts, and other utilization of this technique also visually encourages the examples of discontinuity editing, Full Frontal embodies the audience to question the point of view and information they very essence of the French New Wave and it is clear, looking are being given in the narrative. through Soderbergh’s filmography, that this historical film The following year not only brought Soderbergh the major movement touches almost every one of his films. success of his two latest films, Erin Brockovich and Traffic, but Elliptical Editing an Academy Award nomination for the former and a win for Shot transitions that omit parts of an event, causing ellipses in the later. Traffic became the perfect hybrid of Soderbergh’s plot and story duration. Ellipses end up shortening of the plot Hollywood and guerrilla filmmaking. Like his previous films, duration of a film achieved by deliberately omitting intervals or much of the style Soderbergh displays on Traffic seems to stem sections of the narrative story or action; an ellipsis is marked by from his fascination with the French New Wave. The most an editing transition (a fade, dissolve, wipe, jump cut, or change notable of the two techniques is that of the color themes for of scene) to omit a period or gap of time from the film’s each of the locales the film takes place in. Mexico is basked in a narrative. In this still from Traffic (Steven Soderbergh, 2000), a washed out yellow while Ohio is left to soak in cold blue tones, drug party is rendered through elliptical editing (achieved with a giving the audience a visual reference to each location. This plentiful use of dissolves and jump cuts) in order to both technique, while utilized in a different context, seems to be shorten the time and suggest the character’s rambling mental taken from the opening scene in Godard’s Contempt. Con- states. tempt, Godard’s first venture into the realm of French film Elliptical editing need not be confined to a same place and time. industry, is notable for its unconventional use of cinescope and A seven-minute song sequence from Hum Aapke Hain Koun technicolor. The first scene is accentuated with the extremely (Sooraj Bartjatya, India 1994) dances us through several months reflexive movement of changing colored filters on one take, in the life of a family, from a cricket match to a ritual welcoming making the scene go from a dark red, yellow, to dark blue while a new wife. the audience watches the filters change over the camera lens. The second, most notable, French New Wave property exempli- fied in Traffic is Soderbergh’s use of the hand-held camera. This technique was utilized in both Truffaut’s The 400 Blows and Godard’s Breathless in order to allow the audience to explore space. Soderbergh does the same but adds the common feeling of un-balance to these shots. For example, while pursuing Helena (Catherine Zeta-Jones) through the streets of Tijuana, Soderbergh lets the camera jitter. This gives the audience a feeling of realism by visually not allowing a person’s walk to appear perfectly smooth like a stedicam would. Following his success with Traffic, Soderbergh brought audiences the big budgeted remake of the Rat Pack film, Ocean’s Eleven. Starring George Clooney, Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, and Julia Roberts, Ocean’s Eleven also became Soderbergh’s most successful and most conventional film. However, even his most conventional film was not untouched by the New Wave. For example, Livingston Dell’s (Edward Jemison) frustrating encounter with the casino’s computer is from scenes of the newlyweds’ daily life... to the announcement graced with jump cuts to ellipse time. Furthermore, direct of Pooja’s pregnacy, address and the reflexive technique of coming into focus are utilized when Rusty approaches towards the camera dressed as a doctor. However, Soderbergh’s next feature, Full Frontal, would prove to be a full reversal on Ocean’s Eleven. Supplementing all copies of the screenplay to Full Frontal, Soderbergh authored his infamous list of rules for the stars demanding everything from personally driving themselves to

102 bottom and fade in/dissolve at the top. • A woman walks out of frame at the bottom of a staircase; cut to a frame at the top of stairs and have her walk in. • A cutaway is a shot of something else occurring, such as another person getting out of bed then cut back to the person on the stairs. Bibliography: Anderson, Joseph. The Reality of Illusion: An Ecological from a gift shower for the upcoming baby... to multiple scenes Approach to the Cognitive Film Theory. Southern Illinois of celebrations, as Pooja’s approaches her ninth month. University Press, 1996. Arnheim, Rudolph. Art and Visual Perception. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954. Aumont, Jacques. The Image. London: BFI, 1997. Bordwell, David. Film Art: An introduction. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1979. Bordwell, David. On the history af Film style. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997. Bottomore, Stephen. Shots in the Dark in: Elsaesser, Thomas (ed.). Space, frame, narrative. London: BFI, 1990. Carroll, Noël. “Toward a Theory of Film Editing,” Millennium Film Journal no. 3, 1979. Eisenstein, Sergei. Film Form and Film Sense. London: Faber and Faber, 1970. Højbjerg, Lennard. Visuel stil som repræsentation; in: Sekvens 1997. Kimergård, Lars Bo. Fresh Cuts; in: DOX #12, august 1997. Kimergård, Lars Bo. Tiden og det magiske mellemrum, in: Dansk Film #3, November 1996. Murch, Walter. In the Blink of an Eye. Australian Film, Television & Radio School, 1992. Nilsen, Vladimir. The Cinema as a Graphic Art. New York: Hill and Wang, 1959. Reisz, Karel and Gavin Millar. The Technique of Film Editing. London: Focal Press, 1982.

Notes :

Some other examples: Examples: the breakfast scene in Citizen Kane(1941), the ambush scene in Bonnie and Clyde(1967), the 45 second shower scene in Psycho(1960) - with between 71-78 camera set- ups for the shooting of the scene and 50 splices (where two pieces of film are joined), or the Odessa Steps montage in Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin (1925) including three successive shots of stone lions in various positions - filmed to look as though they are one lion rising to its feet and roaring in fury and anger at the massacre Elliptical editing presents an action in such a way that it consumes less time on screen than it does in the story. Some techniques: • A man climbing a set of steps: fade out/dissolve at the

103 UNIT 13 LESSON 13: EDITING STAGES & PROCESS EDITING STAGES & PROCESS

Here in this lesson we learn about the actual editing process and Logging a little bit about the technology that helps us achieve that. We When producing a video you will normally have a lot more would concentrate only on the basics of how video editing is footage than you will finally use (some times even more than10 done. You would learn about the traditional film editing times). This means that it is not possible to remember exactly processes in the next semester. where everything is. When editing, it is important to be able to Most novice editors equate editing with the technical ability to find what you want quickly. This means that you must Log the operate the controller, the decks, the effects generators, comput- footage which involves writing down a list of what is on the ers, and all the gadgetry that makes up an editing console. But tape. It is particularly useful at the end of editing when you find that’s only a small part of it. you need to use a cutaway but can’t bring one to mind. It is also The main purpose of editing is to tell a story the viewer can worth doing even if you are not going to use the footage follow & understand. immediately as you may have forgotten important details when If we fail to meet this basic requirement, no amount of high you get around to logging. So one of the first steps in what is tech equipment or fancy special effects will salvage a video. Here called “post-production,” is logging your footage. Ideally, you’d are some tips to facilitate the editing process and help you meet log the footage as it’s being shot on location, as this can save your production objectives. you a lot of time later on. Also, there’s some pretty good First of all, establish an outline for your edited master. Every software for logging – which means that a laptop computer can story has a beginning, a middle, and an ending. Productions are be an invaluable asset on location. Some location cameras have no exception. All that great footage you shot will mean LCD panels from which you can read tape counter numbers or nothing if the viewer can’t follow the story line. time code as you videotape your story. A crew member can take Decide what it is you want to tell the viewer. Then create an down the numbers and make notes on a shot sheet along the outline that will help you to visually guide the viewer through following lines. your story. Time codes The second rule of good editing is to leave out footage that On professional Video recorders and the more expensive doesn’t fit in with the story line. If a shot doesn’t enhance the domestic equipment a Timecode is written to each frame of production, leave it out. Consequently, a lot of good footage video. There are 25 frames per second. This Timecode is in the ends up on the “editing room floor”. This takes a lot of format HH:MM:SS:FF where HH is hour, MM is minute, SS is discipline but will improve your productions tremendously. second and FF is frame. This means when you put the tape in When all of the materials are gathered you’re ready to build, or the VCR it can show exactly where you are on the tape, without edit, the project. The initial stage of editing provides the having to rewind the tape and reset the counter. framing or rough skeleton of a project. Several phases of review When logging tapes you write on the log sheet the start and by you. Images and sound are combined and trials are made of end Timecode of each clip and a description. A clip can be of presentation style and graphic art. After each review, changes are any convenient length and does not have to start where there is made until the presentation meets the project’s objectives. a cut in the footage. If there was a shot where someone runs up During this process the image and sound quality are not as to a friend and shouts “Run for it” this may be logged as two polished as will appear in the final version and timecode clips. The first being Someone runs to friends and the second numbers may appear over the video image. being Someone shouts “Run for it”. The length of the clips is a Timecode is the numeric time reference assigned to each frame matter of judgment but remember the log is going to be used of video, much like frames of a film. Timecode is used to for selecting footage. Whenever something distinctive happens, identify sections or edit points. These reference numbers are or someone new is speaking a new clip is logged. Weather you entered into a timeline in the editing software which becomes put what people are saying is also a matter of judgment. You the editing map for the project. should write anything that sounds useful; you can either write Before the final stage of editing occurs, you’ll approve going down the full dialog or summaries it. It is also not strictly forward with the project as designed in the early phase of the speaking necessary to log everything, but in practice it is a good editing process. The final editing stage provides the “finish” to idea. This is especially true if someone else is doing the editing the project where particular attention is placed on image quality or the footage is going into an archive. and flow, the audio mix and proper technical attributes needed to achieve a quality product. Burnt in Time Codes Changes at this point are usually costly and time consuming. So You do not need access to a VCR, which displays time codes to it is important to pay careful attention to the early approval log footage. Lot of filmmakers especially documentary film phase of the editing process. makers might transfer their footage from what ever format they shot it on to VHS tapes for viewing and logging with Editing Stages Timecodes displayed on the screen. This can be very helpful.

104 Below is an example of a professional way of doing it with all the details of the shots that you log. Watch the tapes and log all the raw footage, noting which shots are good and which are bad. Write down WHEN the video appears and how long the shot lasts, WHAT the video is about, and HOW it sounds. Write down good quotes you might use. Include the location in the footage of each shot you will be using. This is where burnt-in time codes come in handy. To log the tape, rewind to the beginning and decide which shots you want. You may not want a shot if the audio is

105 unclear or the picture is out of focus. Logging tapes can be tedious, but it is important for locating shots later. It is very useful to say how good the sound and Picture (Pict) is. In the example below VG (Very good), G (Good), OK, B (Bad) and VB (Very Bad) are used, OK meaning usable. Although the To and From column use full Timecodes you may decide not to include frames. You may decide to only write what changes rather than the whole thing. The hour will probably be the same on all clips and there is not really any point of writing the minutes unless they change. As well as a description of the shot it is often useful to say the type of shot in terms of where it is shot from (i.e. above/ producers attend the editing sessions to correct unforeseen below) and how the shot is framed. There are different problems in the footage and to fine-tune certain clips. Others abbreviations that are used for this but the following is as good leave creative control to the editor. They leave the EDL and any as any:- special instructions for the editor to follow Rough cut.: The first editing pass. The rough cut is an early version of the movie that pulls together the basic elements before adding effects, transitions, and so on. The editor working on your project will piece together all of the elements of your production in a form very close to the final version. This usually takes three to five days. Especially in a very technical program, you may not fully appreciate the scripted material and all of the elements until they appear in concert on the tape. As you review the rough cut, you can make notes for final adjustments. The editor for peer review, impressions, and comments will distribute the rough cut. Those will be collated and submitted to you, as the executive producer, and assimilated as appropri- ate. This stage of peer review usually takes two to three weeks. In analog: a rough cut in analog editing is an edit made with window dubs. Reduces handling of original tape. In digital editing: low resolution digital material (reduced computational demands— rapid processing/manipulation and reduced or EDL demand on storage space) is the rough cut. After you are through with your logging you start working on Final or Master cut. Going back to original material / the EDL. If you logged it some time ago, or if someone else redigitizing only needed material at higher resolution. logged it, you should sit down with the logging sheets and re- Linear and Non linear editing acquaint yourself with it. EDL is a piece of paper with the order Linear Editing of shots and details about them including titling. This is only a starting point and represents a very rough edit. As well as A linear suet is made up of a video-tape played (the source including the actual edit it is worth including any clips you think VCR), and a recorder (the target VCR). These are connected may be useful such as extra cutaways. In the EDL is a sheet together so the footage you want can be copied from one to listing each shot to be recorded, the exact time code of edit-in another. To control the editing (copying) process an Edit and edit-out points for each shot, any effects to be included, Controller is used. Linear editing is the re-recording of scenes their duration, and other details. This sheet will help you decide from an original tape (called a raw-footage tape) to a second tape on the sequence you will put together to complete your project. (called an edited master). You may transfer both video (picture) You will have to create an Edit Decision List and script for the and audio (sound) from the original tape to the edited master editor. An EDL is how you convey your ideas to the editor. either together or separately depending upon whether you use You list the sequence of scenes you will want, along with titles, the “Insert” or “Assemble” method of editing. The process is credits, specials effect, and music. Also include a brief descrip- “linear” because your scenes are transferred in the order that they tion of the shot and the audio. This is mostly used when the will appear onto your final edited master. Once the shots are producer leaves creative control up to the editor. transferred on to your edited master tape, they are fixed in a Editing can be very costly; so the more organized you are the certain order and the sequence of scenes cannot be re-arranged. better. To do that you would have to re record again on the same tape. Linear editing is divided into two methods: assemble and Extras insert. Choose sound effects, graphics, music, titles, and other Assemble editing transfers the original picture and sound “extras.” Once this is complete, the editing can begin. Most together onto your edited master. With assemble editing, you

106 cannot separate the sound from the picture. Therefore, you couldn’t add new music or narration to an existing video image. Insert editing allows you to independently transfer the picture and sound separately. With insert editing, you could add a music or narrative track (or both) to your existing video images. To do an edit:- • go to the beginning of the clip you wish to use on the source VCR and setting the In Point. • go to the end of the clip you want and set the Out Point. • go to the point you which to copy the clip to on the target VCR and set the In Point there. It is then possible to do a Preview where the edit suit goes videotape. A Non-linear suite consists of a computer with a through the motions of editing showing you the edit on the video monitor connected to it. The computer has a video monitor but does not actually copy any footage. You can then capture card in it, which allows video to be copied off tape onto tweak the In and Out Points by resetting them. You can the computers hard disk. This system only required one video Preview the edit as many times as you wish. When you are recorder. happy with the edit you can then Perform it which actually Non-linear editing (NLE) has quickly proven itself to be the copies the footage onto the target VCR. industry standard. Basically, the video is brought into your To move through the footage you usualy use a Jog? Shuttle computer and manipulated on your hard drive with special Controler. This enables you to move through footage both software. This form of editing is timeline based, and because forward and backwards at a variety of speeds. The fastest is everything is digital, you are able to frame exact edit points at all normally x10 and the slowest is a frame every few seconds. This times. Once you select where you want each scene to begin and is the shuttle part. The jog part allows you to single step booth end, you then place them all on a timeline to arrange and edit at forwards and backwards through footage a frame at a time. your whim. Editing is done by placing the clips on a time line. It is also possible to insert just video or audio which allowed It is then possible to trim (change the duration) of clips or even cutaways/wildtrack to be inserted. In this way the whole piece change their sequence (move them around in relation to each can be built up. Adding video affects requires an additional piece other). Audio can be edited separately from the picture allowing of equipment called an effects generator. Titles can be done by several tracks of wild track to be used. You’re not limited to one filming them on a piece of card or using yet another piece of audio and video track at a time—you can arrange with multiple equipment called a titler. tracks—it’s all just a point and click away! It is normal do a rough cut first, where the in/out points are The most exciting aspect of NLE is the editing capabilities. not to tight (close) to the footage you actually want first. You Because you’re editing in a digital format, titling, graphics, filters, then take the tape out of the source VCR and put it into the and transitions are easy to insert, and the options are bound- source VCR. A blank tape is then put into the target VCR and less. Foreign languages, logos, ripples, swirls, bounces, spins, the whole process is done again, this time the editing is made you name it—NLE can do it for you, giving you a highly much tighter. It may be necessary to do the whole process a professional product that will be sure to wow your clients. third time. As every time you do a copy you loose quality you may decide to Analog & Digital Editing do the whole thing again from the rushes (master tapes). a brief comparison of the major differences Sound and cutaways can be added to the edit by only copying the picture or audio, it the case of audio the left and right channel can be copied independently. The sound will probably be put through a audio mixer so it can be faded up and down. In order to edit video scenes, it is important that your original footage be shot properly. It is important to start the camcorder recording 10 seconds before your important video footage occurs. This 10 seconds of extra recording at the beginning of each scene allows the editor to do a “preroll.” A preroll is where both the recording deck and the playback deck rewind about 7 seconds before an edit point in order to get a “running start.” The reason for this is that both decks must be up to speed before an edit can be properly executed. Non Linear Editing Non-linear editng is done by copying your original footage into a computer, and then editing the final version digitally inside the computer. Because the information is stored digitally, the scenes may be re-arranged easily, before they are copied back to a

107 Video Capture In order to get your video onto your computer’s hard drive, you will first need to “capture” it inside your PC. This is done with a video capture card that records your video onto your hard drive as an AVI file, or audio video interweaved file. Video capture cards use hardware and/or software compression/ decompression () to digitize the video onto your hard drive, allowing you to use NLE for your editing process. The first stage of editing is digitizing the clips you wish to use. This involves copying all the clips you want onto the computers hard disk. On more sophisticated systems you can do batch capture. This is where you type the timecodes of the begin- ning/end of each clip you want. You can then let the software do the work unattended, apart from changing tapes (the software should prompt you when this needs doing). The next step is to put all the footage onto the timeline and do a rough cut. If this is done by an editor who is working with a director it is a good idea to let the editor concentrate on doing this on there own. They can get things into good shape and the director can come in afterwards. The edit is then tightened up while the director is there. Any additional footage and audio can be digitized at any time. The last stage is usually tightening up the sound by slightly overlap- ping audio and bringing in wildtrack. Rendering Once you have finished editing your video with NLE, the final step to take before you can play your video back to tape is to render your video file as a single AVI file. This step is very important, but you must make sure that you have enough disk space for your completed video. Rendering is a process that takes up both a lot of time and memory, and the more special effects and graphics you’ve included, the more megs per minute your AVI file will be. Real-time NLE Real-time NLE systems allow you to use special transitions, graphics, and filters that do not require rendering. As such, you are not limited to time-constraints when playing your video from timeline to tape. Some systems only offer a few real-time effects, while others offer you thousands of professional effects, so choose your system accordingly.

Notes :

108 UNIT 14 LESSON 14: GETTING STARTED WITH GETTING STARTED WITH FINAL CUT PRO FINAL CUT PRO

In this lesson we would learn how to start working on a NLE Canvas Window setup, Final Cut Pro. We start here from the very beginning. The next window is the canvas window which corresponds to 1 Click on the Final Cut Pro icon to open the program. the sequence whereas the viewer window allows you to load prepare and preview clips for editing into a sequence the canvas 2 File > Save Project As . . . window allows you top review sequence timelines , there is a tab 3 Click on the desktop icon (if you are not already on the in the canvas window that allows you to switch back and forth desktop) and open the drive that has been assigned to you. between the different sequence timelines in your project as you 4 Click the New Folder icon work another window is audio meters. These meters show 5 Use your first and last name to name the folder followed by rising or falling bars in the right left channel based on the level “Video” e.g. University Film of the audio. This allows you to keep an eye on the decibel level of the audio as well troubleshoot your system’s audio. 6 Name the project and save it.

7 There are Six different types of window. When you open your newly saved project . Viewer Window It is associated with clips ,when you load a clip into the viewer window you can manipulate it in many ways, you can play it back , review the footage, you can assign in and out or edit points defining how much of the clip is used when you edit the sequence. The tabs on the top allow you not only to adjust features of the video and audio but also to apply special effects .

Timeline The Timeline is not a sequence in and of itself; it is merely a window in which you work with sequences. As with the Project, Viewer, and Canvas windows, the Timeline is based on a tab architecture so that you can have more than one sequence available in the Timeline window. To switch from one sequence to the next, simply click on the tab. You will notice rather quickly that each of these windows is linked directly to the oth-ers. Adjustments made in one window will change the project globally, meaning that when-ever you make a change in one window of the project that affects other windows, the change will be automatically reflected elsewhere. For instance, when you switch sequences in the Timeline window, the Canvas window tabs switch around to show the same sequence.

109 Browser Window Browser window is the top level window of the application. It contains the project tab that represents your entire final cut pro project and all its contents. You can capture or import video, audio and graphics clips, they will appear in this project tab. When you will create a new sequence to editing the timeline window, it will appear in the project tab. Anything that goes into project tab can be further organized into bins, which are simply organizational folders that can be created in the project tab.

Tool Palette To the right is an inconspicuous vertical bar. This is the tool palette with 9 icons. When you click on an icon it will expand to show you options in the same family of tools. 1 The most commonly used tool is the default selector at the top. The top three icons are selector tools of some kind or other. These are to highlight clips and move them. 2 The next three icons are edit tools: roll, ripple, slip, slide, and razor blade. These are to trim and help you match motion in a movement sequence or to sync movement to sound. 3 The 7th icon is for view tools. These make clips in the Effects Window Timeline larger or smaller. There is another tab in the project window that is always open 4 The 8th is for image modification tools. These are for ,even when there are no open windows ,this is effects tab. This cropping or distorting the image. contains many different built in effects such as transitions, special effects, audio filters and titles. 5 The 9th is for keyframe tools. These are to create or delete keyframes. Especially helpful on a motion path or audio

110 graph. most important thing to set up a successful edit. You might You will become familiar with these as you work with your clips start with making a bin for each person who speaks in your in the Timeline footage, or bins for each topic covered, or each location in which you shot. Most editors make a bin of clips that really turn them on that they want to be sure to include somewhere before the edit is locked. If you are going to be cutting dance or montage, you can make bins for different screen directions and image sizes. If you are going to be working with color, you can make bins of each dominant color. If you don’t put your footage into logical bins, you spend all your edit time looking for clips. Before capturing the clips few important settings are made .

Audio meters These meters show rising or falling bars in the left and right channels based on the level of audio. This allows you to keep an eye on the decibel level of your audio, as well as troubleshoot Click on the final cut pro menu /go into audio video settings / your system’s audio. If you don’t hear audio, but you see levels, click on the external video tab and put it on apple firewire pal or if you hear nasty distortion but your Audio Meter levels are 720*576 . acceptable, it may be time to go in for a little system mainte- nance. Audio Video Settings Log and capture Window The Audio Video Settings are Critical. Set them when you start a project, and check them every session. Sometimes the video From This Window we can capture both video and audio for will not show up on the monitor. Trashing the preferences and our saved project through a single cable called Firewire or IEEE restarting the computer can usually fix that problem. 1394. There are a variety of ways to capture video: • Capture clips this process is used to capture single clips from Scratch Disk the tape . • Capture now - Using your written logs you can advance the tape to a few seconds before a section you want to capture and push the NOW button to start and ESC to stop. This is sloppy, but works. Be certain your preferences, particularly scratch disks are correctly set and name your clips before you capture. • Enter a Batch Capture List - Use your written logs(refer the material on logging in the previous lesson), and type in the time code numbers of the in/out points of the clips you will be using. It is easy to name clips doing it this way. When Final Cut is open on a computer, every inch of space available on the monitor screen is taken up with windows, each of which has a specific purpose. The Log and Capture window, demonstrated in the previous step, is used to view tape loaded into a digital video camera and to “capture” clips - isolating part Scratch Disks This is important because it determines where of the tape and digitizing just that part of it. To its right, your media files are stored and media files are what eat disk included as part of the window, three tabs, called Logging, Clip space. Settings and Capture Settings, govern how the material will be 1 Scratch Disks: x on Capture Audio and Video to separate Video clips are organized into bins. Bins are just indexes of the files captured clips, not copies of them. So you can have the same clip in more than one bin. The organization of your bins is the 2 Click on the Set icon

111 3 Select the folder you already created for your project. 3 The deck can be controlled from the Log and Capture You will be assigned two drives. This is where you create the window. Click on the play arrow or push the space bar on the folder for the second drive. keyboard to stop and start. 4 Click on the next Set icon Preparing the Browser 5 Click on the Desktop icon 1 File > New > Bin 6 Open the second disk that’s been assigned to you (by double 2 Name the Bin clicking). 3 Control/Click the Bin icon and a menu will appear. Choose 7 Click on New. Set Logging Bin. The name of your logging bin will now 8 Use your first and last name to name the folder followed by appear at the top of your log and capture window. the “Audio” (this will be your second folder). e.g. Audio Rai Logging University Film It’s a good idea to have a computer log with time-code and 9 Click select. notes of everything you’ve shot which can be output as a batch 10 In the first folder x the video box and in the second x the list. It is quick and painless on Final Cut Pro. audio and render files. It is better to keep your video and 1 Mark your in and out points with the arrow tabs next to the audio files on separate drives. time code window in the lower left and right-hand corners or 11 At the bottom you will see Waveform Cache and Thumbnail use the keyboard: i for in, o for out. Cache. Set and select your second folder. 2 Type in the label, scene and take and if you place an x next to 12 Click O.K.! these boxes they will appear in the name of the clip. 3 Click on Log Clip 4 Click on O.K. 5 You have created your first “off-line clip.” It should have a red slash through it. This means it is not digitized yet. Once you have viewed all your footage, logged them as off-line clips, and made copious notes, you can decide which clips are essential to digitize. This is important if you have hours of footage and limited disk space. 6 Repeat steps 1 through 4 until you have created at least five off-line clips. Now that you’ve created a log of your tape, you might want to save it and print it. 7 Stretch out the Browser window so you can view as many columns as possible. Many of these are unnecessary for your log record. 8 Control/Click on the empty or unnecessary columns and choose Hide Column. Exercise 9 Next go to File > Export > Batch List . . . 1 Edit > Audio Video Settings. 10 Name it and save it to your project folder. 2 There are 5 tabs: Summary, Sequence Preset, Capture Presets, 11 To print, go to the Apple icon in the top left corner and Device Control Preset and External Video open the stickies program. 3 Summary: Make sure that View External Video Using is set 12 File > import text . . . > open Batch List to Apple Firewire PAL (720 x576) You can print this but it would be better to copy this into an 4 Device Control: Make sure it reads Apple Firewire, DV Time, email addressed to yourself and then format it in Word or PAL Excel. The video lab does not have these programs on the 5 Capture: PAL DV (4:3), computers. * Make sure that audio is set to Source, DV audio 48 khz or 32 Browser Window Displaying Picons khz, Two channels Editing 6 Sequence Presets: DV PAL 48 kHz Putting a program together means putting clips, or parts of You are now ready to begin. clips into a sequence. You do not have to start at the beginning. You can build sequences of sections and then copy these 1 Insert your Mini-DV tape into the Deck. sections into a new sequence. If you have a sequence that you 2 File > Log and Capture . . . like, you should make a copy of it before tweaking it further so that you can always go back to something you liked if your new

112 6 Hit F9 to make an insert edit. The clip from the source will appear both on the Timeline and in the Record window. Viewer Window Functions The viewer window is where clips are loaded for three-point editing. Double clicking on a clip in the browser window will allow you to see its contents in the viewer. In Final Cut Pro a clip may be dragged directly from the browser window into the viewer window. The viewer window has many buttons and menus. The center of the viewer gives a visual display of the frame where the position indicator is parked. The upper half and lower half of the viewer window contain all the menus and buttons. Lower Portion of Viewer Window

idea doesn’t pan out. You can make multiple versions of a sequence to try out ideas. The first objective in editing is to get the program flowing, to get your clips in the correct order, and to make sense out of your story. This can be done with straight cuts that do not require rendering (which eats time). Save all transitions, and effects until you are happy with your straight cut edit. There are many ways to get your clips from the Browser to the Timeline to create your movie. Here we would not go into the Some important Final Cut Pro functions of the viewer and multiple ways to accomplish this canvas windows are as follows: The following exercises show you two basic methods of Play Button: Pressing the play button will play a clip, and you starting the editing process. will see the position indicator move forward. Pressing it again will stop the position indicator. 1 The quickest way is to drag and drop the on-line bin onto Mark In (I): This will mark an in point where the position the time-line placing the three clips in order. The video track indicator is currently parked. is blue and the two audio tracks are green. Mark Out (O): This will mark an out point where the play 2 Click on the time-line window and press Home to place the head indicator is currently parked. playhead at the beginning of the sequence. Upper Portion of Viewer Window 3 Hit the space-bar to play your sequence. 4 There is a simple way to trim your clips. Click and drag. Clip Duration Box 5 To create more tracks click on a clip and drag it up. You can create as many tracks as you want with this method. 6 To unlink video and audio go to sequence > linked selection and uncheck it. The short-cut is shift/L. Like in the linear editing setup, you can use the source and monitor screens as if they were a source and record deck. 1 Double click the first clip you want to use in the browser window. It will appear in the source window (on the left). 2 Play the clip by hitting the space bar, and stop it when you get to the place you want to make the in edit. You can use the left and right arrow keys to move back and forth a frame at a time to find your exact edit point. 3 When you find the edit point, press the “i” key (for IN) 4 Then Play the clip until you get to the end of the part you want to use and when you have the precise frame, hit the “o” key (for OUT) 5 Then click in the timeline window and hit the “i” key for the place you want to insert the clip from the source. (If this is the first edit, it will be at the beginning of the time line.

113 The clip duration window will update to show the distance between the IN / OUT points in the viewer. In this case, the duration is 11 seconds and 25 frames. If no IN point is present, Final Cut Pro will use the very first frame of the clip as the default IN point. If no OUT point is present, then it will use the very last frame as the OUT point. Zoom Window for Viewer It is recommended that you keep the zoom for the viewer window set on Fit to Window. Playback may appear jerky or pixelated if this menu is set to something other than fit to window. Viewer Menu For this course make sure RGB is selected at all times under the viewer menu. Otherwise, Final Cut Pro will display your video images with a red tint.

Notes :

114 UNIT 15 LESSON 15: THREE POINT EDITING ON FCP THREE POINT EDITING ON FCP

After you have mastered the concept of storyboard editing, it is has been marked in the viewer window. important to understand three-point editing within the Final You have two basic choices. You can either over-write or insert Cut Pro interface. this clip into your sequence. A general workflow is to organize all of your material and then Using Three Point Editing to Build a Sequence create a rough storyboard. Then quickly drop those clips into By parking the position indicator at the tail of a clip in the the timeline and begin editing. After that, three-point editing is timeline, you can easily add additional clips by using the over- a good editing method to use. write function. One of the many choices for editing in Final Cut Pro is the This workflow will allow you more accuracy in choosing specific option of editing your show using three-point editing. Instead IN / OUT points before editing your clips to the timeline. of dragging individual clips to the timeline, you can press a A common approach is to load individual clips into the viewer button to perform the same function. Three-point-editing window and mark rough IN / OUT points. involves marking specific IN / OUT points in two separate locations – the viewer window and the timeline window. Three Point Editing

Using three-point editing is similar to the drag and drop method. The two commonly used Final Cut Pro functions are over-write and insert editing. Using the over-write function will fill a specified duration based on your IN / OUT points. This function will over-write or replace the marked region in the timeline. Using the insert function will push existing clips over to the right in a sequence.

Notice how Final Cut Pro uses the marked sections of the ‘parasailing’ to add to the timeline below. Since you may have already made rough edit decisions, this method will save you time when it comes to fine tuning and trimming individual clips on the timeline. Editing based on the position indicator ( Over-Write Edit) With IN / OUT points marked in the viewer window, simply place the position indicator at a point where you want the clip to go in your sequence. Pressing the over-write button will edit 3 seconds onto the current sequence starting at the position indicator.

The first step is to mark IN / OUT points for a clip you would like to edit into your current sequence. In this example, Final Cut Pro shows duration of 3 seconds

115 In this example, pay close attention to where the position With IN / OUT points marked in the timeline window, Final indicator is parked within the timeline. Final Cut Pro uses this Cut Pro will obey those marks and will fill the entire duration indicator as its starting point. When the red over-write button with material based on an IN point in the viewer window. is pressed, 3:00 seconds from the clip in the viewer will be If an IN point is not present in the viewer window, Final Cut edited over top of the ‘sailboat clip’. Notice, 3:13 will be left Pro will use the first frame of the clip. over. In this example, the ‘parasailing’ clip fills the specified duration marked in the timeline window. If you do not have enough media from the viewer window to fill the specified duration between the IN / OUT points in the timeline, you will receive an insufficient content error.

It is important to note that, when using the over-write function, the duration of your sequence will not change. This means other tracks in the sequence will maintain their relative position. When editing, you will find the over-write function When this happens, you may choose to shorten the distance to be one of the most common methods of editing. between your IN / OUT points, or find sufficient media to fill Notice, The ‘Walk on Beach’ clip has overwritten part of the the required duration. ‘Sailboat’ clip. The ‘Sailboat’ clip Editors Note You can verify the amount of media left in the viewer window by looking at the duration box in the upper left corner of the viewer window. The duration box shows the distance from your IN point to the end of the clip. Pressing the over-write button will drop your clip into the timeline based on your IN / OUT points. is now 3 seconds shorter, but the sequence length is unchanged. Editing based on the position indicator ( Insert Edit) Pressing the insert button will edit 3 seconds onto the current sequence starting at the position indicator. It will push all the other clips down the timeline, lengthening the sequence. Be careful when using the insert-edit feature in Final Cut Pro. It is possible to change the sync relationship between your video and audio clips. Three Point Editing rules for Timeline Menu If for some reason you have IN / OUT points on both your timeline and your viewer window, Final Cut Pro will always give the timeline priority over the viewer window. It will ignore the OUT point in the viewer. If you have IN / OUT points in the viewer window, but you do not have an IN / OUT point in the timeline, Final Cut Pro In & Out points in the Timeline window will use the location of the position indicator in the timeline as Once you understand the concept of three-point editing, you an IN point. can mark IN / OUT points in the timeline instead of the Timeline Window Vs. Canvas Window viewer window. This is useful when timing clips to music or a In Final Cut Pro, the timeline window and canvas window are voice over track. linked together when it comes to navigating around in the timeline. Since these two windows are synced together, marking IN / OUT points for your sequence can be done in either window. The canvas window will display the duration between your IN / OUT points in the timeline window. In this case 2 seconds are marked between the IN / OUT points. IN / OUT points that are marked in the timeline window are also viewable in the canvas window. Remember, these two windows represent your edited sequence.

116 Final Cut Pro Editing Keyboard Shortcuts

Instead of having to click on individual buttons or dragging clips to the canvas window, you can use the keyboard shortcut equivalents. Instead of dragging the ‘Walk on Beach’ clip directly into the canvas window, you could press the red overwrite button, or press F10 on your keyboard. Using the Replace Edit Function The blue replace edit button will automatically fill the area from where the timeline position indicator is parked. It uses the frame where the position indicator is parked in the viewer window as its starting point. IN / OUT points are not needed The canvas window will always display the name of your in either the viewer window or timeline sequence in the top portion of the window. In this case, the name is ‘Sequence 1’ from the Jamaica Show project. Performing an Verwrite Edit ( Using the Canvas) Final Cut Pro also allows you to manually drag clips from the viewer window into the canvas window. To make a three-point edit, simply drag the viewer window into the canvas window, and move the clip into the overwrite box. This will perform an over-write edit, based on the IN / OUT marks on the timeline. The clip ‘Walk on Beach’ will fill the 3:00 that is marked in the timeline window.

Editors Note In Final Cut Pro, the blue replace arrow is one of the best time saving functions available. Most editors under utilize this function. It saves time, because you do not need to mark any IN or OUT points. I recommend that you practice uses this function until you are comfortable with it. Marking & Deleting Clips ( Three Point Editing) To automatically mark IN / OUT points for a clip on the timeline, park the indicator within an individual clip, and press the X key on the keyboard. This will save you time when working in Final Cut Pro, because you will not have to worry about marking a clip exactly at its first and last frame.

Lifting a Clip from the Timeline Once a clip is marked, you can easily delete it using the delete key on your keyboard.

117 When using the delete key to lift out a video shot between IN / To specify a duration, you can type in the exact duration you OUT points, make sure all of your audio tracks are locked. would like in the clip duration box. This can be done in either Otherwise, the marked portion of your audio will be lifted out the viewer window or the canvas window. Final Cut Pro will along with the video. then automatically calculate what the IN point or OUT point is In this example, because the audio tracks are locked, using the to match you’re the specified duration. delete key only lifted out the You do not need to enter any of the semi-colons that are common to timecode numbers. Just enter a whole number value. If you do not have an IN point, Final Cut Pro will mark the OUT point based on the first frame of the clip.

marked portion of video. Ripple Deleting a clip from the timeline Pressing (shift + delete) or the forward delete key will close the gap between the IN / OUT

points. When removing clips using IN / OUT points you may want to lock your audio tracks. By locking the audio tracks, and then using (shift + delete) to extract a clip, only the marked video portion will be removed. Remember, when using (shift + delete), you will always be changing the duration of the track in your sequence. Removing In / Out Points Tool Palette To clear an IN Point: Click on the viewer window or timeline To the right is an inconspicuous vertical bar. This is the tool window and press (option + I). palette with 9 icons. When you click on an icon it will expand to To clear an OUT point: (option + O) show you options in the same family of tools. If you want to clear both in and out points use (option + X). 1 The most commonly used tool is the default selector at the Marking a Specific Duration top. The top three icons are selector tools of some kind or other. These are to highlight clips and move them. 2 The next three icons are edit tools: roll, ripple, slip, slide, and razor blade. These are to trim and help you match motion in a movement sequence or to sync movement to sound. 3 The 7th icon is for view tools. These make clips in the Timeline larger or smaller. 4 The 8th is for image modification tools. These are for cropping or distorting the image. 5 The 9th is for keyframe tools. These are to create or delete keyframes. Especially helpful on a motion path or audio graph. You will become familiar with these as you work with your clips in the Timeline.

118 Effects There are numerous effects which can be divided into three categories: transition (dissolves, wipes, slide stretch etc), filters(blur, matte, key etc) and generators(colour bars, titles, black etc).

We will go into the details of these in the next semester and try and stick to just simple cuts this semester. By now you should be ready to start working with the FCP. As part of your initial exercises you would work with visuals/clips picked up from some footage shot earlier and you would have to try and make some sense out of them. By the end of the semester, basically the last two weeks you would get enough time on the editing machines to work on your end semester final project. You would be given some clips, which you would have to edit on music. You would be graded on: 1 Your understanding of the FCP. 2 Your ability to work around with the visuals given to you 3 Use of sound with the visuals.

Notes :

119 REFERENCE MATERIAL CHAPTER 1 EDITING DEVICES

This is a basic summary of what we studied earlier. The various d. The continuity approach uses a set of rules that aim to hide ways in which editing can be achieved. The different segments rather than emphasize the cut. have materials stated in points, for you to be able to remember i. 180-degree rule — A major rule of continuity editing that the basic concepts of each easily. Also mentioned below are a states that the camera must remain on one side of the few points about the film editing processes as well. Going narrative action in order to ensure consistent spatial through the same would help you in your editing course next relationships and direction of movement from shot to shot. semester. ii. Eyeline match A. There are two basic classes of editing. a. The alternation of two shots, the first showing a character Continuity editing looking off-screen, the second showing what the character’s a. The system of editing developed in the US in the heyday of seeing. the studio system still dominates film language. b. A rough sense of scale and distance is kept, but not b. Continuity editing moves the story and is generally necessarily perspective; that is, every point-of-view shot is an slower than dynamic editing. eyeline match, but every eyeline match is not necessarily a POV shot. c. Continuity editing strives for seamless spatial (space) and temporal (time) continuity. iii. Match on action — A cut that shifts the framing of an action within a scene by continuing the movement within i. Flashback — A scene in a motion picture representing an the first shot seamlessly in the second shot. earlier event than the one currently being depicted. iv. Match cut — A match cut is a variation of the match on a. The flashback is a useful narrative device that allows a action. A cut in which the two shots joined are linked by screenwriter a degree of flexibility in the temporal structure visual, aural, or metaphorical parallelism. Famous example: of his plot. at the end of North by Northwest (1959), Cary Grant is b. It may relate an event that occurred before the main story pulling Eva Marie Saint up the cliff of Mount Rushmore; began or retrogress in time to depict a portion of the main match cut to Grant pulling her up to a Pullman bunk. story not previously shown. v. — may be ultimate seamless nature that c. Flashbacks may be used to clarify an element of the plot continuity editing strives to achieve. (for example, to reconstruct the scene of a crime in a mystery a. The seamless change of a visual form from one state to film), to provide background information essential to the another accomplished usually by a computer program. understanding of the current plot, or to supply keys to the understanding of characters or clues to their b. The technique became popular in the early 1990s in motivations. commercials in which one model car would appear to change into another model. d. It enables several characters to tell their versions of the same events (as in Citizen Kane and Rashomon), straining the c. Terminator 2 (1991) and The Nutty Professor (1996) made objectivity of the camera with their subjective viewpoints. extensive use of morphs. g. Although generally a useful device in advancing a complicated d. They were used to striking effect in Michael Jackson’s “Black plot, the multiple flashback can be absurdly confusing, it will or White” video. muddle a film and make it hopelessly difficult to follow. Dynamic Editing ii. Flash-forward is the opposite of flashback. Dynamic editing is used for action rather than ideas and is a. A scene in a motion picture representing an event that is faster than continuity editing. expected, projected, or imagined to occur later than the one a. Dynamic cutting was a film-editing style, characteristic of currently depicted. polemic documentaries and propaganda films, in which b. This narrative device has been employed less frequently than separate shots are joined or contrasted in such a manner as to the flashback but can be quite useful in the futuristic give significant expression to basically nonpartisan material. structure of science-fiction stories or in depicting the hopes b In dynamic cutting, the film’s impact is achieved in the and dreams of a character. cutting room rather than during the original shooting, c. It serves as a premonition of things to come. typically through clever juxtaposition and rapid pacing. d. Is the death of Bruce Willis (in ’s ) a. It has a visceral energy generated by using a large number of before his boyhood eyes a flashback. Or in his adult shots intercut rapidly to an emotional conclusion. nightmares are they flash forward predestining his death. c. The final shoot out in The Wild Bunch is a brilliant example e. It forces the audience to puzzle and solve the story problem. of dynamic editing. And it stops and then begins again.

120 They just don’t give a damn anymore. symbol of the horrific bloodletting of the hotel d. The battles in and Henry V are so powerfully environment. bloody that they make audiences members look away. It is b. In The Emerald Forest, the Father (Dadee) has a drug the intercutting of short close-ups that gives the film its induced “out of body” experience, where he discovers his visceral power. Both films owe a debt of gratitude to Orson animal spirit and is transported back to civilization. Welles’ Chimes at Midnight and Stanley Kubrick’s b. Flash cutting —high speed interchanging of two shots for Spartacus, which broke new ground in the editing of had to psychological effect. Or editing the film into shots of very hand combat scenes. brief duration that succeed each other rapidly. i. In Chimes at Midnight, Welles isolated individual struggles i. Flash cutting— Shots of very brief duration intercut to in an enormous battle and then “blew smoke” in wider create a sharp dramatic impact or shock effect. shots to hide the fact nothing else was going on. He had to ii. Flash frame — A shot of only a frame or a few frames do it this way because of budget problems. duration, sometimes a single frame, which can just barely be ii. In Spartacus, Kubrick produced a ballet of real intensity as perceived by the audience. the Romans centuries marched into battlefield formation as c. Jump cuts and flash cuts both may often jar the audience the army of gladiators and slaves waited. The sequence unnecessarily, but when intelligently done can have a builds an enormous intensity in the mind of the audience tremendous impact on the story, relationship of characters, iii. In Henry V, Branagh uses the flights of arrows, as did and the ideas being developed. Olivier, and the personal snatches of the chaos of individual i. In The Pawnbroker, a series of flash cuts followed or easing struggle in the rain and mud. our way into both Rod Steiger’s mind and the concentration iv. In Braveheart, Mel Gibson uses the ballet of motion before camp. the battle, the melee of combat between large armies and ii. It forces the audiences pay attention even though it forces us individual cuts to acts of barbarity that are part of personal to ‘to feel the character’s pain. “knife” fights. 3. Optical effects, a general term for such special effects and f. MTV is all dynamic editing as is television advertising. transitional effects as the fade, the dissolve, and the wipe, You would see the younger generation complain that a film usually made in an optical printer which is the machine that is “slow”. This attitude in the young can be attributed to duplicates prints of a film. watching too many commercials and music videos. a. Many operations of a technical nature are performed on the B. Intershot movement—editing techniques or devices used optical printer, including opticals, the balancing of color between shots, scenes and sequences: values in timing and the correction of contrast. 1. Cut — an instantaneous change from one shot to the next. It b. Transitional effects can be produced by a motion picture is an abrupt transition from one scene to another without camera but are normally added optically in the lab which using an optical effect such as a dissolve, a wipe, or a fade. It allow a smooth flow of film narrative by providing a link is achieved by splicing the last frame of one scene with the between separate scenes. first frame of the next. i. The most common transitional effects are the fade, the a. Jump cuts tend to jar the audience psychologically. There are dissolve, and the wipe. two uses of the word: 1. a jarring cut within a scene or; 2. a dramatic cut between scenes that may leave the audience ii. Other variations include the swish pan, focus effects, and momentarily bewildered or confused. the moving of a body or an object toward or away from the camera lens to create a fade to black. i. Jump cuts occur within a scene to condense time. They can effectively eliminate dead periods, such as that between c. Reverse action is also known as “reverse motion,” which is the time a character enters a room and the time he reaches his trick effect achieved by running film backward in the camera destination on the other side of the room. When used or during optical printing. according to certain rules, jump cuts can be unobtrusive. i. When projected, actions in the scene appear in reverse They in effect, abbreviate the time / space line of a scene. sequence. ii. Obtrusive jump cuts produce an ellipsis between shots, ii. For example, a diver may be made to rise from the water and either by maintaining a consistent background and abruptly defy the law of gravitation by returning to the diving board. changing the positions of the actors, or by holding the iii. A crash may be staged without risking lives by beginning positions of the actors and abruptly changing the shooting from the point of impact and having the cars drive background. backward. iii. In both The Shining (Stanley Kubrick) and The Emerald iv. The action is filmed in reverse and when the scene is Forest () jumps cuts are used to convey and projected the sense of collision will appear very realistic. “interior meaning”, which is intuitively understood by the d. Dissolve—gradual appearance of a new shot as an old shot audience. gradually disappears. The preceding shot gradually fuses into a. In The Shining, Barry has a premonition about his future in the following shot. the hotel and past events in the hotel and on the symbolic

121 i. A dissolve is achieved by the overlapping of two lengths of i. (Fade In, Fade Out) An optical effect that causes a scene to film so that, as the last frames of the first shot gradually emerge gradually on the screen from complete blackness darken, they are blended with the opening frames of the (fade in), or a bright image to dim gradually into blackness next scene which gradually brighten. (fade out). ii. The emotional effect on the audience is that of one scene ii. The fade is a transitional device that usually signifies a distinct seems to melt into another. break in a film’s continuity, indicating a major change in time, iii. Some cameras are equipped with dissolve controls, but location, or subject matter. normally, the effect is produced using an optical printer in the iii. Most films begin with a fade-in and end with a fade-out. lab. iv. The use of a fade-in/fade-out between sequences within a iv. It is also referred to as a lap dissolve and is used as a film is similar to the function of the beginning or end of an transitional device, usually to indicate a time lapse or a change act in a play. in location, as distinct from a direct cut, which tends to v. The length of the fade should be in keeping with the film’s suggest concurrent action. tempo and mood. v. The length of any particular dissolve depends on the desired vi. Technically, a fade-in is achieved by a gradual increase of effect—a slow dissolve indicating a long time lapse, a exposure for each frame until the image reaches full relatively quick dissolve indicating a brief passage of time. brightness; a fade-out is obtained by a gradual decrease of vi. Technically, the length of the dissolve is measured y the total exposure for each frame with the last frame completely black. number of frames required to complete the effect. vii. Normally, fades are made on an optical printer, but they can vii. Since a dissolve demands the superimposition of the end also be achieved in some cameras by rewinding the film to of one scene onto the beginning of the next, at least six create a double exposure. extra feet of film must be shot for each scene for the lab to vii. We also refer to the gradual increase or decrease in the level have the necessary footage to achieve the effect. of sound in a film as a fade-in or fade-out. viii. Thus, viii. The editor uses a Chinagraph (grease) pencil to indicate a typically, a motion picture script would start with the dissolve by marking the desired length of film on his work instruction “fade in” on the picture side and “fade in” print with a diagonal line. music” (or sound effects) on the sound side. d. Supers (Superimpositions) — overlaying or overlapping of f. Iris—picture slowly opens out or closes into black as does the images for dramatic effect. This technique is saying emotional iris in a lens. things that the audience feels and expands our i. Iris-in / iris-out is a transition effect, now seldom used and understanding. An important technique in “montage”. credited to D. W. Griffith and his cameraman, Billy Bitzer. i. Superimposition is the technique of photographing or ii. It is created the camera by varying the aperture to or from printing two (or more) image(s) on top of another so that zero, or by an optical printer. both (all) may be seen simultaneously in screening. iii. The circle-in image first appears in the middle of the screen ii. The effect may be achieved in any of several ways, including as a pinpoint circle of light surrounded by black and by the exposure of the same piece of film more than once in gradually increases in size until the picture fills the entire the camera, by a glass shot, or by double or multiple screen. The iris-out, also known as circle-out, reverses the printing. procedure. iii. Sequences composed of a succession of superimpositions iv. Excellent examples in The Magnificent Ambersons are known in Hollywood as montage sequences. showing the end of an era as a tribute to Griffith and in iv. Superimposition has been used frequently for dream Babe using the mice for giddy aural transitions. sequences or for transitional scenes emphasizing the passage g. A wipe is an optical effect in which one image gradually of time. replaces another image, usually moving horizontally, v. The technique is most commonly employed in the printing vertically, or diagonally across the frame. of subtitles over foreign-language films. i. The next image seems to push the previous image off the vi. The term, ghost image, is used to describe a type of double screen. exposure in which one or more preceding frames are printed ii. Very common in the 1930s; less so today, although it has together with the main frame to give a . made a comeback in the Star Wars and Indiana Jones vii. We also “matte” in multiple images using an optical printer trilogies, because they were harking back to the “cliffhangers” to create an effect similar to “supers” but you can’t see of an earlier era. through the images. h. A Flip (flip frame) is a type of wipe in which the images viii. With the advances of digital technology we can now layer appear to be cards flipped one after another. images 50 or 100 times without the loss or deterioration of i. Split screen — An effects shot in which two or more the image. different images appear on the same frame. e. Fade—gradual appearance or disappearance of a shot. ii. The effect is achieved using a matte (photographic) process and multiple exposures.

122 iii. An image is exposed on a preselected portion of the frame g. We also edit and manipulate the sound to make the audience while the rest of the frame is masked. feel what characters in a film feel. iv. The exposed portion of the frame is then masked and i. In Rumble Fish, the anti-hero, Motorcycle Boy, is hearing another image is printed on the remainder of the frame. impaired so we must help the audience understand how he v. When more than two images are desired, the process is hears by distorting the sound. repeated as many times as necessary. ii. And since he is also color blind, we have a black and white vi. Each image is exposed in its proper position in the frame film with only the “fish” in color, who like Motorcycle Boy while the rest of the frame is masked. are trapped. j. Multiple images — A number of images printed beside each 3. The editing of the seduction sequence in The Graduate is a other within the same frame, often showing different camera masterful example of the above points. angles of the same action, or separate actions. a. Time is condensed dramatically, and a period of several weeks k. Swish pan —using a fast pan to change from one shot to occurs in several minutes. another—gives the effect of blurred movement. It is also b. Space is radically changed, jarring the audience from pool to called a flick pan, zip pan or whip pan hotel to home. i. A pan in which the intervening images move past too quickly c. The trauma of the experience is given meaning by the jarring to be observed and appear blurred nature of the editing for the audience and the experience for ii. It approximates psychologically the action of the human eye Dustin Hoffman. as it moves rapidly from one subject to another. d. The audience shares the emotion of the sequence. l. Wash or ripple—mechanical process that distorts the image. i. There seems to be no pleasure for the characters only a need to m. Focus—mechanical adjustment of the lens to sharpen or commit the act. blur the image. ii. The scene is out of control. It does not make sense in the i. In editing, we focus in, focus out — and use it as a traditional visual sense but is understood and accepted. punctuation device. 4. The editing in Tom Jones uses every trick in the director’s bag ii. One image gradually goes out of focus as the next image and each unit seems to have a different style. It shouldn’t comes into focus. work, but it does. n. Movement on still frames, movement of the camera on a 5. The editing of The Crow is much more modern and scene using still photographs hyperactive. o. Freeze frame — The effect of repeatedly printing a single a. The impact of music videos editing style has had a significant frame so that the action seems to freeze on the screen into a effect not only the speed of feature film editing and the still life without motion. expectations of younger audiences. i. The process can be used to lengthen a scene, to highlight a b. The X generation now expects all films to give them a point, or for sheer dramatic effect. “rush”, and they complain about Lawrence of Arabia as ii. A freeze frame was also used very dramatically at the end of being too long or too slow because of their MTV education. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, as Paul Newman c. There are, of course, many excellent examples of the use of and Robert Redford charged the Bolivian soldiers and pass this hyperactive, kinetic use of high-speed cutting. The from reality into myth. Crow, using memory as lightning bolts of painful C. Editing revolves around cause / effect relationships. remembrances of things past. 1. Action is causal—the person speaking. i. The use of lenses, camera angles lighting, processing and camera movement helps the audience understand the pain, 2. Reaction is effect—the cutaway to the person listening. when the superhuman dead boy reenters his apartment to 3. Simplistically, editing relates actions and reactions. begin his gory march to revenge. D. The nature of the editing is to select, arrange, and assemble ii. Tragically, Bruce Lee’s son, Brandon, was killed during the SHOTS into SCENES into SEQUENCES into FILMS. filming of this project. 1. Editing gives a visual rhythm to a film. It develops the 6. Editing is the heart of the cinema art pumping meaning narrative sequence; it creates the mood and tempo and pacing through the film. Films have been “enriched, enhanced, and timing. saved “ by great editing. 2. Editing principles involve: 7. In musicals, the sound track becomes the editor’s guide a. The passage of time for visual cutting, not necessarily forcing the cuts to be b. The restructuring of time made to the “beat”, but it is the force behind the editing. c. The restructuring of space 8. Editing is used to provide humor, suspense, romance, fear, horror, and every other emotion in human nature. d. Creating movement with an inanimate object E. Tricks of the trade include: e. The giving of new meanings to the visual subject matter f. The development and emotional feeling to the film

123 1. Matching shots so that the visual and audio match in shot a. The parallel editing links the characters symbolically — they after shot and provide a logical kind of continuity. are “sympatico”. a. Not only must the size of the compositions match, but the b. They are bound together. They are brothers. They are one. speed of the camera movements must also be the same. d. Parallel action then is a narrative technique utilizing b. A reverse angle shot is a shot taken from an angle opposite alternate shots of separate actions to suggest they are taking the one from which the preceding shot has been taken. place simultaneously c. The reverse angle technique is frequently employed in dialogue i. For example, shots of Indians chasing the Stagecoach scenes to provide the editor with alternate facial shots of the alternating with shots of the cavalry coming to the rescue. actors speaking. ii. The technique is basic to motion picture editing and is used 2. Editing needs to be motivated. Cutting for cutting’s sake is both for creating suspense and for condensing the passage unwise. Why, that cut? dissolves? fade? Why? of time in the construction of a sequence. a. — Cutting from one shot to another 7. Cutaways and inserts keep the audience awake! Paying while the subject of the shot is in motion. attention! Involved! Helps them remember what they need i. Film editors realized that the sudden change in the physical to remember. elements of an image were less noticeable when the attention a. A cutaway is a shot of an action or object related to but not of the viewer is distracted by the movement of a subject an immediate part of a principal scene. than when the cut is made on a static note. i. It is designed to draw attention from the main action ii. In shooting, the movement in both shots is filmed as a temporarily or to comment on it as an aside. complete action and at the same speed. This enables the ii. Technically, it is a useful device for the editor in bridging a editor to splice both pieces of film as a matched action. time lapse or in avoiding a jump cut. iii. For the technique to be effective, in the second shot the iii. Directors make sure that their cameramen shoot cutaway subject should occupy the same sector of the frame he had footage whenever possible to provide the editor with occupied in the first shot, but the second shot must be taken additional material with which to work. from a different angle. iv. A typical cutaway is a shot of the reaction of spectators at an 3. Cutting on movement must be based on the master cut. athletic event, a close-up of a bystander’s face, or a shot of a a. Action must move in the same (one) direction. clock showing the passage of time. b. Cut as the movement reaches the edge of the frame. v. Cutaways can also be used as symbolic comments, such as a 4. Cut on sounds. shot of ocean waves following a stormy love scene; or as a humorous device, such as a series of running-gag shots of 5. Cut from actions to reactions. someone continuously doing something funny “in the 6. Cross cutting between scenes that are occurring at the same meantime,” the main action continues to unfold. time keeps the units moving parallel and keeps the audience b. An insert is a most often a CU or ECU that helps explain the abreast of all action. nuances or details of a scene. Inserts a. Intercutting is an editing technique by which two different i. Facilitate action sequences of action are alternated to suggest simultaneous action. ii. Emphasize an idea b. This method allows an editor to enrich the narrative iii. Clarify an issue continuity of a film and also to manipulate time by F. In every film both the sound track and the film footage have accelerating or retarding the main action. to be edited with each other in mind. c. Parallel editing is the technique of intercutting two 1. Editing involves a variety of stages. independent sequences to and fro in the course of editing a. Editing the visuals and syncing the voices recorded during so that a relationship is established between the parallel filming. actions. b. Editing the sound effects to match the visuals. i. Cross cutting is the key to tension building in chase c. Editing the music to match the action and emotion of a scenes, with emphasis shifting back and forth from the scene. pursuer to the pursued. d. Mixing all the sound tracks onto one track. ii. Parallel editing (crosscutting) techniques of concurrent action at various locations is a common device in building e. In motion picture theory, parallelism is the term has been action sequences used to describe a parallel relationship between an image and its corresponding sound track—for instance, a shot iii. In E. T.: THE EXTRA TERRESTRIAL, The adventure of a person speaking accompanied by a sound track of his of ET in the refrigerator and Elliott at school are bound synchronized and recorded voice. The visual and aural together by cutting between the two scenes, thus linking ET elements support or repeat each other. condition due to the beer with Elliott at school, who also becomes “drunk”. f. Counterpoint is the term used for the opposite situation, when images do not parallel the accompanying sound track.

124 2. Editing is the language, the linkage, the collision and the H. You never edited the original negative — that is done by a montage of film. specialist — “a negative cutter”. i. Where do you have the camera set-ups? I. Then the negative cut is sent to the laboratory along with the ii. How many set ups do you have? final work print, and the final composite prints with an optical audio track of the picture are made. ii. Remember they cost time , which is money in film production. J. Answer print — The first combined sound and picture print that is sent by the lab to a for approval. VI. Specialized units—The montage, which is a series of shots (which may be similar in content) that, when combined, carry 1. Also known as approval print or “first-trial print,” it is specialized meaning that is important to the story, theme, screened for close examination of light grading, color emotion action, etc. balance, fades, dissolves, and other printing standards. A. The time montage indicates the passage of time and, in 2. The lab makes any corrections required by the producer, and effect, condenses or expands the passage of time.—The often several answer prints are made before the final approval editor manipulates time. is given. When the quality is accepted, the answer print then serves as the standard by which the subsequent release prints B. The action (impact) montage is exhilarating and is a are prepared. specialized type of dynamic editing. It is an emotional device that forces the audience to participate in physical events. K. Release print — A print ready for distribution and screening. The release prints are produced and shipped to C. The mood montage creates an emotional environment and the theaters. allows the audience to become involved with the characters and their relationships. It creates a state of mind in the L. Editing gives the film order and is the major device used to audience—which presumably is also that of the character(s) give a film continuity and yet: involved. 1. Each shot remains an entity. D. Music is a (if not the) primary ingredient in many recent 2. Each scene remains an entity. films and is the cementive element in these creative units. 3. Each sequence remains an entity. Songs have become popular devices. 4. The editor uses all of these building blocks to construct a VII. Review of the Process of Editing — It is the assembling film. of aural and visual bytes of into a coherent whole and M. In editing a scene: involves the following steps: 1. Everything begins with the master shot, which is essentially A. It begins with screening the dailies or rushes an establishing or cover shot that allows the audience to 1. Dailies are roughly assembled prints of scenes shot the get its bearings. previous day. a. Master shot — A long take of an entire scene, generally a 2. They are processed overnight and are frequently known as relatively long shot that facilitates the assembly of rushes because of their hasty assembly. component closer shots and details. 3. These ungraded prints are projected daily, usually early in the b. The editor can always fall back on the master shot: morning, for critical viewing by the producer, director, consequently, it is also called a cover shot. cameraman, and crew to ascertain that all the required shots c. Establishing shot — A shot, usually a long shot or a full are completed, or “in the can,” and that no retakes are shot at the beginning of a sequence, which establishes the necessary. location, setting, and mood of the action. It provides the 4. Dailies are shown untrimmed and in order of shooting audience with an initial visual orientation, enabling it to see with no regard for continuity. the interrelationship between the general setting and the 5. The editor as part of his work print later uses the daily print. detailed action in subsequent scenes. B. Pickups are shots filmed after the completion of the regular 2. Each new shot (camera set up) should involve a change in shooting schedule, usually in an effort to cover up gaps in image size and/or camera angle. continuity which are discovered in the cutting room. 3. This is known as variety in coverage—too often the master C. Studio shooting produces a negative from which a work shot is ignored and cutaways (inserts) are forgotten. print is used to edit a rough cut, which is shown to the 4. This can be accomplished by: director a. Moving the camera D. He suggests changes to be integrated into the fine cut. b. Changing the lens. E. The fine cut is “spotted” so that a score can be written. 5. In effect, you are controlling the audience’s eye—the editor F. Opticals and special have to be added at an specifies what is seen and, therefore, emphasized. optical house. N. Practices of film cutting. G. Then a final cut is synched to mix down of sound effects 1. Matching consecutive actions—the elementary and music and voice tracks. consideration of the art—two consecutive shots should match visually.

125 2. Extent of the image size and angle. a. Matching shot size. b. Angles must match—if one POV is subservient, the other must be dominant. 3. Must maintain a sense of direction. 4. Must match tone or picture value. 5. Must match character positions. 6. Must match set components. 7. Must have a graphic match maintains a parallel between one or more of the compositional elements of a shot, such as the shape of objects, their color, or the contrast of the scene. O. There are two basic kinds of editing internally within sequences based on the desired effect. 1. Continuity editing is used to advance the plot. 2. Dynamic editing advances the action or heightens emotion. P. Editing involves: 1. Shot selection. 2. Shot ordering. 3. Shot timing. 4. Shot emphasis. 5. A smooth presentation of shots in meaningful groupings is critical to the advancement of a film. Q. Editing manipulates the time/space line—temporally, physically, and emotionally changes the film experience of the audience members.

Notes :

126 CHAPTER 2 BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN

Battleship Potemkin The boatswain looks impudently at the young sailor and plays Scenario and script by Sergei Eisenstein with the chain. The young sailor, stiff with rage and resentment, stares hotly at PART ONE: MEN AND MAGGOTS the departing boatswain, turns over with hatred, and throws his A huge wave breaks violently over the jetty, raising a sparkling face violently against his pillow. fountain of spray, and flows turbulently over the stones on the The muscles of his naked back twitch. shore. [TITLE:] INDIGNANTLY Wave after wave breaks over the jetty, ever more violently, and His neighbor lays a sympathetic hand on his shoulder and flows over the stones on the shore, ever more turbulently. The points out to him the figure of Vakulinchuk on one side. raging sea boils. [TITLE:] VAKULINCHUK [TITLE:] REVOLUTION MEANS WAR. Amidst the canvas hammocks, naked to the waist, Vakulinchuk, THIS - THIS IS THE ONE LAWFUL, REASONABLE holding a leaflet in his hand, speaks with passion and resolu- AND JUST, TRULY tion to the sailors: GREAT WAR OF ALL THE WARS THAT HISTORY [TITLE:] ‘Comrades, the time has come when we must speak HAS KNOWN. out.’ IN RUSSIA THIS WAR HAS BEEN DECLARED AND Vakulinchuk’s whole body breathes hatred. The sailors awaken BEGUN” one by one. [Lenin: Collected Works, Vol. 9, p. 212.] Vakulinchuk turns to the sailors with the appeal: Its stark, geometrical beauty distinguishing it, a powerful [TITLE:] ‘What are we waiting for? All Russia has risen. Are we battleship lies in the anchorage. to be the last?’ On the battleship, a sailor ascends a ladder. He is quickly He continues his speech passionately. approached by another. A sailor with a sickly face assents to everything he says, and a [TITLE:] THE SAILORS MATYUSHENKO AND sailor with a big moustache impatiently interrupts him and VAKULINCHUK demands the beginning, of action. Again, the sailor with the Matyushenko speaks urgently to Vakulinchuk: sickly face utters a few fighting words. Firmly and manfully, [TITLE:] ‘We, the sailors of the Potemkin, must support Vakulinchuk calls for battle. Again, the sailor with the big the workers, our brothers, and must stand in the front ranks moustache demands the beginning of action. All the sailors of the revolution.’ listen with attention and fellow-feeling to the words of Vakulinchuk answers him in agitation and quickly descends the Vakulinchuk. ladder. [TITLE:] MORNING By night, the silhouette of the battleship stands out starkly and A gloomy-looking officer, his hands in his pockets, walks along majestically in the anchorage. the deck. Suddenly he notices that a crowd of sailors have [TITLE:] THE OFF-DUTY WATCH IN DEEP SLEEP gathered around a carcass of meat. The lower deck: packed like sardines in a tin, the sleeping sailors The crowd of sailors grows larger and larger. lie in canvas hammocks. A senior officer with a proud, weakly aristocratic face steps out They sleep in uncomfortable positions and breathe noisily. One of a cabin, and, pompously, his hands clasped behind his back, sleeping sailor, another, a third, a fourth, a fifth. begins to walk along the deck, but he soon stops and looks A fat boatswain with a brutal face descends the ladder into the contemptuously at the sailors surging around the carcass of lower deck and looks with malice at meat. the sleeping sailors. The eyes of the senior officer fill with malice when he notices He threads his way through the canvas hammocks and mis- the figure of Vakulinchuk walking past the carcass of meat. trustfully surveys the sleeping sailors. He allows his gaze to rest The crowd of sailors excitedly inspect the carcass of meat. on one of the sleeping men. The senior officer moves away and soon reappears on the upper Continuing to thread his way through the canvas hammocks, deck, above the heads of the sailors. he shifts his gaze quickly from one sleeping sailor to another. The legs of the approaching senior officer draw near to the [TITLE:] VIGILANT, BUT CLUMSY handrail. Unexpectedly, he slips and almost falls. The senior officer looks at the sailors with such menace that [TITLE:] HE VENTS HIS ANGER ON A YOUNG MAN they timidly press closer to one another. The legs of the officer Furiously, the boatswain raises his arm and lashes the naked turn away. back of a young sailor with his pipechain. The senior officer goes off, and the crowd of sailors surges with The young sailor awakens, looks uncomprehendingly at the ever- increasing movement. boatswain and speaks out in surprise. [TITLE:] ‘We’ve had enough of eating rotten meat!’

127 Again, the faces of the sailors turn with indignation to inspect majestic pose. the carcass of rotten meat. Frightened, the surgeon scurries round the back of the senior The indignation of the sailors grows. officer. The senior officer, frozen in his proud and majestic [TITLE:] ‘A dog wouldn’t eat it!’ pose, watches contemptuously as the sailors approach. Again and again, the faces of the sailors turn to inspect the The senior officer calmly and slowly turns his back on them, carcass of rotten meat. and moves further away with the surgeon. The crowd of sailors around the carcass bubbles like a whirl- Confidently, the sailors follow them. pool. The senior officer and the surgeon depart quickly, and the sailors The senior officer returns - with the ship’s surgeon, a small drop back. short-sighted man, his courage comically mustered. The sailors continue to crowd around the carcass of meat. With an authoritative expression, the surgeon examines and A malicious, fierce-faced officer appears and begins to shout at sniffs at the carcass of rotten meat, turning it over squeamishly. the sailors. Vakulinchuk, standing in front of the sailors, indignantly [TITLE:] SENIOR OFFICER GILYAROVSKY points out the rotten meat to the surgeon. Officer Gilyarovsky roughly disperses the crowd of sailors. [TITLE:] SHIP’S SURGEON SMIRNOV Furiously, he swears at them and shouts. The surgeon heatedly rebuts Vakulinchuk, but Vakulinchuk says Then he goes up to the boatswain, who proceeds himself to bitterly: drive the sailors away from the carcass of meat. [TITLE:] ‘It’s so high it could walk overboard!’ A fat cook sniffs squeamishly at the carcass of rotten, maggoty Vakulinchuk looks angrily at the surgeon. meat and bears it off. The surgeon slowly and importantly removes his pince-nez, In the ship’s galley, he begins to hack at the carcass with an axe. folds its two eye-pieces together, raises them to his eye, and Sailors indignantly approach and tell him that the meat is examines the meat through the folded eye-pieces of his pince- rotten, but he does not stop hacking at the carcass. nez. More sailors approach and try to prevent him from hacking at The meat is visibly infested with maggots. the rotten meat. However, the surgeon does not agree with Vakulinchuk that the The axe hacks the carcass into pieces. meat is rotten, and agitatedly waves his pince-nez about. The sailors try to tear the rotten meat from him, but he swears [TITLE:] ‘These are not maggots.’ at them and continues his work. Through the folded eye-pieces of the surgeon’s pince-nez, it is The axe hacks the carcass into pieces. evident that the meat is swarming with large maggots. On deck, the muzzle of a cannon is being cleaned. Vakulinchuk and the sailors look with fury at the heartless, Seated on the muzzle, a sailor cleans it. typically Tsarist official, as loathsome himself as a maggot. A cleaning-rod is pushed down the muzzle of the cannon. The surgeon, having assumed an air of indifference, replaces his Two sailors polish a copper capstan. pince-nez and, rolling his eyes, says sharply and dryly to the Again, a cleaning-rod is pushed down the muzzle of the sailors: cannon. [TITLE:] ‘They are the dead larvae of flies. They can be washed The sailor on the muzzle withdraws the cleaning-rod. off with vinegar.’ Two sailors polish a copper capstan. He speaks peremptorily, cutting the air with his forefinger. Two sailors polish some copper engine-parts. Then, carefully and fastidiously, he raises the end of the carcass A third pair of sailors clean a chain. and turns to the senior officer for support. Two sailors polish a copper capstan. He swings the end of the carcass. One of the two sailors cleaning the chain stops work and The senior officer, interesting himself in the meat, also raises begins to converse with his comrade. the end of the carcass - carefully and fastidiously. Borshch from the rotten meat bubbles in a cauldron. In the Vakulinchuk knocks the end of the carcass out of the surgeon’s ship’s mess a detachment of sailors begin to let down the tables hand and says angrily to him: which hang by ropes from the ceiling. [TITLE:] ‘Russian prisoners-of-war in Japan eat better than us.’ One file of sailors leaves the ship’s mess, and, then, another. and, pointing at the rotten, maggoty meat, he shouts: Borshch from the rotten meat bubbles in a cauldron. [TITLE:] ‘We’ve had enough of eating rotten meat!’ The fat boatswain with the brutal face enters, playing with his The surgeon walks away hurriedly, trying to pacify the sailors. pipe-chain, and walks between the empty tables which swing The senior officer also tries to soothe the sailors, but he quickly rhythmically on ropes from the ceiling, and, with an important joins the enraged surgeon. air, he stops and gives his orders. The surgeon, breaking into a violent frenzy, shouts: Some sailors begin to arrange tureens on the tables. [TITLE:] ‘The meat is good. There’s nothing more to be said.’ The tables with the tureens upon them swing rhythmically on Continuing to shout angrily, he stands very erect, his hands by ropes from the ceiling. the side of his uniform, but, suddenly, from fear, his head Borshch from the rotten meat bubbles in a cauldron. sinks deeply into his shoulders when he sees the sailors, Some sailors can be seen through a grating. Vakulinchuk at their head, moving quickly and boldly forwards. A group of sailors sit by the edge of one side of the battleship. Helplessly, the surgeon jerks up his shoulders, and looks for One of them, holding a dried fish in his hand, talks indig- assistance to the senior officer, who maintains a proud and nantly.

128 Another cuts off a piece of black bread. the ladder. The sailor with the fish is full of anger and hatred. The sailors talk uneasily among themselves. [TITLE:] IMPOTENT FURY SWEEPS OVER THE GROUP The senior officer enters the room next to the ship’s galley and OF SAILORS gives orders to the cook. The sailor with the fish fits the head of it beneath a ring on the The cook opens the door to the galley, and the cooking range in deck and forcefully tears it off. the galley becomes visible, and the saucepans, and the other Some sailors can be seen through a grating. cook at work. A pile of salt on a rag and a hunk of black bread. The senior officer completes his orders to the first cook. One young sailor snaps off a piece of black bread and chews it The second cook walks out of the galley, salutes and reports to for his dinner. the senior officer. Mugs are filled with fresh water from taps. The senior officer angrily upbraids the first cook. Near the pile of salt on the rag and the hunk of black bread - a When the second cook has reported, the senior officer departs. mug of water. A young sailor is washing some plates, and another, painstak- One young sailor chews, and drinks water from the mug. ingly, dries them. As soon as the young sailor finishes drinking, he sprinkles salt Dinner for the ‘gentlemen officers’ is being prepared. on the bread, and his neighbor takes the mug and drinks. The washing and the drying of plates goes on. Senior officer Gilyarovsky descends the ladder into the ship’s With a characteristic movement, the young sailor washing the mess. plates wipes his nose with his hand. Several sailors stand to attention, but do not salute him. He continues to wash the plates, a second sailor - to lay the table A young sailor salutes, and Gilyarovsky carelessly waves his for dinner, the third - painstakingly to dry the plates. hand. The young sailor washing the plates continues to hand them to Frowning at Gilyarovsky, the young sailor lowers his hand. the other young sailor who, painstakingly, dries them. A wicked expression on his face, Gilyarovsky appears to The young sailor washes an earthenware plate, on the rim of consider something. which is a circular inscription. The sailors do not meet his eyes and quickly go out, one after He is whistling, but the inscription on the plate attracts his another. attention. A smile of malicious triumph appears on Gilyarovsky’s face. He He leans his head towards the plate and begins slowly to turn it turns sharply and moves rapidly between the tables. in his hands. The tables with the tureens upon them swing rhythmically on Moving his head from one side to the other, he reads the ropes from the ceiling. circular inscription: Gilyarovsky stops by a cupboard, opens the door of it, and [TITLE:] ‘Give us this day ‘ inclines his head. and he repeats these words aloud. The tables with the tureens upon them swing rhythmically on Continuing to revolve the plate in his hands, he reads further ropes from the ceiling. from the inscription on its rim: Gilyarovsky shakes his head significantly. [TITLE:] ‘ our daily bread.’ A table laid with empty tureens and with black bread upon it His face breaks into a scowl. swings rhythmically on ropes from the ceiling. He begins carefully to examine the inscription on the plate. Indignant, Gilyarovsky quickly walks out of the ship’s mess. Involuntarily repeating the words aloud, he looks with loathing [TITLE:] THE SHIP’S STORE at Some sailors stand by the little window of the ship’s store, the inscription on the plate, and becomes thoughtful. buying food. Revolving the plate rapidly in his hands, he looks intently at it In the window and bitterly pronounces the words of the inscription. tins of food appear fleetingly in the hands of the sailors. He raises the plate high and, having swept his hands down and One of the sailors sees Gilyarovsky approaching. up, he hurls it Gilyarovsky looks wickedly at the sailors. violently down and smashes it to pieces against the table. His gaze fixes tensely upon them, but he turns quickly and The young sailor straightens up and sees that departs. the covers on the table for the dinner of the ‘gentlemen officers’ The sailors follow Gilyarovsky with their eyes. When he is no have been upset. longer in sight, they continue to buy food. PART TWO: DRAMA ON THE QUARTER-DECK On the captain’s bridge, the senior officer with the weakly The bugle sounds shrilly and uneasily. aristocratic face looks through his binoculars. Gilyarovsky goes Seen from above - past the muzzles of the cannons menacingly up to him and reports on the behavior of the sailors. Together, overhanging - the sailors quickly fill the quarter-deck, forming they descend the ladder, enter the ship’s mess, and walk themselves in double file along either side of the deck. At the between the suspended tables, considering the situation which prow of the battleship the flag of St. Andrew flutters in the has developed. wind. A table laid with empty tureens and with black bread upon it The bugler sounds his call. swings rhythmically on ropes from the ceiling. The petty officers arrange themselves in single file in front of The two senior officers, conversing all the while, begin to ascend the sailors.

129 A group of officers fall in behind the hatch in the middle of the Commander Golikov shouts: deck. [TITLE:] ‘Call out the guard!’ [TITLE:] COMMANDER GOLIKOV and does not remove his gaze from the sailors. From the hatch appears the figure of Commander Golikov, Seen from above - past the muzzles of the cannons menacingly resolutely ascending the ladder. overhanging - a sailor breaks rank and quickly runs past the gun- The officers salute him. turret. Commander Golikov steps onto the deck and salutes. [TITLE:] MATYUSHENKO BREAKS RANK AND EDGES He walks up to a capstan and stands upon it. TOWARDS THE GUN-TURRET The sailors in their ranks stand stiffly to attention, and so do Matyushenko exhorts the sailors. the petty officers. The sailor returns and runs quickly up to the Commander. Nobody stirs. The muzzles of the cannons hang menacingly Matyushenko says to the sailors: over the ranks. [TITLE:] ‘To the turret ‘, and he points at the gun-turret. Commander Golikov, one hand by the side of his frock-coat, The sailors convey the message one to another: the other behind his back, looks threateningly round the [TITLE:] ‘To the turret.’ motionless rows of sailors. Matyushenko directs the sailors: The officers are at the salute. [TITLE:] ‘To the turret.’ Restraining his fury, Commander Golikov orders: The sailors quickly convey Matyushenko’s direction one to [TITLE:] ‘Those satisfied with the borshch -’ another. A pause. The sailors in rank, their faces gloomy, stand motionless. [TITLE:] ‘- two paces forward!’ Seen from above - past the muzzles of the cannons menacingly He raises an admonishing hand. overhanging - the armed guard, dressed in black uniforms, A number of petty officers step hesitantly forward. move past the gun-turret. [TITLE:] THE PETTY OFFICERS Two evil-faced officers converse agitatedly. The petty officers who have kept rank falter. After a while, one Beneath the muzzles of the cannons menacingly overhanging, of them takes two steps forward. The officers stand motion- past the ranks of sailors, the guard move, rifles in hand. less, at the salute. The officers exchange glances with one another significantly. Only two of the petty officers have kept rank. The guard pass by the ranks of sailors and fail into line in front Whereupon, two of the sailors break rank and step forward. of the Commander. Commander Golikov, one hand by the side of his frock-coat, Matyushenko turns to the sailors: the other behind his back, looks threateningly about him. [TITLE:] ‘Lads ‘ A young petty officer, not knowing what to do, mechanically He shouts: fingers the strap running over his shoulder. [TITLE:] ‘It is time!’ The muzzles of the cannons hang menacingly over a motion- The sailors break rank and, quickly, according to Matyushenko’s less rank of sailors. direction, race towards the gun-turret. The senior petty officer looks apprehensively at the men who [TITLE:] MOST OF THE SAILORS ARE GATHERED BY have not moved. THE GUN-TURRET [TITLE:] ‘Come on!’ Seen from above - past the muzzles of the cannons menacingly The young petty officer, not knowing what to do, mechanically overhanging - most of the sailors have gathered by the gun- fingers the strap running over his shoulder. turret, and only a small knot of sailors remain on the prow of Enraged, Commander Golikov shouts: the battleship. [TITLE:] ‘Hang the rest on the yard-arm!’ From this knot of sailors, a number detach themselves and run and he points at the mast. towards the gun-turret. A young officer with a small moustache, turning his eyes in the Senior officer Gilyarovsky frowns viciously. direction of the mast, can hardly repress a smile. The crowd of sailors is agitated. The words of the Commander strike terror in the hearts of the Gilyarovsky, raising his hand, shouts at the sailors remaining on sailors. the prow of the battleship: They turn their heads in the direction of the mast. [TITLE:] ‘Stop! Into rank!’ Before the eyes of one old sailor, there begins to swim The sailors remaining on the prow of the battleship look in the vision of the sailors hanging on the yard-arm. terror at the infuriated Gilyarovsky, and try to run towards the The old sailor looks fearfully in the direction of the mast. gun-turret, but they are driven back by the officers. The two petty officers turn their eyes towards the mast. The captain of the guard awaits the orders of the Commander. One of the petty officers turns towards the other with a [TITLE:] THEY TRY TO MAKE THEIR WAY THROUGH nervous smile. THE ADMIRAL’S HATCH Commander Golikov shakes his hand threateningly. Some of the sailors remaining on the prow of the battleship The tensely smiling face of the petty officer immediately advance towards the admiral’s hatch. becomes serious. Commander Golikov shouts at them in fury: Commander Golikov fixes his eyes ominously on the sailors. [TITLE:] ‘Back, you villains! This is no way for you!’ The petty officer is stiff with fright. and he springs at the sailors with his fists, catches one of them,

130 and hurls him at the feet of the other sailors, and then catches The sailors in the guard load, and raise their rifles to the another. shoulder. The sailors raise their fallen comrade. The sailors in the guard consider with horror the imminent Commander Golikov shouts at the sailors in fury: shooting of the knot of sailors covered with the tarpaulin and [TITLE:] ‘I’ll shoot you like dogs!’ lower their heads. and he shakes his fist threateningly. Several of the sailors covered with the tarpaulin are on their The sailor looks bitterly at him and rejoins his comrades. knees. Senior officer Gilyarovsky commands the guard to turn about The heads of the sailors in the guard are dejectedly lowered, towards the sailors remaining on the prow of the battleship, but, on the command, the sailors raise their rifles to the climbs up onto the capstan, and, with a triumphant smirk, shoulder. orders: Three officers look on tensely. [TITLE:] ‘Cover them with a tarpaulin!’ The priest, counting off the seconds, mechanically slaps his Three petty officers break rank. cross against his palm [TITLE:] ‘Aye, aye, sir.’ several times. They come to a halt, salute, then turn and go back, one after The face of a young petty officer twitches with fear. another. Two more petty officers follow them. Tormentedly counting off the tense seconds, he strokes the A triumphant smirk on his lips, Gilyarovsky twirls his mous- knife in his belt. tache. Gilyarovsky shouts furiously. The petty officers take hold of a tarpaulin. Almost all the sailors covered with the tarpaulin have fallen to Gilyarovsky continues to twirl his moustache. their knees. The petty officers carry the tarpaulin past the guard. One of the Standing in a row, the officers are motionless. sailors in the guard turns his head and looks dejectedly at the The sailors in the guard level the muzzles of their rifles and aim tarpaulin. at the knot of sailors covered with the tarpaulin. The petty officers continue to carry the tarpaulin past the guard. The sailors standing near the gun-turret look on with terror as The sailor in the guard who had looked at the tarpaulin turns the guard aim their rifles at the knot of sailors covered with the his head back and stands upright. tarpaulin. The petty officers carry the tarpaulin past the guard. The priest slaps his cross several times more against his palm. The sailor in the guard dejectedly lowers his head. It is as if time had stopped the deathly hush before the storm. The petty officers with the tarpaulin draw close to the sailors On a life-belt, the clear inscription Potemkin Tavrichesky. remaining on the prow of the battleship, throw the tarpaulin The prow of the battleship - with a Tsarist eagle. down on to the deck and begin to unroll it. The bugler holds his bugle in readiness. The sailors gathered by the gun-turret follow tensely the actions The tension is at its peak. Vakulinchuk makes a decisive of the petty officers and the guard. movement. [TITLE:] ‘Cover them!’ [TITLE:] VAKULINCHUK DECIDES The petty officers unroll Gilyarovsky orders the guard: the tarpaulin. [TITLE:] ‘Fire!’ The knot of sailors remaining on the prow of the battleship Vakulinchuk shouts to the guard: press themselves in terror against the handrail of the deck, [TITLE:] ‘Brothers!’ covering their faces with their hands. With horror on his face, he again shouts to the guard: The petty officers raise the tarpaulin and cover the sailors with it. [TITLE:] ‘Who are you shooting at?’ The tarpaulin covers the sailors. A sailor in the guard continues to take aim. The guard stand motionless, rifles at ease. [TITLE:] THE RIFLES WAVER An officer approaches. Several sailors in the guard lower their rifles. The incident has [TITLE:] ‘Attention!’ reached crisis point. The file of petty officers and the officers brace themselves. Gilyarovsky, raising his fists, shouts at the guard in fury: The sailors in the guard stiffen. [TITLE:] ‘Shoot!’ The guard stand in front of the knot of sailors covered with One after another, the sailors in the guard lower their rifles. the tarpaulin. Gilyarovsky runs up to the guard. One of the sailors in the guard does not know what to do. The muzzles of the cannons look menacingly down. [TITLE:] ‘Shoot!’ The reflection of the battleship dances on the waves. His fists flying, Gilyarovsky throws himself The ship’s priest appears on the deck and raises his hands to the at the guard who have refused to shoot at the sailors on the sky. prow of the battleship, and he shouts: [TITLE:] ‘Lord, let these sinners understand.’ [TITLE:] ‘Shoot, you villains!’ Some of the sailors covered with the tarpaulin fall to their The priest, his cross raised, stiffens with terror. knees. Gilyarovsky’s face is distorted with rage. The priest raises his cross and speaks. The sailors in the guard, one after another, return their rifles to Senior officer Gilyarovsky orders: the position at ease, or lower the muzzles. [TITLE:] ‘At the tarpaulin - aim!’

131 Again Gilyarovsky shouts, and hurls himself at the guard with [TITLE:] ‘Fear God,’ his fists, and tries to snatch one of the sailor’s rifles. and stretches out the cross to him. Matyushenko shouts to the sailors: The crucifix stands out against the background of the grating. [TITLE:] ‘Seize the rifles, comrades!’ Matyushenko and his comrades attack the officers. He races to get a rifle. Vakulinchuk shouts at the priest: Gilyarovsky snatches the sailor’s rifle. [TITLE:] ‘Get out of the way, you sorcerer!’ Vakulinchuk gives orders to the sailors. and he pushes him The storm has burst. Sailors race for the rifles. down. Sailors encircle Gilyarovsky. Running up, Gilyarovsky raises the butt of his rifle against Vakulinchuk shouts to the sailors: Vakulinchuk, but Vakulinchuk seizes the rifle and tries to tear it [TITLE:] ‘Smash the dragons! Smash them!’ from him. He shouts again: The sailors roll the officer up in the tarpaulin. He resists, [TITLE:] ‘Smash every one of them!’ clutching at a ring on the deck. He continues to shout. Vakulinchuk and Gilyarovsky fight for possession of the rifle. The sailors remaining on the prow of the battleship fling off The officer lets go of the ring. The sailors drag him away from the tarpaulin and run towards the group of officers. it. The sailors encircle the officers. For a moment appear the legs of Vakulinchuk and Gilyarovsky, One sailor tries to snatch Gilyarovsky’s rifle. fighting for possession of the rifle. The sailors on the prow of the battleship, having flung off the Vakulinchuk runs down the ladder, but, again, for a moment tarpaulin, run quickly. appear the legs of Vakulinchuk and Gilyarovsky, fighting for Sailors in the guard raise their rifles. possession of the rifle. The tarpaulin, picked up by the wind, descends slowly to the On the deck, the crowd of sailors continues to attack the deck. officers. The sailors knock the officers down and attack them. The priest, stepping out of the hatch, extends his cross to Sailors with rifles run rapidly around the upper deck. Vakulinchuk. The flag of St Andrew flutters above the fighting on the At that moment, Gilyarovsky seizes the rifle from Vakulinchuk. battleship. The crucifix falls and sticks upright into the floor of the deck. The sailors attack the officers and the Commander. The priest falls into the hatch Sailors with rifles run rapidly around the decks. and, hitting his head against a pipe, loses consciousness. Sailors rush to the armory, and one of them Vakulinchuk quickly dispenses rifles to the sailors who come running up, one quickly runs down the ladder into the hatch, chased by after another without interruption. Gilyarovsky. Gilyarovsky and Commander Golikov start to descend the Vakulinchuk turns, sees the crucifix stuck into the floor of the admiral’s hatch, but Golikov is seized by sailors. deck, and runs on. Elsewhere, sailors attack an officer. Through the ship’s galley an officer runs, seeking safety from Golikov throws off the sailors. the sailors. The sailors knock the officer down onto the tarpaulin. Up onto the wardroom piano Elsewhere, Matyushenko, with other sailors, attacks a group of an officer clambers, struggling with the sailors pursuing him. petty officers. He treads on the keys and on the candelabra, and, having got on The flag of St Andrew flutters. top of the piano, he fires his revolver at the sailors, but the Near the admiral’s hatch, the young officer with the small sailors pursuing him drag him down from the piano, - moustache repels the sailors’ attacks. ing him. Sailors with rifles run rapidly around the decks. An officer hangs by his hands from the muzzle of a cannon. The sailors roll the officer up in the tarpaulin. In the wardroom, the sailors beat the officer against the floor. Rifles, one after another, are passed through On one side of the battleship, an officer notices a sailor to the sailors who come running up. swarming along a ladder in pursuit of him. The sailors roll the officer up in the tarpaulin. The officer, seeking safety from the sailor, clambers up the side Gilyarovsky, armed with a rifle, chases after Vakulinchuk. of the battleship, clutching at the holdfasts, but the sailor’s leg Vakulinchuk climbs across a circular bastion and lets himself kicks him over the head. The officer clambers back, and the drop, trying to hide from him. sailor descends after him. From a hatch protrudes a hand with a crucifix, standing out In the wardroom, the sailors continue to attack the officer. clearly against the background of the grating. Two sailors run up the ladder to a hatch. Vakulinchuk, raising himself slightly, grasps the handrail near On the side of the battleship, the sailor, descending by the the hatch. holdfasts, again kicks the officer over the head. From the hatch appears the figure of the priest, cross in hand, In the wardroom, a sailor attacks the officer with a music-stool. ascending the ladder. Hanging over the arm of a chair, only the hand of the dead Vakulinchuk looks at him uncomprehendingly. officer can be seen. The priest speaks to him: On the side of the battleship, the sailor propels the officer into

132 the sea. A sailor shouts: The water receives the officer greedily. [TITLE:] ‘Vakulinchuk’s overboard!’ On a life-belt, the clear inscription: ‘Prince Potemkin and runs along the yard-arm, followed by a second sailor, and a Tavrichesky.’ third. Sailors with rifles run rapidly around the decks. Grasping the ropes, they hasten to the aid of Vakulinchuk. With the butt of his rifle, a sailor attacks an officer who has run Vakulinchuk lies on his back in the cradle of ropes, his head to the end of the muzzle of a cannon. hanging down. The officer loses balance, somersaults in the air, and falls into [TITLE:] ‘Save Vakulinchuk!’ the sea, where he struggles to get out. The sailors jump into the water. Smirnov, the small, short-sighted ship’s surgeon, tries to Vakulinchuk hangs over the cradle of ropes above the water, conceal himself behind a row of hose-pipes, but he is detected and he falls into the sea. and encircled by sailors, who drag him away. The sailors quickly swim He clings helplessly to a rope. towards the sinking Vakulinchuk. The sailors try to tear him from the rope, and they carry him The sailors slowly carry the body of the dead Vakulinchuk up away, head downwards, the rope trailing after him, down a the gangway. metal ladder. [TITLE:] AND HE WHO WAS THE FIRST TO TAKE UP In his deathly fear he clutches with his hands at the steps. THE CRY OF REBELLION WAS THE FIRST TO FALL AT The priest, fallen into the hatch, opens one eye for an instant THE HAND OF THE EXECUTIONER and closes it. A cutter, with sailors in file on either side of the deck and with Smirnov clings with his hands to the steps. the body of Vakulinchuk on high, moves [TITLE:] TO- On the ladder, the legs of the sailors and of the struggling WARDS THE SHORE officer. The passage of the cutter, with the body of Vakulinchuk, hero On the deck, sailors with rifles hunt down the fleeing officers. and victim of the rebellion, on high Ship’s surgeon Smirnov gives impetus and intensity to the noble spirit of mourning is snatched up by a couple of sailors. and triumph which prevails. With a swing, they hurl him [TITLE:] ODESSA overboard. On the still quay in the moonlight: a solitary tent. Head downwards, he flies through the air and falls into the sea, [TITLE:] THE TENT AT THE END OF ODESSA’S NEW raising a fountain of spray and foam. JETTY - VAKULINCHUK’S LAST RESTING PLACE [TITLE:] GO AND FEED YOUR MAGGOTS AT THE In the tent lies the body of Vakulinchuk. BOTTOM OF THE SEA ! An inscription on a sheet of paper: ‘On account of a spoonful And on a cable hang the pince-nez of ship’s surgeon Smirnov - of borshch.’ those same pince-nez through which, with indifference, he In his hands is a lighted candle. His body is turned towards the regarded the maggoty meat. town, which is visible in the distance through the opening in On the deck, the sailors continue to attack the officers. the tent. [TITLE:] ‘Comrades! The ship is in our hands!’ First, the cutter passes before the tent, then a large sailing-ship The sailors on the deck throw their caps high in the air with joy. heading in a different direction floats by and obscures the view The smashed keys of the piano: evidence of the struggle in the of the town. wardroom. PART THREE: THE DEAD MAN CRIES FOR FOR On the decks, the sailors continue to hunt down the officers. VENGEANCE [TITLE:] FLOWING WITH BLOOD, VAKULINCHUK Moonlight plays upon the water. SEEKS SAFETY FROM THE BESTIAL GILYAROVSKY . .. [TITLE:] MIST SWIRLS UP FROM THE NIGHT Gilyarovsky watches closely, as Vakulinchuk climbs onto a yard- In the bay, ships wrapped in thick mist. arm and moves along it. The turgid waves splash gently. Gilyarovsky, his rifle in his hand, draws closer to Vakulinchuk, Seagulls on a buoy, alarmed, take wing. not once lowering his gaze from him. The turgid waves splash gently. Vakulinchuk looks at Gilyarovsky. The bay is full Gilyarovsky turns, takes cover behind a buttress, aims with his of ships. rifle at Vakulinchuk on the yard-arm, carefully screwing up one Dawn. Beyond the corpse of Vakulinchuk, in whose hands a eye, and he fires. lighted candle burns, can be seen the distant town. Vakulinchuk clutches the back of his head with his hand. A flag of mourning flutters on top of the tent. Gilyarovsky looks at Vakulinchuk. Near the tent, absorbed and indifferent, a fisherman fishes from Vakulinchuk, mortally wounded, falls from the yard-arm and, the jetty. catching hold of some ropes, slips down the ropes into the A large, ocean-going vessel towers above. cradle they form above the sea. [TITLE:] VOICES FROM THE JETTY MAKE THEM- The sailors on the deck throw their caps high in the air with joy. SELVES HEARD THROUGH THE MIST The ropes descend on a pulley, and the unconscious Poorly dressed men and women and children begin to move Vakulinchuk slips down towards the sea in the cradle they form. towards the tent containing the body of Vakulinchuk.

133 Beyond the corpse of Vakulinchuk, the lighted candle in his The body of Vakulinchuk with the lighted candle in his hands. hands, the town can be seen in the distance. The old woman weeps. An old woman enters the tent and straightens the lighted An old man in pince-nez looks grievously at the murdered candle in Vakulinchuk’s hands. Vakulinchuk. All who approach, approach the tent - men and women. Two old women kneel by the corpse. Insensible to everything, two fishermen fish. A supercilious-looking man smokes unconcernedly, and looks The lighted candle in the hands of the dead Vakulinchuk. on with a smirk The crowd around the tent quickly grows larger. Two noble- when a woman falls to the ground in grief. women, wearing expensive white dresses and carrying elegant [TITLE:] A LASTING MONUMENT TO THE FALLEN white umbrellas, peep curiously into the tent. WARRIORS ! The sails of a nearby ship are put up. Women begin to sing. [TITLE:] AND TOGETHER WITH THE SUN THE NEWS [TITLE:] ALL FOR ONE BREAKS ON THE TOWN ! The whole crowd begins to sing. At first empty, the long, narrow steps leading down to the [TITLE:] ONE harbor quickly fill with moving people. The dead Vakulinchuk with the lighted candle in his hands. [TITLE:] THE BATTLESHIP IN THE ANCHORAGE [TITLE:] FOR ALL The multitude descends the long, narrow steps. A vast crowd around the tent. [TITLE:] THE REBELLION Two blind women singing. Along the bridge, quietly and purposefully, flows the stream of A woman weeping. people. The whole crowd with heads bent in woe. [TITLE:] THE SHORE Tears form in the eyes of a dock-worker. Along the harbor flows the stream of people. A man nervously touches his forage-cap. [TITLE:] THE MURDERED SAILOR The dock-worker weeps, covering his face with his hand. The crowd around the tent containing the body of Vakulinchuk The student delivers his speech. quickly grows. Men and women regard the murdered man, then [TITLE:] ‘Down with the butchers!’ pass on. The crowd is agitated. A small boy walks past the corpse of Vakulinchuk and places a A fist is clenched in hatred. coin in the sailor’s cap lying on a barrel. The crowd listens to the speaker. In the hands of Vakulinchuk, the candle burns. A clenched fist. The sailor’s cap on the barrel is filled with coins. The excitement of the crowd grows. Near the tent, a student delivers a fiery speech. One of the women begins to make a speech. Along the jetty flows the vast stream of people. Again, a fist is clenched in hatred. The multitude descends the long, narrow steps by the bridge. The woman turns to the crowd. The endless stream of people flows along the jetty. An old woman shouts in excitement. Descending by both the steps which lead from the bridge to the A fist is raised threateningly. harbor, the stream of people surges thickly and excitedly under Everybody excitedly waves their hands and shouts: the arch of the bridge. [TITLE:] ‘Down with the autocrats!’ A vast, solid crowd surrounds the tent containing the body of The excitement of the crowd rises ever higher and higher, and Vakulinchuk. draws near to its peak. A woman turns to the crowd: A suspicious-looking man in a straw hat, his hands tucked [TITLE:] ‘Let us not forget him!’ insolently into his waistcoat, looks on with a disdainful smile. and she points to the corpse of Vakulinchuk. The woman shouts: The inscription on a sheet of paper: ‘On account of a spoonful [TITLE:] ‘Mothers and brothers! Let there be no distinctions or of borshch.’ enmities among ourselves!’ and she exhorts the crowd. Angrily, the woman says: The suspicious-looking man in the straw hat smiles disdain- [TITLE:] ‘On account of a spoonful of borshch.’ fully. A young man in a sailor’s sweater agitatedly reads an address to The woman continues her speech. the crowd: The suspicious-looking man in the straw hat cries out: [TITLE:] ‘People of Odessa! Before us lies the body of the [TITLE:] ‘Down with the Jews!’ brutally murdered sailor, Grigory Vakulinchuk - murdered by a and smiles insolently. senior officer of the squadron battleship, “Prince Tavrichesky.” The men standing near him Let us have our revenge on the bloodthirsty vampires! Death to sharply and angrily, one after another, turn their heads. the oppressors! Signed by the crew of the squadron battleship, The reactionary [a member of the Black Hundred, a virulent “Prince Tavrichesky”.’ anti-Jewish society] continues to smile insolently. The people listen to him avidly. One of the men advances towards him angrily. Women standing near the tent weep. The reactionary grows frightened. An old woman kneels by the corpse of Vakulinchuk and kisses The man continues to advance towards him. his hand.

134 The reactionary pulls his straw hat over his eyes and tries to walk The boats push off, and sail past the town, and the wharf, and away, but he is stopped. out into the open sea. The man looks at him in fury. The passing boats are seen as a background to a curved The reactionary is surrounded by men. colonnade overlooking the water from the height of the town. They pull his straw hat over his face and begin to attack him. A demonstration takes place beneath the arch of the bridge. Pathetically, the student delivers his speech. In the distance can be seen the white sails of the boats. The sea of people surges in agitation. On the wharf, an educated young woman, an umbrella in her Pathetically, the student delivers his speech. hand, and a man - apparently a professor - look ardently, but The women frenziedly wave their arms. with reserve, in the direction of the rebellious battleship. Pathetically, the student continues his speech. A group of workers (two men and a woman) tumultuously The women shout in their frenzy. hail the rebellious sailors. The student appeals to the crowd: The young woman with the umbrella opens it out joyfully and [TITLE:] ‘Shoulder to shoulder!’ waves her black-gloved hand, and the man with the appearance The multitude descends the long, narrow steps by the bridge. of a professor takes off his hat. [TITLE:] THE LAND IS OURS ! Standing with a young schoolgirl, an elderly woman in pince- Under the arch of the bridge the sea of moving people sways nez rapturously waves her hand. convulsively. A student shouts joyfully. [TITLE:] THE FUTURE IS OURS ! A yacht sails across the sea, and the fleet of white-sailed yawls. Along the bridge the people move. On the mast of the battleship the red flag flutters victoriously. The women in the crowd near the tent containing the body of The boats sail towards the battleship. Vakulinchuk continue to shout in their frenzy. The sailors on board the battleship wave their caps in delight. The sea of people surges with excitement. The boats sail up, one after another, to the sides of the Pathetically, the student continues his speech. battleship. The excitement of the crowd reaches its peak. Sailors pull the oars of the rowing-boats. The sailors make their appearance on the decks and by the gun- The sailors on board the battleship wave their caps in delight. turret of the battleship, and begin to listen to the speakers. The sailing-boats draw up by the side of the battleship. [TITLE:] THE DELEGATE FROM THE SHORE Sailors from the battleship quickly descend the gangway. A worker speaks to the sailors: Sailing-boats and rowing-boats draw up. [TITLE:] ‘We must inflict a decisive blow on the enemy!’ The sailing-boats drop their sails. He appeals to the sailors: The sailors on board the battleship wave their caps in delight. [TITLE:] ‘Together with the revolutionary workers throughout Sailing-boats surround the battleship. all Russia ‘, and he exhorts them passionately. The sailors on board the battleship wave their caps in delight. The sailors answer him: The inhabitants of the town, standing on the harbor steps, [TITLE:] ‘We will be victorious!’ look at the battleship in the distance. The worker’s speech seizes the imagination of the sailors on the A woman with a live goose in her hands climbs up the gangway decks and in the watch-tower. and gives it to the sailors. The sailors, taking off their caps, rapturously applaud the On the sailing-boats, bread is passed from hand to hand. delegate. The inhabitants of the town, standing on the harbor steps, The sailors standing in the watch-tower also take off their caps look at the battleship in the distance. and wave their arms to the delegate. The people in the sailing-boats look at the sailors on board the [TITLE:] TENSELY AND VIGILANTLY, THE SHORE battleship. KEEPS ITS EYE ON THE ‘POTEMKIN’ Cigarettes, a sucking-pig are passed to the sailors, a crateful of The inhabitants of the town, standing on the harbor steps, poultry, geese. gaze at the battleship in the distance. On board the battleship, the inhabitants of the town embrace On the battleship, the sailors, their heads thrown high, watch the sailors. tensely, as the red flag is raised. Along the gangway are carried a basket of eggs, another The inhabitants of the town joyfully praise the insurgent sucking-pig. battleship. The inhabitants of the town, standing on the harbor steps, The red flag is raised victoriously up the mast of the battleship. look into the distance, and hail the battleship. PART FOUR: THE ODESSA STEPS A lady with a veil and lorgnette and a lady in an expensive white [TITLE:] IN THOSE MEMORABLE DAYS THE TOWN dress, an umbrella over her arm, also look at the battleship. Past LIVED AT ONE WITH THE REBELLIOUS BATTLESHIP them, a legless invalid drags himself on his hands. In the harbor, the townspeople load their sailing-boats with The lady in the expensive white dress, an umbrella over her arm, provisions. waves elegantly in the direction of the rebellious battleship. [TITLE:] A FLEET OF WHITE-SAILED YAWLS RACES From behind the lady with the veil and lorgnette, the legless THROUGH THE WATER TO THE SIDES OF THE invalid moves on his hands, and he looks in the direction of BATTLESHIP the battleship. The sails of the boats are put up, and they fill with wind. The lady with the veil looks through her lorgnette at the ship.

135 The legless invalid joyfully waves his cap with one hand. trampling the slaughtered boy. A woman draped with a shawl stands beside her small son. In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. On the mast of the battleship the red flag flutters victoriously. The fleeing people trample the slaughtered boy. The woman, draped with a shawl, and her son look joyfully at Her eyes crazed, the mother goes up the steps. the battleship. The crowd runs down the steps. A girl and a boy wave their small hands in delight. Her hands to her head in horror, the mother goes up the steps. The crowd, standing on the harbor steps, tumultuously hails The crowd tramples the slaughtered boy. the insurgent battleship. Her hands to her head in horror, the mother goes up the steps. [TITLE:] SUDDENLY The crowd runs down the steps. A woman with bobbed hair throws back her head in terror. Her slaughtered son in her arms, the mother goes up the steps The crowd on the steps shudders and begins to run down the towards a rank of soldiers. steps. In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. The legless invalid, trying to save himself, leaps precipitately on The elderly woman in pince-nez, hidden behind the balustrade, his hands down one of the high balustrades flanking the steps. exhorts the women with her to advance towards the soldiers, in A rank of soldiers draws near to the top of the long, broad order to stop the massacre. steps. Her slaughtered son in her arms, the demented mother goes up The lady with the veil and lorgnette, having fallen, raises herself the steps. and runs down the steps. In a frenzy, the elderly woman in pince-nez exhorts the women In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. with her. Fatally wounded, a man begins to fall. [TITLE:] ‘Come! Let us plead with them!’ In the instant before his death, the steps appear fleetingly in She regards them boldly. front of his eyes. He falls onto the steps. In terror, the crowd continues to run down the steps. A small boy, wounded, falls nearby. The elderly woman in pince-nez smiles encouragingly at the In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. women with her and at the old men, all frozen with fear. The boy clutches his head with his hands. Relentless, like a machine, the rank of soldiers with rifles trailed In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. descends the steps. Relentless, like a machine, ranks of soldiers with rifles trailed Her slaughtered son in her arms, the demented mother goes up descend the steps. the steps. In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. The women are frozen with fear. Behind the balustrade a group of terrified women hide - The elderly woman in pince-nez smiles encouragingly. among them the elderly woman in pince-nez. A young girl, the old men, men, an old woman, and an invalid Men leap from the balustrade onto the ground. on crutches stand up behind her. Behind one of the balustrades, a man and a woman hide. The rank of soldiers fires into the crowd. Behind the other balustrade an old man in pince-nez, a small In terror, the crowd continues to run down the steps. schoolboy and a woman hide. The old man in pince-nez is Her slaughtered son in her arms, the demented mother goes up unexpectedly hit by a bullet. the steps. A rank of soldiers fires into the crowd. Led by the elderly woman in pince-nez, the group of women The man hidden with the woman behind one of the balus- and old men go up the steps towards the rank of soldiers, and trades falls dead. pleadingly hold out their hands to them. In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. Through the corpses strewn on the steps, her slaughtered son A man jumps over the wounded old man in pince-nez. The old in her arms, the mother continues up the steps. man raises himself and looks at him. Through the corpses strewn on the steps, relentless, the rank of In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. soldiers with rifles trailed continues to descend the steps. The old man in pince-nez looks from behind the balustrade. Her slaughtered son in her arms, going up the steps strewn The woman draped with a shawl runs down the steps, holding with corpses, the mother shouts to the soldiers: her small son by the hand. [TITLE:] ‘Hear me! Don’t shoot!’ The ranks of soldiers aim, and fire into the crowd. Inexorably, the rank of soldiers moves on. The son of the woman draped with a shawl falls onto the The shadows of the soldiers fall on the steps. steps. Her slaughtered son in her arms, the mother shouts again to Mechanically, the woman draped with a shawl continues to run the soldiers: down the steps. [TITLE:] ‘My boy is badly hurt!’ The fallen boy raises himself and shouts. She draws close to the rank of soldiers, their rifles aimed and to The fleeing mother stops and turns. the officer, his sabre raised. The boy falls back, unconscious. Led by the elderly woman in pince-nez, the group of women In horror, the mother tears at her hair. and old men, pleading, go up the steps. In terror, the crowd runs down the steps - over the fallen boy. The officer lowers his sabre, and a volley is fired. Her eyes crazed, the mother goes up the steps. Her slaughtered son in her arms, the mother falls onto the In terror, the crowd runs down the steps. steps.

136 At the bottom of the steps, the people run onto the carriage- Down the steps, over the corpses, careers the pram with the way, .. and horsemen charge them. child. Her slaughtered son held tight to her breast, the mother lies on The rank of soldiers fires into the crowd. her back. The pram with the child careers over the corpses down the Her hands are arranged in the form of a cross, and over them steps. creep the advancing shadows of the soldiers. The student pressed into the corner of the building shouts in [TITLE:] THE COSSACKS terror. The cossacks charge straight at the crowd, and the people are The pram with the child overturns. trampled by the horses’ hooves and beaten with the whips of A cossack brandishes his sword, and puts out an eye of the the horsemen. elderly woman in pince-nez. A rank of soldiers descends the steps and fires into the crowd. The battleship : the gun-turret looms ominously. The group of women and old men, pressing themselves [TITLE:] AND THEN THE CANNONS OF THE BATTLE- against the balustrade, go up the steps. SHIP OPEN FIRE IN RETALIATION AGAINST THE The rank of soldiers fires volley after volley into the crowd. SAVAGERY OF THE ARMED FORCES OF ODESSA The group of women and old men fall onto the steps. The muzzles of the cannons, pointed menacingly towards the The legs of the soldiers move on. town. A beautiful woman [a young mother] shields a pram containing [TITLE:] THE BULL’S EYE - THE ODESSA THEATRE ! a child from the fleeing people. The sculpture on the pediment of the theatre. Relentless, like a machine, the rank of soldiers descends the [TITLE:] THE ODESSA THEATRE - THE TOWN’S steps. MILITARY HEADQUARTERS The beautiful woman opens her mouth in terror and clings to The cannons of the battleship open fire at the cupids adorning the side of the pram. the cornice of the theatre. With her body, she shields the child in the pram from the A shell bursts against the iron gates of the theatre building, fleeing people. enshrouding everything in smoke. The rank of soldiers descends the steps and fires. The sculptures: a lion dormant, a lion with evil face raised, a lion In terrible pain, the young mother throws back her head. up on its paws, snarling. The pram with the child comes to rest at the edge of the steps. The iron gates of the theatre building The young mother, her mouth open in terror, clutches her dress are enshrouded in smoke. with her hands. The smoke disperses - to reveal that the theatre building has The fleeing people are trampled by the horses’ hooves and been destroyed. beaten with the whips of the cossacks. PART FIVE: MEETING THE SQUADRON Blood on the young mother’s stomach. [TITLE:] ON THE BATTLESHIP, MEETINGS CONTINUE The young mother, her mouth open, begins to fall, and the PASSIONATELY UNTIL EVENING pram with the child rolls to the very edge of the steps. A speaker cries to the sailors: The rank of soldiers with rifles trailed descends the steps. [TITLE:] ‘The people of Odessa look to you for their libera- The young mother, falling onto the steps, pushes the pram tion. Disembark now, and the army will join forces with you.’ with the child. The speaker continues. The muzzles of the cannons loom A cossack attacks a man with his whip. menacingly. The fleeing people are trampled by the horses’ hooves and The sailors argue among themselves. beaten with the whips of the cossacks. One of the sailors says: Fallen, the young mother jolts the pram with the child over the [TITLE:] ‘We cannot disembark. The admiralty squadron has edge of the steps. begun to move against us.’ The elderly woman in pince-nez is frozen with horror. He continues to speak. The pram with the child bounces down the steps. The sailors wave their arms about excitedly. The young mother lies dead on the steps. The sailor exhorts his comrades, who wave to him On the carriage-way, the cossacks beat the crowd with whips, with their caps. and, at the foot of the steps, a rank of soldiers fires point-blank The sailor exhorts his comrades. at the people. The sailors wave their arms about excitedly. The pram with the child bounces over the steps. The sailor passionately exhorts his comrades. The elderly woman in pince-nez is frozen with horror. One of the sailors listening to him is lost in thought. The pram with the child bounces over the steps. The sailor continues to exhort his comrades, but the other A terrified student presses himself into the corner of a sailor interrupts him. building. [TITLE:] WITH ONE HEART THEY DECIDE TO FACE At the foot of the steps, the rank of soldiers fires volley after THE SQUADRON volley into the crowd. The empty deck. The pram with the child leaps across the steps. [TITLE:] A NIGHT OF ANXIETY BEGINS A terrified student presses himself into the corner of a The flag comes down. building. The moon appears from behind the clouds.

137 Moonlight plays upon the water. A sailor in the watch-tower shouts. On the battleship, the watch looks tensely into the distance. The sailor turns the telescope. The sea splashes gently. Near the muzzle of a cannon, a sailor gazes into the darkness. The watch moves along the side of the battleship. The watches look into the distance. The sea splashes gently. The sailor turns the telescope. A sailor gazes tensely into the distance. The squadron is visible on the horizon. The silhouette of the battleship stands out starkly and majesti- The sailor looking through the telescope bends and cries: cally in the moonlight. [TITLE:] ‘Squadron on the horizon!’ The motionless needles of the pressure-gauges. The sailor near the muzzle of the cannon turns quickly towards By the engines - sleeping sailors. the cry. The watch looks tensely into the darkness. The sailor again looks through the telescope. A searchlight directed on the water. The alarmed figures of the sailors. The watch and the sailor gaze into the darkness. Matyushenko rapidly descends the ladder to the cabin. The searchlight directed on the water. In an instant, the sailor in the deck-chair is awake, and the sailor By the engines - sleeping sailors. on the divan. The motionless needles of the pressure-gauges. The one and the other raise themselves, stand up, and quickly [TITLE:] THE SQUADRON CREEPS UP IN THE DARK- run out. NESS A running sailor can be seen through a grating. Murk over the water. The sailors run up to Matyushenko and question him. The squadron on the horizon. In the cabin, Matyushenko stops a young sailor. Murk over the water. The young sailor looks confusedly at Matyushenko. Matyushenko, fighting against sleep, smokes in one of the Matyushenko throws off his jacket. cabins. The young sailor tightens the jacket round himself, and Smoke pours from the funnels of a passing ship. Matyushenko takes the midshipman’s cap off the young sailor’s By the engines - sleeping sailors. head. The helmsman asleep at the wheel. Sailors climbing up holdfasts. By the engines - sleeping sailors. Matyushenko puts a sailor’s cap on the young sailor’s head. The searchlight directed on the water. The young sailor ascends the ladder from the cabin, followed by In a cabin, a sailor asleep on a divan. Matyushenko. Matyushenko, with other sailors, awakens the helmsman. The sailors rush up the holdfasts, up the deck ladder, up to a The cabin: the sailor asleep on the divan. platform by the funnel. Another sailor at the wheel. The sailors on the platform can see the squadron on the [TITLE:] THROATS HOARSE FROM CONTINUAL horizon. SPEECH BREATHE HARSHLY AND UNEVENLY They continue to look at the squadron on the horizon. The cabin: sailors asleep on the divan, in a deck-chair. The sailor looks through the telescope. Matyushenko enters the cabin and looks at the sleeping sailors. Sailors looking into the distance, ..climbing up the holdfasts, The sailor on the divan awakens. ascending to the platform by the funnel, on the platform. Sailors close the over the searchlight. Matyushenko blows on his pipe. Matyushenko talks with the awakened sailor, and goes out of [TITLE:] ALL HANDS ON DECK ! the cabin. The bugler sounds his call. The sailor turns over onto his other side. A sailor blows on his pipe. Sailors close the shutter over the searchlight. The sailors come running. The sailor on the divan sleeps. [TITLE:] ACTION STATIONS ! Sailors run over to a handrail. The bugler sounds his call. By the engines - the sailors roll over uneasily in their sleep. About the deck The sailor on the divan awakens again. the sailors run. The helmsman at the wheel. Sailors remove the tarpaulins from the cannons. A sailor by the handrail beckons to another. In the gun-turret, a gunner prepares for battle. By the engines - the sailors roll over uneasily in their sleep. About the deck the sailors run. The sailor by the handrail Matyushenko blows on his pipe. looks through a telescope. About the deck the sailors run. The sailors by the handrail gaze tensely into the distance. Sailors run to the engine-room. The motionless needles of the pressure-gauges. The helmsman and Matyushenko speak over the telephone to Sailors look through a pair of binoculars and the telescope. the engineer in the engine-room. The watch looks through the binoculars. Matyushenko speaks over the telephone to the engineer. The pressure-gauges. About the deck the sailors run. Sailors look through the binoculars and the telescope. Sailors move the heavy shells up the lift to the cannons. The watch looks through the binoculars. The sailors remove the tarpaulins from the cannons.

138 The engineer, speaking on the telephone, passes an order to a [TITLE:] MAXIMUM SPEED ! comrade. The needle as high as it can go. The engineer pulls a lever. The engines at maximum speed. The telephones ring in the engine-room. Great waves caused by the passage of the battleship. Sailors descend the gangway and pull up the handrail. The water bubbles and foams. The engineer pulls a lever. Smoke pours from the funnels. The sailors raise the gangway. The helmsman, turning the wheel, listens to Matyushenko. The engineer pulls a lever. Visible in the distance - the squadron. The sailors suspend the gangway along the side of the battle- [TITLE:] THE ‘POTEMKIN’ AND DESTROYER NO. 267 ship. Alongside the battleship - a destroyer. A tarpaulin is spread over the deck. Standing by the helm, Matyushenko looks into the distance. Sailors take the heavy shells from the lift, and lay them on the [TITLE:] THE SQUADRON ADVANCES tarpaulin, one after another. The squadron draws ever nearer and nearer. Matyushenko stands by the helm and shouts into the speaking- Smoke pours from the funnels. tube. Great waves caused by the passage of the battleship. [TITLE:] FULL SPEED AHEAD The water bubbles and foams. The engineer listens on the telephone. Matyushenko, standing by the helm, gives a signal. Behind the helmsman, Matyushenko speaks on the telephone. The gun-turret swings menacingly. The sailors working in the engine-room. [TITLE:] THE SQUADRON DRAWS NEAR ! Smoke pouring from the funnels. Ever nearer and nearer draws the squadron. The engineer presses a lever. The gunner sights his cannon. Faster and faster the engines run. The gun-turret swings menacingly. The battleship carves its way through the sea, dividing the water Sailors carrying a shell. into tall waves. The muzzles of the cannons loom menacingly. The calm sea splashes gently against the shore. Smoke pours from the funnels. The battleship carves its way through the sea, dividing the water Behind it, the battleship leaves a shining wake and clouds of into tall waves. smoke. Ever faster and faster the engines run. Standing by the helm, Matyushenko looks into the distance. The battleship carves its way through the sea, dividing the water The squadron draws nearer. into tall waves. Matyushenko is plunged in thought. At full speed, the engines run. His hand goes to the speaking-tube. Smoke pours from the funnels. [TITLE:] ‘Give the signal: “Join us”’ Behind it, the battleship leaves a shining wake and clouds of He replaces the speaking-tube. smoke. A sailor signals with flags, and another looks through a Matyushenko, speaking on the telephone, receives a message telescope. from a sailor approaching at the run, and he gives the order to [TITLE:] ‘Join ‘ the helmsman to turn the wheel. On ropes, the flags go up the mast. The gun-turrets swing menacingly. On ropes, the flags go up the mast. The gunner is prepared for battle. The battleship raises great waves on all sides. The muzzles of the cannons are raised menacingly. The squadron draws ever nearer and nearer. The gunner looks at his sights. Smoke pours from the funnels of an approaching ship. The muzzles of the cannons are raised. The muzzle of a cannon aimed towards the enemy. The gunner looks at his sights. The helmsman looks through a telescope. The prow of the battleship cuts through the water, raising great The gunners await the signal. waves on all sides. [TITLE:] THE ENEMY IS WITHIN RANGE Standing by the helm, Matyushenko looks through a telescope. The helmsman looks through a telescope. The squadron is visible on the horizon. The gunners await the signal. Matyushenko speaks to the helmsman. A sailor with a shell in his arms. The needle of a pressure-gauge jumps about - and moves up. Sailors with shells in their arms. The engineer speaks on the telephone. [TITLE:] ALL FOR ONE The needle jumps about - and moves higher. The cannons of the enemy turn slowly, point towards the The gunner is prepared for battle. Potemkin, are menacingly raised. The squadron on the horizon. [TITLE:] ONE FOR ALL The engines at full speed. On the mast of the battleship the red flag flutters victoriously. The gunner by his sights. Alongside the battleship - the destroyer. The gunner swings his cannon. A cannon raised looms menacingly. The engines at full speed. Standing by the helm, Matyushenko looks into the distance. The needle of the pressure-gauge jumps about. The enemy squadron is near.

139 The gunners embrace each other before battle. A cannon is raised, and looms menacingly. The gunners await the signal. The cannon looms menacingly. Standing by the helm, Matyushenko shouts. The muzzles of all the cannons of the battleship are directed menacingly towards the enemy. [TITLE:] TO FIRE The gunners tensely await the signal. Matyushenko looks uneasily into the distance. He blows on his pipe. A cannon looms menacingly. [TITLE:] OR NOT A gunner tensely awaits the signal. The engines running. The imperial eagle on the prow of the battleship. Sailors with shells in their arms, tensely expectant. Shells on the tarpaulin. The gunner motionless. Suddenly, a smile appears on the face of one of the sailors. [TITLE:] ‘Brothers!’ Joyfully, the sailors break out into laughter. The sailors run out onto the prow of the battleship. The sailors are overcome with joy. On the mast of the battleship the red flag flutters victoriously. The muzzles of the cannons are lowered. The sailors on board the battleship tumultuously wave their caps. In return, from the sides of the ships of the squadron passing, the sailors joyfully wave their caps. [TITLE:] WITHIN THE HEARING OF THE TSARIST ADMIRALS, BROTHERLY CHEERS SOUND ACROSS THE WATER From the sides of the ships of the squadron passing, the sailors joyfully wave their caps. Without a shot being fired, a ship of the admiralty squadron goes past the rebellious battleship. [TITLE:] AND WITH THE RED FLAG OF FREEDOM PROUDLY FLUTTERING, WITHOUT A SINGLE SHOT BEING FIRED, THE INSURGENT BATTLESHIP PASSES THROUGH THE RANKS OF THE SQUADRON The sailors on the decks of the battleship, on the mast and in the watch-tower tumultuously wave their caps in the air. Victoriously, the insurgent battleship passes through the ranks of the squadron. Joyfully, the sailors on the mast, in the watch-tower, on the decks and on the prow of the battleship wave their caps in the air. Great waves caused by the passage of the battleship. The tall prow of the rebellious battleship moves victoriously onwards.

Notes :

140 CHAPTER 3 CITIZEN KANE

CITIZEN KANE DISSOLVE: Herman J. Mankiewicz amp;& Orson Welles THE ALLIGATOR PIT (MINIATURE) The idiot pile of sleepy dragons. Reflected in the muddy water (this is a copy of the first few scenes of one of the drafts) - the lighted window. PROLOGUE THE LAGOON (MINIATURE) FADE IN: The boat landing sags. An old newspaper floats on the surface EXT. XANADU - FAINT DAWN - 1940 (MINIATURE) of the water - a copy of the New York Enquirer.” As it moves Window, very small in the distance, illuminated. across the frame, it discloses again the reflection of the window All around this is an almost totally black screen. Now, as the in the castle, closer than before. camera moves slowly towards the window which is almost a THE GREAT SWIMMING POOL (MINIATURE) postage stamp in the frame, other forms appear; barbed wire, It is empty. A newspaper blows across the cracked floor of the cyclone fencing, and now, looming up against an early morning tank. sky, enormous iron grille work. Camera travels up what is now DISSOLVE: shown to be a gateway of gigantic proportions and holds on THE COTTAGES (MINIATURE) the top of it - a huge initial “K” showing darker and darker In the shadows, literally the shadows, of the castle. As we against the dawn sky. Through this and beyond we see the move by, we see that their doors and windows are boarded up fairy-tale mountaintop of Xanadu, the great castle a sillhouette and locked, with heavy bars as further protection and sealing. as its summit, the little window a distant accent in the darkness. DISSOLVE OUT: DISSOLVE: DISSOLVE IN: (A SERIES OF SET-UPS, EACH CLOSER TO THE GREAT A DRAWBRIDGE (MINIATURE) WINDOW, ALL TELLING SOMETHING OF:) Over a wide moat, now stagnant and choked with weeds. We The literally incredible domain of CHARLES FOSTER KANE. move across it and through a huge solid gateway into a formal Its right flank resting for nearly forty miles on the Gulf Coast, it garden, perhaps thirty yards wide and one hundred yards deep, truly extends in all directions farther than the eye can see. which extends right up to the very wall of the castle. The Designed by nature to be almost completely bare and flat - it landscaping surrounding it has been sloppy and causal for a was, as will develop, practically all marshland when Kane long time, but this particular garden has been kept up in perfect acquired and changed its face - it is now pleasantly uneven, with shape. As the camera makes its way through it, towards the its fair share of rolling hills and one very good-sized mountain, lighted window of the castle, there are revealed rare and exotic all man-made. Almost all the land is improved, either through blooms of all kinds. The dominating note is one of almost cultivation for farming purposes of through careful landscap- exaggerated tropical lushness, hanging limp and despairing. ing, in the shape of parks and lakes. The castle dominates itself, Moss, moss, moss. Ankor Wat, the night the last King died. an enormous pile, compounded of several genuine castles, of DISSOLVE: European origin, of varying architecture - dominates the scene, THE WINDOW (MINIATURE) from the very peak of the mountain. Camera moves in until the frame of the window fills the frame DISSOLVE: of the screen. Suddenly, the light within goes out. This stops GOLF LINKS (MINIATURE) the action of the camera and cuts the music which has been Past which we move. The greens are straggly and overgrown, accompanying the sequence. In the glass panes of the window, the fairways wild with tropical weeds, the links unused and not we see reflected the ripe, dreary landscape of Mr. Kane’s estate seriously tended for a long time. behind and the dawn sky. DISSOLVE OUT: DISSOLVE: DISSOLVE IN: INT. KANE’S BEDROOM - FAINT DAWN - 1940 WHAT WAS ONCE A GOOD-SIZED ZOO (MINIATURE) A very long shot of Kane’s enormous bed, silhouetted against Of the Hagenbeck type. All that now remains, with one the enormous window. exception, are the individual plots, surrounded by moats, on DISSOLVE: which the animals are kept, free and yet safe from each other and INT. KANE’S BEDROOM - FAINT DAWN - 1940 the landscape at large. (Signs on several of the plots indicate A snow scene. An incredible one. Big, impossible flakes of that here there were once tigers, lions, girrafes.) snow, a too picturesque farmhouse and a snow man. The DISSOLVE: jingling of sleigh bells in the musical score now makes an ironic THE MONKEY TERRACE (MINIATURE) reference to Indian Temple bells - the music freezes - In the foreground, a great obscene ape is outlined against the KANE’S OLD VOICE dawn murk. He is scratching himself slowly, thoughtfully, Rosebud... looking out across the estates of Charles Foster Kane, to the distant light glowing in the castle on the hill.

141 he camera pulls back, showing the whole scene to be contained nicely photographed, but not atmospheric to the extreme extent in one of those glass balls, which are sold in novelty stores all of the Prologue (1940). over the world. A hand - Kane’s hand, which has been holding NARRATOR the ball, relaxes. The ball falls out of his hand and bounds (dropping the quotes) down two carpeted steps leading to the bed, the camera Here, for Xanadu’s landlord, will be held 1940’s biggest, following. The ball falls off the last step onto the marble floor strangest funeral; where it breaks, the fragments glittering in the first rays of the here this week is laid to rest a potent figure of our Century - morning sun. This ray cuts an angular pattern across the floor, America’s Kubla Kahn - Charles Foster Kane. suddenly crossed with a thousand bars of light as the blinds are In journalism’s history, other names are honored more than pulled across the window. Charles Foster Kane’s, more justly revered. Among publishers, The foot of Kane’s bed. The camera very close. Outlined second only to James Gordon Bennet the First: his dashing, against the shuttered window, we can see a form - the form of a expatriate son; England’s Northcliffe and Beaverbrook; nurse, as she pulls the sheet up over his head. The camera Chicago’s Patterson and McCormick; follows this action up the length of the bed and arrives at the TITLE: face after the sheet has covered it. TO FORTY-FOUR MILLION U.S. NEWS BUYERS, MORE FADE OUT: NEWSWORTHY THAN THE NAMES IN HIS OWN FADE IN: HEADLINES, WAS KANE HIMSELF, GREATEST INT. OF A MOTION PICTURE PROJECTION ROOM NEWSPAPER TYCOON OF THIS OR ANY OTHER On the screen as the camera moves in are the words: GENERATION. “MAIN TITLE” Shot of a huge, screen-filling picture of Kane. Pull back to Stirring, brassy music is heard on the soundtrack (which, of show that it is a picture on the front page of the “Enquirer,” course, sounds more like a soundtrack than ours.) surrounded by the reversed rules of mourning, with masthead The screen in the projection room fills our screen as the second and headlines. (1940) title appears: DISSOLVE: “CREDITS” A great number of headlines, set in different types and different NOTE: Here follows a typical news digest short, one of the styles, obviously from different papers, all announcing Kane’s regular monthly or bi-monthly features, based on public events death, all appearing over photographs of Kane himself or personalities. These are distinguished from ordinary (perhaps a fifth of the headlines are in foreign languages). An newsreels and short subjects in that they have a fully developed important item in connection with the headlines is that many editorial or storyline. Some of the more obvious characteristics of them - positively not all - reveal passionately conflicting of the “March of Time,” for example, as well as other docu- opinions about Kane. Thus, they contain variously the words mentary shorts, will be combined to give an authentic “patriot,” “democrat,” “pacifist,” “war-monger,” “traitor,” impression of this now familiar type of short subject. As is the “idealist,” “American,” etc. accepted procedure in these short subjects, a narrator is used as TITLE: well as explanatory titles. 1895 TO 1940 - ALL OF THESE YEARS HE COVERED, FADE OUT: MANY OF THESE YEARS HE WAS. NEWS DIGEST Newsreel shots of San Francisco during and after the fire, NARRATOR followed by shots of special trains with large streamers: “Kane Legendary was the Xanadu where Kubla Relief Organization.” Over these shots superimpose the date - Kahn decreed his stately pleasure 1906. dome - Artist’s painting of Foch’s railroad car and peace negotiators, if (with quotes in his voice) actual newsreel shot unavailable. Over this shot sumperimpose “Where twice five miles of fertile ground, with walls and towers the date - 1918. were girdled ‘round.” NARRATOR (dropping the quotes) Denver’s Bonfils and Sommes; New York’s late, great Joseph Today, almost as legendary is Florida’s Pulitzer; America’s emperor of the news syndicate, another XANADU - world’s largest private pleasure ground. Here, on editorialist and landlord, the still mighty and once mightier the deserts of the Gulf Coast, a private mountain was commis- Hearst. Great names all of them - but none of them so loved, sioned, successfully built for its landlord. Here in a private hated, feared, so often spoken -as Charles Foster Kane. valley, as in the Coleridge poem, “blossoms many an incense- The San Francisco earthquake. First with the news were the bearing tree.” Verily, “a miracle of rare device.” Kane papers. First with Relief of the Sufferers, First with the U.S.A. news of their Relief of the Sufferers. Kane papers scoop the CHARLES FOSTER KANE world on the Armistice - publish, eight hours before competi- Opening shot of great desolate expanse of Florida coastline tors, complete details of the Armistice teams granted the (1940 - DAY) Germans by Marshall Foch from his railroad car in the Forest of DISSOLVE: Compeigne. For forty years appeared in Kane newsprint no Series of shots showing various aspects of Xanadu, all as they public issue on which Kane papers took no stand. might be photographed by an ordinary newsreel cameraman - No public man whom Kane himself did not

142 support or denounce - often support, then denounce. Shot of Capitol, in Washington D.C. Its humble beginnings, a dying dailey - Shot of Congressional Investigating Committee (reproduction Shots with the date - 1898 (to be supplied) of existing J.P. Morgan newsreel). This runs silent under Shots with the date - 1910 (to be supplied) narration. Walter P. Thatcher is on the stand. He is flanked by Shots with the date - 1922 (to be supplied) his son, Walter P. Thatcher Jr., and other partners. He is being Headlines, cartoons, contemporary newreels or stills of the questioned by some Merry Andrew congressmen. At this following: moment, a baby alligator has just been placed in his lap, causing 1. WOMAN SUFFRAGE considerable confusion and embarrassment. The celebrated newsreel shot of about 1914. Newsreel close-up of Thatcher, the soundtrack of which now fades in. 2. PROHIBITION THATCHER Breaking up of a speakeasy and such. ... because of that trivial incident... 3. T.V.A. INVESTIGATOR 4. LABOR RIOTS It is a fact, however, is it not, that in 1870, you did go to Brief clips of old newreel shots of William Jennings Bryan, Colorado? Theodore Roosevelt, Stalin, Walter P. Thatcher, Al Smith, THATCHER McKinley, Landon, Franklin D. Roosevelt and such. Also, I did. recent newsreels of the elderly Kane with such Nazis as Hitler INVESTIGATOR and Goering; and England’s Chamberlain and Churchill. In connection with the Kane affairs? Shot of a ramshackle building with old-fashioned presses THATCHER showing through plate glass windows and the name Yes. My firm had been appointed trustees by Mrs. Kane for the “Enquirer” in old-fashioned gold letters. (1892) fortune, which she had recently acquired. It was her wish that I DISSOLVE: should take charge of this boy, Charles Foster Kane. NARRATOR NARRATOR Kane’s empire, in its glory, held dominion over thirty-seven That same month in Union Square - newpapers, thirteen magazines, a radio network. INVESTIGATOR An empire upon an empire. The first of grocery stores, paper Is it not a fact that on that occasion, the boy personally attacked mills, apartment buildings, factories, forests, ocean-liners - An you after striking you in the stomach with a sled? empire through which for fifty years flowed, in an unending Loud laughter and confusion. stream, the wealth of the earth’s third richest gold mine... THATCHER Famed in American legend is the origin of the Kane fortune... Mr. Chairman, I will read to this committee a prepared state- How, to boarding housekeeper Mary Kane, by a defaulting ment I have brought with me - and I will then refuse to answer boarder, in 1868 was left the supposedly worthless deed to an any further questions. Mr. Johnson, please! abandoned mine shaft: A young assistant hands him a sheet of paper from a briefcase. The Colorado Lode. THATCHER The magnificent Enquirer Building of today. (reading it) 1891-1911 - a map of the USA, covering the entire screen, which “With full awareness of the meaning of my words and the in animated diagram shows the Kane publications spreading responsibility of what I am about to say, it is my considered from city to city. Starting from New York, minature newboys belief that Mr. Charles Foster Kane, in every essence of his speed madly to Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis, Los Angeles, San social beliefs and by the dangerous manner in which he has Francisco, Washington, Atlanta, El Paso, etc., screaming persistently attacked the American traditions of private property, “Wuxtry, Kane Papers, Wuxtry.” initiative and opportunity for advancement, is - in fact - nothing Shot of a large mine going full blast, chimneys belching smoke, more or less than a Communist.” trains moving in and out, etc. A large sign reads “Colorado Newsreel of Union Square meeting, section of crowd carrying Lode Mining Co.” (1940) Sign reading; “Little Salem, CO - 25 banners urging the boycott of Kane papers. A speaker is on the MILES.” platform above the crowd. DISSOLVE: SPEAKER An old still shot of Little Salem as it was 70 years ago (identi- (fading in on soundtrack) fied by copper-plate caption beneath the still). (1870) - till the words “Charles Foster Kane” are a menace to every Shot of early tintype stills of Thomas Foster Kane and his wife, working man in this land. He is today what he has always been Mary, on their wedding day. A similar picture of Mary Kane and always will be - A FASCIST! some four or five years later with her little boy, Charles Foster NARRATOR Kane. And yet another opinion - Kane’s own. NARRATOR Silent newsreel on a windy platform, flag-draped, in front of Fifty-seven years later, before a Congressional Investigation, the magnificent Enquirer building. On platform, in full Walter P. Thatcher, grand old man of Wall Street, for years chief ceremonial dress, is Charles Foster Kane. He orates silently. target of Kane papers’ attack on “trusts,” recalls a journey he TITLE: made as a youth...

143 I AM, HAVE BEEN, AND WILL BE ONLY ONE THING - Shots of packing cases being unloaded from ships, from trains, AN AMERICAN.” CHARLES FOSTER KANE. from trucks, with various kinds of lettering on them (Italian, Same locale, Kane shaking hands out of frame. Arabian, Chinese, etc.) but all consigned to Charles Foster Kane, Another newsreel shot, much later, very brief, showing Kane, Xanadu, Florida. older and much fatter, very tired-looking, seated with his second A reconstructed still of Xanadu - the main terrace. A group of wife in a nightclub. He looks lonely and unhappy in the midst persons in clothes of the period of 1917. In their midst, clearly of the gaiety. recognizable, are Kane and Susan. NARRATOR NARRATOR Twice married, twice divorced - first to a president’s niece, Emily Kane urged his country’s entry into one war, opposed participa- Norton - today, by her second marriage, chatelaine of the oldest tion in another. Swung the election to one American President of England’s stately homes. at least, was called another’s assassin. Thus, Kane’s papers Sixteen years after that - two weeks after his divorce from Emily might never have survived - had not the President. Norton - Kane married Susan Alexander, singer, at the Town TITLE: Hall in Trenton, New Jersey. FROM XANADU, FOR THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE TITLE: YEARS, ALL KANE ENTERPRISES HAVE BEEN FEW PRIVATE LIVES WERE MORE PUBLIC. DIRECTED, MANY OF THE NATIONS DESTINIES Period still of Emily Norton (1900). SHAPED. DISSOLVE: Shots of various authentically worded headlines of American Reconstructed silent newsreel. Kane, Susan, and Bernstein papers since 1895. emerging from side doorway of City Hall into a ring of press Spanish-American War shots. (1898) photographers, reporters, etc. Kane looks startled, recoils for an A graveyard in France of the World War and hundreds of instance, then charges down upon the photographers, laying crosses. (1919) about him with his stick, smashing whatever he can hit. Old newsreels of a political campaign. NARRATOR Insert of a particularly virulent headline and/or cartoon. For wife two, one-time opera singing Susan Alexander, Kane HEADLINE: “PRESIDENT SHOT” built Chicago’s Municipal Opera House. Cost: three million NARRATOR dollars. Conceived for Susan Alexander Kane, half-finished Kane, molder of mass opinion though he was, in all his life before she divorced him, the still unfinished Xanadu. Cost: no was never granted elective office by the voters of his country. man can say. Few U.S. news publishers have been. Still of architect’s sketch with typically glorified “rendering” of Few, like one-time Congressman Hearst, have ever run for any the Chicago Municipal Opera House. office - most know better - conclude with other political DISSOLVE: observers that one man’s press has power enough for himself. A glamorous shot of the almost-finished Xanadu, a magnifi- But Kane papers were once strong indeed, and once the prize cent fairy-tale estate built on a mountain. (1920) seemed almost his. In 1910, as Independent Candidate for Then shots of its preparation. (1917) governor, the best elements of the state behind him - the Shots of truck after truck, train after train, flashing by with White House seemingly the next easy step in a lightning tremendous noise. political career - Shots of vast dredges, steamshovels. Night shot of crowd burning Charles Foster Kane in effigy. Shot of ship standing offshore unloading its lighters. The dummy bears a grotesque, comic resemblance to Kane. It In quick succession, shots follow each other, some recon- is tossed into the flames, which burn up - structed, some in miniature, some real shots (maybe from the - and then down... (1910) dam projects) of building, digging, pouring concrete, etc. FADE OUT: NARRATOR TITLE: One hundred thousand trees, twenty thousand tons of marble, IN POLITICS - ALWAYS A BRIDESMAID, NEVER A are the ingredients of Xanadu’s mountain. Xanadu’s livestock: BRIDE the fowl of the air, the fish of the sea, the beast of the field and Newsreel shots of great crowds streaming into a building - jungle - two of each; the biggest private zoo since Noah. Madison Square Garden - then shots inside the vast audito- Contents of Kane’s palace: paintings, pictures, statues, the very rium, at one end of which is a huge picture of Kane. (1910) stones of many another palace, shipped to Florida from every Shot of box containing the first Mrs. Kane and young Howard corner of the earth, from other Kane houses, warehouses, Kane, age five. They are acknowledging the cheers of the crowd. where they mouldered for years. Enough for ten museums - (Silent Shot) (1910) the loot of the world. Newreel shot of dignitaries on platform, with Kane, alongside More shots as before, only this time we see (in miniature) a of speaker’s table, beaming, hand upraised to silence the crowd. large mountain - at different periods in its development - rising (Silent Shot) (1910) out of the sands. NARRATOR Shots of elephants, apes, zebras, etc. being herded, unloaded, Then, suddenly - less than one week before election - defeat! shipped, etc. in various ways. Shameful, ignominious - defeat that set back for twenty years the cause of reform in the U.S., forever cancelled political chances

144 for Charles Foster Kane. Then, in the third year of the Great A short pause. Depression... As to all publishers, it sometimes must - to A MAN’S VOICE Bennett, to Munsey and Hearst it did - a paper closes! For It’s a tough thing to do in a newsreel. Kane, in four short years: collapse! Eleven Kane papers, four Seventy years of a man’s life - Kane magazines merged, more sold, scrapped Murmur of highly salaried assent at this. Rawlston walks -Newreel shot - closeup of Kane delivering a speech... (1910) toward camera and out of the picture. Others are rising. The front page of a contemporary paper - a screaming headline. Camera during all of this, apparently does its best to follow Twin phots of Kane and Susan. (1910) action and pick up faces, but fails. Actually, all set-ups are to be Printed title about Depression. planned very carefully to exclude the element of personality Once more repeat the map of the USA 1932-1939. Suddenly, from this scene; which is expressed entirely by voices, shadows, the cartoon goes into reverse, the empire begins to shrink, sillhouettes and the big, bright image of Kane himself on the illustrating the narrator’s words. screen. The door of a newspaper office with the signs: “Closed.” A VOICE NARRATOR See what Arthur Ellis wrote about him in the American review? Then four long years more - alone in his never-finished, already THIRD MAN decaying, pleasure palace, aloof, seldom visited, never photo- I read it. graphed, Charles Foster Kane continued to direct his falling THE VOICE empire ... vainly attempting to sway, as he once did, the (its owner is already leaning across the table, holding a piece of destinies of a nation that has ceased to listen to him ... ceased paper under the desk light and reading from it) to trust him... Listen: Kane is dead. He contributed to the journalism of his Shots of Xanadu. (1940) day - the talent of a mountebank, the morals of a bootlegger, Series of shots, entirely modern, but rather jumpy and obvi- and the manners of a pasha. He and his kind have almost ously bootlegged, showing Kane in a bath chair, swathed in succeeded in transforming a once noble profession into a seven summer rugs, being perambulated through his rose garden, a percent security - no longer secure. desolate figure in the sunshine. (1935) ANOTHER VOICE NARRATOR That’s what Arthur Ellis is writing now.Thirty years ago, when Last week, death came to sit upon the throne of America’s Kane gave him his chance to clean up Detroit and Chicago and Kubla Khan - last week, as it must to all men, death came to St. Louis, Kane was the greatest guy in the world. If you ask Charles Foster Kane. me. DISSOLVE: ANOTHER VOICE Cabinent Photograph (Full Screen) of Kane as an old, old man. Charles Foster Kane was a... This image remains constant on the screen (as camera pulls Then observations are made almost simultaneous. back, taking in the interior of a dark projection room. RAWLSTON’S VOICE INT. PROJECTION ROOM - DAY - 1940 Just a minute! A fairly large one, with a long throw to the screen. It is dark. Camera moves to take in his bulk outlined against the glow The image of Kane as an old man remains constant on the from the projection room. screen as camera pulls back, slowly taking in and registering RAWLSTON Projection Room. This action occurs, however, only after the What were Kane’s last words? first few lines of encuring dialogue have been spoken. The A silence greets this. shadows of the men speaking appear as they rise from their RAWLSTON chairs - black against the image of Kane’s face on the screen. What were the last words he said on earth? Thompson, you’ve NOTE: These are the editors of a “News Digest” short, and made us a good short, but it needs character - of the Rawlston magazines. All his enterprises are represented SOMEBODY’S VOICE in the projection room, and Rawlston himself, that great man, Motivation - is present also and will shortly speak up. RAWLSTON During the entire course of this scene, nobody’s face is really That’s it - motivation. What made Kane what he was? And, seen. Sections of their bodies are picked out by a table light, a for that matter, what was he? What we’ve just seen are the silhouette is thrown on the screen, and their faces and bodies outlines of a career - what’s behind the career? What’s the man? are themselves thrown into silhouette against the brilliant Was he good or bad? Strong or foolish? Tragic or silly? Why slanting rays of light from the projection room. did he do all those things? What was he after? (then, appreciat- A Third Man is on the telephone. We see a corner of his head ing his point) Maybe he told us on his death bed. and the phone. THOMPSON THIRD MAN Yes, and maybe he didn’t. (at phone) RAWLSTON Stand by. I’ll tell you if we wantto run it again. Ask the question anyway, Thompson! (hangs up) Build the picture around the question, even if you can’t answer THOMPSON’S VOICE it. Well? THOMPSON

145 I know, but - (decisively) RAWLSTON Nothing is ever better than finding out what makes people tick. (riding over him like any other producer) Go after the people that knew Kane well. That manager of his All we saw on that screen was a big American - the little guy, Bernstein, those two wives, all the people who A VOICE knew him, had worked for him, who loved him, who hated his One of the biggest. guts - RAWLSTON (pauses) (without pausing for this) I don’t mean go through the City Directory, of course - But how is he different from Ford? Or Hearst for that matter? The Third Man gives a hearty “yes-man” laugh. Or Rockefeller - or John Doe? THOMPSON A VOICE I’ll get to it right away, Mr. Rawlston. I know people worked for Kane will tell you - not only in the RAWLSTON newspaper business - look how he raised salaries. You don’t (rising) want to forget - Good! ANOTHER VOICE The camera from behind him, outlines his back against Kane’s You take his labor record alone, they ought to hang him up like picture on the screen. a dog. RAWLSTON’S VOICE RAWLSTON (continued) I tell you, Thompson - a man’s dying words - It’ll probably turn out to be a very simple thing... SOMEBODY’S VOICE FADE OUT: What were they? NOTE: Now begins the story proper - the seach by Thompson Silence. for the facts about Kane - his researches ... his interviews with SOMEBODY’S VOICE the people who knew Kane. (hesitant) It is important to remember always that only at the very end of Yes, Mr. Rawlston, what were Kane’s dying words? the story is Thompson himself a personality. Until then, RAWLSTON throughout the picture, we photograph only Thompson’s back, (with disgust) shoulders, or his shadow - sometimes we only record his voice. Rosebud! He is not until the final scene a “character”. He is the personifi- A little ripple of laughter at this, which is promptly silenced by cation of the search for the truth about Charles Foster Kane. Rawlston. He is the investigator. RAWLSTON FADE IN: That’s right. EXT. CHEAP CABARET - “EL RANCHO” - ATLANTIC A VOICE CITY - NIGHT - 1940 (MINIATURE) - RAIN Tough guy, huh? The first image to register is a sign: (derisively) “EL RANCHO” Dies calling for Rosebud! FLOOR SHOW RAWLSTON SUSAN ALEXANDER KANE Here’s a man who might have been President. He’s been loved TWICE NIGHTLY and hated and talked about as much as any man in our time - These words, spelled out in neon, glow out of the darkness at but when he comes to die, he’s got something on his mind the end of the fade out. Then there is lightning which reveals a called “Rosebud.” What does that mean? squalid roof-top on which the sign stands. Thunder again, and ANOTHER VOICE faintly the sound of music from within. A light glows from a A racehorse he bet on once, probably, that didn’t come in - skylight. The camera moves to this and closes in. Through the Rosebud! splashes of rain, we see through the skylight down into the RAWLSTON interior of the cabaret. Directly below us at a table sits the lone All right. But what was the race? figure of a woman, drinking by herself. There is a short silence. DISSOLVE: RAWLSTON INT. “EL RANCO” CABARET - NIGHT - 1940 Thompson! Medium shot of the same woman as before, finishing the THOMPSON drink she started to take above. It is Susie. The music, of Yes, sir. course, is now very loud. Thompson, his back to the camera, RAWLSTON moves into the picture in the close foreground. A Captain Hold this thing up for a week. Two weeks if you have to... appears behind Susie, speaking across her to Thompson. THOMPSON THE CAPTAIN (feebly) (a Greek) But don’t you think if we release it now - he’s only been dead This is Mr. Thompson, Miss Alexander. Susan looks up into four days- it might be better than if - Thompson’s face. She is fifty, trying to look much younger, RAWLSTON cheaply blonded, in a cheap, enormously generous evening

146 dress. Blinking up into Thompson’s face, she throws a crink I’ll come down in a week or so and see her again. Say, you into ther mouth. Her eyes, which she thinks is keeping might be able to help me. When she used to talk about Kane - commandingly on his, are bleared and watery. did she ever happen to say anything - about Rosebud? SUSAN THE CAPTAIN (to the Captain) Rosebud? I want another drink, John. Low thunder from outside. Thompson has just handed him a bill. The Captain pockets it. THE CAPTAIN THE CAPTAIN (seeing his chance) Thank you, sir. As a matter of fact, yesterday afternoon, when Right away. Will you have something, Mr. Thompson? it was in all the papers - I asked her. She never heard of sebud. THOMPSON FADE OUT: (staring to sit down) FADE IN: I’ll have a highball. INT. THATCHER MEMORIAL LIBRARY - DAY - 1940 SUSAN An excruciatingly noble interpretation of Mr. Thatcher himself (so insistently as to make Thompson change his mind and executed in expensive marble. He is shown seated on one of stand up again) Who told you you could sit down here? those improbable Edwin Booth chairs and is looking down, THOMPSON his stone eyes fixed on the camera. Oh! I thought maybe we could have a drink together? We move down off of this, showing the impressive pedestal SUSAN on which the monument is founded. The words, “Walter Think again! Parks Thatcher” are prominently and elegantly engraved There is an awkward pause as Thompson looks from her to the thereon. Immediately below the inscription we encounter, in a Captain. medium shot, the person of Bertha Anderson, an elderly, SUSAN manish spinnster, seated behind her desk. Thompson, his hat Why don’t you people let me alone? I’m minding my own in his hand, is standing before her. Bertha is on the phone. business. You mind yours. BERTHA THOMPSON (into phone) If you’d just let me talk to you for a little while, Miss Alexander. Yes. I’ll take him in now. All I want to ask you... (hangs up and looks at Thompson) SUSAN The directors of the Thatcher Library have asked me to remind Get out of here! you again of the condition under which you may inspect certain (almost hysterical) portions of Mr. Thatcher’s unpublished memoirs. Under no Get out! Get out! circumstances are direct quotations from his manuscript to be Thompson looks at the Captain, who shrugs his shoulders. used by you. THOMPSON THOMPSON I’m sorry. Maybe some other time - That’s all right. If he thought he would get a response from Susan, who thinks BERTHA she is looking at him steelily, he realizes his error. He nods and You may come with me. Without watching whether he is walks off, following the Captain out the door. following her or not, she rises and starts towards a distant and THE CAPTAIN imposingly framed door. Thompson, with a bit of a sigh, She’s just not talking to anybody from the newspapers, Mr. follows. Thompson. DISSOLVE OUT: THOMPSON DISSOLVE IN: I’m not from a newspaper exactly, I - INT. THE VAULT ROOM - THATCHER MEMORIAL They have come upon a waiter standing in front of a booth. LIBRARY - DAY - 1940 THE CAPTAIN A room with all the warmth and charm of Napolean’s tomb. (to the waiter) As we dissolve in, the door opens in and we see past Get her another highball. Thompson’s shoulders the length of the room. Everything THE WAITER very plain, very much made out of marble and very gloomy. Another double? Illumination from a skylight above adds to the general air of THE CAPTAIN expensive and classical despair. The floor is marble, and there is (after a moment, pityingly) a gigantic, mahogany table in the center of everything. Beyond Yes. this is to be seen, sunk in the marble wall at the far end of the They walk to the door. room, the safe from which a guard, in a khaki uniform, with a THOMPSON revolver holster at his hip, is extracting the journal of Walter P. She’s plastered, isn’t she? Thatcher. He brings it to Bertha as if he were the guardian of a THE CAPTAIN bullion shipment. During this, Bertha has been speaking. She’ll snap out of it. Why, until he died, she’d just as soon talk BERTHA about Mr. Kane as about anybody. Sooner. (to the guard) THOMPSON Pages eighty-three to one hundred and forty-two, Jennings.

147 GUARD (calling out the window almost on top of this) Yes, Miss Anderson. Pull your muffler around your neck, Charles - BERTHA But Charles, deliriously happy in the snow, is oblivious to this (to Thompson) and is running away. Mrs. Kane turns into camera and we see You will confine yourself, it is our understanding, to the chapter her face - a strong face, worn and kind. dealing with Mr. Kane. THATCHER’S VOICE THOMPSON I think we’ll have to tell him now - That’s all I’m interested in. Camera now pulls back further, showing Thatcher standing The guard has, by this time, delivered the precious journal. before a table on which is his stove-pipe hat and an imposing Bertha places it reverently on the table before Thompson. multiplicity of official-looking documents. He is 26 and, as BERTHA might be expected, a very stuffy young man, already very You will be required to leave this room at four-thirty promptly. expensive and conservative looking, even in Colorado. She leaves. Thompson starts to light a cigarette. The guard MRS. KANE shakes his head. With a sigh, Thompson bends over to read I’ll sign those papers - the manuscript. Camera moves down over his shoulder onto KANE SR. page of manuscript. You people seem to forget that I’m the boy’s father. Manuscript, neatly and precisely written: At the sound of Kane Sr.’s voice, both have turned to him and “CHARLES FOSTER KANE the camera pulls back still further, taking him in. WHEN THESE LINES APPEAR IN PRINT, FIFTY YEARS Kane Sr., who is the assistant curator in a livery stable, has been AFTER MY DEATH, I AM CONFIDENT THAT THE groomed as elegantly as is likely for this meeting ever since WHOLE WORLD WILL AGREE WITH MY OPINION OF daybreak. CHARLES FOSTER KANE, ASSUMING THAT HE IS From outside the window can be heard faintly the wild and NOT THEN COMPLETELY FORGOTTEN, WHICH I cheerful cries of the boy, blissfully cavorting in the snow. REGARD AS EXTREMELY LIKELY. A GOOD DEAL OF MRS. KANE NONSENSE HAS APPEARED ABOUT MY FIRST MEET- It’s going to be done exactly the way I’ve told Mr. Thatcher - ING WITH KANE, WHEN HE WAS SIX YEARS OLD... KANE SR. THE FACTS ARE SIMPLE. IN THE WINTER OF 1870...” If I want to, I can go to court. A father has a right to - The camera has not held on the entire page. It has been THATCHER following the words with the same action that the eye does the (annoyed) reading. On the last words, the white page of the paper Mr. Kane, the certificates that Mr. Graves left here are made out DISSOLVES INTO: to Mrs. Kane, in her name. Hers to do with as she pleases - EXT. MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - 1870 KANE SR. The white of a great field of snow, seen from the angle of a Well, I don’t hold with signing my boy away to any bank as parlor window. guardian just because - In the same position of the last word in above Insert, appears MRS. KANE the tiny figure of Charles Foster Kane, aged five (almost like an (quietly) animated cartoon). He is in the act of throwing a snowball at I want you to stop all this nonsense, Jim. the camera. It sails toward us and over our heads, out of scene. THATCHER Reverse angle - on the house featuring a large sign reading: The Bank’s decision in all matters concerning his education, his MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE HIGH CLASS MEALS place of residence and similar subjects will be final. AND LODGING INQUIRE WITHIN (clears his throat) Charles Kane’s snowball hits the sign. KANE SR. INT. PARLOR - MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - The idea of a bank being the guardian - 1870 Mrs. Kane has met his eye. Her triumph over him finds Camera is angling through the window, but the window-frame expression in his failure to finish his sentence. is not cut into scene. We see only the field of snow again, same MRS. KANE angle as in previous scene. Charles is manufacturing another (even more quietly) snowball. Now - I want you to stop all this nonsense, Jim. Camera pulls back, the frame of the window appearing, and we THATCHER are inside the parlor of the boardinghouse. Mrs. Kane, aged We will assume full management of the Colorado Lode - of about 28, is looking out towards her son. Just as we take her in which you, Mrs. Kane, are the sole owner. she speaks: Kane Sr. opens his mouth once or twice, as if to say something, MRS. KANE but chokes down his opinion. (calling out) MRS. KANE Be careful, Charles! (has been reading past Thatcher’s shoulder as he talked) THATCHER’S VOICE Where do I sign, Mr. Thatcher? Mrs. Kane - THATCHER MRS. KANE Right here, Mrs. Kane.

148 KANE SR. Mrs. Kane at the window. Thatcher is now standing at her side. (sulkily) MRS. KANE Don’t say I didn’t warn you. I’ve got his trunk all packed - (she chokes a little) I’ve it packed Mrs. Kane lifts the quill pen. for a couple of weeks - KANE SR. She can’t say anymore. She starts for the hall day. Kane Sr., ill at Mary, I’m asking you for the last time - anyon’d think I hadn’t ease, has no idea of how to comfort her. been a good husband and a - THATCHER Mrs. Kane looks at him slowly. He stops his speech. I’ve arranged for a tutor to meet us in Chicago. I’d have THATCHER brought him along with me, but you were so anxious to keep The sum of fifty thousand dollars a year is to be paid to everything secret - yourself and Mr. Kane as long as you both live, and thereafter He stops as he realizes that Mrs. Kane has paid no attention to the survivor - him and, having opened the door, is already well into the hall Mrs. Kane puts pen to the paper and signs. that leads to the side door of the house. He takes a look at KANE SR. Kane Sr., tightens his lips and follows Mrs. Kane. Kane, Well, let’s hope it’s all for the best. shoulders thrown back like one who bears defeat bravely, MRS. KANE follows him. It is. Go on, Mr. Thatcher - EXT. MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - 1870 Mrs. Kane, listening to Thatcher, of course has had her other Kane, in the snow-covered field. With the snowman between ear bent in the direction of the boy’s voice. Thatcher is aware him and the house, he is holding the sled in his hand, just both of the boy’s voice, which is counter to his own, and of about to make the little run that prefaces a belly-flop. The Kane Mrs. Kane’s divided attention. As he pauses, Kane Sr. genteelly house, in the background, is a dilapidated, shabby, two-story walks over to close the window. frame building, with a wooden outhouse. Kane looks up as he EXT. MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - 1870 sees the single file procession, Mrs. Kane at its head, coming Kane Jr., seen from Kane Sr.’s position at the window. He is toward him. advancing on the snowman, snowballs in his hands, dropping KANE to one knee the better to confound his adversary. H’ya, Mom. KANE Mrs. Kane smiles. If the rebels want a fight boys, let’s give it to ‘em! KANE He throws two snowballs, missing widely, and gets up and (gesturing at the snowman) advances another five feet before getting on his knees again. See, Mom? I took the pipe out of his mouth. If it keeps on KANE snowin’, maybe I’ll make some teeth and - The terms are underconditional surrender. Up and at ‘em! The MRS. KANE Union forever! You better come inside, son. You and I have got to get you all INT. PARLOR - MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - ready for 1870 THATCHER Kane Sr. closes the window. Charles, my name is Mr. Thatcher - THATCHER MRS. KANE (over the boy’s voice) This is Mr. Thatcher, Charles. Everything else - the principal as well as all monies earned - is to THATCHER be administered by the bank in trust for your son, Charles How do you do, Charles? Foster Kane, until his twenty-fifth birthday, at which time he is KANE SR. to come into complete possession.M He comes from the east. Mrs. Kane rises and goes to the window. KANE MRS. KANE Hello. Hello, Pop. Go on, Mr. Thatcher. KANE SR. Thatcher continues as she opens the window. His voice, as Hello, Charlie! before, is heard with overtones of the boy’s. MRS. KANE EXT. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - DAY - 1870 Mr. Thatcher is going to take you on a trip with him tonight, Kane Jr., seen from Mrs. Kane’s position at the window. He is Charles. You’ll be leaving on Number Ten. now within ten feet of the snowman, with one snowball left KANE SR. which he is holding back in his right hand. That’s the train with all the lights. KANE KANE You can’t lick Andy Jackson! Old Hickory, that’s me! You goin’, Mom? He fires his snowball, well wide of the mark and falls flat on his THATCHER stomach, starting to crawl carefully toward the snowman. Your mother won’t be going right away, Charles - THATCHER’S VOICE KANE It’s nearly five, Mrs. Kane, don’t you think I’d better meet the Where’m I going? boy - INT. PARLOR - MRS. KANE’S BOARDINGHOUSE - KANE SR. DAY - 1870

149 You’re going to see Chicago and New York - and Washington, That’s why he’s going to be brought up where you can’t get at maybe... Isn’t he, Mr. Thatcher? him. THATCHER DISSOLVE: (heartily) 1870 - NIGHT (STOCK OR MINIATURE) He certainly is. I wish I were a little boy and going to make a Old-fashioned railroad wheels underneath a sleeper, spinning trip like that for the first time. along the track. KANE DISSOLVE: Why aren’t you comin’ with us, Mom? INT. TRAIN - OLD-FASHIONED DRAWING ROOM - MRS. KANE NIGHT - 1870 We have to stay here, Charles. Thatcher, with a look of mingled exasperation, annoyance, KANE SR. sympathy and inability to handle the situation, is standing You’re going to live with Mr. Thatcher from now on, Charlie! alongside a berth, looking at Kane. Kane, his face in the pillow, You’re going to be rich. Your Ma figures - that is, - she and I is crying with heartbreaking sobs. have decided that this isn’t the place for you to grow up in. KANE You’ll probably be the richest man in America someday and you Mom! Mom! ought to - DISSOLVE OUT: MRS. KANE The white page of the Thatcher manuscript. We pick up the You won’t be lonely, Charles... words: THATCHER “HE WAS, I REPEAT, A COMMON ADVENTURER, We’re going to have a lot of good times together, Charles... SPOILED, UNSCRUPULOUS, IRRESPONSIBLE.” Really we are. The words are followed by printed headline on “Enquirer” copy Kane stares at him. (as in following scene). THATCHER INT. ENQUIRER CITY ROOM - DAY - 1898 Come on, Charles. Let’s shake hands. (extends his hand. Close-up on printed headline which reads: Charles continues to look at him) “ENEMY ARMADA OFF JERSEY COAST” Now, now! I’m not as frightening as all that! Let’s shake, what Camera pulls back to reveal Thatcher holding the “Enquirer” do you say? copy, on which we read the headline. He is standing near the He reaches out for Charles’s hand. Without a word, Charles editorial round table around which a section of the staff, hits him in the stomach with the sled. Thatcher stumbles back including Reilly, Leland and Kane are eating lunch. a few feet, gasping. THATCHER THATCHER (coldly) (with a sickly grin) Is that really your idea of how to run a newspaper? You almost hurt me, Charles. KANE (moves towards him) I don’t know how to run a newspaper, Mr. Thatcher. I just try Sleds aren’t to hit people with. Sleds are to - to sleigh on. When everything I can think of. we get to New York, Charles, we’ll get you a sled that will - THATCHER He’s near enough to try to put a hand on Kane’s shoulder. As (reading headline of paper he is still holding) does, Kane kicks him in the ankle. “Enemy Armada Off Jersey Coast.” You know you haven’t the MRS. KANE slightest proof that this - this armada - is off the Jersey Coast. Charles! KANE He throws himself on her, his arms around her. Slowly Mrs. Can you prove it isn’t? Kane puts her arms around him. Bernstein has come into the picture. He has a cable in his hand. KANE He stops when he sees Thatcher. (frightened) KANE Mom! Mom! Mr. Bernstein, Mr. Thatcher - MRS. KANE BERNSTEIN It’s all right, Charles, it’s all right. How are you, Mr. Thatcher? Thatcher is looking on indignantly, occasionally bending over to THATCHER rub his ankle. How do you do? - KANE SR. BERNSTEIN Sorry, Mr. Thatcher! What the kid needs is a good thrashing! We just had a wire from Cuba, Mr. Kane - MRS. KANE (stops, embarrassed) That’s what you think, is it, Jim? KANE KANE SR. That’s all right. We have no secrets from our readers. Mr. Yes. Thatcher is one of our most devoted readers, Mr. Bernstein. Mrs. Kane looks slowly at Mr. Kane. He knows what’s wrong with every issue since I’ve taken charge. MRS. KANE What’s the cable? (slowly) BERNSTEIN

150 (reading) two people. The food is marvelous in Cuba the senoritas are beautiful stop Kane moves around behind his desk. Thatcher doesn’t I could send you prose poems of palm trees and sunrises and understand, looks at him. tropical colors blending in far off landscapes but don’t feel right KANE in spending your money for this stop there’s no war in Cuba As Charles Foster Kane, who has eighty-two thousand, six regards Wheeler. hundred and thirty-one shares of Metropolitan Transfer - you THATCHER see, I do have a rough idea of my holdings - I sympathize with You see! There hasn’t been a true word - you. Charles Foster Kane is a dangerous scoundrel, his paper KANE should be run out of town and a committee should be formed I think we’ll have to send our friend Wheeler a cable, Mr. to boycott him. You may, if you can form such a committee, Bernstein. Of course, we’ll have to make it shorter than his, put me down for a contribution of one thousand dollars. because he’s working on an expense account and we’re not. Let THATCHER me see - (angrily) (snaps his fingers) Charles, my time is too valuable for me - Mike! KANE MIKE On the other hand - (a fairly tough customer prepares to take dictation, his mouth (his manner becomes serious) still full of food) I am the publisher of the Enquirer. Go ahead, Mr. Kane. As such, it is my duty - I’ll let you in on a little secret, it is also KANE my pleasure - to see to it that decent, hard-working people of Dear Wheeler - this city are not robbed blind by a group of money- (pauses a moment) mad pirates because, God help them, they have no one to look You provide the prose poems - I’ll provide the war. after their interests! I’ll let you in on another little secret, Mr. Laughter from the boys and girls at the table. Thatcher. I think I’m the man to do it. You see, I have money BERNSTEIN and property - That’s fine, Mr. Kane. Thatcher doesn’t understand him. KANE KANE I rather like it myself. Send it right away. If I don’t defend the interests of the underprivileged, some- MIKE body else will - maybe somebody without any money or any Right away. property and that would be too bad. BERNSTEIN Thatcher glares at him, unable to answer. Kane starts to dance. Right away. KANE Mike and Bernstein leave. Kane looks up, grinning at Thatcher, Do you know how to tap, Mr. Thatcher? who is bursting with indignation but controls himself. After a You ought to learn - moment of indecision, he decides to make one last try. (humming quietly, he continues to dance) THATCHER Thatcher puts on his hat. I came to see you, Charles, about your - about the Enquirer’s THATCHER campaign against the Metropolitan Transfer Company. I happened to see your consolidated statement yesterday, KANE Charles. Could I not suggest to you that it is unwise for you to Won’t you step into my office, Mr. Thatcher? continue this philanthropic enterprise - They cross the City Room together. (sneeringly) THATCHER this Enquirer - that is costing you one million dollars a year? I think I should remind you, Charles,of a fact you seem to have KANE forgotten. You are yourself one of the largest individual You’re right. We did lose a million dollars last year. stockholders. Thatcher thinks maybe the point has registered. INT. KANE’S OFFICE - DAY - 1898 KANE Kane holds the door open for Thatcher. They come in We expect to lost a million next year, too. You know, Mr. together. Thatcher - KANE (starts tapping quietly) Mr. Thatcher, isn’t everything I’ve been saying in the Enquirer at the rate of a million a year - we’ll have to close this place in about the traction trust absolutely true? sixty years. THATCHER DISSOLVE: (angrily) INT. THE VAULT ROOM - THATCHER MEMORIAL They’re all part of your general attack - your senseless attack - on LIBRARY - DAY everything and everybody who’s got more than ten cents in his Thompson - at the desk. With a gesture of annoyance, he is pocket. They’re - closing the manuscript. KANE Camera arcs quickly around from over his shoulder to hold on The trouble is, Mr. Thatcher, you don’t realize you’re talking to door behind him, missing his face as he rises and turns to

151 confront Miss Anderson, who has come into the room to shoo and on it, there was a girl waiting to get off. A white dress she him out. Very prominent on this wall is an over-sized oil had on and she was carrying a white pastrol and I only saw her painting of Thatcher in the best Union League Club renaissance for one second and she didn’t see me at all - but I’ll bet a style. month hasn’t gone by since that I haven’t thought of that girl. MISS ANDERSON (triumphantly) You have enjoyed a very rare privilege, young man. Did you See what I mean? find what you were looking for? (smiles) THOMPSON Well, so what are you doing about this “Rosebud,” Mr. No. Tell me something, Miss Anderson. Thompson. You’re not Rosebud, are you? THOMPSON MISS ANDERSON I’m calling on people who knew Mr. Kane. I’m calling on you. What? BERNSTEIN THOMPSON Who else you been to see? I didn’t think you were. Well, thanks for the use of the hall. THOMPSON He puts his hat on his head and starts out, lighting a cigarette as Well, I went down to Atlantic City - he goes. Miss Anderson, scandalized, watches him. BERNSTEIN FADE OUT: Susie? I called her myself the day after he died. I thought FADE IN: maybe somebody ought to... INT. BERNSTEIN’S OFFICE - ENQUIRER SKYSCRAPER (sadly) - DAY - 1940 She couldn’t even come to the ‘phone. Closeup of a still of Kane, aged about sixty-five. Camera pulls THOMPSON back, showing it is a framed photograph on the wall. Over the You know why? She was so - picture are crossed American flags. Under it sits Bernstein, back BERNSTEIN of his desk. Bernstein, always an undersized Jew, now seems Sure, sure. even smaller than in his youth. He is bald as an egg, spry, with THOMPSON remarkably intense eyes. As camera continues to travel back, the I’m going back there. back of Thompson’s head and his shoulders come into the BERNSTEIN picture. Who else did you see? BERNSTEIN THOMPSON (wryly) Nobody else, but I’ve been through that stuff of Walter Who’s a busy man? Me? I’m Chairman of the Board. I got Thatcher’s. That journal of his - nothing but time ... What do you want to know? BERNSTEIN THOMPSON Thatcher! That man was the biggest darn fool I ever met - (still explaining) THOMPSON Well, Mr. Bernstein, you were with Mr. Kane from the very He made an awful lot of money. beginning - BERNSTEIN BERNSTEIN It’s not trick to make an awful lot of money if all you want is to From before the beginning, young fellow. And now it’s after make a lot of money. the end. (turns to Thompson) Anything you want to know (his eyes get reflective) about him - Thatcher! about the paper - Bernstein looks out of the window and keeps on looking, THOMPSON seeming to see something as he talks. We thought maybe, if we can find out what he meant by that BERNSTEIN last word - as he was dying - He never knew there was anything in the world but money. BERNSTEIN That kind of fellow you can fool every day in the week - and That Rosebud? Maybe some girl? There were a lot of them twice on Sundays! back in the early days, and - (reflectively) THOMPSON The time he came to Rome for Mr. Kane’s twenty-fifth Not some girl he knew casually and then remembered after fifty birthday... You know, when Mr. Kane got control of his own years, on his death bed - money... Such a fool like Thatcher - BERNSTEIN I tell you, nobody’s business! You’re pretty young, Mr. - (remembers the name) DISSOLVE OUT: Mr. Thompson. A fellow will remember things you wouldn’t DISSOLVE IN: think he’d remember.You take me. One day, back in 1896, I INT. BERNSTEIN’S OFFICE - DAY - 1940 was crossing over to Jersey on a ferry and as we pulled out, there Bernstein speaking to Thompson. was another ferry pulling in - BERNSTEIN (slowly) He knew what he wanted, Mr. Kane did, and he got it! Thatcher never did figure him out. He was hard to figure

152 sometimes, even for me. Mr. Kane was a genius like he said. (turning to City Editor) He had that funny sense of humor. Sometimes even I didn’t Leland is writing it up from the dramatic angle? get the joke. Like that night the opera house of his opened in CITY EDITOR Chicago... You know, the opera house he built for Susie, she Yes. I thought it was a good idea. We’ve covered it from the should be an opera singer... news end, of course. (indicates with a little wave of his hand what he thinks of that; BERNSTEIN sighing) And the social. How about the music notice? You got that in? That was years later, of course - 1914 it was. Mrs. Kane took CITY EDITOR the leading part in the opera, and she was terrible. But nobody Oh, yes, it’s already made up. Our Mr. Mervin wrote a small had the nerve to say so - not even the critics. Mr. Kane was a review. big man in those days. But this one fellow, this friend of his, BERNSTEIN Branford Leland - Enthusiastic? He leaves the sentence up in the air, as we CITY EDITOR DISSOLVE: Yes, very! INT. CITY ROOM - CHICAGO ENQUIRER - NIGHT - (quietly) 1914 Naturally. It is late. The room is almost empty. Nobody is at work at the BERNSTEIN desks. Bernstein, fifty, is waiting anxiously with a little group Well, well - isn’t that nice? of Kane’s hirelings, most of them in evening dress with KANE’S VOICE overcoats and hats. Eveybody is tense and expectant. Mr. Bernstein - CITY EDITOR Bernstein turns. (turns to a young hireling; quietly) Medium long shot of Kane, now forty-nine, already quite What about Branford Leland? Has he got in his copy? stout. He is in white tie, wearing his overcoat and carrying a HIRELING folded opera hat. Not yet. BERNSTEIN BERNSTEIN Hello, Mr. Kane. Go in and ask him to hurry. The Hirelings rush, with Bernstein, to Kane’s side. Wide- CITY EDITOR spread, half-suppressed sensation. Well, why don’t you, Mr. Bernstein? CITY EDITOR You know Mr. Leland. Mr. Kane, this is a surprise! BERNSTEIN KANE (looks at him for a moment; then slowly) We’ve got a nice plant here. I might make him nervous. Everybody falls silent. There isn’t anything to say. CITY EDITOR KANE (after a pause) Was the show covered by every department? You and Leland and Mr. Kane - you were great friends back in CITY EDITOR the old days, I understand. Exactly according to your instructions, BERNSTEIN Mr. Kane. We’ve got two spreads of pictures. (with a smile) KANE That’s right. They called us the “Three Musketeers.” (very, very casually) Somebody behind Bernstein has trouble concealing his And the notice? laughter. The City Editor speaks quickly to cover the situation. CITY EDITOR CITY EDITOR Yes - Mr. Kane. He’s a great guy - Leland. KANE (another little pause) (quietly) Why’d he ever leave New York? Is it good? BERNSTEIN CITY EDITOR (he isn’t saying) Yes, Mr. kane. That’s a long story. Kane looks at him for a minute. ANOTHER HIRELING CITY EDITOR (a tactless one) But there’s another one still to come the dramatic notice. Wasn’t there some sort of quarrel between - KANE BERNSTEIN (sharply) (quickly) It isn’t finished? I had nothing to do with it. CITY EDITOR (then, somberly) No, Mr. Kane. It was Leland and Mr. Kane, and you couldn’t call it a quarrel KANE exactly.Better we should forget such things - That’s Leland, isn’t it?

153 CITY EDITOR last night opened the new Chicago Opera House in a perfor- Yes, Mr. Kane. mance of KANE (looks up miserably) Has he said when he’ll finish? I can’t pronounce that name, Mr. Kane. CITY EDITOR KANE We haven’t heard from him. Thais. KANE Bernstein looks at Kane for a moment, then looks back, He used to work fast - didn’t he, Mr. Bernstein? tortured. BERNSTEIN BERNSTEIN He sure did, Mr. Kane. (reading again) KANE “Her singing, happily, is no concern of this department. Of her Where is he? acting, ANOTHER HIRELING From the beginning, animation has been an important part of Right in there, Mr. Kane. film history. Even before the invention of the motion picture The Hireling indicates the closed glass door of a little office at camera, photographer Eadweard Muybridge used sequential the other end of the City Room. Kane takes it in. photographs to analyze animal and human movement. Early BERNSTEIN 19th-century devices such as the thaumatrope, praxinoscope and (helpless, but very concerned) zoetrope anticipated motion picture animation by making still Mr. Kane - images appear to move. Quickly flashing a series of still pictures KANE past the viewer, these devices took advantage of a phenomenon That’s all right, Mr. Bernstein. called “persistence of vision.” Because the human eye briefly Kane crosses the length of the long City Room to the glass retains an impression of an image after it has disappeared, the door indicated before by the Hireling. The City Editor looks at brain will read a rapid series of images as an unbroken move- Bernstein. Kane opens the door and goes into the office, ment. Animated films work on the same principle. Each frame closing the door behind him. of an animated film is a separate still picture, individually BERNSTEIN exposed. Drawings or props are moved slightly between Leland and Mr. Kane - they haven’t spoke together for ten years. exposures, creating an illusion of movement when the film is (long pause; finally) projected. Excuse me. In 1892, Emile Reynaud opened his popular Théâtre Optique (starts toward the door) in Paris, where he projected films that had been drawn directly INT. LELAND’S OFFICE - CHICAGO ENQUIRER - on transparent celluloid, a technique that would not be used NIGHT - 1914 again until the 1930s. The “trick-films” of Parisian magician Bernstein comes in. An empty bottle is standing on Leland’s Georges Méliès mixed stop-motion and single-frame photogra- desk. He has fallen over his typewriter, his face on the keys. A phy with live- for magical effect. By the early 20th sheet of paper is in the machine. A paragraph has been typed. century, animators such as J. Stuart Blackton and Winsor McCay Kane is standing at the other side of the desk looking down on in the U.S. and Emile Cohl in France were making animated him. This is the first time we see murder in Kane’s face. films composed entirely of drawings. Brothers Max and Dave Bernstein looks at Kane, then crosses to Leland. He shakes Fleischer, creators of Betty Boop, patented the rotoscope in him. 1917, enabling animators to copy the movement of live-action BERNSTEIN by tracing filmed live-action images frame by frame. Hey, Brad! Brad! Raoul Barré opened the first animation studio in New York (he straightens, looks at Kane; pause) around 1914. Soon studios in New York, California and He ain’t been drinking before, Mr. Kane. Never. We would elsewhere were producing short films that screened in theaters have heard. before the main feature. Over the next few decades, cartoon KANE series flourished, featuring popular characters such as Felix the (finally; after a pause) Cat, Disney’s Mickey Mouse, Walter Lantz’s Woody Woodpecker What does it say there? and Warner Bros.’ Bugs Bunny and Wile E. Coyote. In the Bernstein stares at him. 1940s, George Pal’s Puppetoons represented one of the few KANE examples of commercial animation using three-dimensional What’s he written? materials. Bernstein looks over nearsightedly, painfully reading the In 1923, Walt and Roy Disney, Ub Iwerks and other animators paragraph written on the page. formed a company which would dominate animation for many BERNSTEIN years. Not only did the studio’s animators produce finely drawn (reading) films, but they emphasized unique, specific characters and “Miss Susan Alexander, a pretty but hopelessly incompetent movement that revealed the characters’ personalities. The amateur - Disney studio produced Steamboat Willie (1928), the first (he waits for a minute to catch his breath; he doesn’t like it) cartoon to synchronize sound with movement, and the short three-color Technicolor film Flowers and Trees, which won the

154 first Oscar for animation in 1932. In 1938, Snow White and the Kane snatches the paper from the roller and reads it for himself. Seven Dwarfs, the first American feature-length animated film, Slowly, a queer look comes over his face. Then he speaks, very received a Special Academy Award for significant screen innova- quietly. tion. More than half-a-century later, the Walt Disney Company KANE was still breaking new ground: 1991’s Beauty and the Beast was Of her acting, it is absolutely impossible to say anything except nominated for Best Picture alongside four live-action films. In that it represents a new low... 1995, Disney released the Pixar Production Toy Story, the first (then sharply) feature-length computer-animated film which was honored by Have you got that, Mr. Bernstein? the Academy with a special award. In the opinion of this reviewer - Animated and live-action films have in common such basic film BERNSTEIN devices as scripts, camera moves, close-ups and long shots. (miserably) Unlike live-action filmmakers (at least until recently), animators I didn’t see that. can ignore the rules of physics and construct fantastic worlds. KANE What ultimately separates animated and live-action techniques It isn’t here, Mr. Bernstein. I’m dictating it. (though the two are often combined in the current age of BERNSTEIN computer-generated imagery) are the different ways they are put (looks at him) on film. In live-action films, the camera records an action in I can’t take shorthand. continuous time, as events unfold, although the film’s editor KANE may later change the continuity. In an animated film, however, it Get me a typewriter. I’ll finish the notice. is the camera that creates the movement, frame by frame, and Bernstein retreats from the room. each step is carefully planned before filming begins. QUICK DISSOLVE OUT: Students can practice several animation techniques as well as Reference Material demonstrate persistence of vision by making a flipbook. Review the animation terms for this activity. The beginning, • Bordwell, David. Film Art: An introduction. middle and ending drawings of a flipbook are similar to what • Bordwell, David. On the history of Film style. animators call “extremes” or “key frames” and the drawings • Eisenstein, Sergei. Film Form and Film Sense. that link them could be considered “in-betweens.” By stacking • Nilsen, Vladimir. The Cinema as a Graphic Art. index cards and using a metal clip to fasten them or by using a pad of paper, the student will make a simple type of registra- • Reisz, Karel and Gavin Millar. The Technique of Film tion system, similar to that used by animators to keep their Editing. drawings lined up properly. Each page is comparable to a frame • Milllerson, Gerald. The technique of television production of an animated film; flipping the pages is similar to the action • Milllerson, Gerald. Effective TV production. of a projector. • Mascelli, Joseph. The Five C’s of Cinematography: Motion Have the students begin their flipbooks by thinking of a visual Picture Filming they would like to animate. The action should have a beginning, middle and end. The image can be as simple as a growing • Milllerson, Gerald. Video production Handbook flower or a circle that mutates into a square and then back into a • Compesi and Sherriffs. Video field production and editing circle, or as elaborate as the student’s talent or interest allows. • Holman, Tomlinson. Sound for Film and Television. Using a pad of heavy paper (small sizes work better) or a stack of index cards, have your students draw their starting image in Notes : pencil at the bottom of the last page. They should draw at least 24 visuals, which is equal to one second of screen time, changing the drawing slightly on each page. If they like, they can color or shade their images. The more each drawing resembles the one preceding it, the smoother the action will appear when the book is flipped. Have your students remove every other image from their books and flip again, noting the difference. Ask them to discuss the ways in which a flipbook is similar to an animated film, using some of the criteria presented above. it is absolutely impossible to...” (he continues to stare at the page) KANE (after a short silence) Go on! BERNSTEIN (without looking up) That’s all there is.

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