Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. Key Events As you read, look for the key events in the history of Southwest Asia and Egypt. • The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were among the first groups to build a civilization, and they were the first to develop a system of writing. • Due in large part to the Nile, early Egyptian civilization was stable and prosperous. Massive monuments, the pyramids, were built to honor the deaths of the pharaohs. • The Israelites emerged as a distinct people. • Of the other empires that came into being in Southwest Asia, the longest lasting and most powerful were the Assyrian and the Persian Empires. The Impact Today The events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today. • The peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt built cities and struggled with the problems of organized government. • The Israelites developed a major world religion, which influenced the development of Christianity and Islam, and has a continuing effect on Western civilization.

World History Video The Chapter 2 video, “Egypt,” chronicles the rise of Egyptian civilization.

Hammurabi established a code of law. 3000 B.C. Sumerian 1792 B.C. 1652 B.C. cities emerge 2700 B.C. Hammurabi Middle in southern Old Kingdom comes to Kingdom Mesopotamia begins power ends

3000 B.C. 2700 B.C. 2400 B.C. 2100 B.C. 1800 B.C. 1500 B.C.

3000 B.C. 2540 B.C. 1567 B.C. Cuneiform Great New writing Pyramid of Kingdom invented King Khufu begins finished

Sumerian cuneiform script

34 The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, symbolize the power and longevity of Egyptian kingdoms.

Death mask of King Tutankhamen of Egypt 521 B.C. Darius begins HISTORY 539 B.C. to expand Babylonia Persian falls Empire Chapter Overview Visit the Glencoe World History Web site at wh.glencoe.com and click 1200 B.C. 900 B.C. 600 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C. 50 B.C. on Chapter 2–Chapter Overview to preview chapter information. 970 B.C. First temple built in Jerusalem

King Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem

35 Sumerian ruins at Uruk

The Cradle of the Human Race n the winter of 1849, a daring young Englishman made a difficult journey into the deserts and swamps of southern IIraq. He moved south down the banks of the river Euphrates Why It Matters while braving high winds and temperatures that reached 120 In the fertile river valleys of Meso- degrees Fahrenheit (48.9° C). The man, William Loftus, led a potamia, Egypt, India, and China, small expedition in search of the roots of civilization. As he intensive farming made it possible said, “From our childhood we have been led to regard this to support large groups of people. place as the cradle of the human race.” The people in these regions were Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost reaches of able to develop the organized soci- Iraq, Loftus and his small group of explorers were soon over- eties that we associate with civiliza- whelmed by what they saw. He wrote, “I know of nothing tion. The beginnings of Western more exciting or impressive than the first sight of one of these civilization lie in the early civiliza- tions of Southwest Asia and Egypt. great piles, looming in solitary grandeur from the surround- ing plains and marshes.” History and You As you read One of these “piles” was known to the natives as the this chapter, analyze the climatic mound of Warka. The mound contained the ruins of the conditions in Mesopotamia that ancient city of Uruk, one of the first real cities in the world favored certain crops. Compare and part of one of the world’s first civilizations. Southern Mesopotamia’s climate and crops Iraq, known to ancient peoples as Mesopotamia, was one to the climate and crops that were of four areas in the world where civilization began. grown in the Nile Valley of Egypt. What conclusions can you draw from this information?

36 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Mesopotamia, one of the first civiliza- Sumerians, Akkadians, Sargon, Categorizing Information As you read tions, began between the Tigris and Hammurabi this section, complete a chart like the one Euphrates Rivers. shown below to explain the Sumerians’ • The Sumerians formed city-states and Places to Locate various contributions to civilization. created forms of communication that Tigris River, Euphrates River, Political Life Cultural Life Inventions affect our lives today. Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk, Babylon Key Terms city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, empire, Preview Questions patriarchal, polytheistic, cuneiform 1. How did geography affect the civiliza- tions in Mesopotamia? 2. How did the Akkadian Empire begin? Preview of Events ✦3000 B.C. ✦2750 B.C. ✦2500 B.C. ✦2250 B.C. ✦2000 B.C. ✦1750 B.C. ✦1500 B.C.

3000 B.C. 2340 B.C. 2100 B.C. 1792 B.C. Sumerians establish Akkadians set up Akkadian Hammurabi independent cities the first empire Empire falls comes to power Voices from the Past

The following poem reflects the deep despair of the people of Ur after the burning and sacking of their city:

Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament. The country’s blood now fills its holes like hot “bronze in a mould. Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed, the gods have abandoned us, like migrating birds. Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.” —Legacy: The Search for Ancient Cultures, Michael Wood, 1995 Constant conflict marked early civilization in Mesopotamia. Invaders flowed into the Reconstructed temple at Ur flat land of the region, and city fought city for land and water.

The Impact of Geography The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of an area known as the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Because this land had rich soil and abun- dant crops, it was able to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia was a region with little rain, but its soil had been enriched over the years by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, depended on the melting of snows in the upland

CHAPTERCHAPTER 2 Western # Asia Chapter and Egypt Title 37 Ancient Mesopotamia

20°E 30°E 40°E 50°E 60°E

EUROPE Fertile Crescent Direction of flow 40°E 50°E

Caspian

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a Aral is

C s R Z a p Sea . N

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Black Sea c a a Euph g s n ra t r E 40°N u s e W M S s AKKAD o ou e R S nt a . s ai ASIA ASIA MINOR ns M o Sardis u n t M a M es Babylon i n ed E op Nineveh i T s te up o SUMER rr h ta i a g ne ra m an t i r S e a i Uruk ea Byblos s s Sidon R . R Syrian Desert Ur Nile Tyre Syrian . Delta Eridu Jerusalem Desert Babylon Susa Ancien t shore LOWER EGYPT Jordan R. 0 200 miles line Dead Uruk Ur 30°N Giza Sea 0 200 kilometers Persian Eridu Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Gulf Ancient Shoreline Persepolis N P i l e e r R si . an G ulf First Cataract UPPER EGYPT Arabian Second Cataract Several important cultures and civiliza- Desert Red Sea tions developed in Mesopotamia. Third Cataract KUSH 1. Interpreting Maps Identify the Fourth mountain range closest to where the Cataract Fifth Cataract N Tigris and Euphrates Rivers originate. AFRICA W E 2. Applying Geography Skills In 0 500 miles S which direction do the Tigris and Arabian Euphrates Rivers flow? In which direc- Sea 0 500 kilometers tion does the Nile flow? Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Gulf of Aden

mountains where the rivers began. People in the val- Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. We focus first on the ley could not tell exactly when the floods would Sumerians, the creators of the first Mesopotamian come or how large they would be. civilization. Because of these circumstances, farming in ancient Reading Check Mesopotamia could be done only when people Explaining What role did geography controlled the flow of the rivers. Irrigation and play in the development of Mesopotamian civilization? drainage ditches—part of a large-scale system of water control—made it possible to grow crops on a The City-States regular basis. The resulting abundance of food enabled large numbers of people to live together in of Ancient Mesopotamia cities and made possible the emergence of civiliza- The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mys- tion in Mesopotamia. tery. By 3000 B.C., they had established a number of When we speak of Mesopotamian civilization, we independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, includ- are referring to the achievements of several peoples. ing Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they Ancient Mesopotamia includes three general areas: came to have political and economic control over the

38 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt surrounding countryside. They formed city-states, goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted the basic units of Sumerian civilization. much of their wealth to building temples, as well as elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded served the gods. The temples and related buildings by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall served as the center of the city physically, economi- six miles (10 km) long with defense towers located cally, and even politically. along the wall every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m). City Priests and priestesses, who supervised the tem- dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both ples and their property, had a great deal of power. In the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings fact, historians believe that in the early stages of the of the city officials, priests, and priestesses. city-states, priests and priestesses played an impor- Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood tant role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy— Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake a government by divine authority. Eventually, how- in the hot sun until they were hard enough to use for ever, ruling power passed into the hands of worldly building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably figures, or kings. creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in origin. the dome, and they built some of the largest brick Kings, they believed, derived their power from the buildings in the world. Mud bricks are still used in gods and were the agents of the gods. As one person rural areas of Southwest Asia today. said in a petition to his king: “You in your judgement, you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]. Your com- Gods, Goddesses, and Rulers The most prominent mands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed. building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated Your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple without number.” was often built atop a massive stepped tower called Regardless of their origins, kings had power. They a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and led armies, supervised the building of public works,

History through Architecture Restored ziggurat at Ur, c. 1200 B.C. At the top of a ziggurat was a shrine, which only the priests and priestesses could enter. Describe the technology and resources needed to build a ziggurat.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 39 and organized workers for the irrigation projects on estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and crafts- which Mesopotamian farming depended. The army, people. Probably 90 percent or more of the people the government, and the priests and priestesses all were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials, aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children lived officials most often used female slaves to weave cloth in large palaces. and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Economy and Society Although the economy of Reading Check the Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farm- Explaining Why were the city-states ing, trade and industry became important as well. considered to be theocracies? The peoples of Mesopotamia were well known for their metalwork, but they also made woolen textiles Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia and pottery. The Sumerians imported copper, tin, As the number of Sumerian city-states grew and and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose. City- wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land to state fought city-state for control of land and water. the eastern Mediter- Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Sumer-

ranean in the west T ian city-states were also open to invasion by other ig r is and by sea to India in Mediterranean R Trade route groups. Sea . the east. The inven- Euphrates Persian Gulf To the north of the Sumerian city-states were the R. tion of the wheel, INDIA Akkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz). We call them a around 3000 B.C., led Semitic people because they spoke a Semitic lan- to wheeled carts, Arabian guage. Around 2340 B.C., Sargon, leader of the Akka- which made the trans- Sea dians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the port of goods easier. first empire in world history. An empire is a large Sumerian city-states contained three major social political unit or state, usually under a single leader, groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are included royal and priestly officials and their fami- often easy to create but difficult to maintain. The rise lies. Commoners worked for palace and temple and fall of empires is an important part of history.

The Royal Standard of Ur is a box, created about 2700 B.C., that depicts different Sumer- ian scenes. This panel shows a royal celebration following a military victory.

40 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Attacks from neighboring hill peoples eventually caused the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end by 2100 Hammurabi B.C. brought a return to the system of warring city- Ruled 1792–1750 B.C. states. It was not until 1792 B.C. that a new empire Babylonian king came to control much of Mesopotamia. Leadership came from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad, Hammurabi was justly proud of his where Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee) came to famous code of laws. As he stated: power. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus “When Marduk [a Babylonian god] creating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his sent me to rule the people... I estab- death in 1750 B.C., however, a series of weak kings lished law and justice in the land, and was unable to keep Hammurabi’s empire united, and promoted the welfare of the people.” Hammurabi built it finally fell to new invaders. temples and irrigation canals, encouraged trade, and brought an economic revival. Hammurabi was also a Reading Check Evaluating Why was it so easy for man of war. He had a well-disciplined army of foot sol- Sargon and his army to invade the Sumerian city-states? diers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze daggers. Hammurabi divided his opponents and defeated them one by one. After his conquests, he called himself “the sun of Babylon, the king who has made the The Code of Hammurabi four quarters of the world subservient.”

Hammurabi is remembered for his law code, a collection of 282 laws. Many of its ideas later would find their way into Hebrew civilization. they had to be replaced and the house rebuilt at the For centuries, laws had regulated people’s rela- builder’s expense. tionships with one another in the lands of The largest category of laws in the Code of Ham- Mesopotamia. Hammurabi’s collection of laws pro- murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents vides considerable insight into social conditions in arranged marriages for their children. After mar- Mesopotamia. riage, the two parties signed a marriage contract. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system Without a contract, no one was considered legally of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were married. severe, and they varied according to the social class Society in ancient Mesopotamia was patriarchal— of the victim. A crime against a member of the upper that is, Mesopotamian society was dominated by class (a noble) by a member of the lower class (a com- men. Hammurabi’s code makes it clear that women moner) was punished more severely than the same had far fewer privileges and rights in marriage than offense against a member of the lower class. More- did men. over, the principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye, A woman’s place was definitely in the home. If she tooth for a tooth”) was a fundamental part of this sys- failed to fulfill her duties, her husband had legal tem of justice. grounds for divorce. In addition, if a wife was not Hammurabi’s code took seriously the duties of able to bear children or tried to leave home to engage public officials. Officials were expected to catch bur- in business, her husband could divorce her. Even glars. If they failed to do so, the officials in the district more harsh, a wife who was a “gadabout . . . neglect- where the crime was committed had to replace the ing her house [and] humiliating her husband,” could lost property. If murderers were not found, the offi- be drowned. cials had to pay a fine to the relatives of the murdered Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives. person. Judges could be fined or lose their positions Obedience was expected: “If a son has struck his for ruling incorrectly on a case. father, he shall cut off his hand.” If a son committed The law code also included what we would call a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit consumer protection laws. Builders were held him. Obviously, Hammurabi’s law code covered responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a almost every aspect of people’s lives. house collapsed and caused the death of the owner, the builder was put to death. If the collapse caused Reading Check Identifying Identify at least five the death of the son of the owner, the son of the aspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code of builder was put to death. If goods were destroyed, Hammurabi.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 41 The Importance of Religion The physical environment strongly affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. Ferocious floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian climate. These conditions, as well as famines, convinced Mesopotamians that this world was controlled by supernatural forces, which often were not kind or reliable. In the presence of nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates:

The rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which“ shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble, In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.” To the Mesopotamians, powerful spiritual beings—gods and goddesses—permeated all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified almost three thousand gods and goddesses. Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic because of this belief in History many gods. Human beings were supposed to obey The people of Mesopotamia associated gods with and serve the gods. According to Sumerian beliefs, different aspects of nature and the universe. What human beings were created to do the manual labor aspect of nature do you think this goddess the gods were unwilling to do for themselves. By their represents? Explain. very nature, humans were inferior to the gods and could never be sure what the gods might do to help or hurt them. They have been a valuable source of information for modern scholars. Reading Check Describing What role did the physi- Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for cal environment play in the way Mesopotamians viewed the record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were also world? used in schools to train scribes, members of the learned class who served as copyists, teachers, and The Creativity of the Sumerians jurists. For boys of the upper class in Mesopotamia, The Sumerians are credited with becoming a scribe was the key to a successful career. inventing the oldest writing system, cuneiform, which Men who began their careers as scribes became the dates from about 3000 B.C. leaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scribes The Sumerians created many inventions that still came to hold the most important positions in Sumer- affect our lives today. Probably their greatest inven- ian society. tion was their writing. In addition, historians credit To become scribes, boys from wealthy families, them with many technological innovations. many of them the sons of scribes, attended the new schools that were in operation by 2500 B.C. Young Writing and Literature Around 3000 B.C., the boys seeking to become scribes began school when Sumerians created a cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) they were small children and trained until they were system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writ- young men. School days began at sunrise and ended ing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay at sunset. Discipline was harsh. The following essay, tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. written by a teacher as a copying exercise for pupils, Once dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Sev- shows that punishments—being caned or beaten eral hundred thousand tablets have been found. with a stick—were frequent:

42 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, and perfect in In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me: body. He is part man and part god. Gilgamesh ““Why are you late?” I was afraid, my heart befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, they beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took set off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gil- my place. gamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search for My “school-father” read my tablet to me, said, the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gil- “The word is cut off,” caned me. gamesh remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epic He who was in charge of drawing said “Why makes clear that “everlasting life” is only for the gods. when I was not here did you go out?” caned me. Sumerian Technology The Sumerians invented He who was in charge of the gate said several tools and devices that made daily life easier “Why when I was not here did you go out?” and more productive. They developed the wagon caned me. wheel, for example, to help transport people and My teacher said “Your hand is not good,” goods from place to place. The potter’s wheel to caned me.” shape containers, the sundial to keep time, and the arch used in construction are other examples of Scribal students spent most of their school days fol- Sumerian technology. The Sumerians were the first to lowing the same routine. They were taught by copy- make bronze out of copper and tin, creating finely ing and recopying standard works on clay tablets and crafted metalwork. The Sumerians also made out- reciting from them. Although boring, this was proba- standing achievements in mathematics and astron- bly the scribe’s only way of learning how to form the omy. In math, they devised a number system based cuneiform writing signs neatly and correctly. on 60. Geometry was used to measure fields and Writing was important because it allowed a soci- erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians charted ety to keep records and to pass along knowledge the heavenly constellations. A quick glance at your from person to person and generation to generation. watch and its division into 60 minutes in an hour Writing also made it possible for people to communi- should remind you of our debt to the Sumerians. cate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident in The Epic of Gilgamesh. Reading Check Identifying Name two major inven- Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian epic poem that tions of the Sumerians, and tell how those inventions affect our records the exploits of a legendary king named lives today.

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, 6. Explain Which type of government— 8. Examine the photograph of the Royal empire, patriarchal, polytheistic, separate city-states or an empire— Standard of Ur on page 40 of your text. cuneiform. would have been most advantageous What facts about Mesopotamian life to the people living in Mesopotamia? can you identify by studying the pic- Sumerians, Akkadians, Sar- 2. Identify ture? How does this box reflect the val- gon, Hammurabi, Code of Hammurabi, Create a 7. Organizing Information ues of the Sumerian civilization? The Epic of Gilgamesh. chart showing the achievements made by the Sumerians and list the effects of Tigris River, Euphrates River, 3. Locate these achievements on our lives today. Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk, Effects on our Babylon. Achievements 9. Expository Writing Explain why lives today Hammurabi’s code was a significant 4. Explain what the Mesopotamians development. Develop a set of laws believed was the relationship between based on the Code of Hammurabi gods and mortals. that would apply to your community 5. List the three general areas of ancient today. Explain why your code differs Mesopotamia. from that developed by Hammurabi, or why it is similar.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 43 Hammurabi’s Code

ALTHOUGH THERE WERE EARLIER 198: If he has destroyed the eye of a commoner Mesopotamian law codes, the Code of or broken the bone of a commoner, he Hammurabi is the most complete. The law shall pay one mina of silver. code emphasizes the principle of retribution (“an eye for an eye”) and punishments that 199: If he has destroyed the eye of a free man’s vary according to social status. Punishments slave or broken the bone of a free man’s could be severe, as these examples show. slave, he shall pay one-half his value. 229: If a builder constructed a house for a 22: If a man has committed nobleman but did not make his work highway robbery and has strong, with the result that the house been caught, that man which he built collapsed and so has should be put to death. caused the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. 23: If the highwayman has not been caught, the 232: If it has destroyed goods, he shall man that has been make good whatever it destroyed; robbed shall state on also, because he did not make the oath what he has lost house strong that he built and it and the city or district collapsed, he shall reconstruct the governor in whose house that collapsed at his own territory or district the expense. robbery took place shall restore to him —The Code of Hammurabi what he has lost. Hammurabi’s code was written on a stone monument, approximately seven 25: If fire broke out in a feet tall, called a stele. The upper sec- free man’s house and tion of the stele shows Hammurabi a free man, who went standing in front of the seated sun god. to extinguish it, cast his eye on the goods Analyzing Primary Sources of the owner of the house and has appro- 1. Explain the principle of retribution. priated the goods of 2. According to the Code of Hammurabi, what was the owner of the most highly valued in Mesopotamian society? house, that free man What was the least valued? Explain your shall be thrown into answers. that fire. 3. What is the guiding principle in the American criminal justice system? How 196: If a free man has does this compare with Hammurabi’s destroyed the eye justice? of a member of the aristocracy, they shall destroy his eye.

44 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • The Nile was crucial to the development Menes, Hyksos, Hatshepsut, Akhenaton, Identifying As you read this section, of Egyptian civilization. Tutankhamen, Ramses II, Cleopatra VII complete a chart like the one below iden- • Egyptian history is divided into three tifying the characteristics of the three major periods. Places to Locate major periods of Egyptian history. Nile River, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, Giza Key Terms The Old The Middle The New dynasty, pharaoh, bureaucracy, vizier, Preview Questions Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom mummification, hieroglyphics, hieratic 1. What was the “Black Land”? script 2. Why were the pyramids built and how were they used?

Preview of Events ✦3500 B.C. ✦3000 B.C. ✦2500 B.C. ✦2000 B.C. ✦1500 B.C. ✦1000 B.C. ✦500 B.C.

3100 B.C. 2540 B.C. 1652 B.C. 1085 B.C. King Menes unites villages Great Pyramid built The Hyksos The New Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt invade Egypt collapses Voices from the Past

The Nile was crucial to the development of Egyptian civilization. The Egyptian Nile,” wrote one Arab traveler,” surpasses all the rivers of the world “in sweetness of taste, in length of course and usefulness. No other river in the world can show such a continuous series of towns and villages along its banks.” In their “Hymn to the Nile,” Egyptians wrote of their reliance on the river: “The bringer of food, rich in provisions, creator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance. . . . [The Nile] makes the granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makes every beloved tree to grow.” —Ancient Near Eastern Texts, James B. Pritchard, 1969 Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was one of the first river valley civilizations. Like the peo- Shepherd and his sheep on the ple of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians left records of their developing civilization. banks of the Nile River The Impact of Geography The Nile is a unique river, beginning in the heart of Africa and coursing north- ward for more than 4,000 miles (6,436 km). It is the longest river in the world. Before it empties into the Mediterranean, the Nile splits into two major branches. This split forms a triangular territory, the delta. The Nile Delta is called Lower Egypt; the land upstream, to the south, is called Upper Egypt. Egypt’s important cities developed at the tip of the delta, the point at which the Nile divides.

CHAPTERCHAPTER 2 Western # Asia Chapter and Egypt Title 45 Egyptian history. In ancient times, the Nile was the Ancient Egypt fastest way to travel through the land, making both

30°E 35°E transportation and communication easier. Winds from the north pushed sailboats south, and the cur- Mediterranean Sea rent of the Nile carried them north. Dead Unlike Mesopotamia, which was subject to con- Sea Nile Delta stant invasion, Egypt was blessed by natural barriers LOWER EGYPT that gave it protection from invasion and a sense of Giza Cairo security. These barriers included the deserts to the 30°N west and east; the Red Sea to the east; the cataracts Great Pyramid Saqqˆara Arabian (rapids) on the southern part of the Nile, which made and Sphinx Desert defense relatively easy; and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. Western N Eastern i The regularity of the Nile floods and the relative Desert le Desert R . isolation of the Egyptians created a feeling of security UPPER EGYPT Red Sea and changelessness. To the ancient Egyptians, when the Nile flooded each year, “the fields laugh and peo- Thebes ple’s faces light up.” Unlike people in Mesopotamia,

25°N Egyptians faced life with a spirit of confidence in the First Cataract stability of things. Ancient Egyptian civilization was TROPIC OF marked by a remarkable degree of continuity over ER CANC thousands of years. NUBIA Reading Check Contrasting Explain how flooding Nile Valley Second Cataract patterns of rivers in Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the two N 0 100 miles civilizations to develop differently. W E 0 100 kilometers S Azimuthal Equidistant projection The Importance of Religion Religion, too, provided a sense of security and timelessness for the Egyptians. Actually, they had no word for religion. For them, religious ideas were an Rural villages developed along the Nile River. inseparable part of the entire world order. The Egyp- 1. Interpreting Maps Use the map scale to estimate tians were polytheistic. They had a remarkable num- how wide the Nile Valley is at its widest point. ber of gods associated with heavenly bodies and 2. Applying Geography Skills What do the names natural forces. Two groups, sun gods and land gods, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt reveal about the came to have special importance. Is that surprising in topography of Egypt? view of the importance to Egypt’s well-being of the sun and the fertile land along the banks of the Nile? The sun, the source of life, was of course worthy of To the ancient Egyptians, the most important fea- worship. The sun god took on different forms and ture of the river was its yearly flooding—the “mira- names, depending on his specific role. He was wor- cle” of the Nile. The river rose in the summer from shiped as Atum in human form and also as Re, who heavy rains in central Africa, reached its highest had a human body but the head of a falcon. The point in Egypt in September and October, and left a Egyptian ruler took the title Son of Re, because he deposit of mud that created an area of rich soil sev- was seen as an earthly form of Re. eral miles wide on both sides of the river. The Egyp- River and land gods included Osiris and Isis. A tians called this fertile land, which was dark in color, famous Egyptian myth told of the struggle between the “Black Land.” Beyond these narrow strips of fer- Osiris, who brought civilization to Egypt, and his evil tile fields lay the deserts, the “Red Land.” brother Seth, who killed him, cut his body into 14 The surpluses of food that the Egyptian farmers parts, and tossed the parts into the Nile. The pieces grew in the fertile Nile Valley made Egypt prosper- were found by Osiris’s wife, Isis. With help from ous. The river also served as a unifying factor in other gods, Isis brought Osiris back to life.

46 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Osiris took on an important role for the Egyptians as a symbol of resurrection. By identifying with Osiris, people could hope to gain new life, just as Osiris had done. The dead were placed in tombs (in the case of kings, in pyramid tombs); were given the name Osiris; and by a process of magical identification, became Osiris. Like Osiris, they would then be reborn. The flooding of the Nile and the new life it brought to Egypt were symbol- ized by Isis’s bringing all of Osiris’s parts together each spring in the fes- tival of the new land.

Reading Check Examining What is the significance of the famous Egyptian myth of the struggle between Osiris and his evil brother Seth? Why did Osiris take on an important role for the Egyptians?

The Course of Egyptian History Modern historians have divided Egyptian history into three major periods, known as the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. These were periods of long-term stability marked by strong lead- History ership, freedom from invasion, the building of tem- ples and pyramids, and considerable intellectual and Osiris (above) ruled the realm of the dead cultural activity. Between the periods of stability and was associated with rebirth. Horus were ages of political chaos and invasion, known as (above left), the son of Osiris and Isis, was the Intermediate periods. the sky god. What do these depictions The history of Egypt begins around 3100 B.C., when reveal about Egyptian belief? Menes (MEE•NEEZ) the king united the villages of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt into a single kingdom and created the first Egyptian royal various titles of Egyptian monarchs, that of pharaoh dynasty. A dynasty is a family of rulers whose right to (originally meaning “great house” or “palace”) even- rule is passed on within the family. tually became the most common. From then on, the Egyptian ruler would be called Kingship was a divine institution in ancient Egypt “King of Upper and Lower Egypt.” The royal crown and formed part of a universal cosmic order: “What would be a double crown, indicating the unity of all is the king of Upper and Lower Egypt? He is a god by Egypt. Just as the Nile served to unite Upper Egypt whose dealings one lives, the father and mother of all and Lower Egypt physically, kingship united the two men, alone by himself, without an equal.” In obeying areas politically. their pharaoh, subjects believed that they were help- ing to maintain a stable world order. A breakdown in The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom, which lasted royal power could only mean that citizens were from around 2700 to 2200 B.C., was an age of pros- offending the gods and weakening that order. perity and splendor. Like the kings of the Sumerian Egyptian pharaohs possessed absolute power— city-states, the monarchs of the Old Kingdom were that is, they had complete, unlimited power to rule powerful rulers over a unified state. Among the their people. Nevertheless, they had help in ruling.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 47 At first, members of the pharaoh’s family aided in supplies, including chairs, boats, chests, weapons, running the country. During the Old Kingdom, how- games, dishes, and a variety of foods. The Egyptians ever, a government bureaucracy—an administrative believed that human beings had two bodies—a phys- organization with officials and regular procedures— ical one and a spiritual one, which they called the ka. developed. Especially important was the office of If the physical body was properly preserved and the vizier, the “steward of the whole land.” Directly tomb furnished with all the various objects of regular responsible to the pharaoh, the vizier was in charge life, the ka could return. Surrounded by earthly com- of the government bureaucracy. In time, Egypt was forts, the ka could then continue its life despite the divided into 42 provinces, which were run by gover- death of the physical body. nors appointed by the pharaoh. Each governor was To preserve the physical body after death, the responsible to the pharaoh and vizier. Egyptians practiced mummification, a process of slowly drying a dead body to prevent it from rotting. This process took place in workshops run by priests, The Pyramids One of the great achievements of primarily for the wealthy families who could afford Egyptian civilization, the building of pyramids, it. Workers first removed the liver, lungs, stomach, occurred in the time of the Old Kingdom. Pyramids and intestines and placed them in four special jars were built as part of a larger complex of buildings ded- that were put in the tomb with the mummy. The icated to the dead—in effect, a city of the dead. The area priests also removed the brain by extracting it included several structures: a large pyramid for the through the nose. They then covered the corpse with pharaoh’s burial; smaller pyramids for his family; and a natural salt that absorbed the body’s water. Later, several mastabas, rectangular structures with flat roofs they filled the body with spices and wrapped it with used as tombs for the pharaoh’s layers of linen soaked in resin. At the end of the officials. process, which had taken about 70 days, a lifelike The tombs were well pre- mask was placed over the head and shoulders of the pared for their residents. They Mediterranean mummy. The mummy was then sealed in a case and Sea contained rooms stocked with placed in its tomb. Giza LOWER EGYPT

N

i l e R R i e ve d r S e Pyramid a

History through Architecture The mastaba (above) was the forerunner to the pyramid (left) and a simpler burial alter- native for people who were not part of the royal court. How would the artifacts and paintings within a mastaba differ from those in a pyramid? History The mummy of Ramses II (the Great) has remained intact for 3,000 years. Ramses was nearly 90 when he died. What might medical investigators discover about Egyptian life from this mummy?

Pyramids were tombs for the mummified bodies of pharaohs. The largest and most magnificent of all the pyramids was built under King Khufu (KOO•FOO). could be seen for miles and served to remind people Constructed at Giza around 2540 B.C., the famous of the glory, might, and wealth of the ruler who was Great Pyramid of King Khufu covers 13 acres (5.3 ha), a living god on Earth. measures 756 feet (230 m) at each side of its base, and stands 481 feet (147 m) high. The Middle Kingdom The Old Kingdom eventu- The building of the Great Pyramid was an enor- ally collapsed, followed by a period of chaos that mous construction project. The Greek historian lasted about 150 years. Finally, a new royal dynasty Herodotus reported the traditional story that it took gained control of all Egypt and began the Middle 100,000 Egyptians 20 years to build the Great Pyra- Kingdom, a period of stability lasting from about mid. Herodotus wrote two thousand years after the 2050 to 1652 B.C. Egyptians later portrayed the Mid- event, however, and much speculation still surrounds dle Kingdom as a golden age—an age of stability. the building of the Great Pyramid. Especially puz- As evidence of its newfound strength, Egypt zling is how the builders achieved their amazing level began a period of expansion. Nubia, which was of precision. The stone slabs on the outside of the located south of Egypt, was conquered. Fortresses Great Pyramid, for example, fit so closely side by side were built to protect the new southern frontier. The that even a hair cannot be pushed into the joints government sent armies into Palestine and Syria, between them. although they did not remain there. Pharaohs also Guarding the Great Pyramid at Giza is a huge sent traders to Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Crete. statue carved from rock, known as the Great Sphinx. One feature of the Middle Kingdom was a new This colossal statue is 240 feet (73 m) long and 66 feet concern of the pharaohs for the people. In the Old (20 m) high. It has the body of a lion and a human Kingdom, the pharaoh had been seen as a god-king head. The head is believed by many to be a likeness of far removed from his people. Now he was portrayed Khufu’s son Khafre, who ordered the statue’s con- as the shepherd of his people and expected to build struction. Historians do not agree on the purpose of public works and provide for the public welfare. the Great Sphinx. Many Egyptians, however, believed Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom undertook a num- that the mythical sphinx was an important guardian ber of helpful projects. The draining of swampland in of sacred sites. the Nile Delta provided thousands of acres of new The Great Pyramid still stands as a visible symbol farmland. The digging of a canal to connect the Nile of the power of the Egyptian pharaohs of the Old to the Red Sea aided trade and transportation. Kingdom. No pyramid built later matched its size or splendor. The pyramid was not only the pharaoh’s The New Kingdom The Middle Kingdom came to tomb but also an important symbol of royal power. It an end around 1652 B.C. with the invasion of Egypt

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 49 Egyptian Expansion, 2000–1100 B.C.

40°N

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u ig p r 20°E i

s h M R r es a op . Cyprus te ot Crete s R. am M SYRIA ia edit PALESTINE erran ean Sea Nile 30°N Delta

LIBYA EGYPT N

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i l e W E R . S

R e d NUBIA S e a 20°N 0 250 miles KUSH Armies 0 250 kilometers Traders The Great Sphinx was built more than 4,500 years ago. Today Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection it is crumbling due to wind, humidity, and smog from Cairo. 30°E 40°E

by a group of people from western Asia known to the Egyptians as the Hyksos (HIK•SAHS). The Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots and overwhelmed Egypt began a period of commercial and military expansion the Egyptian soldiers, who fought from donkey carts. during the Middle Kingdom that would bring the country For almost a hundred years, the Hyksos ruled stability and wealth until the New Kingdom collapsed in much of Egypt. The conquered Egyptians learned a 1085 B.C. great deal, however, from their conquerors. From 1. Interpreting Maps Analyze the patterns of movement the Hyksos, the Egyptians learned to use bronze in for the armies and traders. Explain why they diverge at the making of their farming tools and their the Mediterranean Sea. weapons. The Egyptians also mastered many of the 2. Applying Geography Skills Explain how Egypt’s loca- military skills of the Hyksos, especially the use of tion would have been an asset to its expansion, as well horse-drawn war chariots. as a liability contributing to its downfall. Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reunite new temples. Hatshepsut—the first woman to Egypt. The New Kingdom was established and lasted become pharaoh—built a great temple at Deir el approximately from 1567 to 1085 B.C. This reuni- Bahri, near Thebes. Hatshepsut was succeeded by fication launched the her nephew, Thutmose (thoot•MOH•suh) III. He led Egyptians along a new 17 military campaigns into Syria and Palestine and HISTORY militaristic path. During even reached the Euphrates River. His forces occu- the period of the New pied Palestine and Syria and moved westward into Web Activity Kingdom, Egypt created Libya. Magnificent new buildings and temples were Visit the Glencoe World an empire and became constructed to show the greatness of the empire. History Web site at the most powerful state in The New Kingdom was not without troubles, wh.glencoe.com Southwest Asia. however. The pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced the and click on Massive wealth boosted worship of Aton, god of the sun disk, as the sole god. Chapter 2– the power of the New Amenhotep changed his own name to Akhenaton Student Web Activity to learn more about Kingdom pharaohs. The (“It is well with Aton”) and closed the temples of Egypt. Egyptian rulers showed other gods. In a society that had always been tolerant their wealth by building of many gods, Akhenaton’s actions in destroying the

50 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt the government and managed their own landed estates, which provided much of their wealth. Below the upper class were merchants, artisans, scribes, and tax collectors. Middle-class homes, mostly in the city, were comfortable but not elegant. Merchants carried on an active trade up and down the Nile, as well as in town and village markets. Some merchants also engaged in international trade. They were sent by the pharaoh to Crete and Syria, where they obtained wood and other products. Egyptian artisans made an incredible variety of well- built, beautiful goods: stone dishes; painted boxes; wooden furniture; gold, silver, and copper tools and The Egyptians learned much, including the use of war containers; paper and rope made of papyrus; and chariots, from the Hyksos. linen clothes. By far, the largest number of people in Egypt sim- ply worked the land. In theory, the pharaoh owned old gods meant to many the destruction of Egypt all the land but granted portions of it to the subjects. itself. Akhenaton’s changes were soon undone after Large sections of land were held by nobles and by the his death by the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen, who priests who supervised the numerous temples. Most restored the old gods. of the lower classes were peasants who farmed the The upheavals associated with Amenhotep’s reli- land of these estates. They paid taxes in the form of gious revolution led to a loss of Egypt’s empire. crops to the pharaoh, nobles, and priests; lived in Under Ramses II, who reigned from 1279 to 1213 small villages or towns; and provided military serv- B.C., the Egyptians went back on the offensive. They ice and forced labor for building projects. regained control of Palestine but were unable to Reading Check reestablish the borders of their earlier empire. New Summarizing List the social classes of ancient Egypt and identify the contributions of each to invasions in the thirteenth century B.C. by the “Sea Peoples,” as Egyptians called them, drove the Egyp- Egyptian society. tians back within their old frontiers and ended the Egyptian Empire. The New Kingdom itself collapsed in 1085 B.C. For the next thousand years, Egypt was domi- nated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and finally Hatshepsut Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the Ruled 1503–1482 B.C. Great (see Chapter 4). In the first century B.C., the Egyptian pharaoh pharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’s independence. However, her involvement with Hatshepsut was the daughter of the Rome led to her suicide and defeat, and Egypt pharaoh Thutmose I. She married her half- became a province in Rome’s mighty empire. brother, who became the pharaoh Thutmose II. When he died, Hatshepsut assumed the full Reading Check Contrasting What were the major power of pharaoh. Statues show Hatshepsut differences among the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, clothed and bearded as a king would be. She and the New Kingdom? was addressed as “His Majesty.” Hatshepsut’s reign was a prosperous one. She is best Society in Ancient Egypt known for the temple dedicated to herself at Deir el Bahri on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. One of the Over a period of thousands of years, Egyptian inscriptions she had placed there reads: “Now my heart society maintained a simple structure. It was organ- turns to and fro, in thinking what will the people say, ized like a pyramid, with the god-king at the top. The they who shall see my monument in later years, and pharaoh was surrounded by an upper class of nobles shall speak of what I have done.” and priests, who joined in the elaborate rituals of the pharaoh’s life. The members of this ruling class ran

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 51 Daily Life in Ancient Egypt especially sons. Only sons could carry on the family name. Daughters were not ignored, however, and Ancient Egyptians had a very positive attitude numerous tomb paintings show the close and affec- toward daily life on Earth. They married young (girls tionate relationship parents had with both sons and at 12 and boys at 14) and established homes and fam- daughters. Although marriages were arranged, the ilies. Monogamy (marriage to one person) was the surviving love poems from ancient Egypt suggest general rule, although a husband was allowed to that some marriages included an element of romance. keep additional wives if his first wife was childless. Egyptian marriages could and did end in divorce. The husband was master in the house, but wives It included compensation for the wife. were very well respected. Wives were in charge of the household and the education of the children. From a Reading Check Identifying What were the primary book of wise sayings (which the Egyptians called responsibilities of a wife in an Egyptian home? “instructions”) came this advice: “If you are a man of standing, you should love your wife at home as is fit- ting. Fill her belly; clothe her back. . . . Make her heart Writing and Education glad as long as you live.” ; (See page 990 to read excerpts Writing in Egypt emerged around 3000 B.C. The from Vizier Ptah-hotep’s An Egyptian Father’s Advice to His Son in Greeks later called this earliest Egyptian writing the Primary Sources Library.) hieroglyphics, meaning “priest-carvings” or “sacred Women’s property and inheritance stayed in their writings.” The hieroglyphic system of writing, which hands, even in marriage. Although most careers and used both pictures and more abstract forms, was public offices were closed to women, some women complex. Learning and practicing it took much time did operate businesses. Peasant women, of course, and skill. Hieroglyphic script was used for writing on worked long hours in the fields and at numerous temple walls and in tombs. A highly simplified ver- tasks in the home. Upper-class women could become sion of hieroglyphics, known as hieratic script, came priestesses, and four queens became pharaohs. into being. It used the same principles as hiero- Parents arranged marriages for their children. glyphic writing, but the drawings were simplified by Their chief concerns were family and property. The using dashes, strokes, and curves to represent them. chief purpose of marriage was to produce children, Hieratic script was used for business transactions, record keeping, and the general needs of daily life. Egyptian hieroglyphs were at first carved in stone. Later, hieratic script was written on papyrus, a paper made from the papyrus reed that grew along the Nile. Most of the ancient Egyptian literature that has come down to us was written on rolls of papyrus. The Egyptian scribes were masters of the art of writing and also its teachers. At the age of 10, boys of the upper classes went to schools run by scribes. Training to be a scribe took many years. Students learned to read and write by copying texts. Discipline was strict, as is evident from the following Egyptian saying: “A boy’s ears are on his back. He listens only when he is beaten.” Girls remained at home and learned housekeeping skills from their mothers.

Reading Check Contrasting What are the differ- ences between hieroglyphics and hieratic script?

Achievements in Art and Science Pyramids, temples, and other monuments bear witness to the architectural and artistic achievements Architects’ tools, amphora (a two-handled jar), and wooden chair of the Egyptians. Artists and sculptors were expected belonging to King Tutankhamen to follow particular formulas in style. This gave

52 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Comparing Life in Mesopotamia and Egypt Mesopotamia Egypt Geography Fertile Crescent (Southwest Asia) Africa Rivers Tigris and Euphrates Nile Ancient civilizations thrived in both Natural Barriers Flat plains Deserts, seas, cataracts Mesopotamia and Egypt. Religion Polytheistic Polytheistic 1. Making Comparisons Create a map of Mesopotamia and Egypt. City-states; theocracy; large Rural villages; dynasties; Government Develop icons to illustrate the differ- bureaucracy; kings ruled divine kings ruled ences and similarities in the cultures. Nobles, commoners, slaves Upper classes, merchants, Social Structure 2. Evaluating How did geographical artisans, peasants differences influence the develop- Economy Farming and trade Farming and trade ment of these cultures?

Written Language Cuneiform Hieroglyphics

Egyptian art a distinctive look for thousands of years. Sirius rises in the sky just before the annual flooding For example, the human body was often portrayed as of the Nile River. a combination of profile, semiprofile, and frontal The practice of embalming (preserving a dead view to accurately represent each part. body to protect it from decay) led to medical exper- Egyptians also made advances in mathematics. tise in human anatomy. Archeologists have recovered Mathematics helped them in building their massive directions from doctors for using splints, bandages, monuments. Egyptians were able to calculate area and compresses for treating fractures, wounds, and and volume and used geometry to survey flooded disease. Other ancient civilizations acquired medical land. knowledge from the Egyptians. The Egyptians developed an accurate 365-day cal- endar by basing their year not only on the move- Reading Check Describing What was distinctive ments of the moon, but also the bright star Sirius. about Egyptian art?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define dynasty, pharaoh, bureaucracy, 6. Describe In what ways are the cus- 8. Describe what the artifacts pictured vizier, mummification, hieroglyphics, toms of ancient Egypt similar to the on page 52 of your text tell you about hieratic script. customs in your society today? royal Egyptian life. How do the Egyp- tian tools compare to the Paleolithic Menes, Hyksos, Hatshepsut, Use a dia- 2. Identify 7. Organizing Information tools shown on page 23 of your text? Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, Ramses II, gram like the one below to describe the Cleopatra VII. impact the Nile had on life in ancient Egypt. 3. Locate Nile River, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, Giza. Nile River 9. Descriptive Writing Assume you are a tour guide leading a tour of 4. Explain the significance of the Egyptian the Great Pyramid. Explain to your ruler’s title “Son of Re.” tour group why the pyramids were 5. List the various peoples who domi- built and what historians believe to nated Egypt after the collapse of the be the significance of the Great Pyra- New Kingdom. mid. Create an advertising brochure to promote and sell your tour.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 53 New Centers of Civilization

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • The decline of the Hittites and Egyptians Indo-Europeans, Hittites, Phoenicians, Summarizing Information Use a dia- allowed a number of small kingdoms Israelites, King Solomon, Isaiah gram like the one below to show how the and city-states to emerge. Phoenicians affected the development of • The Israelites did not create an empire, Places to Locate civilization in Southwest Asia. but they left a world religion, Judaism, Palestine, Jerusalem that influenced the later religions of Preview Questions Phoenicians Christianity and Islam. 1. How did nomadic peoples affect the Key Terms centers of civilization? pastoral nomad, monotheistic 2. What factors caused the decline of the Hittite kingdom? Preview of Events ✦1600 B.C. ✦1400 B.C. ✦1200 B.C. ✦1000 B.C. ✦800 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦400 B.C.

c. 1600 B.C. c. 1200 B.C. c. 1200 B.C. 772 B.C. 586 B.C. Hittites create empire End of Hittite Israelites emerge as a Assyrians overrun the Chaldeans destroy in western Asia kingdom distinct group of people Kingdom of Israel Jerusalem Voices from the Past

According to the biblical account, it was during the flight from Egypt, where they had been enslaved, that the Israelites made a covenant with God:

And God spoke all these words, ‘I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of “Egypt, out of the land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. . . . You shall not murder. You shall not commit adul- tery. You shall not steal.’” —Exodus 20:1–17, New International Version Bible Obedience to God’s law, the Ten Commandments, became an important aspect of the Jewish religious tradition. Moses receiving the Ten Commandments The Role of Nomadic Peoples Our story of civilization so far has focused on Mesopotamia and Egypt. Only recently have archaeologists discovered what they believe is another ancient civi- lization that flourished in central Asia (in what are now the republics of Turk- menistan and Uzbekistan) around 4,000 years ago. People in this civilization built mud-brick buildings, raised sheep and goats, had bronze tools, and used a system of irrigation to grow wheat and barley. Recently discovered inscriptions show that these early people may have had writing.

54 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt On the fringes of these civilizations lived nomadic and Anatolia around 1750 B.C. and combined with peoples who depended on hunting and gathering, the native peoples to form the Hittite kingdom with herding, and sometimes farming for their survival. its capital at Hattusha (Bogazköy in modern Turkey). Most important were the pastoral nomads who on Between 1600 and 1200 B.C., the Hittites created occasion overran settled communities and created their own empire in their own empires. Pastoral nomads domesticated western Asia and even Black Sea animals for both food and clothing. They moved threatened the power along regular migratory routes to provide steady of the Egyptians. The ASIA MINOR sources of nourishment for their animals. Hittites were the first Hattusha HITTITE EMPIRE

E People who lived in settled communities often of the Indo-European u p

h r viewed nomadic peoples as hostile and barbaric, or peoples to make use of Mediterranean at es uncivilized. The two types of groups did interact, iron. This technology Sea R. however. Nomads traded animals and animal prod- enabled them to use ucts for grains and vegetables they were unable to weapons that were stronger and cheaper to make grow. Pastoral nomads also aided long-distance because of the widespread availability of iron ore. trade by carrying products between civilized centers. Around 1200 B.C., however, new waves of invaders In this way, nomads often passed on new technolog- known to historians only as the “Sea Peoples” ical developments, such as the use of bronze and destroyed the Hittite Empire. iron, that provided new sources of strength to the old The end of the Hittite kingdom and the weakening civilizations. When the normal patterns of the pas- of Egypt around 1200 B.C. temporarily left no domi- toral nomads were disrupted by drought or over- nant powers in western Asia. This allowed a number population, however, they often attacked the of small kingdoms and city-states to emerge, espe- civilized communities to obtain relief. cially in the area of Syria and Palestine. The Phoeni- The Indo-Europeans were one of the most impor- cians were one of these peoples. tant nomadic peoples. The term Indo-European refers Reading Check to a particular group of people who used a language Identifying Who were the first Indo- derived from a single parent tongue. Indo-European Europeans to make use of iron? languages include Greek, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, and the Germanic languages. The original Indo- European peoples were probably based somewhere The Phoenicians in the steppe region north of the Black Sea or in The Phoenicians lived in the area of Palestine Southwest Asia. Around 2000 B.C. they began to along the Mediterranean coast on a narrow band of move into Europe, India, and western Asia. One land 120 miles (193 km) long. After the downfall group of Indo-Europeans moved into Asia Minor of the Hittites and the Egyptians, the newfound

Hebrew, Phoenician, and Latin Alphabets Hebrew

Phoenician

Imperial Latin ABCDEFGH IKLMN OP QRSTVX YZ

Imperial Latin did not distinguish between I and J or between V and U. There was no W. Y and Z were introduced after 100 B.C. for foreign words only.

Many civilizations developed their own alphabets. 1. Comparing What similarities do you see among the three alphabets shown here?

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 55 political independence of the Phoenicians helped The “Children of Israel” them expand their trade. Trade had long been the basis of Phoenician prosperity. The chief cities of To the south of the Phoenicians lived another Phoenicia—Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon—were ports on group of Semitic-speaking people known as the the eastern Mediterranean. The Phoenicians pro- Israelites. They were a minor factor in the politics of duced a number of goods for foreign markets, the region. However, their religion—known today as including purple dye, glass, and lumber from the Judaism—flourished as a world religion and later cedar forests of Lebanon. influenced the religions of Christianity and Islam. The Phoenicians improved their ships, became Much of the history and the religious beliefs of the great international sea traders, and thus created a Israelites were eventually recorded in written form in trade empire. They charted new routes not only in the Hebrew Bible, parts of which are known to the Mediterranean but also in the Atlantic Ocean, Christians as the Old Testament. According to their where they reached Britain and sailed south along history, the Israelites migrated from Mesopotamia to the west coast of Africa. The Phoenicians set up a Palestine, which the Hebrews referred to as Canaan. number of colonies in the western Mediterranean. They followed a lifestyle based on grazing flocks and Carthage, their most famous colony, was located on herds rather than on farming. Then, because of the North African coast. drought, the Israelites migrated to Egypt, where they The Phoenician culture is best known for its alpha- were enslaved until Moses led them out of Egypt. bet. The Phoenicians, who spoke a Semitic language, They wandered for many years in the desert until simplified their writing by using 22 different signs to they returned to Palestine. represent the sounds of their speech. These 22 characters, or let- ters, could be used to spell out all the words in the Phoenician lan- Ancient Palestine guage. Although the Phoenicians were not the only people to invent an alphabet, theirs was important Cyprus because it was eventually passed on to the Greeks. From the Greek alphabet was derived the Roman Byblos SYRIA alphabet that we still use today. Mediterranean Sea Reading Check Identifying Sidon Damascus

What was the most significant cultural 33°N Tyre invention of the Phoenicians?

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N o S J I T S Jerusalem E L Dead A Sea P

After King Solomon died, unified Pales- Phoenicians tine was divided into two separate Kingdom of Israel kingdoms. Kingdom of Judah 1. Interpreting Maps When Israel Sinai was divided into two kingdoms, which kingdom lost access to the Mt. Mediterranean? Sinai 2. Applying Geography Skills Why 0 100 miles did the Phoenicians not develop into an agricultural society? 0 100 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area EGYPT projection 33°E Red Sea 36°E

56 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Recent archaeological evidence sometimes contra- “Please, my lord, give her the living baby! dicts the details of the biblical account. What is gen- Don’t kill him!” The second woman erally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and replied, “Neither I nor you shall have 1000 B.C., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of him. Cut him in two!” Then Solomon people, organized in tribes, who established a united said: “Give the baby to the first woman. kingdom known as Israel. Do not kill him; she is his mother.” Accord- ing to the biblical account, “When all Israel heard the verdict the king had given, they King Solomon The United Kingdom By the time of King held the king in awe, because they saw that Solomon, who ruled from about 970 to 930 B.C., the he had wisdom from God to administer justice.” Israelites had established control over all of Palestine and made Jerusalem into the capital of Israel. Solomon greatly strengthened royal power. He The Divided Kingdom After Solomon’s death, ten- expanded the government and army and encouraged sion between the northern and southern tribes within trade. Solomon is best known for building a temple Israel led to the creation of two separate kingdoms. in the city of Jerusalem. The Israelites viewed the The Kingdom of Israel was composed of the ten temple as the symbolic center of their religion and of northern tribes and had its capital at Samaria. To the the Israelite kingdom itself. Under Solomon, ancient south, the Kingdom of Judah consisted of two tribes Israel was at the height of its power. and had its capital at Jerusalem. King Solomon was also known for his wisdom. In 722 B.C., the Assyrians overran the Kingdom of Once, two women brought a child before him, each Israel and sent many Israelites to other parts of the claiming that she was the child’s mother. Solomon Assyrian Empire. These scattered Israelites (the “ten ordered his servant to cut the child in half, giving one lost tribes”) merged with neighboring peoples and half to each woman. The first woman objected: gradually lost their identity.

Conflict in Palestine In 1948, the independent Jewish state of Israel was estab- Conflict in Southwest Asia has a long history. When lished in Palestine. More than the Israelites entered Palestine, around 1220 B.C., other two-thirds of the people there peoples were already settled there. One of these peo- were Arab Muslims who were ples was the Philistines. For over two centuries, Israelites not eager to be governed by the and Philistines fought for control. Israelis. Arab neighbors of the By 1020 B.C., the Israelites found themselves on the new state were outraged. In verge of being conquered by the Philistines. The 1964, an Arab organization called Israelites decided to give up their loose tribal organiza- the Palestine Liberation Organi- tion, choosing to unite behind one of their members— zation was founded to bring Saul—as king. about an independent Arab state Conflict in the At first, Saul and the small army he organized were of Palestine. Conflict between Middle East successful. Around 1000 B.C., however, when they dared Arabs and Israelis over Palestine to meet the Philistines on an open plain, Saul and his continues to this day. army were defeated. David, the next king of the Israelites, defeated the Philistines and established control over all of Palestine. Although later the Israelites would be conquered and scattered, Palestine remained the Promised Land in the Research the steps that have been taken to reach a minds of many Jews. peaceful settlement between the Israelis and Pales- tinians over the past five years. What actions have been the most successful? What are the most signifi- cant reasons that a lasting peace still does not exist? CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 57 The Kingdom of Judah managed to retain its inde- their city and temple. The revived Kingdom of Judah pendence for a while, but a new enemy soon appeared remained under Persian control until the conquests on the horizon. The Chaldeans (kal•DEE•uhnz) of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. The defeated Assyria, people of Judah survived, eventually becoming conquered the King- known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism. n a e CHALDEAN EMPIRE dom of Judah, and n The Babylonian captivity had changed Judaism. It a r r completely destroyed e a became a stateless religion based on the belief that it e Babylon d S e Jerusalem Jerusalem in 586 B.C. M BABYLONIA God was not fixed to one particular land but instead Many upper-class was Creator and Lord of the whole world. people of Judah were Persian Gulf sent as captives to The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel According to Babylonia. The memory of their exile is evoked in the Jewish beliefs, there is but one God, called Yahweh words of Psalm 137: (YAH•WAY), the creator of the world and everything in it. In their view, God ruled the world; all peoples “By the rivers of Babylon, we sat and wept when were his servants, whether they knew it or not. God we remembered Zion. . . . How can we sing the had created nature but was not in nature. The stars, songs of the Lord while in a foreign land? If I forget moon, rivers, wind, and other natural phenomena you, O Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. were not gods, as other ancient peoples believed, but May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do God’s handiwork. All of God’s creations could be not remember you, if I do not consider Jerusalem my admired for their awesome beauty, but not wor- highest joy.” shipped as gods. This powerful creator, however, was not removed The Babylonian captivity of the people of Judah from the life he had created. God was just and good, did not last. A new set of conquerors, the Persians, and he expected goodness from his people. If they destroyed the Chaldean kingdom and allowed the did not obey his will, they would be punished. How- people of Judah to return to Jerusalem and rebuild ever, he was also a God of mercy and love: “The Lord

Ancient Israel rights. A father’s inheritance passed only to his sons. he primary goal of marriage in ancient Children were named immediately after TIsrael was to produce children. Chil- birth because Israelites believed that one’s dren were the “crown of man.” Sons, in name defined one’s essence and disclosed particular, were desired. Daughters would the destiny and character of the child. The eventually leave the family house; sons early education of children was placed carried on the family line. According to the Old Testament, “sons are olive plants around the table, a reward, like arrows in the hand of a hero; happy the man who has his quiver full of them.” Upon his father’s death the eldest son became head of the family and was given a double portion of his father’s estate. The rights of an eldest son were protected by law, although committing a grave offense, such as murder, could cost him those

58 The Ark of the Covenant, as depicted here, played an important role in Jewish worship. is gracious and compassionate, slow to anger and are haughty . . . with ornaments jingling on their rich in love. The Lord is good to all; he has compas- ankles. Therefore the Lord will bring sores on the sion on all he has made.” Each person could have a heads of the women of Zion; the Lord will make their personal relationship with this powerful being. scalps bald. . . . Instead of fragrance there will be a The Jews were monotheistic; they believed in one stench; . . . instead of fine clothing, sackcloth; instead God. The covenant, law, and prophets were three of beauty, branding. Your men will fall by the sword, aspects of the Jewish religious tradition. The Jews your warriors in battle. The gates of Zion will lament believed that during the exodus from Egypt, when and mourn; destitute, she will sit on the ground.’” Moses led his people out of bondage into the promised land, God made a covenant, or contract, The golden age of prophecy began in the mid- with them. The covenant between Yahweh and the eighth century B.C. and continued during the time Jews could be fulfilled by obedience to the law of God, when the people of Judah and Israel were threatened called the Ten Commandments. Yahweh revealed by Assyrian conquerors. The prophets went through these commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai. the land telling the Jews that if they failed to keep The Jews believed that certain religious teachers, God’s commandments, they would be punished for called prophets, were sent by God to serve as his breaking the covenant. voice to his people. The following selection from Isa- From the prophets came new concepts that iah makes clear the prophets’ belief that God’s pun- enriched the Jewish tradition. The prophets ishment would fall upon the Hebrews for their sins. embraced a concern for all humanity. All nations would someday come to the God of Israel. This The Lord enters into judgment against the elders vision included the end of war and the establishment and“ leaders of his people: ‘It is you who have ruined of peace for all the nations of the world. In the words my vineyard; the plunder from the poor is in your of the prophet Isaiah: houses. What do you mean by crushing my people and grinding the faces of the poor?’ declares the Lord, the Lord Almighty. The Lord says, ‘The women of Zion

in the hands of the mother, especially in regard to basic moral principles. As boys matured, their fathers took over responsibility for their education, which remained largely informal. This included religious instruction as well as a general education for life. Since trades were usually hereditary, fathers also chose trades for their sons. As one rabbi stated, “He who does not teach his son a useful trade is bringing him up to be a thief.” Additional education for boys came from teachers whose sacred mission was to instruct boys in the Torah, the first five Following strict rules, scribes carefully books of the Old Testament. An organized copied the Torah by hand. school system was not established until much later, possibly in the second century CONNECTING TO THE PAST B.C. The education girls received was from 1. Compare and Contrast Compare the upbringing their mothers, who taught them the basic and education of the eldest son in a Jewish family to fundamentals of how to be good wives, that of an eldest daughter. mothers, and housekeepers. 2. Writing about History “The primary goal of mar- riage in ancient Israel was to produce children.” Explain why this might be. Do you think the primary goal of marriage is the same today? The Ten Commandments threatened Israel with prophecies of dire punish- 1. I am the Lord thy God . . . . Thou shalt have no ments for these sins. They said that God’s command other gods before me. was to live justly, share with one’s neighbors, care for the poor and the unfortunate, and act with compas- 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven sion. When God’s command was not followed, image . . . . according to the prophets, the community was 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God threatened. These words of the Hebrew prophets in vain . . . . became a source for universal ideals of social justice. 4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. The Hebrew religion was unique among the reli- gions of western Asia and Egypt. The most dramatic 5. Honor thy father and thy mother . . . . difference was the Hebrews’ belief that there is only 6. Thou shalt not kill. one God for all peoples (monotheism). In all other religions at that time, only priests (and some rulers) 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. had access to the gods. In the Hebrew tradition, 8. Thou shalt not steal. God’s wishes, though communicated to the people 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy through prophets, had all been written down. No neighbor. Jewish spiritual leader could claim that he alone knew God’s will. This knowledge was open to any- 10. Thou shalt not covet . . . anything that is thy one who could read Hebrew. neighbor’s. Although the prophets developed a concern for all Source: Exodus 20:1–17 Revised Standard Version Bible. humanity, the demands of the Jewish religion—the need to obey God—encouraged a separation He will judge between the nations and will settle between Jews and their non-Jewish neighbors. disputes“ for many people. They will beat their swords Unlike most other peoples of Southwest Asia, Jews into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks. would not accept the gods of their conquerors or Nation will not take up sword against nation, nor will neighbors and be made part of another community. they train for war anymore. To remain faithful to the demands of God, they might ” even have to refuse loyalty to political leaders. The prophets also cried out against social injustice. They condemned the rich for causing the poor to suf- Reading Check Identifying Which aspect of the fer. They denounced luxuries as worthless, and they Hebrew culture had the greatest impact on Western civilization?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define pastoral nomad, monotheistic. 6. Evaluate How did nomadic peoples 8. Examine the Torah shown on page 59 both contribute to and slow down the of your text. Why is the Torah so Indo-Europeans, Hittites, 2. Identify development of civilization? important to the Jewish religion? What Phoenicians, Israelites, King Solomon, does the book’s appearance tell you Isaiah. Use a chart 7. Organizing Information about how the book was read? like the one below to show the signifi- Palestine, Jerusalem. 3. Locate cance of three major events in the his- 4. Explain why some Israelites came to tory of the Israelites. be known as the “ten lost tribes.” How Event Significance 9. Informative Writing Using the did the fate of the “ten lost tribes” com- 1. Internet, news magazines, and news- pare to that of the other Kingdom of papers, research the current conflicts Israel at the time? 2. 3. in the Middle East. Prepare a brief 5. List the areas reached by Phoenician research report summarizing what traders. Also list the areas that were you have learned about current colonized by the Phoenicians. events and movements toward peace in the region.

60 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt The Rise of New Empires

Guide to Reading Main Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • The Hittites and Egyptians were eventu- Assyrians, Nebuchadnezzar, Persians, Compare and Contrast Prepare a Venn ally overshadowed by the rise of the Cyrus, Darius, Immortals, Zoroaster diagram listing the characteristics of the Assyrian and Persian Empires. Assyrian Empire and the characteristics of • The Persian Empire brought many years Places to Locate the Persian Empire. Identify the similari- of peace to Southwest Asia, increasing Assyrian Empire, Persian Empire, Royal ties and differences of both empires. trade and the general well being of its Road peoples. Preview Questions Assyrian Persian Empire Empire Key Terms 1. What caused the downfall of the satrapy, satrap, monarchy Assyrian Empire? 2. Why did the people of his time call Preview of Events Cyrus “the Great”? ✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

559 B.C. 539 B.C. 330s B.C. Cyrus rules Babylon falls Alexander the Great conquers Persian Empire the Persian Empire Voices from the Past

Darius, one of the rulers of the Persian Empire, described the divine source of his power:

A great god is Ahuramazda [god of the Persians], who created this earth, who cre- “ated man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I am Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide. I am king. This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did.” —Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, R.G. Kent, 1953 A small and independent Hebrew state could exist only as long as no larger state dominated western Asia. New empires soon arose, however, that conquered vast Darius I stretches of the ancient world.

The Assyrian Empire The first of the new empires was formed in Assyria, located on the upper Tigris River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people who exploited the use of iron weapons to establish an empire by 700 B.C. The Assyrian Empire included Mesopotamia, parts of the Iranian Plateau, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt down to Thebes. Within less than a hundred years, however, internal strife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the Assyrian Empire apart.

CHAPTERCHAPTER 2 Western # Asia Chapter and Egypt Title 61 In 605 B.C., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans horse-drawn war chariots that were used as platforms and Medes (people who lived in the East), and was for shooting arrows. Moreover, the Assyrians had the divided between those two powers. first large armies equipped with iron weapons. At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled by The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of war- kings whose power was seen as absolute. Under their fare. They regularly laid waste the land in which they leadership, the Assyrian Empire came to be well were fighting. They smashed dams; looted and organized. Local officials were directly responsible to destroyed towns; set crops on fire; and cut down the king. The Assyrians also developed an efficient trees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians were system of communication to administer their empire. especially known for committing atrocities on their A network of posts was established throughout the captives. King Ashurnasirpal recorded this account empire that used relays of horses to carry messages. of his treatment of prisoners: “3,000 of their combat The system was so effective that a governor any- troops I felled with weapons. . . . Many I took alive; where in the empire could send a question and from some of these I cut off their hands to the wrist, receive an answer from the king within a week. One from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; I of the world’s first libraries was established at Nin- put out the eyes of many of the soldiers. . . . I burned eveh by Ashurbanipal, one of the last Assyrian kings. their young men and women to death.” This library has provided abundant information con- Reading Check cerning ancient Southwest Asian civilizations. Summarizing Why were the The Assyrians were good at conquering others. Assyrians so successful at conquering others? Over many years of practice, they developed effective military leaders and fighters. The Assyrian army was The Persian Empire large, well organized, and disciplined. A force of After the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, the infantrymen was its core, joined by cavalrymen and Chaldeans, under their king Nebuchadnezzar (NEH•byuh•kuhd•NEH•zuhr) II, made Babylonia Assyrian the leading state in western Asia. Nebuchadnezzar Empire, 700 B.C. rebuilt Babylon as the center of his empire and gave 30°E Black 40°E it a reputation as one of the great cities of the ancient 40°N Sea world. However, the splendor of Chaldean Babylonia Caspian ASIA proved to be short-lived. Babylon fell to the Persians MINOR Sea in 539 B.C. M e s o Cyprus SYRIA p Nineveh o The Rise of the Persian Empire The Persians E t T a Byblos u i Mediterranean p m g were an Indo-European people who lived in what is h r Sidon r i i a a s Sea Tyre te today southwestern Iran. Primarily nomadic, the Per- Syrian s R Jerusalem R. . Susa sians were organized in groups until one family man- Desert Babylon N aged to unify them. One of the family’s members, EGYPT BABYLONIA W N Cyrus, created a powerful Persian state that stretched E i Persian l e Arabian Gulf from Asia Minor to western India. S R 0 300 miles . R Desert B C B C e Cyrus ruled from 559 to 530 . . In 539 . ., he Thebes d 0 300 kilometers S entered Mesopotamia and captured Babylon. His Assyrian Empire e Lambert Azimuthal a Equal-Area projection treatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraint and wisdom. Cyrus also issued an edict permitting the Jews, who had been brought to Babylon in the sixth century B.C., to return to Jerusalem. The people of his time called Cyrus “the Great.” The Assyrians used iron weapons to conquer an empire that Indeed, he must have been an unusual ruler for his reached from Thebes to Mesopotamia by 700 B.C. time, a man who demonstrated much wisdom and 1. Interpreting Maps Compare and contrast the geo- compassion in the conquest and organization of his graphic features of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers. empire. Unlike the Assyrian rulers, Cyrus had a rep- 2. Applying Geography Skills Why did so many civiliza- utation for mercy. Medes, Babylonians, and Jews all tions develop in this region? accepted him as their ruler. Cyrus had a genuine respect for other civilizations. In building his palaces,

62 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Persian Empire, 500 B.C.

30°E 40°E50°E 60°E

Aral C Persian Empire auc Sea asu Royal Road E Black Sea s C Mt C 40° THRA s. a N s p i GREECE a Aegean n A Sea LYDIA S e m Sardis ASIA a u M Da e MINOR rya R. di Tigr te Crete is rr M R a e . ne Cyprus so an SYRIA p Nineveh S o Z ea E ta a . Byblos u m R p g LIBYA PHOENICIA h ia ro s Sidon r Iranian u at s PALESTINE Tyre es M d R t Plateau n s. I Syrian . Susa Jerusalem Babylon Desert BABYLONIA 30°N EGYPT Persepolis N P e W r PERSIA E s Arabian ia INDIA S n Thebes Desert G R ul e f d

S . e R a e Arabian Sea il N

0 500 miles

0 500 kilometers Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Cyrus and his successors developed the Persian state into the largest empire the world had ever seen. 1. Interpreting Maps Explain why the Royal Road was constructed and why it was constructed where it was. 2. Applying Geography Skills How do you think the empire was divided into satrapies? Redraw the map with boundaries for the satrapies. Explain what you Relief of King Darius have done. and Xerxes from the palace of King Darius for example, he made use of Assyrian, Babylonian, governor, or satrap, and Egyptian designs and building methods. literally a “protector of Cyrus’s successors extended the territory of the the kingdom.” Each satrap Persian Empire. His son Cambyses (kam•BY•SEEZ) collected taxes, provided justice and security, and successfully invaded Egypt. Darius, who ruled from recruited soldiers for the royal army. 521 to 486 B.C., added a new Persian province in An efficient system of communication was crucial western India that extended to the Indus River. He to sustaining the Persian Empire. Well-maintained then moved into Europe, conquering Thrace and cre- roads made it easy for officials to travel through the ating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Dar- empire. The Royal Road stretched from Lydia to ius’s contact with the Greeks led him to undertake an Susa, the chief capital of the empire. Like the Assyri- invasion of the Greek mainland (see Chapter 4). ans, the Persians set up way stations that provided food and shelter, as well as fresh horses, for the king’s The Structure of the Persian Empire Darius messengers. strengthened the Persian government. He divided In this vast system, the Persian king—the “Great the empire into 20 provinces, called satrapies King”—occupied an exalted position. The Great King (SAY•truh•pees). Each province was ruled by a held the power of life and death.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 63 At its height, much of the power of the Persian conquest by the Greek ruler Alexander the Great dur- Empire and its rulers depended upon the military. By ing the 330s B.C. the time of Darius, the Persian kings had created a standing army of professional soldiers. This army was Persian Religion Of all the Persians’ cultural con- composed of people from all over the empire. At its tributions, the most original was their religion, core was a cavalry force of ten thousand and an elite Zoroastrianism (ZOHR•uh•WAS•tree•uh•NIH• infantry force of ten thousand. These groups were zuhm). According to Persian tradition, Zoroaster was known as the Immortals because their numbers were born in 660 B.C. After a period of wandering and soli- never allowed to fall below ten thousand. When one tude, he had visions that caused him to be revered as member was killed, he was immediately replaced. a prophet of the “true religion.” His teachings were eventually written down in the Zend Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism. The Fall of the Persian Empire After Darius, the Like the Jews, the followers of Zoroaster were Persian kings became more and more isolated at their monotheistic. To Zoroaster, Ahuramazda (the “Wise courts, surrounded by luxuries provided by the Lord”) was the supreme god who brought all things immense quantities of gold and silver that flowed into being. Ahuramazda was supreme, but he was into their treasuries. As the Persian kings increased not unopposed. At the beginning of the world, the taxes to gain more wealth, loyalty to the empire good spirit of Ahuramazda was opposed by the evil declined. Struggles over the throne weakened the spirit known as Ahriman. monarchy (rule by a king or queen). Humans also played a role in the struggle between Persian kings had many wives and many children. good and evil. Ahuramazda, the creator, gave all For example, Artaxerxes (AHR•tuh•ZUHRK•SEEZ) II, humans the freedom to choose between right and who ruled in the fourth century B.C., had 115 sons. wrong. The good person chooses the right way of The sons had little real power, which only encour- Ahuramazda. Zoroaster taught that there would be aged them to engage in plots to gain the throne. Of an end to the struggle between good and evil. Ahu- the nine rulers after Darius, six were murdered as a ramazda would eventually triumph; and at the last result of such plots. Xerxes II, for example, reigned judgment at the end of the world, the final separation for only 45 days before being murdered in bed by his of good and evil would occur. half-brother. The assassin was soon killed by another half-brother. Over a period of time, this bloody strug- Reading Check Examining What caused the Persian gle for the throne weakened the empire and led to its Empire to decline after the death of Darius?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define satrapy, satrap, monarchy. 6. Compare How were the Assyrian 8. Examine the relief of Darius and Xerxes and Persian systems of government on page 63. Describe what you see in Assyrians, Nebuchadnezzar, 2. Identify different? this image. What can you tell about the Persians, Cyrus, Darius, Immortals, Persian court from this depiction? Why Zoroaster. Create 7. Organizing Information do you think images such as this were a chart identifying the differences Assyrian Empire, Persian made of the Persian rulers? 3. Locate between a religious system based Empire, Royal Road. on monotheism and one based on 4. Describe Who were the Immortals? polytheism. What was their significance to the 9. Persuasive Writing Imagine that Persian Empire? Monotheism Polytheism you are Cyrus ruling the Babyloni- ans, a people you have just con- 5. List the duties of the satraps of the quered. Explain to your government Persian government. officials why you believe that kind- ness and tolerance are better poli- cies than harshness.

64 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Understanding Cause and Effect Why Learn This Skill? stand cause and effect. Read the passage below and It is important to understand how or why an examine the graphic organizer that follows: event occurred. What action or situation caused a particular event? What were the effects or conse- Unlike the floods on Mesopotamia’s rivers, the quences of that particular action or situation? flooding of the Nile was gradual and predictable. The river was seen as life-giving, not life-threaten- Learning The Skill ing. Whereas massive, state-controlled irrigation and Understanding cause and effect involves consid- flood control were needed in Mesopotamia, the ering how or why an event occurred. A cause is the small villages along the Nile easily managed small action or situation that produces an event. An effect irrigation systems that required no state assistance. is the result or consequence of an action or situation. As a result, Egyptian civilization tended to remain To identify cause-and-effect relationships, follow more rural. Many small villages were gathered along these steps: a narrow band of land on both sides of the Nile. • Identify two or more events or developments. Practicing The Skill • Decide whether or not one event caused the On a separate piece of paper, make a cause-and- other. Look for “clue words” such as because, led effect diagram for each of the following statements. to, brought about, produced, as a result of, so that, Some of the statements may have more than one since, and therefore. cause and effect. • Identify the outcomes of events. 1 Irrigation and drainage ditches made it possible Making a graphic organizer can help you under- to grow crops on a regular basis. The resulting abundance of food supplies enabled large num- bers of people to live together in cities. Cause and Effect 2 Under Hammurabi’s code, a son found guilty of striking his father had his hand cut off. 3 Cause Akhenaton’s actions in destroying the old gods meant destruction of Egypt itself. The upheavals • The flooding of the Nile was associated with his religious revolution led to a gradual and predictable. loss of Egypt’s empire.

Applying the Skill Effects • Villages used small irrigation Read an account of a current event in your community systems that required no state as reported in a local newspaper. Determine at least assistance. one cause and one effect of that event. Show the cause- • Egyptian civilization tended to and-effect relationship in a chart. remain rural, with many small villages gathered along the Nile. Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, Level 2, provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

65 Using Key Terms Reviewing Key Facts 1. A Sumerian stepped tower is called a . 13. Government List four examples of the kinds of laws found in Hammurabi’s code. 2. In a society, women have fewer privileges and rights than men. 14. Geography How was the spring flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers both beneficial and harmful? 3. The Sumerians invented a system of writing called . 15. Culture Which two groups of gods were most important 4. The Persian ruler Darius divided his empire into provinces to the Egyptians? called , which were ruled by . 16. Science and Technology When was the wheel invented? 5. The basic units of Sumerian civilization were . Explain at least one way in which the invention of the wheel 6. If ruling power is passed from one generation to the next, affected the Mesopotamian economy. the government of a country could be called a . 17. History What people created the first Mesopotamian civi- 7. The belief in one god, rather than many gods, is called lization? What did they contribute to early civilization? . 18. History Name at least four reasons why the Assyrians were 8. If citizens believe their city is ruled by gods, they might call good at conquering others. their government a . 19. Government What were the main powers and responsibili- 9. To preserve the physical body after death, the Egyptians ties of a Sumerian king? used a process called . 20. Geography List three reasons why the Nile was crucial to 10. A was a government official directly responsible to the development of Egyptian civilization. the Pharaoh. 21. Culture What religion began in the Persian Empire? How 11. script was used for business transactions and record was it similar to the Jewish religion? keeping. 22. Science and Technology Who were the first Indo- 12. An administrative organization with officials and regular Europeans to use iron? In what way was the use procedures is known as a . of iron advantageous to this group of people?

Below are examples of how peoples discussed in Chapter 2 utilized their environment and invented new technologies.

Environment Cooperation Cultural Diffusion Innovation

• Egypt uses floodwaters • Assyria develops an • Assyria acquires iron • Mesopotamia invents for farming. empire-wide making from the Hittites. the arch, dome, wheel, • Phoenicia sets up a trading communication system. • Persia acquires architecture and a system of writing. empire on the sea. • Mesopotamia builds from the Assyrians, • Phoenicia invents • Mesopotamia creates temples and houses for Babylonians, and Egyptians. an alphabet. irrigation and flood religious leaders. • Egypt acquires bronze • Persia creates a standing control systems. • Palestine adheres to making from the Hyksos. army. sacred law to maintain separateness.

66 HISTORY

Self-Check Quiz Visit the Glencoe World History Web site at wh.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 2–Self-Check Making Decisions Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test. 31. Imagine you are the king’s adviser in a newly created empire without a reliable communication system. Explain what potential problems this poses and suggest a solution Critical Thinking using the Assyrian and Persian communication networks as models. Include the costs and benefits of your system. 23. Comparing and Contrasting Compare and contrast the basic levels of government in the United States today with 32. Research different interpretations of why the Great Sphinx the Sumerian political structure. What advantages or disad- was built and its purpose, or develop one of your own. Why vantages can you identify for each system? do historians sometimes arrive at different conclusions? How might these differences be reconciled? 24. Analyzing Analyze how the Jewish religion was different from religions of other cultures. How did these differences affect the ways Jews interacted with other peoples? 25. Interpreting Restate in your own words the meaning of William Loftus’s phrase, “the cradle of civilization.” Standardized 26. Making Generalizations Identify two projects undertaken Test Practice by the Egyptians at the direction of Middle Kingdom Directions: Use the map and your knowl- pharaohs. Explain how these projects would have affected edge of world history to choose the best the Egyptian economy. answer to the following question.

Writing About History Ancient Civilizations, c. 2500 B.C.

T i N g 27. Expository Writing Imagine that you are a religious scholar E r u i ph s examining world religions. Prepare a speech explaining why ra R W E te . s R the Israelites adopted monotheism, while the Egyptian reli- . S gion was based on polytheism. Uruk GGizaiza MMemphisemphis Ur Analyzing Sources Eridu N

i l e Read the following Mesopotamian poem. R Sumerian city-states . Egypt’s Old Kingdom The rampant flood which no man can oppose, “ 0 mi. 500 Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble, 0 km 500 In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.” How did geography influence both Egypt and Sumeria? F Geography provided natural borders for protecting these 28. How does this poem represent the importance of the civilizations. physical environment and religion in the lives of the Mesopotamians? G Floods from nearby rivers irrigated crops. 29. Explain the significance of the line: “Which shakes the H Challenges helped people unite and work together. heavens and causes earth to tremble.” J The flooding rivers caused people to have a dark out- look on the world.

Applying Technology Skills Test-Taking Tip: This question asks for an example of 30. Using the Internet Search the Internet for the e-mail how geography influenced history. Eliminate any answer address of an Egyptologist from an international museum choices that do not mention anything about geography or or university. Compose a letter requesting information geographic features. Then study the map thoroughly and about aspects of ancient Egyptian culture such as architec- choose from the answer choices that remain. ture, religion, or hieroglyphics.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 67